Professional Documents
Culture Documents
R=19840010158 2018-04-15T21:49:38+00:00Z
Andrey B. Sergeyevsky
Gerald C. Snyder
Ross A. Cunniff
16. A_tract
This document contains graphical data necessary for the preliminary
design of ballistic missions to Mars. Contours of launch-energy requirements,
as well as many other launch and Mars-arrival parameters, are presented in
launch-date/arrival-date space for all launch opportunities from 1990 through
2005. In addition, an extensive text is included which explains mission-
design methods, from launch-window development to Mars-probe and orbiter-arrival
design, utilizing the graphical data in this volume as well as numerous
equations relating various parameters. This is one of a planned series of
mission-design documents which will apply to all planets and some other bodies
in the solar system.
19. Security Cl_sif. (of this report) 20. Security Clmsif. (of this page) 2i. No. of Pages 22. Price
Andrey B. Sergeyevsky
Gerald C. Snyder
Ross A. Cunniff
This document contains graphical data necessary for the preliminary design of ballistic
missions to Mars. Contours of launch energy requirements, as well as many other launch
and Mars arrival parameters, are presented in launch date/arrival date space for all launch
opportunities from 1990 through 2005. In addition, an extensive text is included which
explains mission design methods, from launch window development to Mars probe and
orbiter arrival design, utilizing the graphical data in this volume as well as numerous
equations relating various parameters. This is one of a planned series of mission design
documents which will apply to all planets and some other bodies in the solar system.
i11_
Preface
iv
Contents
I, Introduction ....................................................... 1
A. General ......................................................... 32
A. Sun ............................................................ 33
Acknowledgments ..................................................... 33
References ............................................................. 33
Figures
1. The Lambert problem geometry ................................... 2
17. Basic geometry of the launch and ascent profile in the trajecto_
plane ........................................................... 15
vi
24. Phase angle geometry at arrival planet ............................. 22
30. Minimum 3.V required for insertion into Mars capture orbit of
given apsidal orientation .......................................... 30
The entire series is planned as a sequence of volumes, each The geometric data are presented in graphical form and
describing a distinct mission mode as follows: consist of 26 quantities, combined into eight plots for each
calendar year and each target planet. The graphs display equa-
Volume I: Ballistic (i.e., unpowered) transfers be-
torial declination and right ascension of Earth and Sun (plan-
tween Earth and a planet, consisting of
etocentric), as well as those of the target planet (geocentric);
one-leg trajectory arcs. For Venus and
heliocentric (ecliptic) longitude of the planet, its heliocentric
Mars missions the planet-to-Earth return
and geocentric distance; cone angles of Earth and Canopus,
trajectory data are also provided.
clock angle of Earth (when Sun/Canopu_-oriented); Earth-Sun-
Volume II: Gravity-Assist (G/A) trajectory transfers, planet, as well as Sun-Earth-planet angles; and finally, rise and
comprising from two to four ballistic set times for six deep-space tracking stations assuming a 6-deg
interplanetary legs, connected by suc- horizon mask. This information is similar to that in the second
cessive planetary swingbys. part of each of the volumes previously published (Ref. 1).
This Volume I, Part 2 of the series is devoted to ballistic The computing effort involved the generation of arrays of
transfers between Earth and Mars. It describes trajectories transfer trajectory arcs connecting departure and arrival
taking from 100 to 500 days of flight time for the 8 successive planets on a large number of suitable dates at each body.
mission opportunities, departing Earth in the following years: Algorithms (computational models) to solve this problem can
1990, 1992, 1994, 1996/7, 1998/9, 2000/1, 2002/3, and vary greatly as to their complexity, cost of data generated, and
2005. resulting data accuracy. In light of these considerations, the
choice of methods used in this effort has been assessed.
It should be noted that parts of the launch space covered Restricted two-body motion implies that the dynamical
may require launcher energies not presently (1983) available, system consists of only two bodies, one of which, the primary,
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
3F POOR QUALITY
is so much more massive than the other, that all of the system's
gravitational attraction may be assumed as concentrated at a
point-the center of that primary body. The secondary body
of negligible mass (e.g., the spacecraft) then moves in Kep-
lerian (conic) orbits about the primary (e.g., the Sun) in such
a way that the center of the primary is located at one of the
foci of the conic (an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola).
-_d.. I
The Lambert Theorem states that given a value of the gravi-
tational parameter # (also known as GM) for the central body,
EARTH
!,
I /
the time of flight between two arbitrary points in space,
R 1 and R2, is a function of only three independent variables:
the sum of the distances of the two points from the focus, LANET
IRII + IR2L, the distance between the two points C= SR2 - R I I, ' '//
and the semimajor axis, a, of the conic orbital flight path
I'=.f(R 1 +R 2 ,C.a) I
between them (Fig. 1.)
VhEAR Ttt
OUTGOING V
ASYMPTOTE h sic
EARTH
INJECTION
vl
/ NO-GRAVITY
Numerical N-body trajectory integration could be called
upon to represent the true physical model for the laws of / SUN SWEEPBACK A %
IR -":_ _ t
motion, but would be too costly, considering the number of EAR- 'L - Voo2 X aT12 I r
complete trajectories required to fully search and describe a
. r a RECTI'LINEAR
given mission opportunity. R2 HYPERBOLA,
3
target planet impact, and a trip-time ATI2 from ra payload mass. A "launch period" measured in days or even
to periapse, which can be satisfied by iteration on the weeks, is thus definable: on any day within its confines the
r_-magnitude and thus also on R_. capability of a given launch/injection vehicle must equal or
exceed the departure energy requirement for a specified
This last aspect provides for a great simplification of the payload weight.
