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Reinforced concrete is a composite material of steel bars embedded in a hardened concrete matrix;
concrete, assisted by the steel, carries the compressive forces, while steel resists tensile forces.
Concrete itself is a composite material. The dry mix consists of cement and coarse and fine
aggregates. Water is added and this reacts with the cement which hardens and binds the aggregates
into the concrete matrix; the concrete matrix sticks or bonds onto the reinforcing bars.
The properties of the constituents used in making concrete, mix design and the principal properties
of concrete are discussed briefly. Knowledge of the properties and an understanding of the behaviour
of concrete is an important factor in the design process. The types and characteristics of reinforcing
Deterioration of and failures in concrete structures are now of widespread concern. This is reflected
in the increased prominence given in the concrete code BS 8110 to the durability of concrete
structures. The types of failure that occur in concrete structures are listed and described. Finally the
provisions regarding the durability of concrete structures noted in the code and the requirements for
cover to prevent corrosion of the reinforcement and provide fire resistance are set out.
2.2.1 Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the commonest type in use. The raw materials from which it is
made are lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide. These constituents are crushed and blended in the
correct proportions and burnt in a rotary kiln. The clinker is cooled, mixed with gypsum and ground
to a fine powder to give cement. The main chemical compounds in cement are calcium silicates and
aluminates.
When water is added to cement and the constituents are mixed to form cement paste, chemical
reactions occur and the mix becomes stiffer with time and sets. The addition of gypsum mentioned
above retards and controls the setting time. This ensures that the concrete does not set too quickly
before it can be placed in its final position or too slowly so as to hold up construction. Two stages in
BS EN 197-1:2000: Cement. Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common cements
place in 10 h.
Cement must be sound, i.e. it must not contain excessive quantities of certain substances such as
lime, magnesia, calcium sulphate etc. that may expand on hydrating or react with other substances
in the aggregate and cause the concrete to disintegrate. Tests are specified for soundness and
1. Rapid hardening Portland cement: the clinker is more finely ground than for ordinary Portland
cement. This is used in structures where it is necessary for the concrete to gain strength rapidly.
Typical example is where the formwork needs to be removed early for reuse.
2. Low heat Portland cement: this has a low rate of heat development during hydration of the
cement. This is used in situations such as thick concrete sections where it is necessary to keep the
rate of heat generation due to hydration low as otherwise it could lead to serious cracking.
3. Sulphate-resisting Portland cement: this is often used for foundation concrete when the soil
2.2.2 Aggregates
The bulk of concrete is aggregate in the form of sand and gravel which is bound together by cement.
Natural aggregates are classified according to the rock type, e.g. basalt, granite, flint. Aggregates
should be chemically inert, clean, hard and durable. Organic impurities can affect the hydration of
cement and the bond between the cement and the aggregate. Some aggregates containing silica
may react with alkali in the cement causing the some of the larger aggregates to expand which may
lead to the concrete disintegrating. This is the alkali-silica reaction. Presence of chlorides in
aggregates, e.g. salt in marine sands, will cause corrosion of the steel reinforcement. Excessive
voids in the fine aggregate while the fine aggregate and cement paste fills the voids in the coarse
aggregate. Coarse and fine aggregates are graded by sieve analysis in which the percentage by
sizes is determined. Grading limits for each size of coarse and fine aggregate are set out in
The grading affects the workability; a lower water-to-cement ratio can be used if the grading of the
aggregate is good and therefore strength is also increased. Good grading saves cement content. It
Concrete mix design consists in selecting and proportioning the constituents to give the required
1. Designated concretes: This is used where concrete is intended for use such as plain and reinforced
foundations, floors, paving, and other given in Table A.6 or A.7 of the code.
2. Designed concretes: This is the most flexible type of specification. The environment to which the
concrete is exposed, the intended working life of the structure, the limiting values of composition are
3. Prescribed concretes: This is used where the specifier prescribes the exact composition and
constituents of the concrete. No requirements regarding concrete strength can be prescribed. This
4. Standardised prescribed concretes: This is used where concrete is site batched or obtained from a
5. Proprietary concretes: Used where concrete achieves a performance using defined test methods,
The water-to-cement ratio is the single most important factor affecting concrete strength. For full
hydration cement absorbs 0.23 of its weight of water in normal conditions. This amount of water
gives a very dry mix and extra water is added to give the required workability. The actual water-to-
cement
ratio used generally ranges from 0.45 to 0.6. The aggregate-to-cement ratio also affects
workability through its influence on the water-to-cement ratio, as noted above. The mix is designed
for the ‘target mean strength’ which is the characteristic strength required for design plus a specified
Several methods of mix design are used. The main factors involved are discussed briefly for mix
design according to