Research Methodology Notes by DR Kalailakshmi

Unit I: Introduction
Research methodology – definition and significance, Types of research – exploratory research,

conclusive research, modeling research, algorithmic research, casual research, theoretical and
empirical research, cross-sectional and time series research. Research process- steps, research
problems, objectives, characteristics, hypothesis and research in an evolutionary perspective.
RESEARCH MEANING:
Research is a systematic process of collecting and analyzing information in order to increase our
understanding of the topic. Research is the search of knowledge. Research is an investigation.Research
methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It is a science of studying how
research is done scientifically. Research can be defined as the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem.The systematic approach concerning
generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research.
Definition of research:
 “Research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

Redman and Mory
 “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested

solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching
conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
Clifford Woody
 Research is defined as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.”
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson
Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

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SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
1. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.
2. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
3. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry
4. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
5. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking
answers to various social problems.
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulate research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies

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TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The
main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only
report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for
descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of
shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by researchers
to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in
descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods. In
analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and
analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
ii) Applied vs. Fundamental:
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied
research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization, whereas fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the
formulation of a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to
make generalizations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research, but research
aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing concrete social or business problem is an example of
applied research. Research to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research (research to find out whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the
central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem, whereas basic

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research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Qualitative research, on
the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality
or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why
people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in
depth interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests, sentence
completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques. Attitude or opinion
research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research. Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural
sciences where the aim is to discover the underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research
we can analyse the various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make
people like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in
Scientific Social Surveys and Research, practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing
such research, one should seek guidance from experimental psychologists.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is
generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. On
the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a
research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively to go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first
provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get
enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs which he
thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Such research is thus characterised by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his
deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is
sought that certain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or
empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
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(v) Some Other Types of Research:
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated approaches, based on either
the purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research
is done, or on the basis of some other similar factor.
1. From the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research or longitudinal
research. In the former case the research is confined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter
case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
2. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research, depending
upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
3. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow case-
study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go
deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep
probing data gathering devices.
4. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is
the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are
those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that
which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time.
5. Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing
conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he
proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for
the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research
according to his own inclination.
6. Operations research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of
providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations under
their control.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
There are two basic approaches to research,
1. Quantitative Approach

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It involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative
analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
It can be further sub-classified
a. Inferential approach
b. Experimental approach
c. Simulation approach.
1.Inferential approach
The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a
sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and
it is then inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
2.Experimental approach
Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research
environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other
variables.
3.Simulation approach.
Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a
system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions. E.g. Simulation approach can also be useful in
building models for understanding future conditions.
2. Qualitative Approach :
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions. Such an
approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews,
projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
I. On the basis of application
1. Pure research (also called as fundamental or basis research)

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Pure research mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed as ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research. Research concerning some
natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of pure research. The pure research
is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
2. Applied Research
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial /
business organisation. The research that aimed at certain conclusions (ex. solution) facing a concrete
social or business problem is an example of applied research. The research to identify social, economic
or political trends that may affect a particular institutions or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood) or the marketing research or evaluation
research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem.
II. On the basis of Objectives
1. Exploratory research
It is a type of research conducted for a problem that has not been clearly defined. The exploratory
research helps determine the best research design, data collection method and selection of subjects.The
results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can
provide significant insight into a given situation. The exploratory research is not typically
generalizable to the population at large.The exploratory research can be quite informal, relying on
secondary research such as reviewing available literature and/or data like informal discussions with
consumers, employees, management, case studies or pilot studies etc.
2. Conclusive research
Conclusive research is meant to provide information that is useful in reaching conclusions or decision-
making. It tends to be quantitative in nature, that is to say in the form of numbers that can be
quantified and summarized. It relies on both secondary data, particularly existing databases that are
reanalysed to shed light on a different problem and primary data.
2.a. Descriptive research
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major purpose
of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

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In social science and business research, it is quite often, the term Ex post facto research is used for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control
over the variables; she/he can only report what has happened or what is happening. The methods of
research utilized in descriptive research and survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and
correlation methods.
2.b. Causal / Experimental research
Experimental research is an objective, systematic, controlled investigation for the purpose of
predicting and controlling phenomena and examining probability and causality among selected
variables. Experimental research helps in best establishing the cause-and-effect relationships.
The simplest experimental design includes two variables (Dependent and Independent variable) and
two groups of participants (Control and Experimental group).
The independent variable is the predictor variable whereas the dependent variable is the outcome
variable. Researchers manipulate and control the independent variable to study it’s effect on the
dependent variable.
Before the beginning of experiment, the researcher (randomly) assigns her/his sample to two different
groups; the control group and the experimental (treatment group or clinical group). The control group
receives no manipulation of the independent variable (no treatment), whereas the experimental group
receives the manipulation of the independent variable.
III. On the basis of extent of theory
1. Theoretical research
Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through
analysing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting
evidence in the form of primary data.
2. Empirical research
Empirical research relies on experience and observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory. It is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. In empirical research, the researcher must first provide
himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough
facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.
IV. On the basis of time dimension

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1. Cross sectional research
Cross-sectional research is used to examine one variable in different groups that are similar in all other
characteristics. It means, the Cross-sectional research involves using different groups of people who
differ in the variable of interest but share other characteristics, such as socioeconomic status,
educational background, and ethnicity.
Cross-sectional research studies are based on observations that take place in different groups at one
time. This means there is no experimental procedure, so no variables are manipulated by the
researcher. Instead of performing an experiment, the researcher would simply record the information
that she/he observe in the groups they are examining.
The following are the characteristics of cross-sectional research
 Takes place at a single point in time

 Variables are not manipulated by the researcher
 Provide information only; do not answer why
1. Longitudinal research
Longitudinal research is used to study individuals at different stages in their lives. A longitudinal study
is correlational research which follows one group of individuals over a long period of time, perhaps
decades. Frequently, researchers meet with the subjects many times on a regular basis. The length of
time is dependent on the topic of the research, the length of the study, and the age of the subjects
a. Time serie
An ordered sequence of values of a variable at equally spaced time intervals.The usage of time series
models is twofold: Obtain an understanding of the underlying forces and structure that produced the
observed data. Fit a model and proceed to forecasting, monitoring or even feedback and feedforward
control.
Time Series Analysis is used for many applications such as:
 Economic Forecasting
 Sales Forecasting
 Budgetary Analysis
 Stock Market Analysis
 Yield Projections
TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS
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 Process and Quality Control
 Inventory Studies
 Workload Projections
 Utility Studies
 Census Analysis
b. Panel study
A panel usually involves a somewhat random sample of subjects.Panel studies are a particular design
of longitudinal study in which the unit of analysis is followed at specified intervals over a long period,
often many years. The key feature of panel studies is that they collect repeated measures from the same
sample at different points in time. Most panel studies are designed for quantitative analysis and use
structured survey data.Panel (data) analysis is a statistical method, widely used in social
science, epidemiology, and econometrics, which deals with two and "n"-dimensional (in and by the -
cross sectional/times series time)panel data.[1] The data are usually collected over time and over the
same individuals and then a regression is run over these two dimensions.
c. Cohort study
Cohort study observes subjects in a similar group based on region, age, or common experiences.
A cohort is a group of people who share a common characteristic or experience within a defined
period. Prospective cohort studies re-investigate groups of people who share some social characteristic.
Cohort study takes its name from two intellectual traditions.Cohort studies are observational in design
and are generally concerned with information regarding the prevalence distribution and inter-
relationship of variables in a population. They are also used to identify risk factors and to collect
information to describe the natural history or progression of disease. Cohort studies provide a wealth
of valuable information about population health- which informs the planning and implementation of
health policy. Cohort designs are thus ideal for many of the health-related areas that interest nursing
and midwifery researcher.An algorithm is a well-defined sequence of steps to solve a problem of
interest in industry, business and government.
Algorithmic Research Report:
This type of research provides well defined sequence of steps to solve organizational problems; it may
be government business or any industry. These problems can be polynomial or combinatorial.
Combinatorial problems are those problems which take the exponential form of volume and time

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complexity. In polynomial category researchers develop the proper algorithm for optimal solution.
Otherwise the researchers should develop efficient heuristic for the problem. There are problems, viz.,
production scheduling. JIT, supply chain management, line balancing, layout design, portfolio
management, etc., exist in reality. The solution for each of the above problems can be obtained through
algorithms. So, the researchers some out with newer algorithms or improved algorithms for such
problems.
Modelling Research
Models are developed and used to help us (scientists, engineers, decision makers) to understand and
communicate about a system of interest with the ultimate aim of bringing a positive change to how a
system is built and/or managed. By definition, models are inherently wrong. First, they are and must be
a simplified representation of the modelled system. To be useful, models need to provide a
cognitively-mediated environment to explain the systemic behaviour. If a model keeps growing in
complexity, it will be difficult to understand and use. Yet, in many applications, large models are
inevitable to support system understanding, and decision making at the appropriate and acceptable
level of detail This has been long recognized as the 'modelling paradox' (Bonini, 1963). Second,
models are limited to the collective cognitive complexity of the "mental models" of those involved in
model development. Our mental models (another type of models) are a flawed, incomplete, and
sometimes inconsistent, representation especially of dynamic and complex systems (Rouse and Morris,
1986). These challenges are escalated on using models in deep uncertainty situations where
stakeholders do not know or cannot agree on the system structure, future scenarios, and model
parameters (Kwakkel and Pruyt, 2013).
TYPES OF MODELS:
Symbolic model
Symbolic model is representation of the performance measure of the system of interest in terms of its
variables. This means that the attributes of a system are related by an equation. Regression equation is
an example of a symbolic model
Mathematical model
Mathematical model are mainly operations research models which are aimed to solve complex real life
problems arising in the direction and management of large systems of men , machines, materials and
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money in the industry, business and government . Some examples of mathematical models are linear
programming models, tgransportation models, assignment models , inventory models , replacement
models , goal programming models , parametric programming models, quadratic programming
models , change constrained programming models, separable programming models etc
Simulation model:
Simulation models is an experiment conducted over a real life stochastic system in a scaled time frame
to extract as many average operational statistics as possible to formicate respective decision guidelines
at all the levels of management , industry , business or government . the simulation model can be either
continuous of discrete.
RESEARCH PROCESS
Research process consists of series of actions or steps to effectively carry out research and the desired
sequencing of these steps. The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural
guideline regarding the research process:

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Formulating the research problem;
Extensive literature survey;
Developing the hypothesis;
Preparing the research desig
Collecting the data;
Execution of the project;
Analysis of data;
Hypothesis testing;
Generalizations and interpretation,
Preparation of the report or presentation of the results
1. Formulating the research problem:
The first and foremost stage in the research process is to select and properly define the research
problem. A researcher should first identify a problem and formulate it, so as to make it amenable or
susceptible to research. In general, a research problem refers to an unanswered question that a

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researcher might encounter in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation, which he/she
would like to answer or find a solution to. A research problem is said to be the one which requires a
researcher to find the best available solution to the given problem. That is, the researcher needs to find
out the best course of action through which the research objective may be achieved optimally in the
context of a given situation There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states
of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the researcher
must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must decide the general area of interest or aspect
of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire into. Initially the-----problem may be stated in a broad
general way and then the ambiguities, if any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility
of a particular solution has to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set
up.
The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a
scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem
1. Understanding the problem thoroughly,

2. Rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
i) Understanding the problem
 The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues or with
those having some expertise in the matter.
 In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an
experienced man and has several research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth the
problem in general terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow down and phrase the problem
in operational terms.
 In private business units or in governmental organizations, the problem is usually earmarked by
the administrative agencies with whom the researcher can discuss as to how the problem
originally came about and what considerations are involved in its possible solutions.
The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself acquainted
with the selected problem. The basic outcome of reviewing literature will be to enhance
knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposes which will
enable the researcher to specify his own research problem in a meaningful context.