formulation as the R 2 end-point locus now moves only along
In the course of time these minimum departure energy
the V,, 2 [1 r_ vector direction. The resulting reduction in com-
puting cost is significant, and the equivalence to the Lambert opportunities do recur regularly, at "synodic period" intervals
point-to-point conic transfer model is attractive. reflecting a repetition of the relative angular geometry of the
two planets. If 6o I and 6o2 are the orbital angular rates of the
The first two segments of the transfer associated with the inner and outer of the two planets, respectively, moving about
departure planet may be treated in a like manner. If the planet the Sun in circular orbits, then the mutual configuration of
is Earth, the pseudostate correction may be disregarded (i.e., the two bodies changes at the following rate:
R_ = Ra), or else the duration of Earth's perturbative effect
col2 = coI -to 2 , rad/s (4)
may be reduced to a fraction of ATI2. It can also be set to
equal a fixed quantity, e.g., AT i = 20 days. The latter value
was in fact used at the Earth's side of the transfer in the If a period of revolution, P, is det'med as
data generation process for this document. 27r
P =--,CO s (5)
The rectilinear pseudostate method described above and in then
Ref. 7 thus involves an iterative procedure, utilizing the
1 1 1
standard Lambert algorithm to obtain a starting set of values
= P-T - PS (6)
for V.. at each end of the transfer arc. This first guess is then
improved by allowing the planetocentric pseudostate position
where Ps, the synodic period, is the period of planetary
vector r_ to be scaled up and down, using a suitable partial at
geometry recurrence, while P1 and P2 are the orbital "sidereal
either body, such that z_TREQ, the time required to fall along (i.e., inertial) periods" of the inner (faster) and the outer
the rectilinear hyperbola through ra (the sum of the sweep- (slower) planet considered, respectively.
back distance V**i × AT i and the planetocentric distance Ir_ I),
equal the gravitational perturbation duration, AT/. Both r7 and Since planetary orbits are neither exactly circular nor co-
V_,i, along which the rectilinear fall occurs, are continuously planar, launch opportunities do not repeat exactly, some
reset utilizing the latest values of magnitude and direction of years being better than others in energy requirements or in
V_, at each end, i, of the new Lambert transfer arc, as the other parameters. A complete repeat of trajectory character-
iteration progresses. The procedure converges rapidly as the istics occurs only when exactly the same orbital geometry of
hyperbolic trip time discrepancy, AAT = ATR_.O - ATi, falls departure and arrival body recurs. For negligibly perturbed
below a preset small tolerance. Once the V_ vectors at each planets approximately identical inertial positions in space at
planet are converged upon, the desired output variables can be departure and arrival imply near-recurrence of transfer tra-
generated and contour plotted by existing standard algorithms. jectory characteristics. Such events can rigorously be assessed
only for nearly resonant nonprecessing planetary orbits, i.e.,
As mentioned before, the pseudostate method was found for those whose periods can be related in terms of integer
to be unnecessary for the accuracy of this Mars-oriented hand- fractions. For instance, if five revolutions of one body cor-
book. The simpler Lambert method was used instead in the respond to three revolutions of the other, that time interval
data-generation process. would constitute the "period of repeated characteristics."
Near-integer ratios provide nearly repetitive configurations
III. Trajectory Characteristics with respect to the lines of apsides and nodes. The Earth-
relative synodic period of Mars is 779.935 days, i.e. about
A. Mission Space
2.14 years. Each cycle of 7 consecutive Martian mission
All realistic launch and injection vehicles are energy-limited opportunities amounts to 5459.55 days and is nearly repeti-
and impose very stringent constraints on the interplanetary tive, driven by 8 Martian sidereal periods of 686.9804 days. It
mission selection process. Only those transfer opportunities is obvious that for an identical mutual angular geometry Mars
which occur near the times of a minimum Earth departure would be found short of its inertial position in the previous
energy requirement are thus of practical interest. On either cycle by 36.3 days worth of motion (19.02 deg), while Earth
side of such an optimal date, departure energy increases, first would have completed 5459.55/365.25 = 14.947 revolutions,
slowly, followed by a rapid increase, thus requiring either a being short of the old mark by the same angular amount as
greater launch capability, or alternatively a lower allowable Saturn.
ORIGII',IALPAGE |_
OF poOR QUALITY
A much closer repetition of characteristics occurs at 17 full For this document, a 160-day departure date coverage span
Martian revolutions (11678.667 days), after 15 Mars-departure was selected, primarily in order to encompass launch energy
opportunities (11699.031 days = 32.0302 years), showing requirements of up to a C 3 = 50 km2/s 2 contour, where
an inertial position excess of only 10.7 degs., 20.4 days C a = V2 i.e., twice the injection energy per unit mass.
worth of Mars motion beyond the original design arrival EI . Arrival date coverage was set at 400 days to
point. display missions from 100--400 days of flight time.
.,,,,,. ,///A
. ////,
"////
" I/Y//L
_ _ •48.580.0
• 48540.0
'_ ////,'///
_/ /1( _ _ • 48460.0 0
0
0
o
_3
> 'll//Ik_t'_#
L_l_ilL _i .,_lll]Slllli
" _11111111111'_ _ 48380.0
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--
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48340.0
9t/02/13 48300.0
48260.0
_ _--- __ _1
9[101104
90#11/2"5
.I r I 48220.0
LAUNCH DATE
the edges of the mission space, but it also experiences a dra- out of the ecliptic and forces a polar 180-deg transfer, in order
matic rise along a "ridge," passing diagonally from lower left to pick up the target's vertical out-of-plane displacement.
to upper right across the mission space (Fig. 4). This distur-
bance is associated with all diametric, i.e., near-180-deg, The obvious sole exception to this rule is the nodal transfer
transfer trajectories (Fig. 5). mission, where departure occurs at one node of the target
planet orbit plane with the ecliptic, whereas arrival occurs at
In 3-dimensional space the fact that all planetary orbits are the opposite such node. In these special cases, which recur
not strictly coplanar causes such diametric transfer arcs to every half of the repeatability cycle, discussed in the preceding
require high ecliptic inclinations, culminating in a polar flight paragraph, the transfer trajectory plane is indeterminate and
path for an exact 180-deg ecliptic longitude increment be- may as well lie in the departure planet's orbit plane, thus
tween departure and arrival points. The reason for this requiring a lesser departure energy (Fig. 6). The opposite strat-
behavior is, as shown in Fig. 5, that the Sun and both trajec- egy (i.e., a transfer in the arrival planet's orbit plane) may be
tory end points must lie in a single plane, while they are also preferred if arrival energy, V.,2, is to be minimized (Fig. 7).
lining up along the same diameter across the ecliptic. The
slightest target planet orbital inclination causes a deviation It should be noted that nodal transfers, being associated
with a specific Mars arrival date, may show up in the data on
= TRUE TRANSFER several consecutive Martian mission opportunity graphs (e.g.,
ANGLE 1992-1998), at points corresponding to the particular nodal
-_1 = TRANSFER ANGLE arrival date. Their mission space position moves, from oppor-
POLAR IN ECLIPTIC PLANE
tunity to opportunity, along the 180-deg transfer ridge, by
TRANSFER _ PLANET gradually sliding towards shorter trip times and earlier relative
/ ORB,T departure dates. Only one of these opportunities would occur
at or near the minimum departure energy or the minimum
981041[2
98103103
9810U22
971121[3
1,1
G:
O
.97/IU03
>
97109124
97108115
97107106
97105127
97104/[7
LAUNCH DATE
-48620.0
48580.0
48_40.0
48_00.0
48460.0
0
0
0
48420.0
483_0,0 --
48340.0
'48300.0
'48260.0
I 482200
Fig. 9. Sketch of mission space with broken-plane transfer, effective energy requirements
ORZGINAL PAGE Ig
OF POOR QUALITY
launch/arrival date C a contour plot. The deep-space maneuver magnitude Ca = [V=i 2, called out as C3L in the plots and
AVBp is transformed into a C 3 equivalent by converting the representing twice the kinetic energy (per kilogram of injected
new broken-plane C3B P to an injection velocity at parking mass) which must be matched by launch vehicle capabilities,
orbit altitude, adding AVBe, and converting the sum to a new and the V-infinity direction with respect to the inertial Earth
and slightly larger C3 value at each point on the strip. Mean Equator and equinox of 1950.0 (EME50) coordinate
system: the declination (i.e., latitude) of the outgoing asymp-
C. Launch/Injection Geometry tote 5, (called DLA), and its right ascension (i.e., equatorial
east longitude from vernal equinox, T) a** (or RLA). These
The primary problem in departure trajectory design is to
three quantities are contour-plotted in the handbook data pre-
match the mission-required outgoing V-infinity vector, V, to sented in this volume.
the specified launch site location on the rotating Earth. The
site is defmed by its geocentric latitude, 0z, and geographic 1. Launch azimuth problem. The first requirement to be
east longitude, Xz. (Figs. 10 and 11). met by the trajectory analyst is to establish the orientation of
the ascent trajectory plane (Ref. 8). In its simplest form this
Range safety considerations prohibit overflight of popu-
plane must contain the outgoing V-infinity (DLA, RLA)
lated or coastal areas by the ascending launch vehicle. For each
vector, the center of Earth, and the launch site at lift-off
launch site (e.g., Kennedy Space Center, Western Test Range,
(Fig. 10). As the launch site partakes in the sidereal rotation of
or Guiana Space Center), a sector of allowed azimuth firing
the Earth, the continuously changing ascent plane manifests
directions EL is deffmed (measured in the site's local horizontal
itself in a monotonic increase of the launch azimuth, Ez., with
plane, clockwise from north). For each launch vehicle, the
lift-off time, tL, (or its angular counterpart, c_**- az. , measured
allowed sector may be further constrained by other safety
in the equator plane):
considerations, such as spent stage impact locations down the
range and/or down-range significant event tracking capabilities.
cos q_LX tan 5= - sin _L X cos (_= - eL)
The outgoing V-infinity vector is a slowly varying function cotan Et.
sin (_ - %)
of departure and arrival date and may be considered constant
for a given day of launch. It is usually specified by its energy (9)
ASYMPTOTE
N MERIDIAN
LAUNCH FLIGHT
PATH
MERIDIAN_
V_, DEPARTURE
ASYMPTOTE
LAUNCH
_=0
VERNAL
EQUINOX EQUATOR
TRAJECTORY PLANE
The daily time history of azimuth can be obtained from Eq. GREENWICH
(9) for a given _=, 8, departure asymptote direction by MERIDIAN
following quadrant rules explained below and using the Oh GMT A GREENWICH HOUR ANGLE
following approximate expressions (see Fig. 11): EAST LONGITUDE OF'_, ((;HA)
LAUNCH SITE _'L/ _ \
Cl
L = _L+GHADATE+(_EARTHX tL (I0)
I __Jl,_ _ ] VERNAL
GHADATE = 100.075+0.9856123008Xdso (11) ( C'O'f/'._ll_L-e, X ] EQUINOX
LAUNCH SITE_ • - / -- _)" "_J.
where
/ _ DEPARTURE
eL = Right ascension of launch site (¢z,' XL) at
ANGLE TRAVERSED _ ASYMPTOTE
tL (deg) BY LAUNCH SITE _ MERIDIAN
SINCE Oh GMT
GHA DA TE = Greenwich hour angle at 0 n GMT of any
OF LAUNCH DATE LAUNCH SITE
date, the eastward angle between vernal
AT LAUNCH, tL (GMT)
equinox and the Greenwich meridian (deg),
assumes equator is EME50.0
Fig. 11. Earth equator plane definition of angles involved
t"O
EAR TH = sidereal (inertial) rotation rate of Earth in the launch problem
(15.041067179 deg/h of mean solar time)
tL = lift-off time (h, GMT, i.e., mean solar time) A generalized plot of relative launch time tRL T VS launch
azimuth Z L can be constructed based on Eqs. (9) and (12),
A relative launch time, [RLT, measured with respect to an if a fLxed launch site latitude is adopted (e.g., ¢L = 28.3 deg
inertial reference (the departure asymptote meridian's right for Kennedy Space Flight Center at Cape Canaveral, Florida).
ascention a**), can be defined as a sidereal time (Earth's Such a plot is presented in Fig. 12 with departure asymptote
rotation rate is 15.0 deg/h of sidereal time, exactly): declination 5=. as the contour parameter. The plot is applicable
to any realistic departure condition, independent of _., date,
or true launch time tL (Ref. 9).
t_ - t_L
tRL T = 24.0 15.0 , h (12)
2. Daily launch windows. Inspection of Fig. 12 indicates
that generally two contours exist for each declination value
This time represents a generalized sidereal time of launch,
elapsed since the launch site last passed the departure asymp- (e.g., $. = -10 deg), one occurring at tRL T during the a.m.
hours, the other in the p.m. hours of the asymptote relative
tote meridian, a**.