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Review of literature are of two different types
i. Conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories,

ii. Empirical literature consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one
proposed.
ii) Rephrasing the problem
After understanding the problem the researcher rephrases the problem into analytical or operational
terms i.e., to put the problem in as specific terms as possible. This task of formulating, or defining, a
research problem is a step of greatest importance in the entire research process. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help discriminating
relevant data from irrelevant ones. Care must, however, be taken to verify the objectivity and validity
of the background facts concerning the problem.
Professor W.A. Neiswanger correctly states that, the statement of the objective is of basic importance
because it determines the data which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are
relevant, relations which are to be explored, the choice of techniques to be used in these explorations
and the form of the final report.
2. Extensive literature survey:
Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should be written down. At this juncture the
researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem. For this purpose,
the abstracting and indexing journals and published or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to
go to. Academic journals, conference proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will
lead to another. The earlier studies, if any, which are similar to
the study in hand should be carefully studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at
this stage.
3. Development of hypotheses:

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“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for the
occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to
guide some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari, 1988). A research hypothesis is
quite often a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using scientific methods that
involve an independent and some dependent variables. After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences A working
hypotheses arise as a result of a-priori thinking about the subject, examination of the available data and
material including related studies and the counsel of experts and interested parties. As such the manner
in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they provide the focal point
for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be conducted in the analysis of data and
indirectly the quality of data which is required for the analysis. In most types of research, the
development of working hypothesis plays an important role. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the
researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens the
researchers thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem. It also
indicates the type of data required and the type of methods of data analysis to be used. . Hypothesis
should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
Developing working hypotheses

(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the objectives in
seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited scale
with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure greater insight into the practical
aspects of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design:
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Infact, research design
is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the

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collection, measurement and analysis of data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research design provides an
outline of what the researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational
implications and the final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which
include: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will be
required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual structure within which
research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as
possible yielding maximal information. In other words, the function of research design is to provide
for the collection of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how
all these can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Characteristics of A Good Research Design:
A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient, economical
and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A research design which does not
allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be the best design for investigation. Further, a
research design that yields maximum information and provides an opportunity of viewing the various
dimensions of a research problem is considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus,
the question of a good design relates to the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem
studied. While a research design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other
words, it may be lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems.
Therefore, no single research design can be applied to all types of research problems.
A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the following
considerations:
i. The methods of gathering the information;
ii. The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;
iii. The objectives of the research problem being studied;
iv. The nature of the research problem being studied; and
v. The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz.,
1. Exploration,

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2. Description and Diagnostic research design
3. Experimentation.
i) Exploratory Research Design:
The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main objective of
using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more precise
investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The major purpose
of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research design suitable for
such a study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different dimensions of
the problem under study. The in-built flexibility in research design is required as the initial research
problem would be transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the following three
methods are considered in the context of a research design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of
related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.
ii) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:
A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular

individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the frequency with which a
variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study analyzing whether a
certain variable is associated with another comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a
study that is concerned with specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics
related to an individual, group or situation, are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally,
most of the social research design falls under this category.
Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used

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8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also focus
attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,
d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
f) Reporting the findings.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem, involves
usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
iii) Experimental or Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid
conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the
conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted .Hypothesis-Testing Research
Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between two or
more variables. These studies require procedures that would not only decrease bias and enhance
reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy
such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the
design of experiments.

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5. Determining sample design:
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a
‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry. Census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance,
blood testing is done only on sample basis. Hence only a few items from the universe for our study
purposes. The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample. The researcher must
decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. Thus, the plan
to select 12 of acity’s 200 drugstores in a certain way constitutes a sample design.
6. Collecting the data:
In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are in adequate, and hence, it
becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several ways of collecting the
appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money costs, time and
other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected either through
experiment or through survey. If the researcher which he examines the truth contained in his
hypothesis. But in the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s
own observation, without interviewing the respondents. The information obtained relates to what is
currently happening and is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes
of respondents. This method is no doubt an expensive method an the information provided by this
method is also very limited. As such this method is no suitable in inquiries where large samples are
concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers to a set
of pre-conceived questions through personal interviews. This method of collecting data is usually
carried out in a structured way where output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large
extent.

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(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting the
respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays a important role in
industrial surveys in developed regions, particularly, when the survey ha to be accomplished in a very
limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: The researcher and the respondents do come in contact with each
other if this method of survey is adopted. Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a request
to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively used method in various economic and
business surveys. Before applying this method, usually a Pilot Study for testing the questionnaire is
conduced which reveals the weaknesses, if any, of the questionnaire. Questionnaire to be used must be
prepared very carefully so that it may prove to be effective in collecting the relevant information.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training. They are
provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to respondents with
these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies
given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is
concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking intoconsideration the
nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, finanical resources,available time and the
desired degree of accuracy. Though he should pay attention to all these factors but much depends upon
the ability and experience of the researcher. In this context Dr A.L.Bowley very aptly remarks that in
collection of statistical data commonsense is the chief requisiteand experience the chief teacher.
7. Execution of the project:
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher
should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be
conducted by means of structured questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a
situation, questions as well as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected
through interviewers, arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the
interviewers. The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the
job of the interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently. A careful watch should be kept for

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unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much realistic as possible. This, in other words,
means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control so that the
collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy. If some of the
respondents do not cooperate, some suitable methods should be designed to tackle this problem. One
method of dealing with the non-response problem is to make a list of the non-respondents and take a
small sub-sample of them, and then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing
response.
8. Analysis of data:
After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing them. The analysis of
data requires a number of closely related operations such as establishment of categories, the
application of these categories to raw data through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical
inferences.
 Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are
transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that
improves the quality of the data for coding.
 Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of
tables. The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data,
especially in large inquiries, is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also
make it possible to study large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
 Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae. In the process of
analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses
should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what validity data can be said to
indicate any conclusion(s).
9. Hypothesis-testing:

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After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position to test the hypotheses, if any, he
had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary? This is the
usual question which should be answered while testing hypotheses. Various tests, such as Chi square
test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested
through the use of one or more of such tests, depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.
Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had
no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as
hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation:
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization, i.e., to build a theory. As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to
explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must
be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by a list of tables
and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an explanation
of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the study along with various
limitations should as well be stated in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be summarized.

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(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and broken-down
into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the results of his
research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end of the report, appendices
should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography,
i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should also
be given specially in a published research report.
Sampling
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population In practice, several of the methods of sampling described above may
well be used in the same study in which case it can be called mixed sampling. It may be pointed out
here that normally one should resort to random sampling so that bias can be eliminated and sampling
error can be estimated. But purposive sampling is considered desirable when the universe happens to
be small and a known characteristic of it is to be studied intensively. Also, there are conditions under
which sample designs other than random sampling may be considered better for reasons like
convenience and low costs. The sample design to be used must be decided by the researcher taking
into consideration the nature of the inquiry and other related factors
Probability samples: With probability samples each element has a known probability of being
included in the sample. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area samps
Non-probability samples : Non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine
this probability. Non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement
sampling and quota sampling techniques.
A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability
sampling. This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of particular
units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe. When population
elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based on the ease of access, it can be
called convenience sampling.

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judgment sampling : Judgment sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where them
desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalize to larger populations. The
researcher’s judgment is used for selecting items which he considers as representative of the
population. For example, a judgment sample of college students might be taken to secure reactions to a
new method of teaching.
(ii) Simple random sampling: This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability
sampling where each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample
and each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the same probability of being
selected. For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000 items, then
we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. Using
the random number tables is another method of random sampling. To select the sample, each item is
assigned a number from 1 to 15,000. Then, 300 five digit random numbers are selected from the table.
To do this we select some random starting point and then a systematic pattern is used in proceeding
through the table. We might start in the 4th row, second column and proceed down the column to the
bottom of the table and then move to the top of the next column to the right. When a number exceeds
the limit of the numbers in the frame, in our case over 15,000, it is simply passed over and the next
number selected that does fall within the relevant range. Since the numbers were placed in the table in
a completely random fashion, the resulting sample is random. This procedure gives each item an equal
probability of being selected. In case of infinite population, the selection of each item in a random
sample is controlled by the same probability and that successive selections are independent of one
another.
(iii) Systematic sampling: In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every
15th name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this type is known
as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by
using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start. This procedure is useful when sampling
frame is available in the form of a list. In such a design the selection process starts by picking some
random point in the list and then every nth element is selected until the desired number is secured.
(iv) Stratified sampling: If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to obtain a representative

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sample. In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of no overlapping subpopulations
or strata and sample items are selected from each stratum. If the items selected from each stratum is
based on simple random sampling the entire procedure, first stratification and then simple random
sampling, is known as stratified random sampling.
(v) Quota sampling: In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual
strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be filled from different strata,
the actual selection of items for sample being left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota
sampling. The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size of that stratum in
the population. Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling. Quota samples
generally happen to be judgement samples rather than random samples.
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling: Cluster sampling involves grouping the population and
then selecting the groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the sample.
Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued its cards to
15,000 customers. The sample size is to be kept say 450. For cluster sampling this list of 15,000 card
holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each. Three clusters might then be
selected for the sample randomly. The sample size must often be larger than the simple random sample
to ensure the same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for order bias and
other sources of error is usually accentuated. The clustering approach can, however, make the
sampling procedure relatively easier and increase the efficiency of field work, specially in the case of
personal interviews. Area sampling is quite close to cluster sampling and is often talked about when
the total geographical area of interest happens to be big one. Under area sampling we first divide the
total area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas, generally called geographical clusters, then
a number of these smaller areas are randomly selected, and all units in these small areas are included in
the sample. Area sampling is specially helpful where we do not have the list of the population
concerned. It also makes the field interviewing more efficient since interviewer can do many
interviews at each location.
(vii) Multi-stage sampling: This is a further development of the idea of cluster sampling. This
technique is meant for big inquiries extending to a considerably large geographical area like an entire
country. Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling units such
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as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within towns. If the technique of
random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling procedure is described as multi-stage random
sampling.
(viii) Sequential sampling: This is somewhat a complex sample design where the ultimate size of the
sample is not fixed in advance but is determined according to mathematical decisions on the basis of
information yielded as survey progresses. This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling
plan in the context of statistical quality control.