"day."
lO
ORIGINAL PACE l_t
OF POOR QUALITY.
24
22
20
J_
18
LU 16
-I-
(o 14
z
J
12
F.-
<
.J 10
uJ
n.-
uJ
Fm
0 8
C6
>-
u')
<
Fig. 12. Generalized relative launch time tRL T vs launch azimuth T-L and departure asymptote declination _**.
Pair of typical example launch windows for $** = -10 deg shown by bold curve segments
(reproduced from Ref. 9).
As 5.. gets longer, the sector of unavailable launch azimuths sin _= X sin Y_L
reaches the safety boundaries of permissible launches, and sin (a L - £2) = sin i (16)
planar launch ceases to exist (Fig. 13). This subject will be
Quadrant rules for this equation involve the observation that a
addressed again in the discussion of "dogleg" ascents.
negative cos E L places (a L - f2) into the second or third quad-
Figure 14 is a sketch of a typical daily launch geometry rant, while the sign of sin (% - _2) determines the choice
between them.
situation, shown upon a Mercator map of the celestial sphere.
The two launch windows exhibit a similar geometry since the
The range angle 0 is measured in the inertial ascent trajec-
inclinations of the ascent trajectory planes are functions of
tory plane from the lift-off point at launch all the way to the
launch site latitude _L and azimuth Y_Lonly: departure asymptote direction, and can be computed for a
given launch time t L or ct.. - aL(tL) and an azimuth Y_L
cos i = cos _/_ x sin rz (15) already known from Eq. (9) as follows:
The two daily opportunities do differ greatly, however, in cos 8 = sin a= X sin $z, + cos a=. X cos ¢L X cos (% - %)
the right ascension of the ascending mode _2 of the orbit and
(17)
in the length of the-traversed in-plane arc, the range angle/9.
11
ORIG|NAL PAGE !_1
OF POOR QUALITY
180
sin(% - %) x cos 8®
160
sin 8 = sin _L (18)
140
"A.OE',,ET, The extent of range angle O can be anywhere between
0 deg and 360 deg, so both cos 0 and sin O may be desired in
<
--1
00NN..."......
4O
range
Figure
angle
15 represents
O vs the
a generally
departure
applicable
asymptote
plot
declination
of central
and
launch azimuth, computed using Eqs. (17) and (18) and a
< _1 Z L = 90 ° (_ SUN
ASSUMED V,_,
E 10 - (ASSUMED)
0 ASYMPTOTE
600 = - 15 ° LOCATION:
<
2O - 6o0 = -15 °
O
LU (x=o = 315 °
3O
eL 1
40
j-- O(°° - _Z, 3(°°
1 = 2850
1 1 1 1 I 1 I
-45 0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315
R I GHT ASCENSION ct, deg
(EARTH EQUATORIAL CELESTIAL LONGITUDE)
Fig. 14. Typical launch geometry example in celestial (inertial) Mercator coordinates
12
ORIGINAL PAGE kill
OF POOR QUALITY
400,
D
360
320
m _:,- 6od \ -_
m 280
"0
c_"
240
_j\ _L=,2o
z
< (_i" \ (/.__
/ .i.,f_J \ o='=='°" I
_.00,
. I NOTF: _L IS LAUNCH AZIMUTH
o,os w
o,
200
z
<
rr
--
rr"
I-
160
" t i I
Z
tu 120
80
I '
m
4O
Fig. 15. Central range angle 0 between launch site and outgoing asymptote direction vs its declination and launch azimuth.
Pair of typical example launch windows for 5= = -10 deg shown by bold line segments
(reproduced from Ref. 8).
cos _® X sin (a= - %) with the lighting conditions at lift-off and consequently allows
sin Y'L = sin 0 (19) a lighting profile analysis along the entire ascent arc.
Figure 16 displays a 3-dimensional spatial view of the same The length of the range angle required exhibits a complex
behavior-the first launch window of the example in Figs. 14
typical launch geometry example shown previously in map
format in Fig. 14. The difference in available range angles as and 16 offers a longer range angle than the second, but the
well as orientation of the trajectory planes for the two daily second launch window opens up with a range angle so short
that direct ascent into orbit is barely possible. Further launch
launch opportunities clearly stands out. In addition, the figure
illustrates the relationship between the "first" and "second delay shortens the range even further, forcing the acceptance
daily" launch windows, defined in asymptote-relative time, of a very long coast (one full additional revolution in parking
orbit) before transplanetary departure injection. A detailed
tRLT, as contrasted with "morning" or "night" launches,
defined in launch-site-local solar time. The latter is associated analysis of required arc lengths for the various sub-arcs of the
13
URIGINAL PAGE !8
OF POOR QUALITY
SUN
W l N DOW (ASSUMED)
CLOSES
_/_, = 110 °
TRANSPLANETARY
INJECTION
CIRCLE
]_L = 700
SECOND
DEPARTURE
ZALS
SUN-TO-EARTH
V ECTO R
FIRST
OUTGOING
DEPARTURE
ASYMPTOTE
DEPARTURE
-TRAJECTORY
ENVELOPE
Fig. 16. Typical example of daily launch geometry (3-dimensional) as viewed by an outside observer ahead of the spacecraft
14
ORIGINAL PAGE rg
OF POOR QUALITY
BOOSTER AS(
,LAUNCH SITE
/
PARKING ORBIT. /
GEE OF
Fig. 17. Basic geometry of the launch and ascent profile in the trajectory plane (after Ref. 9)
departure trajectory is thus a trajectory design effort of para- rp = periapse radius, typically 6563 krn, for a horizontal
mount importance (Fig. 17_ injection from a 185-kin (100-nmi) parking orbit
15
ORIGINAL PAGZ iS
OF POOR QUALITY
140 L !
NOTE: 2
C3 = V_DE P IS TWICE
UJ
n-
D
I-- 130
\ THE TOTAL ENERGY
PER UNIT MASS
W
oA
ii
o __. 120
>-
PERIGEE
ALTITUDE
ZOO 185 km (100 nmi)
"' 110
370 km 1200 nmil
I- _
100 I I I I I I I I
25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
C3,km3/s2
= is the true anomaly of the injection point, usually icant role in the ascent orbit selection. A limit on maximum
is near 0 deg, and can be computed by iteration coast duration allowed (fuel boil-off, battery life, guidance
using: gyro drift, etc.) may also influence the long/short parking orbit
decision. In principle, any number of additional parking orbit
en sin _'z revolutions is permissible. Shuttle launches of interplanetary
tan 7z - 1 + e/./cos v1 (23) missions (e.g., Galileo) are in fact required to use such addi-
tional orbits for cargo bay door opening and payload deploy-
7r = injection flight path angle above local horizontal, ment sequences. In such cases, however, the precessional
deg effects of Earth's oblateness upon the parking orbit, prirnarily
the regression of the orbital plane, must be considered.