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Unit II: Research Design and Data collection
Research design- definition, types –descriptive and experimental, validity and reliability of
instrument, Validity of findings- internal and external validity, Variables in Research, types
of data – primary and secondary data, methods of a data collection for scientific and
business research, experiments, construction and validation of questionnaire, measurement
and scaling. Types of scale – Thurstone’s Case V scale model, Osgood’s Semantic
Differential scale, Likert
scale, Q-sort
scale.
RESEARCH DESIGN:
A research design helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means
etc. With regard to an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure. Infact, research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the
final data analysis. In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design
may be divided into the following (Kothari1988):
 The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
selected study;
 The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are to
be made;
 The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed,
and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and The operational design
that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical
and observational designs can be carried out.
Research design highlights decisions which
includes :
1. The nature of the study
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2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
Characteristics of A Good Research Design:

A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988).
A research design which does not allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be the
best design for investigation. Further, a research design that yields maximum information and
provides an opportunity of viewing the various dimensions of a research problem is
considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus, the question of a good design
relates to the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem studied. While a research
design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other words, it may be
lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems. Therefore, no
single research design can be applied to all types of research problems.
Importance of Research Design:

 Iit facilitates the smooth conduct of the various stages of research.
 It contributes to making research as efficient as possible, thus yielding the
maximum information with minimum effort, time and expenditure.
 A research design helps to plan in advance, the methods to be employed for collecting
the relevant data and the techniques to be adopted for their analysis.
 This would help in pursuing the objectives of the research in the best possible
manner, provided the available staff, time and money are given.

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 A research design plays a crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained,
which forms the strong foundation of the entire process of the research work
Types of research design

i) Exploratory Research Design:
The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main objective
of using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth or more
precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational aspect. The
major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore, such a research
design suitable for such a study should be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering
different dimensions of the problem under study. The in-built flexibility in research design is
required as the initial research problem would be transformed into a more precise one in the
exploratory study, which in turn may necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting
relevant data. Usually, the following three methods are considered in the context of a research
design for such studies. They are (a) a survey of related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c)
analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ instances.
ii) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:
A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular
individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the frequency with
which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other words, the study
analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another comprises a diagnostic research
study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with specific predictions or with the narration
of facts and characteristics related to an individual, group or situation, are instances of
descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the social research design falls under this
category.
The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible. Besides, it must also
focus attention on the following:
a) Formulation of the objectives of the study,
b) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
c) Sample selection,

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d) Data collection,
e) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and

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f) Reporting the findings.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research problem,
involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organized
and the reasoning leading to the selection;
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the purpose.
iii) Experimental or Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his hypothesis by reaching valid
conclusions about relationships between independent and dependent variables. It refers to the
conceptual framework within which the experiment is conducted .Hypothesis-Testing Research
Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal relationship between two
or more variables. These studies require procedures that would not only decrease bias and
enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving inferences about the causality. Generally,
experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence, when research design is discussed in such studies,
it often refers to the design of experiments.
VARIABLES
A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the
concepts like weight, height, income are all examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena (or
the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the concerning
attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points
are called ‘continuous variables’.* But all variables are not continuous. If they can only be
expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language ‘discrete
variables’.
** Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of childrenis an example of non-
continuous variable.
If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a
dependent variable, and the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an

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independent variable.

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For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age
is an independent variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also
depends upon the individual’s sex, then height is a dependent variable and age and sex are
independent variables. Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of independent
variables, whereas behavioural changes, occurring as a result of the environmental
manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.
2. Extraneous variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect the
dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to test the
hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies achievement and
their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and social studies
achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social studies
achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher,
it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a
result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error’. A study must
always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to the
Independent_variable, and not to some extraneous variable or variables.
DATA COLLECTION
There are two types of data, primary and secondary
Data which are collected first hand are called Primary data
Sources of Primary data : Direct Personal Interviews, Indirect Oral Interviews, Information from
Correspondents, Mailed questionnaire method, Schedules sent through enumerators and so on.
Data which have already been collected and used by somebody are called Secondary data.
(a) Published sources : Published sources are like publications of different government and
semi-government departments, research institutions and agencies etc.
(b) Unpublished sources. Whereas unpublished sources are like records maintained by different
government departments and unpublished theses of different universities etc.
There are two methods of collecting data:

(a) Survey method or total enumeration method :When a researcher goes for investigating all the
units of the subject, it is called as survey method.
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(b) Sample method. :If a researchers resorts to investigating only a few units of the subject and
gives the result on the basis of that, it is known as sample survey method.
Methods of Collecting Primary Data:
Primary data may be obtained by applying any of the following methods:
1. Direct Personal Interviews.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews.
3. Information from Correspondents.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Methods.
5. Schedule Sent Through Enumerators.
1. Direct Personal Interviews:

A face to face contact is made with the informants (persons from whom the information is to be
obtained) under this method of collecting data. The interviewer asks them questions pertaining to
the survey and collects the desired information. Thus, if a person wants to collect data about the
working conditions of the workers of the Tata Iron and Steel Company, Jamshedpur, he would
go to the factory, contact the workers and obtain the desired information. The information
collected in this manner is first hand and also original in character. There are many merits and
demerits of this method, which are discussed as under:
Merits:
1. Most often respondents are happy to pass on the information required from them when
contacted personally and thus response is encouraging.
2. The information collected through this method is normally more accurate because interviewer
can clear doubts of the informants about certain questions and thus obtain correct information. In
case the interviewer apprehends that the informant is not giving accurate information, he may
cross-examine him and thereby try to obtain the information.
3. This method also provides the scope for getting supplementary information from the
informant, because while interviewing it is possible to ask some supplementary questions which
may be of greater use later.
4. There might be some questions which the interviewer would find difficult to ask directly, but
with some tactfulness, he can mingle such

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questions with others and get the desired information. He can twist the questions keeping in mind
the informant’s reaction. Precisely, a delicate situation can usually he handled more effectively
by a personal interview than by other survey techniques.
5. The interviewer can adjust the language according to the status and educational level of the
person interviewed, and thereby can avoid inconvenience and misinterpretation on the part of the
informant.
Demerits:
1. This method can prove to be expensive if the number of informants is large and the area is
widely spread.
2. There is a greater chance of personal bias and prejudice under this method as compared to
other methods.
3. The interviewers have to be thoroughly trained and experienced; otherwise they may not be
able to obtain the desired information. Untrained or poorly trained interviewers may spoil the
entire work.
4. This method is more time taking as compared to others. This is because interviews can be held
only at the convenience of the informants. Thus, if information is to be obtained from the
working members of households, interviews will have to be held in the evening or on week end.
Even during evening only an hour or two can be used for interviews and hence, the work may
have to be continued for a long time, or a large number of people may have to be employed
which may involve huge expenses.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews:

Under this method of data collection, the investigator contacts third parties generally called
‘witnesses’ who are capable of supplying necessary information. This method is generally
adopted when the information to be obtained is of a complex nature and informants are not
inclined to respond if approached directly. For example, when the researcher is trying to obtain
data on drug addiction or the habit of taking liquor, there is high probabilit y that the addicted
person will not provide the desired data and hence will disturb the whole research process. In this
situation taking the help of such persons or agencies or the neighbours who know them well
becomes necessary. Since these people know the person well, they can provide the desired data.
Enquiry Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government generally adopt this

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method to get people’s views and all possible details of the facts related to the enquiry.

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Though this method is very popular, its correctness depends upon a number of factors such as
1. The person or persons or agency whose help is solicited must be of proven integrity; otherwise
any bias or prejudice on their part will not bring out the correct information and the whole
process of research will become useless.
2. The ability of the interviewers to draw information from witnesses by means of appropriate
questions and cross-examination.
3. It might happen that because of bribery, nepotism or certain other reasons those who are
collecting the information give it such a twist that correct conclusions are not arrived at.
Therefore, for the success of this method it is necessary that the evidence of one person alone is
not relied upon. Views from other persons
and related agencies should also be ascertained to find the real position .Utmost care must be
exercised in the selection of these persons because it is on their views that the final conclusions
are reached.
3. Information from Correspondents:
The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in different places to collect information
under this method. These correspondents collect and transmit the information to the central
office where data are processed. This method is generally adopted by news paper agencies.
Correspondents who are posted at different places supply information relating to such events as
accidents, riots, strikes, etc., to the head office. The correspondents are generally paid staff or
sometimes they may be honorary correspondents also. This method is also adopted generally by
the government departments in such cases where regular information is to be collected from a
wide area. For example, in the construction of a wholesale price index numbers regular
information is obtained from correspondents appointed in different areas. The biggest advantage
of this method is that, it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation. But a word of
caution is that it may not always ensure accurate results because of the personal prejudice and
bias of the correspondents. As stated earlier, this method is suitable and adopted in those cases
where the information is to be obtained at regular intervals from a wide area.
4. Mailed Questionnaire Method:
Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey which is known as ‘Questionnaire’
is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. Sometimes the researcher himself too
contacts the respondents and gets the responses related to various questions in the questionnaire.
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The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answers. A request is made to the
informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and send it back within a
specified time. The questionnaire studies can be classified on the basis of:
i. The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structured.
ii. The disguise or lack of disguise of the questionnaire and
iii. The communication method used.
When no formal questionnaire is used, interviewers adapt their questioning to each interview as
it progresses. They might even try to elicit responses by indirect methods, such as showing
pictures on which the respondent comments. When a researcher follows a prescribed sequence of
questions, it is referred to as structured study. On the other hand, when no prescribed sequence of
questions exists, the study is non-structured.
When questionnaires are constructed in such a way that the objective is clear to the respondents
then these questionnaires are known as non- disguised; on the other hand, when the objective is
not clear, the questionnaire is a disguised one. On the basis of these two classifications, four
types of studies can be distinguished:
1. Non-disguised structured,
2. Non-disguised non-structured,
3. Disguised structured and
4. Disguised non-structured.
There are certain merits and demerits of this method of data collection which are discussed
below:
Merits:
1. Questionnaire method of data collection can be easily adopted where the field of investigation
is very vast and the informants are spread over a wide geographical area.
2. This method is relatively cheap and expeditious provided the informants respond in time.
3. This method has proved to be superior when compared to other methods like personal
interviews or telephone method. This is because when questions pertaining to personal nature or
the ones requiring reaction by the family are put forth to the informants, there is a chance for
them to be embarrassed in answering them.

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Demerits
:
1. This method can be adopted only where the informants are literates so that they can
understand written questions and lend the answers in writing.
2. It involves some uncertainty about the response. Co-operation on the part of informants may
be difficult to presume.
3. The information provided by the informants may not be correct and it may be difficult to
verify the accuracy.
However, by following the guidelines given below, this method can be made more effective:
The questionnaires should be made in such a manner that they do not become an undue burden
on the respondents; otherwise the respondents may not return them back.
i. Prepaid postage stamp should be affixed
ii. The sample should be large
iii. It should be adopted in such enquiries where it is expected that the respondents would return
the questionnaire because of their own interest in the enquiry.
iv. It should be preferred in such enquiries where there could be a legal compulsion to provide
the information.
5. Schedules Sent Through Enumerators:
Another method of data collection is sending schedules through the enumerators or interviewers.
The enumerators contact the informants, get replies to the questions contained in a schedule and
fill them in their own handwriting in the questionnaire form. There is difference between
questionnaire and schedule. Questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to questions by
using a form which the respondent fills in him self, whereas schedule is the name usually applied
to a set of questions which are asked in a face-to face situation with another person. This method
is free from most of the limitations of the mailed questionnaire method.
Merits:
The main merits or advantages of this method are listed below:
1. It can be adopted in those cases where informants are illiterate.
2. There is very little scope of non-response as the enumerators go personally to obtain the
information.
3. The information received is more reliable as the accuracy of statements can be checked by

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supplementary questions wherever necessary.