en = eccentricity of the departure hyperbola:
16
ORIGINAL PAG.Z E,._
OF POOR QUALITY
J2 = 0.00108263 for Earth 6. Tracking and orientation. As the spacecraft moves away
from the Earth along the asymptote, it is seen at a nearly
i = parking orbit inclination, deg. Can be computed for constant declination-that of the departure asymptote, 6**
a given launch geometry from (DLA in the plotted data). The value of DLA greatly affects
tracking coverage by stations located at various latitudes;
(26) highest daily spacecraft elevations, and thus best reception, are
cos i = cos _t, × sin ZL
enjoyed by stations whose latitude is closest to DLA. Orbit
determination, using radio doppler data, is adversely affected
This correction, multiplied by the orbital stay time of N
by DLA's near zero degrees.
revolutions, must be considered in determining a biased launch
time and, hence, the fight ascension of the launch site at The spacecraft orientation in the first few weeks is often
lift-off: determined by a compromise between communication (antenna
pointing) and solar heating constraints. The Sun-spacecraft-
%EFF = _L + (2 × N , deg (27) Earth (SPE) angle, defined as the angle between the outgoing
V-infinity vector and the Sun-to-Earth direction, is very
useful and is presented in the plots under the acronym ZALS.
5. Dogleg ascent. Planar ascent has been considered exclu- It was defined in the discussion of Fig. 16. This quantity has
_avely, thus far. Reasons for performing a gradual powered many uses:
plane change maneuver during ascent may be many. Inability
(I) If the spacecraft is Sun-oriented, ZALS equals the
to launch in a required azimuth direction because of launch
Earth cone angle (CA), depicted in Fig. 19 (the cone
site constraints is the prime reason for desiring a dogleg ascent
profile. Other reasons may have to do with burn strategies
or intercept of an existing orbiter by the ascending spacecraft,
especially if its inclination is less than the latitude of the PLANET
launch site. Doglegs are usually accomplished by a sequence of
out-of-plane yaw turns during first- and second-stage burn,
optimized to minimize performance loss and commencing as
soon as possible after the early, low-altitude, high aerodynamic
pressure phase of flight is completed, or after the necessary \
lateral range angle offset has been achieved.
17
angle of an object is a spacecraft-fixed coordinate, Applications, Inc. (SAI) study (Ref. 10) points to some of
an angle between the vehicle's longitudinal -Z axis and the techniques available, such as passive wait for natural
the object direction). alignment of the continuously regressing space station orbit
plane (driven by Earth's oblateness) with the required
(2) The Sun-phase angle, cbs (phase angle is the Sun-object- V-infinity vector, or the utilization of 2- and 3- impulse man-
spacecraft angle) describes the state of the object's
euvers, seeking to perform spacecraft plane changes near the
disk lighting: a fully lit disk is at zero phase. For the
apogee of a phasing orbit where velocity is lowest and thus
Earth (and Moon), several days after launch, the sun-
turning the orbit is easiest. These two approaches can be
phase angle is:
combined with each other, as well as with other suitable
maneuvers, such as:
6ps = 180- ZALS (28)
18
ORIG,,_AL PAGE l_
OF POOR QUALITY
The magnitude of V-infinity, VHP = IV._L, enables one to VHP also enables the designer to evaluate planetocentric
control the flyby turn angle A_ between the incoming and velocity, V, at any distance, r, on the flyby hyperbola:
outgoing V** vectors by a suitable choice of closest approach
(C/A) radius, rp (see Fig. 20): 2 _p V:
V = x/--- 7- + ** ,km/s (34)
PLANET EQUATOR
PLANET
VERNAL EQUINOX
OUTBOUND
ASYMPTOTE
V_IN B
\
\
L VI = -
ZAPE
i
/ \
VERTICAL
IMPACT TURN ANGLE
POINT = 180-2p
SUN \
\
EARTH
\ ='RIAPSE
_2
)ING NODE
INBOUND
ASYMPTOTE
19
ORIGINAL PAGE IS
OF POOR QUALITY
I ..,..% OJ"
_'s--180- zAes (3s)
Both the cone angle and the phase angle have already been
defined and discussed in the Earth departure section above.
or
The two systems of B-plane T-axis definition can be recon-
ciled by a planar rotation. -AO, between the ecliptic T- and
R-axes and the T'- and _,'-axis orientations of the equator
% = ''_'**
V + \_V_] + IBl2 ,km (37) based system
which assumes that Ovv,Q is computed with the T-axis parallel o_£e= 267.6227, BE? = 63.2838, deg
to the planet equator (i.e., TeE Q = V** × POLEeEQ), not the
ecliptic, as is frequently assumed (TEc L = V × POLEEcL). a= and 5** are RAP and DAP, the directions of incoming
Care must be taken to use the 0 angle as dofined and intended. V, also in planet equatorial coordinates.
ORIGINAL PAGE I_l
OF POOR QUALITY
PLrCL
PEQ POLE DECLINATION
OF EP, _EP
PPE,
PEQ RIGHT
ASCENSION
OF EP, <XEp
- 90 °
ECLIPTIC PLANE
(ECL)
PLANET EQUATOR
(PEQ)
o_,_- 180
B-PLANE(±TOV=)
TECL = V=X Pecl.
TpE Q = VooX PPEQ
Ao¢ = 90 - [(aEp - 90) - (%0 - 180)] = o¢_ - aEp
A0= ARCTAN [SIN Aot/(COS _5,_x TAN 6Ep - SIN 5,_ x COS An,)]
The correction dx0 is applied to a 0 angle computed in the periapse, at the entry point of a probe, or generally at any
ecliptic system as follows (Fig. 22): position r (subscript S = Sun, could be replaced by E = Earth,
if desired), (see Fig. 24):
OpE Q = OEC L + AO (40)
cos '_s = -cos flo. X cos ZAP s - sin 13®X sin ZAP S
A
The projections of the Sun-to-planet and Earth-to-planet Os/C = the aim point angle in the B-plane, must be with
vectors into the B-plane represent aim point loci of diametric respect to the same T, as ETSP.
Sun and Earth occultations, respectively., as defined in Fig. 23.
/3® = the arrival range angle from infinity (a position far
The B-plane 0-angles (with respect to TF.CL axis) of these vari-
out on the incoming asymptote) to the point of
ables are presented and labeled ETSP and ETEP, respectively,
interest r (Fig. 25).
in the plotted mission data. In addition to helping design or
else avoid diametric occultations, these quantities allow The computation of the arrival range angle, t3=, to the
computation of phase angles, _i, of the planet at the spacecraft position of the desired event depends on its type, as follows:
21
ORIGINAL P,_QE I_
OF POOR QUALITY
(SUN OR
(rp is periapse radius).
EARTH)
.
/ At given radius r, anywhere on the flyby trajectory
/
/ (see Fig. 25):
3= = -v +v (43)
PLANET
'(OR
v= should be computed from periapse equation,
I
I Eq. (42) vr at r can be obtained from (-v= < v r _; +
I
v=, v r has negative values on the incoming branch):
I
ETSP T
r 2+ p = -1
(OR ETEP) r V2 )
r /./p
cos v = (44)
(1 +rpV----_2_/
PECL
/
/x
/ \
I v=
INCOMING
ASYMPTOTE
_)s = 90 °
180-ZAPS
TO SUN
/ r, RADIUS
A POINT ON
TO
TRAJECTORY
PROJECTED ONTO
PHASE ANGLE, dab
TRAJECTORY ARC, _]_ RECL UNIT-SPHERE
A=ETSP- 180 °-
Fig. 24. Phase angle geometry at arrival planet
22
OF POOR QUALI,'_
FICTITIOUS
ENTRY PERIAPSE
RADIUS, rp /
/
FLYBY PERIAPSE
TURN ANGLE
= 180-2p
VERTICAL
IMPACT
ENTRY POINT
AT RADIUS
rE = rSURF + hE ,
AND FLIGHT PATH
ANGLE _/'E
FLYBY
INCOMING
ASYMPTOTE
ENTRY
TRAJECTORY
TRAJECTORY
IBFI bE
FLYBY MISS
PARAMETER
23
ORIGINAL PAGE I_
OF POOR QUALITY
where vE is the true anomaly at entry, should always occultations, require close control of arrival time. The number
be negative, and can be computed if entry radius and of satellites passed at various distances also depends on the
altitude, rE = rsuRP + h E and 7E, the entry angle, are time of planet C/A. These fine adjustments do, however,
known: demand arrival time accuracies substantially in excess of those
provided by the computational algorithm used in this effort,
r 2+ -1 which generated the subject data (accuracies of 1-5 min for
rE Up events or 1-2 h for encounters would be required vs uncertain-
cos v_. = (46)
ties of up to 1.5 days actually obtained with the rectilinear
impact pseudo-state theorem). Numerically searched-in inte-
(l+----_p
rpV2 t]
grated trajectories, based on the information presented as a
first guess input, are mandatory for such precision trajectory
whereas the fictitious periapse radius rp for the entry, work.
to satisfy 7E at rE, is equal to
Preliminary design considerations for penetrating, grazing,
¥
P
I,>E.
_ <v'->I
/dp
(47)
or avoiding a host of planet-centered
24
ORIGINAL PAGE i_
OF POOR QUALITY
av = / v: + --rp
2/_p
- / j( 2/ap
rp
2/_pX
e ,(5o)
shown
capture
circular
(Ref.
orbits
orbits,
9)
of
which
that an optimal
constant
would
A V exists
eccentricity,
require a specific
for
including
insertion
radius:
e = 0, i.e.,
into
COAPS I DA L COTANGENTIAL
CAPTU RE CAPTU RE
ORBIT ORBIT
v. /
ASYMPTOTE
\
/ _rCA \ ,,_\
APPROACH
HYPERBOLA \v H \
./" TT T'
COTANGENTIAL /
ORBIT PERIAPSE _VE_- \ \ COAPSIDAL BURN
AND PERIAPSE OF
25
ORIGINAL PACI_ I_
OF POOR QUALITY
I I I I I A60P , one can solve for the hyperbolic periapse rCA and the
MARS SURFACE-SYNCHRONOUS bum radius r using selected values of true anomaly at hyper-
CIRCULAR ORBIT (COl
bolic burn point vn and its capture orbit equivalent
P = 24.62 H,rp = B.012tl RM PERIOD
DEIMOS SYNCHRONOUS CO
rp - 1.0883 RM
(56)
ff
O rp = 2 RM. 24 H ELL sin ve
<
p = 3 RM, 24 H ELLIPTICAL
2r'IrP ( 1+ _rc'tV_)lap
ORBIT {ELL)
and
rp = PERIAPSE (COAPSIDAL
INSERTION) RADIUS
(1 RM = 3397,5 kin)
I I l l l l I 1
2 4 6 8 10
ARRIVAL V_ krn/$
rca _ 2)
= (57)
Fig. 27. Coapsidal capture orbit insertion maneuver AV
requirements for Mars (using Eq. 50) (z </
---_/cos_.+l
2 lap
rco- (52) 2r.
v_ (58)
v®
avco - _ (53) The procedure of obtaining a solution to these equations is
iterative. For a set of given values for rA, rp , and an assumed
Frequently the orbital radius obtained by use of Eq. (52) is Aco, a set of vH and vE, the hyperbolic and elliptical burn
incompatible with practical injection aspects or with arrival point true anomalies which would satisfy Eqs. (55-58) can
planet science and engineering objectives. be found. This in turn leads to r, the maneuver point radial
distance, and hence, A V (Eq. 54). A plot of A V cost for a set
A more general coplanar mode of capture orbit insertion, of consecutive A6op choices will provide the lowest AVvalue
requiring only tangentiality of the two trajectories at an for this maneuver mode.
arbitrary maneuver point of radius r common to both orbits,
Fig. 26, requires a propulsive effort of For an optimal insertion into an orbit of an arbitrary major
axis orientation one must turn to the more general, still co-
planar, but intersecting (i.e., nontangential burn point) man-
AV= - /2
V _+_ 2 rlap (54) euver (see Fig. 28). It provides sufficient flexibility to allow
lapr(r
(rAA ++rp)
re - r)
_/
numerical optimization of A V with respect to apsidal rotation,
Aco.