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This method too like others is not free from defects or limitations. The main limitations are listed
below:
Demerits:
1. In comparison to other methods of collecting primary data, this method is quite costly as
enumerators are generally paid persons.
2. The success of the method depends largely upon the training imparted to the enumerators.
3. Interviewing is a very skilled work and it requires experience and training. Many statisticians
have the tendency to neglect this extremely important part of the data collecting process and this
result in bad interviews. Without good interviewing most of the information collected may be of
doubtful value.
4. Interviewing is not only a skilled work but it also requires a great degree of politeness and thus
the way the enumerators conduct the interview would affect the data collected. When questions
are asked by a number of different interviewers, it is possible that variations in the personalities
of the interviewers will cause variation in the answers obtained. This variation will not be
obvious. hence, every effort must be made to remove as much of variation as possible due to
different interviewers.
SECONDARY DATA:
As stated earlier, secondary data are those data which have already been collected and analyzed
by some earlier agency for its own use, and later the same data are used by a different agency.
According to W.A.Neiswanger, “A primary source is a publication in which the data are
published by the same authority which gathered and analyzed them. A secondary source is a
publication, reporting the data which was gathered by other authorities and for which others are
responsible.”
Sources Of Secondary Data:
The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.
1. Published Sources:
The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among them
are explained below:
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(a) International Bublications:
There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E and U.N.O
who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical matters.
(b) Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on a number
of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important publications are: The
Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India, Statistical Abstracts of States, Agricultural
Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, etc.
(c) Semi-Official Publications:
Semi-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats, etc.
Publish reports relating to different matters of public concern.
(d) Publications of Research Institutions:
Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R), Indian
Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I), etc. Publish the findings of their research
programmes.
(e) Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions 55
(f) Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government as the Raj
Committee’s Report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo Committee’s Report on Taxation and
Black Money, etc. Are also important sources of secondary data.
(g) Journals and News Papers:
Journals and News Papers are very important and powerful source of secondary data. Current
and important materials on statistics and socio-economic problems can be obtained from journals
and newspapers like Economic Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian Finance, Monthly Statistics of
trade etc.
2. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc.
Precautions in the use of Secondary Data:
Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper scrutiny of
such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact the user has to be extra-
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cautious while using secondary data. In this context Prof. Bowley rightly points out that
“Secondary data should not be accepted at their face value.” The reason being that data may be
erroneous in many respects due to bias, inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of
definition, arithmetical errors etc. Even if there is no error such data may not be suitable and
adequate for the purpose of the enquiry. Prof. SimonKuznet’s view in this regard is also of great
importance. According to him, “the degree of reliability of secondary source is to be assessed
from the source, the compiler and his capacity to produce correct statistics and the users also, for
the most part, tend to accept a series particularly one issued by a government agency at its face
value without enquiring its reliability”.
Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should consider the following
factors:
The Suitability Of Data:
The investigator must satisfy himself that the data available are suitable for the purpose of
enquiry. It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the original
enquiry. For example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in retail prices, and
if the data provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
Adequacy Of Data:
If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation then we must consider whether the data
are useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the geographical area covered
by the original enquiry. The time for which data are available is very important element. In the
above example, if our object is to study the retail price trend of india, and if the available data
cover only the retail price trend in the state of bihar, then it would not serve the purpose.
Reliability Of Data:
The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The reliability of
data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the agency has used
proper methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon.
It is not enough to have baskets of data in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing but a
handful of raw material waiting for proper processing so that they can become useful. Once data
have been obtained from primary or secondary source, the next step in a statistical investigation
is to edit the data i.e. To scrutinize the same. The chief objective of editing is to detect possible
errors and irregularities. The task of editing is a highly specialized one and requires great care
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and attention. Negligence in this respect may render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable
study. Editing data collected from internal records and published sources is relatively simple but
the data collected from a survey need excessive editing.
While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
1. The data should be complete in every respect57
2. The data should be accurate
3. The data should be consistent, and
4. The data should be homogeneous.
Data to posses the above mentioned characteristics have to undergo the same type of editing
which is discussed below:
5. Editing for Completeness:
while editing, the editor should see that each schedule and questionnaire is complete in all
respects. He should see to it that the answers to each and every question have been furnished. If
some questions are not answered and if they are of vital importance, the informants should be
contacted again either personally or through correspondence. Even after all the efforts it may
happen that a few questions remain unanswered. In such questions, the editor should mark ‘No
answer’ in the space provided for answers and if the questions are of vital importance then the
schedule or questionnaire should be dropped.
(a) Editing for Consistency:
At the time of editing the data for consistency, the editor should see that the answers to questions
are not contradictory in nature. If they are mutually contradictory answers, he should try to
obtain the correct answers either by referring back the questionnaire or by contacting, wherever
possible, the informant in person. For example, if amongst others, two questions in questionnaire
are (a) Are you a student? (b) Which class do you study and the reply to the first question is ‘no’
and to the latter ‘tenth’ then there is contradiction and it should be clarified.
(b) Editing for Accuracy:
The reliability of conclusions depends basically on the correctness of information. If the
information supplied is wrong, conclusions can never be valid. It is, therefore, necessary for the
editor to see that the information is accurate in all respects. If the inaccuracy is due to
arithmetical errors, it can be easily detected and corrected. But if the cause of inaccuracy is faulty

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information supplied, it may be difficult to verify it and an example of this kind is information
relating to income, age etc.58
(c) Editing For Homogeneity:
Homogeneity means the condition in which all the questions have been understood in the same
sense. The editor must check all the questions for uniform interpretation. For example, as to the
question of income, if some informants have given monthly income, others annual income and
still others weekly income or even daily income, no comparison can be made. Therefore, it
becomes an essential duty of the editor to check up that the information supplied by the various
people is homogeneous and uniform.
TESTS OF SOUND MEASUREMENT

Researcher must know that correct measurement depends on successfully meeting all of the
problems listed above. He must, to the extent possible, try to eliminate, neutralize or otherwise
deal with all the possible sources of error so that the final results may not be contaminated.
Sound measurement must meet the tests of validity, reliability and practicality. In fact, these are
the three major considerations one should use in evaluating a measurement tool. “Validity refers
to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to measure. Reliability has to do
with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure ... Practicality is concerned with a
wide range of factors of economy, convenience, and interpretability
1. Test of Validity
Validity is the most critical criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument measures
what it is supposed to measure. Validity can also be thought of as utility. In other words, validity
is the extent to which differences found with a measuring instrument reflect true differences
among those being tested.
1 Robert L. Thorndike and Elizabeth Hagen: Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and
Education state that there are two forms of validity are usually mentioned in research literature
viz., the external validity and the internal validity.
External validity of research findings is their generalizability to populations, settings, treatment
variables and measurementvariables. We shall talk about it in the context of significance tests
later on. The internal validity of a research design is its ability to measure what it aims to
measure. the research problem and the judgement of the researcher.
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But one can certainly consider three types ofvalidity in this connection: (i) Content validity; (ii)
Criterion-related validity and (iii) Construct validity.
(i) Content validity is the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of
the topic under study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the universe, the
content validity is good. Its determination is primarily judgmental and intuitive. It can also be
determined by using a panel of persons who shall judge how well the measuring instrument
meets the standards, but there is no numerical way to express it.
(ii) Criterion-related validity relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the
existence of some current condition. This form of validity reflects the success of measures used
for some empirical estimating purpose. The concerned criterion must possess the following
qualities:
Relevance: (A criterion is relevant if it is defined in terms we judge to be the proper measure.)
Freedom from bias: (Freedom from bias is attained when the criterion gives each subject an
equal opportunity to score well.)
Reliability: (A reliable criterion is stable or reproducible.)
Availability: (The information specified by the criterion must be available.)
In fact, a Criterion-related validity is a broad term that actually refers to
(i) Predictive validity: It refers to the usefulness of a test in predicting some future performance
whereas the latter refers to the usefulness of a test in closely relating to other measures of known
validity.
(ii) Concurrent validity. Criterion-related validity is expressed as the coefficient of test scores
and some measure of future performance or between test scores and scores on another measure
of known validity.
(iii) Construct validity is the most complex and abstract. A measure is said to possess construct
validity to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical
propositions. Construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be accounted for by
the explanatory constructs of a sound theory. For determining construct validity, we associate a
set of other propositions with the results received from using our measurement instrument. If
measurements on our devised scale correlate in a predicted way with these other propositions, we
can conclude that there is some construct validity.

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2. Test of Reliability
The test of reliability is another important test of sound measurement. A measuring instrument is
reliable if it provides consistent results. Reliable measuring instrument does contribute to
validity, but
a reliable instrument need not be a valid instrument. For instance, a scale that consistently
overweighs objects by five kgs., is a reliable scale, but it does not give a valid measure of weight.
But the other way is not true i.e., a valid instrument is always reliable. Accordingly reliability is
not as valuable as validity, but it is easier to assess reliability in comparison to validity. If the
quality of reliability is satisfied by an instrument, then while using it we can be confident that the
transient and situational factors are not interfering. Two aspects of reliability viz., stability and
equivalence deserve special mention. The stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent
results with repeated measurements of the same person and with the same instrument. We
usually determine the degree of stability by comparing the results of repeated measurements. The
equivalence aspect considers how much error may get introduced by different investigators or
different samples of the items being studied. A good way to test for the equivalence of
measurements by two investigators is to compare their observations of the same events.
Reliability can be improved in the following two ways:
(i) By standardizing the conditions under which the measurement takes place i.e., we must
ensure that external sources of variation such as boredom, fatigue, etc., are minimized toothed
extent possible. That will improve stability aspect.
(ii) By carefully designed directions for measurement with no variation from group to group, by
using trained and motivated persons to conduct the research and also by broadening the sample
of items used. This will improve equivalence aspect.
3. Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of a measuring instrument can be judged in terms of economy,
convenience and interpretability. From the operational point of view, the measuring instrument
ought to be practical i.e., it should be economical, convenient and interpretable. Economy
consideration suggests that some trade-off is needed between the ideal research project and that
which the budget can afford. The length of measuring instrument is an important area where
economic pressures are quickly felt. Although more items give greater reliability as stated
earlier, but in the interest of limiting the interview or observation time, we have to take only few
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items for our study purpose. Similarly, data-collection methods to be used are also dependent at
times upon economic factors. Convenience test suggests that the measuring instrument should be
easy to administer. For this purpose one should give due attention to the proper layout of the
measuring instrument. For instance, a questionnaire, with clear instructions (illustrated by
examples), is certainly more effective and easier to complete than one which lacks these features.
Interpretability consideration is specially important when persons other than the designers of the
test are to interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in order to be interpretable, must be
supplemented by (a) detailed instructions for administering the test; (b) scoring keys; (c)
evidence about the reliability and (d) guides for using the test and for interpreting result
PREPARATION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is widely used for data collection in social research. It is a reasonably fair tool for
gathering data from large, diverse, varied and scattered social groups. The questionnaire is the
media of communication between the investigator and the respondents. According to Bogardus, a
questionnaire is a list of questions sent to a number of persons for their answers and which
obtains standardized results that can be tabulated and treated statistically. The Dictionary of
Statistical Terms defines it as a “group of or sequence of questions designed to elicit information
upon a subject or sequence of subjects from information.” A questionnaire should be designed or
drafted with utmost care and caution so that all the relevant and essential information for the
enquiry may be collected without any difficulty, ambiguity and vagueness. Drafting of a good
questionnaire is a highly specialized job and requires great care skill, wisdom, efficiency and
experience. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for designing or framing a questionnaire.
Characteristics of a good questionnaire:

1. Size Of The Questionnaire Should Be Small:
A researcher should try his best to keep the number of questions as small as possible, keeping in
view the nature, objectives and scope of the enquiry. Respondent’s time should not be wasted by
asking irrelevant and unimportant questions. A large number of questions would involve more
work for the investigator and thus result in delay on his part in collecting and submitting the
information. A large number of unnecessary questions may annoy the respondent and he may
refuse to cooperate. A reasonable questionnaire should contain from 15 to 25 questions at large.
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If a still larger number of questions are a must in any enquiry, then the questionnaire should be
divided into various sections or parts.
2. The Questions Should Be Clear:
The questions should be easy, brief, unambiguous, non-offending, courteous in tone,
corroborative in nature and to the point, so that much scope of guessing is left on the part of the
respondents.
3. The Questions Should Be Arranged In A Logical Sequence:
Logical arrangement of questions reduces lot of unnecessary work on the part of the researcher
because it not only facilitates the tabulation work but also does not leave any chance for
omissions or commissions. For example, to find if a person owns a television, the logical order
of questions would be: Do you own a television? When did you buy it? What is its make? How
much did it cost you? Is its performance satisfactory? Have you ever got it serviced? 63
4. Questions Should Be Simple To Understand:
The vague words like good, bad, efficient, sufficient, prosperity, rarely, frequently, reasonable,
poor, rich etc., should not be used since these may be interpreted differently by different persons
and as such might give unreliable and misleading information. Similarly the use of words having
double meaning like price, assets, capital income etc., should also be avoided.
5. Questions Should Be Comprehensive & Easily Answerable:
Questions should be designed in such a way that they are readily comprehensible and easy to
answer for the respondents. They should not be tedious nor should they tax the respondents’
memory. At the same time questions involving mathematical calculations like percentages, ratios
etc., should not be asked.
6. Questions Of Personal & Sensitive Nature Should Not Be Asked:
There are some questions which disturb the respondents and he/she may be shy or irritated by
hearing such questions. Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid such questions. For
example, ‘do you cook yourself or your wife cooks?’ ‘Or do you drink?’ Such questions will
certainly irk the respondents and thus be avoided at any cost. If unavoidable then highest amount
of politeness should be used.
7. Types Of Questions:
Under this head, the questions in the questionnaire may be classified as follows:
(a) Shut Questions:
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Shut questions are those where possible answers are suggested by the framers of the
questionnaire and the respondent is required to tick one of them. Shut questions can further be
subdivided into the following forms:64
(i) Simple Alternate Questions:
In this type of questions the respondent has to choose from the two clear cut alternatives like
‘Yes’ or ‘No’, ‘Right or Wrong’ etc. Such questions are also called as dichotomous questions.
This technique can be applied with elegance to situations where two clear cut alternatives exist.
(ii) Multiple Choice Questions:
Many a times it becomes difficult to define a clear cut alternative and accordingly in such a
situation additional answers between Yes and No, like Do not know, No opinion, Occasionally,
Casually, Seldom etc., are added. For example, in order to find if a person smokes or drinks, the
following multiple choice answers may be used:
Do you smoke?
(a) Yes regularly [ ] (b) No never [ ]
(c) Occasionally [ ] (d) Seldom [ ]
Multiple choice questions are very easy and convenient for the respondents to answer. Such
questions save time and also facilitate tabulation. This method should be used if only a selected
few alternative answers exist to a particular question.
8. Leading Questions Should Be Avoided:
Questions like ‘why do you use a particular type of car, say Maruti car’ should preferably be
framed into two questions-
(i) which car do you use? (ii) why do you prefer it?
It gives smooth ride [ ]
It gives more mileage [ ]
It is cheaper [ ]
It is maintenance free [ ]65
9 Cross Checks:
The questionnaire should be so designed as to provide internal checks on the accuracy of the
information supplied by the respondents by including some connected questions at least with
respect to matters which are fundamental to the enquiry.

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10 Pre Testing The Questionnaire:
It would be practical in every sense to try out the questionnaire on a small scale before using it
for the given enquiry on a large scale. This has been found extremely useful in practice. The
given questionnaire can be improved or modified in the light of the drawbacks, shortcomings and
problems faced by the investigator in the pre test.
11 A Covering Letter:
A covering letter from the organizers of the enquiry should be enclosed along with the
questionnaire for the purposes regarding definitions, units, concepts used in the questionnaire,
for taking the respondent’s confidence, self addressed envelop in case of mailed questionnaire,
mention about award or incentives for the quick response, a promise to send a copy of the survey
report etc.
A good questionnaire should not be too lengthy. Simple English should be used and the question
shouldn’t be difficult to answer. A good questionnaire requires sensible language, editing,
assessment, and redrafting.
Questionnaire Design Process
1. State the information required- This will depend upon the nature of the problem, the
purpose of the study and hypothesis framed. The target audience must be concentrated on.
2. State the kind of interviewing technique- interviewing method can be telephone, mails,
personal interview or electronic interview. Telephonic interview can be computer assisted.
Personal interview can be conducted at respondent’s place or at mall or shopping place. Mail
interview can take the form of mail panel. Electronic interview takes place either through
electronic mails or through the internet.
3. Decide the matter/content of individual questions- There are two deciding factors for this-
a. Is the question significant? - Observe contribution of each question. Does the
question contribute for the objective of the study?
b. Is there a need for several questions or a single question? - Several questions are
asked in the following cases:
 When there is a need for cross-checking
 When the answers are ambiguous
 When people are hesitant to give correct information.

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4. Overcome the respondents’ inability and unwillingness to answer- The respondents may
be unable to answer the questions because of following reasons-
 The respondent may not be fully informed
 The respondent may not remember
 He may be unable to express or articulate
The respondent may be unwilling to answer due to-
 There may be sensitive information which may cause embarrassment or harm the
respondent’s image.
 The respondent may not be familiar with the genuine purpose
 The question may appear to be irrelevant to the respondent
 The respondent will not be willing to reveal traits like aggressiveness (For
instance - if he is asked “Do you hit your wife, sister”, etc.)
To overcome the respondent’s unwillingness to answer:
viii. Place the sensitive topics at the end of the questionnaire

ix. Preface the question with a statement
x. Use the third person technique (For example - Mark needed a job badly and he
used wrong means to get it - Is it right?? Different people will have different
opinions depending upon the situation)
xi. Categorize the responses rather than asking a specific response figure (For
example - Group for income levels 0-25000, 25000-50000, 50000 and above)
5. Decide on the structure of the question- Questions can be of two types:
. Structured questions- These specify the set of response alternatives and the
response format. These can be classified into multiple choice questions (having
various response categories), dichotomous questions (having only 2 response
categories such as “Yes” or “No”) and scales (discussed already).
a. Unstructured questions- These are also known as open-ended question. No
alternatives are suggested and the respondents are free to answer these questions
in any way they like.

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6. Determine the question language/phrasing- If the questions are poorly worded, then either
the respondents will refuse to answer the question or they may give incorrect answers. Thus,
the words of the question should be carefully chosen. Ordinary and unambiguous words
should be used. Avoid implicit assumptions, generalizations and implicit alternatives. Avoid
biased questions. Define the issue in terms of who the questionnaire is being addressed to,
what information is required, when is the information required, why the question is being
asked, etc.
7. Properly arrange the questions- To determine the order of the question, take decisions on
aspects like opening questions (simple, interesting questions should be used as opening
questions to gain co-operation and confidence of respondents), type of information (Basic
information relates to the research issue, classification information relates to social and
demographic characteristics, and identification information relates to personal information
such as name, address, contact number of respondents), difficult questions (complex,
embarrassing, dull and sensitive questions could be difficult), effect on subsequent questions,
logical sequence, etc.
8. Recognize the form and layout of the questionnaire- This is very essential for self-
administered questionnaire. The questions should be numbered and pre-coded. The layout
should be such that it appears to be neat and orderly, and not clattered.
9. Reproduce the questionnaire- Paper quality should be good. Questionnaire should appear
to be professional. The required space for the answers to the question should be sufficient.
The font type and size should be appropriate. Vertical response questions should be used, for
example:
Do you use brand X of shampoo ?
 Yes
 No
10. Pre-test the questionnaire- The questionnaire should be pre-tested on a small number of
respondents to identify the likely problems and to eliminate them. Each and every dimension
of the questionnaire should be pre-tested. The sample respondents should be similar to the
target respondents of the survey.

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11. Finalize the questionnaire- Check the final draft questionnaire. Ask yourself how much will
the information obtained from each question contribute to the study. Make sure that
irrelevant questions are not asked. Obtain feedback of the respondents on the questionnaire.
SCALING TECHNIQUES
The term scaling is applied to the attempts to measure the attitude objectively. Attitude is
resultant of number of external and internal factors. Depending upon the attitude to be measured,
appropriate scales are designed. Scaling is a technique used for measuring qualitative responses
of respondents such as those related to their feelings, perception, likes, dislikes, interests and
preferences.
Types of Scales
Most frequently used Scales
1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
Self Rating Scales
1. Graphic Rating Scale

2. Itemized Rating Scales
a. Likert Scale
b. Semantic Differential Scale
c. Stapel’s Scale
d. Multi Dimensional Scaling
e. Thurston Scales
f. Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis
g. The Q Sort technique
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1. Nominal Scale
This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various alternative
categories which are usually exhaustive as well mutually exclusive. These scales are just
numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales. Instances of Nominal Scale are - credit
card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers etc. It is simple and widely used
when relationship between two variables is to be studied. In a Nominal Scale numbers are no
more than labels and are used specifically to identify different categories of responses.
Following example illustrates -
1.What is your gender?
[ ] Male
[ ] Female
Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of maintaining
stocks and daily turnover.
2.How do you stock items at present?
[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse
3.Daily turnover of consumer is?
[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300
A two way classification can be made as follows
Daily/Stock
Product Department Centralized Single
Turnover
Category wise Store Warehouse
Method
100 – 200
200 – 300

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Above 300
Mode is frequently used for response category.

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2. Ordinal Scale
Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Research. It is more powerful
than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order. The ranking of
certain product attributes/benefits as deemed important by the respondents is obtained through
the scale.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
1. Company Name
2.
Functions
3.
Price
4.
Comfort
5.
Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5.
Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale
makes no attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.
Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of
quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.
Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them
based on say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second maximum
Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.
Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.
3. Interval Scale
Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in
Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating
Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal
intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.
Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities.

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Less Well
Company Name 1 2 3 4 5
Known Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many

Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Overall Very Dis- Very
Satisfied 1 2 3 4 5
Satisfaction Satisfied
Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4 and also
the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not permit
conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because no zero position has been
established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean scores
of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion) can
also be calculated.
4. Ratio Scale
Ratio Scales are not widely used in unless a base item is made available for comparison. In the
above example of Interval scale, a score of 4 in one quality does not necessarily mean that the
respondent is twice more satisfied than the respondent who marks 2 on the scale. A Ratio scale
has a natural zero point and further numbers are placed at equally appearing intervals. For
example scales for measuring physical quantities like - length, weight, etc.
The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a ratio
scale analytically are the most versatile. Rati scale possess all he characteristics of an internal
scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations. Data on
certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open-ended questions,
will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions :
Q1)What is your annual income?
Q 2) How far is the Theater from your home ? miles
Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For
example we can say that a respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much as
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one with an annual income of $ 20,000.
SELF RATING SCALES

1. Graphic Rating Scale
The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs
from one extreme of the criterion variable to another. Example
0 1 5 7
(poor quality) (bad quality) (neither good nor bad) (good quality)
BRAND 1
This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any position. Here one
attribute is taken ex-quality of any brand of icecream.
poor good
BRAND 2
This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other indication is
there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the responses to question that
“indicate your overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2 by placing a tick mark at appropriate
position on the line”, we measure the physical distance between the left extreme position and the
response position on the line.; the greater the distance, the more favourable is the response or
attitude towards the brand.Its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial
amount of time, since we first have to measure the physical distances on the scale for each
respondent.
2. Itemized Rating Scales

These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a number of brief
descriptions associated with each category. They are widely used in Marketing Research. They
essentially take the form of the multiple category questions. The most common are - Likert,
Sementic, Staple and Multiple Dimension. Others are - Thurston and Guttman.
Likert Scale

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It was developed Rensis Likert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a degree of agreement
and disagreement with each of a series of statement. Each scale item has 5 response categories
ranging from strongly agree and strongly disagree.