P
It can be clearly seen that by performing the burn at periapse
the substitution r = r brings us back to Eq. (48). A more appropriate way to define apsidal orientation is to
measure the post-maneuver capture orbit periapse position
The cotangential maneuver mode provides nonoptimal con- angle with respect to a fixed direction, e.g., a far encounter
trol over the orientation of the major axis of the capture orbit. point on the incoming asymptote, -V**, thus defining a cap-
If it is desired to rotate this line of apsides clockwise by ture orbit periapse range angle
OF POOR QUALIFY
INTERSECTING
COAPSIDAL CAPTU RE
CAPTU RE ORBIT
ORBIT
v.
2ND BURN
POINT
r2 OPTION
v=
ASYMPTOTE
\
APPROACH \ NOTE :
I v
HYPERBOLA E = ELLIPTIC
H = HYPERBOLIC
I PROVIDED r s IS AVOIDED.
I OPTIMAL BURN AM
where
+
Q = lira XrpXrcA [21_+rcA V2 ]
(60)
Taken from Ref. 9, the expression for the intersecting burn
AVis:
planet-centered radius at burn, rA _ r _ tc, 4,
km
= flag: 5 = +1 if injection occurs on same leg , mean orbital motion, rad/s (63)
(inbound or outbound) of both hyperbola
and capture ellipse, 8 = -I if not.
_A+re
a --
2 , semi-major axis of eUipitical orbit, km (64)
It should be pointed out that Eq. (57) and (58) still apply
in the intersecting insertion case, while Eq. (56) does not 2rA9
p -- , semi-latus rectum of elliptical orbit, km (65)
(as it assumes orbit tangency at burn point). rA+ 9
o
0
0
-8
-r
(11
--k
0 ZZ
"T m.
0,_ o Q.
O
m
CN m .J
zO
0,_
_c
ZuJ
oco.
Z 0
oon"
E u._-m
OZZ
_ILl 0 8" _6
u
Z
..I O_ =
w ._o
" 2
0 U.I _"
(3 o
if)
:3tr II
o_ ,, O0
Z_
::) , d (_ ',.9 "
,q- Z o
0
uJ ._
II -< a
mr
o
Zz ,,, ._
W 0'_
Z >
o 0 n-
B
...I
> H U O.J
-3-m
oh-- zO
-..¢: >. == 0 0 m U.,I {J
n"
",, LU _z Zw i.
"-,>. o-a.
u...r _EI"
0_.0 z
m. <
c.) "6
w p- .t,
o e-
o0
0
0 oi
cO 0
0
_-<vl
I-o I (:3
I,I.
0
p.
cO
I I I I 1 1 I $
o 00 co
,-- o d
29
ORIGINAL PAGE Ig
OF POOR QUALITY
¢-q
3O
ORIGINAL PAGE i4
OF POOR QUALITY
variety of wind drift models, and thus, are even more complex
as far as the communications problem with the Earth or the
spacecraft is concerned.
Such a strategy makes u3e of the fact that most arrival charac- 19B0
Lighting and satellite positions in this case are fixed, thus LAUNCH DATE
allowing a similar encounter, satellite G/A, or satellite tour. Fig. 32. Voyager (MJS77) trajectory space and launch strategy
31
IV. Description of Trajectory Characteristics vector obtained by vectorial subtraction of the
Data heliocentric planetary orbital velocity from the
spacecraft arrival heliocentric velocity. It repre-
A. General
sents planet-relative velocity at great distance from
The data represent trajectory performance information target planet, at beginning of far encounter. Can
plotted in the departure date vs arrival date space, thus clef'ru- be used to compute spacecraft velocity at any
ing all possible direct ballistic transfer trajectories between the point r of flyby, including C/A (periapse) dis-
two bodies within the time span considered for each oppor- tance rp :
tunity. Twelve individual parameters are contour-plotted. The
first, C3L, is plotted bold on a Time of Flight (TFL) back-
ground; the remaining ten variables are plotted with bold con- V= V_ +_ ,km/s
r
touring on a faint CsL background. Eleven plots are presented
for each of eight mission opportunities between 1990 and where
2005.
The individual plots are labeled in the upper outer corner lAp(MARS = gravitational parameter GM of
by bold logos displaying an acronym of the variable plotted, SYSTEM) the arrival planet system - Mars
the mission's departure year, and a symbol of the target planet. plus all satellites. (For values,
These permit a quick and fail-safe location of desired informa- refer to Section V on con-
tion. stants.)
DAP:
B. Definition of Departure Variables 80.A , planetocentric declination (vs mean planet
equator of date) of arrival V_. vector. Defines
CsL: Earth departure energy (km2/s2); same as the lowest possible flyby/orbiter equatorial inclination
square of departure hyperbolic excess velocity (deg).
V 2 = CsL = V_ - 2 tIE/R t, where
RAP: a_A, planetocentric right ascension (vs mean
V/ = conic injection velocity (kin/s). planet equator and equinox of date, i.e., RAP is
measured in the planet equator plane from ascend-
R, = R S + hp injection radius (km), sum of ing node of the planet's mean orbit plane on the
surface radius RSpt.ANET and injection planetary equator, both of date). Can be used
altitude ht,. where RSEaRrH refers to
together with VHP and DAP to compute an
Earth's surface radius. (For value, see
initial flyby trajectory state, but requires B-plane
Section V on constants.)
aim point information, e.g., B and O (deg).
lAe = gravitational constant times mass of the ZAPS: Angle between arrival V**vector and the arrival
launch body (for values, refer to Section V
planet-to-Sun vector. Equivalent to planet-probe-
on constants).