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5 4 3 2 1
Strongly agree Agree Indifferent Disagree Strongly disagree
Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5. It can also be scaled as -2 to
+2. -2 -1 0 1 2
For
example quality of Mother Diary ice-cream is poor then Not Good is a negative statement and
Strongly Agree with this means the quality is not good.
Each degree of agreement is given a numerical score and the respondents total score is computed
by summing these scores. This total score of respondent reveals the particular opinion of a
person.
Likert Scale are of ordinal type, they enable one to rank attitudes, but not to measure the
difference between attitudes. They take about the same amount of efforts to create as Thurston
scale and are considered more discriminating and reliable because of the larger range of
responses typically given in Likert scale.A typical Likert scale has 20 - 30 statements. While
designing a good Likert Scale, first a large pool of statements relevant to the measurement of
attitude has to be generated and then from the pool statements, the statements which are vague
and non-discriminating have to be eliminated.Thus, likert scale is a five point scale ranging from
’strongly agreement’to ’strongly disagreement’. No judging gap is involved in this method.
a. Semantic Differential Scale

This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Pleasant
Unpleasant Dominant
Submissive
Suppose we want to know personality of a particular person. We have options-
1. Unpleasant/Submissive
2. Pleasant/Dominant
Bi-polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7 or -3 to 3. On the basis
of these responses profiles are made. We can analyse for two or three products and by joining
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these profiles we get profile analysis. It could take any shape depending on the number of
variables.
Profile Analysis
---------------/---------------
----------/--------------------
--------/----------------------
Mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine overall similarities and
differences among objects.
When Semantic Differential Scale is used to develop an image profile, it provides a good basis
for comparing images of two or more items. The big advantage of this scale is its simplicity,
while producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling methods. The method is
easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude, highly versatile,
reliable and generally valid.
b. Stapel’s Scale
It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:-
I. Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
II. Each item has ten response categories.
III. Each item has an even number of categories.
IV. The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.
For example, in the following items, suppose for quality of ice cream, we ask
respondents to rank from +5 to -5. Select a plus number for words which best
describe the ice cream accurately. Select a minus number for words you think do
not describe the ice cream quality accurately. Thus, we can select any number
from +5,for words we think are very accurate, to -5,for words we think are very
inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.
+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
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High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
This is a unipolar rating scale.
c. Multi Dimensional Scaling

It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to study consumer attitudes related
to perceptions and preferences. It is used to study-
The major attributes of a given class of products perceivedby the consumers in considering the
product and by which they compare the different ranks.
1. To study which brand competes most directly with each other.
2. To find out whether the consumers would like a new brand with a combination of
characteristics not found in the market.
3. What would be the consumers ideal combination of product attributes.
4. What sales and advertising messages are compatible with consumers brand perceptions.
It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into
different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off
on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program. The
purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will eliminate most of the
stress. After the configuration for the consumer’s preference has been developed, the next step is to
determine the preference with regards to the product under study. These techniques attempt to
identify the product attributes that are important to consumers and to measure their relative
importance.This scaling involves a unrealistic assumption that a consumer who compares different
brands would perceive the differences on the basis of only one attribute. For example, what are
the attributes for joining M.Com course. The responses may be -to do PG, to go into teaching
line,to get knowledge, appearing in the NET. There are a number of attributes, you can
not base decision on one attribute only. Therefore, when the consumers are choosing between
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brands, they base their decision on various attributes. In practice, the perceptions of the
consumers involve different attributes and any one consumer perceives each brand as a
composite of a number of different attributes. This is a shortcoming of this scale.
Whenever we choose from a number of alternatives, go for multidimensional scaling. There are
many possible uses of such scaling like in market segmentation, product life cycle, vendor
evaluations and advertising media selection.The limitation of this scale is that it is difficult to
clearly define the concept of similarities and preferences. Further the distances between the items
are seen as different
Thurston Scales
These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the attitude
towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of statements are collected
that relate to the concept or construct being measured. The judges rate these statements along an
11 category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of favourableness towards
the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the
judges and are used to construct questionnaire of twenty to thirty items that are chosen more or
less evenly across the range of ratings.
The statements are worded in such a way so that a person can agree or disagree with them. The
scale is then administered to assemble of respondents whose scores are determined by computing
the mean or median value of the items agreed with. A person who disagrees with all the items
has a score of zero. So, the advantage of this scale is that it is an interval measurement scale. But it
is the time consuming method and labour intensive. They are commonly used in psychology and
education research.
Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis

It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuem in such a way that a person
who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable all
other items expressing a less extreme position. For example - Children should not be allowed to
watch indecent programmers or government should ban these programmes or they are not
allowed to air on the television. They all are related to one aspect.In this scale each score represents
a unique set of responses and therefore the total score of every individual is obtained. This scale

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takes a lot of time and effort in development.They are very commonly used in political science,
anthropology, public opinion, research and psychology.
The Q Sort technique
It is used to discriminate among large number of objects quickly. It uses a rank respect to some
criteria. The number of objects to be sorted should be between 60-140 approximately. For
example, here we are taking nine brands. On the basis of taste we classify the brands into tasty,
moderate and non tasty.We can classify on the basis of price also-Low, medium, high. Then we
can attain the perception of people that whether they prefer low priced brand, high or moderate.
We can classify sixty brands or pile it into three piles. So the number of objects is to be placed in
three piles-low, medium or high. Thus, the Q-sort technique is an attempt to classify subjects in
terms of their similarity to attribute under study.

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Unit III: Sampling Technique / Executing the research
Sampling methods – Probability sampling methods – simple random sampling with replacement
and without replacement, stratified sampling, cluster sampling. Non-probability sampling method
– convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling. Nonparametric tests- One sample
tests – one sample sign test, Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, run test for randomness, two sample tests –
two sample sign test, Mann-Whitney U test, K-sample test – Kruskal Wallis test (H-test)
SAMPLING
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of
observations will be taken from a larger population.
It may be too expensive or too time consuming to attempt either a complete or a nearly complete
coverage in a statistical study. Further to arrive at valid conclusions, it may not be necessary to
enumerate all or nearly all of a population. We may study a sample drawn from the large population
and if that sample is adequately representative of the population, we should be able to arrive at valid
conclusions.
According to Rosander, “The sample has many advantages over a census or complete enumeration.
If carefully designed, the sample is not only considerably cheaper but may give results which are just
accurate and sometimes more accurate than those of a census. Hence a carefully designed sample
may actually be better than a poorly planned and executed census.”
For example a house wife tests a small quantity of rice to see whether it has been well-cooked and
gives the generalized result about the whole rice boiling in the vessel. The result arrived at is most of
the times 100% correct. In another example, when a doctor wants to examine the blood for any
deficiency, takes only a few drops of blood of the patient and examines. The result arrived at is most
of the times correct and represent the whole amount of blood available in the body of the patient.
Advantages of Sampling
1. It saves time: Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer items are collected
and processed. When the results are urgently required, this method is very helpful.

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2. It reduces cost: Since only a few and selected items are studied in sampling, there is reduction in
cost of money and reduction in terms of man hours.
3. More reliable results can be obtained: Through sampling, more reliable results can be obtained
because (a) there are fewer chances of sampling statistical errors. If there is sampling error, it is
possible to estimate and control the results.(b) Highly experienced and trained persons can be
employed for scientific processing and analyzing of relatively limited data and they can use their
high technical knowledge and get more accurate and reliable results.67
4. It provides more detailed information: As it saves time, money and labor, more detail
information can be collected in a sample survey.
5. Sometimes only sampling method to depend upon: Some times it so happens that one has to
depend upon sampling method alone because if the population under study is finite, sampling
method is the only method to be used. For example, if someone’s blood has to be examined, it will
become fatal to take all the blood out from the body and study depending upon the total enumeration
method.
6. Administrative convenience: The organization and administration of sample survey are easy for
the reasons which have been discussed earlier.
7. More scientific: Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific theory and results
obtained can be tested, sampling is a more scientific method of collecting data.
Disadvantages
1. Illusory conclusion: If a sample enquiry is not carefully planned and executed, the conclusions
may be inaccurate and misleading.
2. Sample Not Representative: To make the sample representative is a difficult task. If a
representative sample is taken from the universe, the result is applicable to the whole population. If
the sample is not representative of the universe the result may be false and misleading.68
3. Lack of Experts: As there are lack of experts to plan and conduct a sample survey, its execution
and analysis, and its results would be Unsatisfactory and not trustworthy.
4. Sometimes More Difficult Than Census Method: Sometimes the sampling plan may be
complicated and requires more money, labor and time than a census method.
5. Personal Bias: There may be personal biases and prejudices with regard to the choice of
technique and drawing of sampling units.

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6. Choice Of Sample Size: If the size of the sample is not appropriate then it may lead to untrue
characteristics of the population.
7. Conditions Of Complete Coverage: If the information is required for each and every item of the
universe, then a complete enumeration survey is better.
ESSENTIALS /PREREQUISITES OF GOOD SAMPLE
1. It must be representative: The sample selected should possess the similar characteristics of the
original universe from which it has been drawn.69
2. Homogeneity: Selected samples from the universe should have similar nature and should mot
have any difference when compared with the universe.
3. Adequate samples: In order to have a more reliable and representative result, a good number of
items are to be included in the sample.
4. Optimization: All efforts should be made to get maximum results both in terms of cost as well as
efficiency. If the size of the sample is larger, there is better efficiency and at the same time the cost is
more. A proper size of sample is maintained in order to have optimized results in terms of cost and
efficiency.
SAMPLING ERROR
In a sample survey, since only a small portion of the population is studied its results are bound to
differ from the census results and thus, have a certain amount of error. In statistics the word error is
used to denote the difference between the true value and the estimated or approximated value. This
error would always be there no matter that the sample is drawn at random and that it is highly
representative. This error is attributed to fluctuations of sampling and is called sampling error.
Sampling error exist due to the fact that only a sub set of the population has been used to estimate
the population parameters and draw inferences about the population. Thus, sampling error is present
only in a sample survey and is completely absent in census method.
Sampling errors occur primarily due to the following reasons:
1. Faulty selection of the sample: Some of the bias is introduced by the use of defective sampling
technique for the selection of a sample e.g. Purposive or judgment sampling in which the
investigator deliberately selects a representative sample to obtain certain results. This bias can be
easily overcome by adopting the technique of simple random sampling.

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2. Substitution: When difficulties arise in enumerating a particular sampling unit included in the
random sample, the investigators usually substitute a convenient member of the population. This
obviously leads to some bias since the characteristics possessed by the substituted unit will usually
be different from those possessed by the unit originally included in the sample.
3. Faulty demarcation of sampling units: Bias due to defective demarcation of sampling units is
particularly significant in area surveys such as agricultural experiments in the field of crop cutting
surveys etc. In such surveys, while dealing with border line cases, it depends more or less on the
discretion of the investigator whether to include them in the sample or not.
4. Error due to bias in the estimation method: Sampling method consists in estimating the
parameters of the population by appropriate statistics computed from the sample. Improper choice of
the estimation techniques might introduce the error.
5. Variability of the population: Sampling error also depends on the variability or heterogeneity of
the population to be sampled.
Sampling errors are of two types: Biased Errors and Unbiased Errors
1. Biased Errors:
The errors that occur due to a bias of prejudice on the part of the informant or enumerator in
selecting, estimating measuring instruments are called biased errors. Suppose for example,
the enumerator uses the deliberate sampling method in the place of simple random sampling
method, then it is called biased errors. These errors are cumulative in nature and increase
when the sample size also increases. These errors arise due to defect in the methods of
collection of data, defect in the method of organization of data and defect in the method of
analysis of data.
2. Unbiased Errors:
Errors which occur in the normal course of investigation or enumeration on account of
chance are called unbiased errors. They may arise accidentally without any bias or prejudice.
These errors occur due to faulty planning of statistical investigation. To avoid these errors,
the statistician must take proper precaution and care in using the correct measuring
instrument. He must see that the enumerators are also not biased. Unbiased errors can be
removed with the proper planning of statistical investigations. Both these errors should be
avoided by the statisticians.
Reducing Sampling Errors:
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Errors in sampling can be reduced if the size of sample is increased. This is shown in the
following diagram.
From the above diagram it is clear that when the size of the sample increases, sampling error
decreases. And by this process samples can be made more representatives to the population.
SAMPLING METHODS
Sample designs may be classified into different categories based on two factors, namely, the
representation basis and the element selection technique. Under the representation basis, the sample
may be classified as: 1. Non-probability sampling, 2. Probability sampling
QUOTA
PURPOSIVE
NON PROBABILITY
CONVINIENCE
SAMPLING
METHODS
OF
SAMPLING
SIMPLE RANDOM
PROBABILITY SYSTEMATIC RANDOM
SAMPLING STRATIFIED RANDOM
RANDOM CLUSTER
STRATIFIED CLUSTER
COMPLED MULTI STAGE RANDOM
While probability sampling is based on random selection, the non-probability sampling is based on
‘non-random’ selection of samples.
I. Non-Probability Sampling:
Non-probability sampling is the sampling procedure that does not afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the population would have an equal chance of being included in the
sample. Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate sampling, judgment sampling and
purposive sampling. Under this type of sampling, the items for the sample are deliberately chosen by
the researcher; and his/her choice concerning the choice of items remains supreme. In other words,
under non-probability sampling the researchers select a particular unit of the universe for forming a
sample on the basis that the small number that is thus selected out of a huge one would be typical or
representative of the whole population. For example, to study the economic conditions of people
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living in a state, a few towns or village may be purposively selected for an intensive study based on
the principle that they are representative of the entire state. In such a case, the judgment of the
researcher of the study assumes prime importance in this sampling design.
Quota Sampling:
Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under this sampling, the
researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata, with certain restrictions imposed
on how they should be selected. This type of sampling is very convenient and is relatively less
expensive. However, the samples selected using this method certainly do not satisfy the
characteristics of random samples. They are essentially judgment samples and inferences drawn
based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in a formal way.
II. Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is also known as ‘choice sampling’ or ‘random sampling’. Under this sampling
design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of being included in the sample. In a way, it
is a lottery method under which individual units are selected from the whole group, not deliberately,
but by using some mechanical process. Therefore, only chance would determine whether an item or
the other would be included in the sample or not. The results obtained from probability or random
sampling would be assured in terms of probability. That is, the researcher can measure the errors of
estimation or the significance of results obtained from the random sample. This is the superiority of
random sampling design over the deliberate sampling design. Random sampling satisfies the law of
statistical regularity, according to which if on an average the sample chosen is random, then it would
have the same composition and characteristics of the universe. This is the reason why the random
sampling method is considered the best technique of choosing a representative sample
.The following are the implications of the random sampling:
i. it provides each element in the population an equal probable chance of being chosen in the sample,
with all choices being independent of one another and
ii. it offers each possible sample combination an equal probable opportunity of being selected.
Method Of Selecting A Random Sample:
The process of selecting a random sample involves writing the name of each element of a finite
population on a slip of paper and putting them into a box or a bag. Then they have to be thoroughly
mixed and then the required number of slips for the sample can be picked one after the other without
replacement. While doing this, it has to be ensured that in successive drawings each of the remaining
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elements of the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This method results in the same
probability for each possible sample.
Complex Random Sampling Designs:
Under restricted sampling technique, the probability sampling may result in complex random
sampling designs. Such designs are known as mixed sampling designs. Many of such designs may
represent a combination of non-probability and probability sampling procedures in choosing a
sample.
Some of the prominent complex random sampling designs are as follows:
(i) Systematic Sampling:
In some cases, the best way of sampling is to select every first item on a list. Sampling of this kind is
called as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is introduced in this type of sampling by
using random numbers to select the unit with which to start. For example, if a 10 per cent sample is
required out of 100 items, the first item would be selected randomly from the first low of item and
thereafter every 10th item. In this kind of sampling, only the first unit is selected randomly, while rest
of the units of the sample is chosen at fixed intervals.
(ii) Stratified Sampling:
When a population from which a sample is to be selected does not comprise a homogeneous group,
stratified sampling technique is generally employed for obtaining a representative sample. Under
stratified sampling, the population is divided into many sub-populations in such a manner that they
are individually more homogeneous than the rest of the total population. Then, items are selected
from each stratum to form a sample. As each stratum is more homogeneous than the remaining total
population, the researcher is able to obtain a more precise estimate for each stratum and by
estimating each of the component parts more accurately; he/she is able to obtain a better estimate of
the whole. In sum, stratified sampling method yields more reliable and detailed information.
(iii) Cluster Sampling:
When the total area of research interest is large, a convenient way in which a sample can be selected
is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then randomly selecting a
number of such smaller areas. In the process, the ultimate sample would consist of all the units in
these small areas or clusters. Thus in cluster sampling, the total population is sub-divided into
numerous relatively smaller subdivisions, which in themselves constitute clusters of still smaller
units. And then, some of such clusters are randomly chosen for inclusion in the overall sample.
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(iv) Area Sampling:
When clusters are in the form of some geographic subdivisions, then cluster sampling is termed as
area sampling. That is, when the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of units based on
geographic area, the cluster designs are distinguished as area sampling. The merits and demerits of
cluster sampling are equally applicable to area sampling.
(v) Multi-Stage Sampling:
A further development of the principle of cluster sampling is multi-stage sampling. When the
researcher desires to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and a sample
of few banks is required for this purpose, the first stage would be to select large primary sampling
unit like the states in the country. Next, certain districts may be selected and all banks interviewed in
the chosen districts. This represents a two-stage sampling design, with the ultimate sampling units
being clusters of districts.
On the other hand, if instead of taking census of all banks within the selected districts, the researcher
chooses certain towns and interviews all banks in it, this would represent three-stage sampling
design. Again, if instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected towns, the researcher
randomly selects sample banks from each selected town, then it represents a case of using a four-
stage sampling plan. Thus, if the researcher selects randomly at all stages, then it is called as multi-
stage random sampling design.
(vi) Sampling With Probability Proportional To Size:
When the case of cluster sampling units does not have exactly or approximately the same number of
elements, it is better for the researcher to adopt a random selection process, where the probability of
inclusion of each cluster in the sample tends to be proportional to the size of the cluster. For this, the
number of elements in each cluster has to be listed, irrespective of the method used for ordering it.
Then the researcher should systematically pick the required number of elements from the cumulative
totals. The actual numbers thus chosen would not however reflect the individual elements, but would
indicate as to which cluster and how many from them are to be chosen by using simple random
sampling or systematic sampling. The outcome of such sampling is equivalent to that of simple
random sample. The method is also less cumbersome and is also relatively less expensive. Thus, a
researcher has to pass through various stages of conducting research once the problem of interest has
been selected. Research methodology familiarizes a researcher with the complex scientific methods

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of conducting research, which yield reliable results that are useful to policy-makers, government,
industries etc. in decision-making.
Non-parametric tests
Non-parametric (or distribution-free) inferential statistical methods are mathematical procedures for
statistical hypothesis testing which, unlike parametric statistics, make no assumptions about
the probability distributions of the variables being assessed. The most frequently used tests include:
Nonparametric tests
One sample tests
1. One Sample Sign Test,
2. Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test,
3. Run Test for randomness,
Two sample tests
1. Two sample sign test,
2. Mann-Whitney U Test,
3. K-sample test – Kruskal Wallis test (H-test)
Sign test:
Tests whether matched pair samples are drawn from distributions with equal medians
 The sign test is a statistical method to test for consistent differences between pairs of
observations, such as the weight of subjects before and after treatment. Given pairs of
observations (such as weight pre- and post-treatment) for each subject, the sign test
determines if one member of the pair (such as pre-treatment) tends to be greater than (or less
than) the other member of the pair (post-treatment). The sign test is a non-parametric
test which makes very few assumptions about the nature of the distributions under test - this
means that it has very general applicability but may lack the statistical power of the
alternative tests.
 The paired observations may be designated x and y. For comparisons of paired observations
(x,y), the sign test is most useful if comparisons can only be expressed as x > y, x = y, or x <
y. If, instead, the observations can be expressed as numeric quantities (x = 7, y = 18), or as
ranks (rank of x = 1st, rank of y = 8th), then the paired t-test[1] o
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.
 If X and Y are quantitative variables, the sign test can be used to test the hypothesis that the
difference between the median of X and the median of Y is zero, assuming continuous
distributions of the two random variables X and Y, in the situation when we can draw paired
samples from X and Y.
 The sign test can also test if the median of a collection of numbers is significantly greater
than or less than a specified value. For example, given a list of student grades in a class, the
sign test can determine if the median grade is significantly different from, say, 75 out of 100.
Kolmogorov–Smirnov test:
Tests whether a sample is drawn from a given distribution, or whether two samples are drawn
from the same distribution
In statistics, the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (K–S test or KS test) is a nonparametric test of the
equality of continuous, one-dimensional probability distributions that can be used to compare
a sample with a reference probability distribution (one-sample K–S test), or to compare two samples
(two-sample K–S test). The Kolmogorov–Smirnov statistic quantifies a distance between
the empirical distribution function of the sample and the cumulative distribution function of the
reference distribution, or between the empirical distribution functions of two samples. The null
distribution of this statistic is calculated under the null hypothesis that the sample is drawn from the
reference distribution (in the one-sample case) or that the samples are drawn from the same
distribution (in the two-sample case). In each case, the distributions considered under the null
hypothesis are continuous distributions but are otherwise unrestricted.
 The two-sample K–S test is one of the most useful and general nonparametric methods for
comparing two samples, as it is sensitive to differences in both location and shape of the
empirical cumulative distribution functions of the two samples.
 The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test can be modified to serve as a goodness of fit test. In the
special case of testing for normality of the distribution, samples are standardized and
compared with a standard normal distribution. This is equivalent to setting the mean and
variance of the reference distribution equal to the sample estimates, and it is known that
using these to define the specific reference distribution changes the null distribution of the
test statistic: see below.
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The two-sample paired sign test
The two-sample paired sign test is used to test the null hypothesis that the probability of a random
value from the population of paired differences being above the specified value is equal to the
probability of a random value being below the specified value.
 The paired differences are independent.
 Each paired difference comes from a continuous distribution with the same median. Strictly
speaking, the population distributions need not be the same for all the paired differences.
However, if we want a consistent test, we assume that the paired differences all come from
the same continuous distribution. (The sign test is a nonparametric test. We need not specify
or know what the distribution is, only that all the paired difference follow the same one.)
 Because the test statistic for the paired sign test is based only on the sign (+, -, or 0) of the
paired differences, the test can be performed when the only information available the sign of
each paired difference.
 The two samples should be related to each other such that they create pairs of data points,
such as the measurements on two matched people in a case/control study, or before- and
after-treatment measurements on the same person.
 The two-sample paired sign test is equivalent to performing a one-sample sign test on the
paired differences.
Mann–Whitney U or Wilcoxon rank sum test:
Tests whether two samples are drawn from the same distribution, as compared to a given
alternative hypothesis.
In statistics, the Mann–Whitney U test (also called the Mann–Whitney Wilcoxon (MWW),
Wilcoxon rank-sum test, or Wilcoxon–Mann–Whitney test) is nonparametric test of the null
hypothesis that two samples come from the same population against an alternative hypothesis,
especially that a particular population tends to have larger values than the other.
The test involves the calculation of a statistic, usually called U, whose distribution under the null
hypothesis is known. In the case of small samples, the distribution is tabulated, but for sample sizes
above ~ 20 approximations using the normal distribution is fairly good. Some books tabulate
statistics equivalent to U, such as the sum of ranks in one of the samples, rather than U itself.