Sun angle at far encounter; for subsolar impact
C3L must be equal to or exceeded by the launch would be equal to 180 deg. Can be used with
vehicle capabilities. ETSP, VHP, DAP, and 0 to determine solar phase
DLA: 6**L, geocentric declination (vs mean Earth equator angle at periapse, entry, etc. (deg).
of 1950.0) of the departure _ vector. May im- ZAPE: Angle between arrival V_. vector and the planet-to-
pose launch constraints (deg). Earth vector. Equivalent to planet-probe-Earth
RLA: e'_.L, geocentric right ascension (vs mean Earth angle at far encounter (deg).
equator and equinox of 1950.0) of the departure ETSP: Angle in arrival B-plane, measured from T-axis*,
vector. Can be used with CaL and DLA to clockwise to projection of Sun-to-planet vector.
compute a heliocentric initial state for trajector_ Equivalent to solar occultation region centerline
analysis (deg). direction in B-plane (deg).
ZALS: Angle between departure V** vector and Sun-Earth ETEP: Angle in arrival B-plane, measured from T-axis*,
vector. Equivalent to Earth-probe-Sun angle several clockwise, to projection of Earth-to-planet vector.
days out (deg). Equivalent to Earth occultation region centerline
C. Deflr tion of Arrival Variables direction in B-plane (deg).
VHP. V_A, planetocentric arrival hyperbolic excess *ETSP and ETEP plots are based on T-axis def'med as being parallel to
velocity or V-ird'mity (km/s), the magnitude of the ecliptic plane (see text for explanation).
32
V. Table of Constants Direction of the Martian planetary equatorial north pole
(in Earth Mean Equator of 1950.0 coordinates):
Constants used to generate the information presented are
summarized in this section.
ae = 317.342 deg, 6_, = 52.711 deg
A. Sun
GM = 132,712,439,935. km3/s 2
Mean
RSURFAC E = 696,000. km Planet Surface Orbit
and GM, Radius, Radius,* Period,
Satellites km3/s 2 km km hours
B. Earth/Moon System
Mars 42,828.286 3397.5 - 24.6229621
GMsYsTEM = 403,503.253 kma/s 2 (alone)
Phobos 0.00066 13.5 X 10.7 × 9.6 9374 7.6538444
GMEART H = 398,600.448 073 km3/s 2
Deimos 0.00013 7.5 X 6.0 × 5.5 23457 30.2985774
J2 = 0.00108263
*Computed from period and Mars GM, rounded.
REART H = 6378.140 km
S UR FACE
D. Sources
Acknowledgments
References
1. Sergeyevsky, A. B., "Mission Design Data for Venus, Mars, and Jupiter Through
1990," Technical Memorandum 33-736, Vols. I, II, III, Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Calif., Sept. 1, 1975.
2. Clarke, V. C., Jr., Bollman, W. E., Feitis, P. H., Roth, R. Y., "Design Parameters for
Ballistic Interplanetary Trajectories, Part II: One-way Transfers to Mercury and
Jupiter," Technical Report 32-77, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Jan.
1966.
33
3. Snyder, G. C., Sergeyevsky, A. B., Paulson, B. L., "Planetary Geometry Handbook,"
JPL Publication 82-44, (in preparation).
4. Ross, S., Planetary Flight Handbook, NASA SP-35, Vol. III, Parts 1,5, and 7, Aug.
1963 - Jan. 1969.
5. Wilson, S. W., "A Pseudostate Theory for the Approximation of Three-Body Trajec-
tories," AIAA Paper 70-1061, presented at the AIAA Astrodynamics Conference,
Santa Barbara, Calif., Aug. 1970.
8. Clarke, V.C., Jr., "Design of Lunar and Interplanetary Ascent Trajectories," Tech-
nicalReport 32-30, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., March 15, 1962.
1 I. Beerer, J. G., "Orbit Change Requirements and Evaluation," JPL Internal Document
725-74, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., March 9, 1982.
12. Newhall, XX, Standish, E. M., and Williams, J. G., "DE- 102 : A Numerically Integrated
Ephemeris of the Moon and Planets, Spanning 44 Centuries," Astronomy andAstro-
physics, 1983 (in press).
13. Explanatory Supplement to the Ephemeris, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, London,
1961.
14. Sturms, F. M., Polynomial Expressions for Planetary Equators and Orbit Elements
With Respect to the Mean 1950.0 Coordinate System, Technical Report 32-1508,
pp. 6-9. Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., Jan. 15, 1971.
15. Davies, M. E., et al., "Report of the IAU Working Group on Cartographic Coordinates
and Rotational Elements of the Planets and Satellites: 1982," CelestialMechanics.
Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 309-321, April 1983.
Mission Design Data
Contour Plots
35
Earth to Mars
1990
Opportunity
ENERGY MINIMA
DEPARTURE ARRIVAL
VALUE TYPE (YEAR/MONTH/DAY) (YEAR/MONTH/DAY)
37
,
911117./30 I - 48620.0
_ ,///
_- //_/, II/
91111120 48580.0
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LAUNCH J0-2400000.0
38
1
ORIGINAL PAGE Ig
OF POOR QUALITY
d
EARTH - MARS 1990, C3L , DLA 1990
BALL IST IC TRANSFER TI_ECTORY
,,;',,_+_
_,xd4/ i ,:r," ," ,//// 34.
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er
91/05/04 48380.O --
9t/03/25
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S
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LnUNCH OglTE
v
ORIGINAL PAGE lg
OF POOR QUALITY
d
1990 EARTH - HAAS 1990 C3L , RLA
BALLIST[C TRANSFER TRAJECTORY
9ILL2130 48620.0
48580.0
9t/tO/it 48540,0
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48500.0
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48040.0 48080.0 48120.0 48160.0 48200.0
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1
ORIGINAL PAGE 14
ZALS
OF POOR QUALITY
d
ERRTH HRRS 1990 , C3L , ZRLS 1990
BALL IST IC TRANSFER TRAJECTORY
5,44
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41
ORIGINAl- PAGE _g
OF POOR QUALITY
'_,f'/_,
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42
1
DAP
ORIGINAL PAGE _g
OF POOR QUALITY d
EARTH - HAAS 1990 , C3L , DAP 1990
BALL IST lC TRANSFER TRAJECTORY
...... 14
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