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The U test is included in most modern statistical packages. It is also easily calculated by hand,
especially for small samples. There are two ways of doing this.
Method one:
For comparing two small sets of o bservations, a direct method is quick, and gives insight into the
meaning of the U statistic, which corresponds to the number of wins out of all pair wise contests (see
the tortoise and hare example under Examples below). For each observation in one set,count
the number of times this first value wins over any observations in the other set (the other value
loses if this first is larger). Count 0.5 for any ties. The sum of wins and ties is U for the first set. U
for the other set is the converse.
Method two:
For larger samples:
1. Assign numeric ranks to all the observations, beginning with 1 for the smallest value. Where
there are groups of tied values, assign a rank equal to the midpoint of un adjusted rankings
[e.g., the ranks of (3, 5, 5, 9) are (1, 2.5, 2.5, 4)].
2. Now, add up the ranks for the observations which came from sample 1. The sum of ranks in
sample 2 is now determinat e, since the sum of all the ranks equals N(N + 1)/2 where N is the
total number of observations.
3. U is then given by:[3]
where n1 is the sample size for sample 1, and R1 is the sum of the ranks in sample 1.
Note that it doesn't matter w hich of the two samples is considered sample 1. An equally valid
formula for U is
The smaller value of U1 and U2 is the one used when consulting significance tables. The sum
of the two values is given by
Knowing that R1 + R2 = N(N + 1)/2 and N = n1 + n2, and doing some algebra, we find that the
sum is
U1 + U2 = n1n2.
Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks:

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tests whether > 2 independent samples are drawn from the same distribution
The Kruskal–Wallis test by ranks, Kruskal–Wallis H test (named after William Kruskal and W.
Allen Wallis), or One-way ANOVA on ranks is a parametric method for testing whether samples
originate from the same distribution. It is used for comparing two or more independent samples of
equal or different sample sizes. It extends the Mann–Whitney U test when there are more than two
groups. The parametric equivalent of the Kruskal-Wallis test is the one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA). A significant Kruskal-Wallis test indicates that at least one
sample stochastically dominates one other sample. The test does not identify where this stochastic
dominance occurs or for how many pairs of groups stochastic dominance obtains. Dunn's test would
help analyze the specific sample pairs for stochastic dominance.
Since it is a non-parametric method, the Kruskal–Wallis test does not assume a normal
distribution of the residuals, unlike the analogous one-way analysis of variance. If the researcher can
make the less stringent assumptions of an identically shaped and scaled distribution for all groups,
except for any difference in medians, then the null hypothesis is that the medians of all groups are
equal, and the alternative hypothesis is that at least one population median of one group is different
from the population median of at least one other group.
Unit IV: Mathematical tools for analysis / Research Measurement

Hypothesis testing – Testing of hypotheses concerning means ( one mean and difference between
two means – one tailed and two tailed tests), concerning variance _ one tailed Chi-square test.
Introduction to Disciminant, Factor analysis, cluster analysis, multi-dimensional scaling, conjoint
analysis, multiple regression and correlation, application of statistical software for data analysis.
Hypothesis:
“Hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an explanation for
the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted merely as a provisional
conjecture to guide some investigation in the light of established facts” (Kothari, 1988). A research
hypothesis is quite often a predictive statement, which is capable of being tested using scientific
methods that involve an independent and some dependent variables. For instance, the following
statements may be considered:
i. “Students who take tuitions perform better than the others who do not receive tuitions” or,
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ii. “The female students perform as well as the male students”.
These two statements are hypotheses that can be objectively verified and tested. Thus, they indicate
that a hypothesis states what one is looking for. Besides, it is a proposition that can be put to test in
order to examine its validity.
Characteristics of Hypothesis:
1. A hypothesis should have the following characteristic features:-
2. A hypothesis must be precise and clear. If it is not precise and clear, then the inferences drawn
on its basis would not be reliable.
3. A hypothesis must be capable of being put to test. Quite often, the research programmes fail
owing to its incapability of being subject to testing for validity. Therefore, some prior study
may be conducted by the researcher in order to make a hypothesis testable. A hypothesis “is
tested if other deductions can be made from it, which in turn can be confirmed or disproved
by observation” (Kothari, 1988).
4. A hypothesis must state relationship between two variables, in the case of relational
hypotheses.
5. A hypothesis must be specific and limited in scope. This is because a simpler hypothesis
generally would be easier to test for the researcher. And therefore, he/she must formulate such
hypotheses.
6. As far as possible, a hypothesis must be stated in the simplest language, so as to make it
understood by all concerned. However, it should be noted that simplicity of a hypothesis is not
related to its significance.
7. A hypothesis must be consistent and derived from the most known facts. In other words, it
should be consistent with a substantial body of established facts. That is, it must be in the
form of a statement which is most likely to occur.
8. A hypothesis must be amenable to testing within a stipulated or reasonable period of time. No
matter how excellent a hypothesis, a researcher should not use it if it cannot be tested within a
given period of time, as no one can afford to spend a life-time on collecting data to test it.
Testing of hypothesis:
As a part of investigation, samples are drawn from the population and results are derived to help in
taking the decisions. But such decisions involve an element of uncertainty causing wrong decisions.

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Hypothesis is an assumption which may or may not be true about a population parameter. For
example, if we toss a coin 200 times, we may get 110 heads and 90 tails.
At this instance, we are interested in testing whether the coin is unbiased or not.
Therefore, we may conduct a test to judge the significance of the difference of sampling or
otherwise. To carry out a test of significance, the following procedure has to be followed:
1. Framing the Hypothesis:
To verify the assumption, which is based on sample study, we collect data and find out the
difference between the sample value and the population value. If there is no difference found or the
difference is very small then the hypothetical value is correct. Generally two hypotheses
complementary to each offer are constructed, and if one is found correct, the other is rejected.
(a) Null Hypothesis:
The random selection of the samples from the given population makes the tests of significance valid
for us. For applying any test of significance we first set up a hypothesis- a definite statement about
the population parameter/s. Such a statistical hypothesis, which is under test, is usually a hypothesis
of no difference and hence is called null hypothesis. It is usually denoted by Ho. In the words of
Prof. R.A.Fisher “Null Hypothesis is the hypothesis which is tested for possible rejection under
the assumption that it is true.”
(b) Alternative Hypothesis.
Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis is called an alternative hypothesis. It
is usually denoted by H1. It is very important to explicitly state the alternative hypothesis in respect
of any null hypothesis H0 because the acceptance or rejection of Ho is meaningful only if it is being
tested against an opposite hypothesis. For example, if we want to test the null hypothesis that the
population has a specified mean μ0(say), i.e., H0:μ=μ then the alternative hypothesis could be:
(i) H1:μ≠μ0 (i.e., μ>μ0 or μ<μ0)
(ii) H1: μ>μ0 (iii) H1: μ<μ0
The alternative hypothesis (i) is known as a two-tailed alternative and the alternatives in (ii) and (iii)
are known as right-tailed and left-tailed alternatives. Accordingly, the corresponding tests of
significance are called two-tailed, right-tailed and left-tailed tests respectively.
The null hypothesis consists of only a single parameter value and is usually simple while alternative
hypothesis is usually composite.
Types of errors in testing of hypothesis:
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The inductive inference consists in arriving at a decision to accept or reject a null hypothesis (Ho)
after inspecting only a sample from it. As such an element of risk – the risk of taking wrong decision
is involved. In any test procedure, the four possible mutually disjoint and exhaustive decisions are:
i. Reject Ho when actually it is not true i.e., when Ho is false.
ii. Accept Ho when it is true.
iii. Reject Ho when it is true.
iv. Accept Ho when it is false.
The decisions in (i) and (ii) are correct decisions while the decisions in (iii) and (iv) are wrong
decisions. These decisions may be expressed in the following dichotomous table:
DECISION FROM SAMPLE
REJECT HO ACCEPT HO
TRUE STATE
WRONG
HO TRUE CORRECT
TYPE I ERROR
HO TRUE WRONG
CORRECT
(H1 TRUE) TYPE II ERROR
Thus, in testing of hypothesis we are likely to commit two types of errors. The error of rejecting Ho
when Ho is true is known as Type I Error and the error of accepting Ho when Ho is false is known as
Type II Error.
For example, in the Industrial Quality Control, while inspecting the quality of a manufactured lot,
the Inspector commits Type I Error when he rejects a good lot and he commits Type II Error when
he accepts a bad lot.
CHI-SQUARE TEST
The χ2 test is one of the simplest and most widely used non-parametric tests in statistical work. It is
defined as: viii. A hypothesis should state the facts that give rise to the necessity of looking for an
explanation. This is to say that by using the hypothesis, and other known and accepted
generalizations, a researcher must be able to derive the original problem condition. Therefore, a
hypothesis should explain what it actually wants to explain, and for this it should also have an
empirical reference.
Concepts Relating To Testing Of Hypotheses:
Testing of hypotheses requires a researcher to be familiar with various concepts concerned with it
such as:
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1) Null Hypothesis And Alternative Hypothesis:
In the context of statistical analysis, hypotheses are of two types viz., null hypothesis and alternative
hypothesis. When two methods A and B are compared on their relative superiority, and it is assumed
that both the methods are equally good, then such a statement is called as the null hypothesis. On the
other hand, if method A is considered relatively superior to method B, or vice-versa, then such a
statement is known as an alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is expressed as H0, while the
alternative hypothesis is expressed as Ha. For example, if a researcher wants to test the hypothesis
that the population mean (μ) is equal to the hypothesized mean (H0) = 100, then the null hypothesis
should be stated as the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean 100. Symbolically it may
be written as:-
H0: = μ = μ H0 = 100
Alternative hypothesis To be read as follows
H1: μ ≠ μ H0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population mean is not equal to 100,
i.e., it could be greater than or less
than 100
H1 : μ > μ H0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population mean is greater than 100
H1 : μ < μ H0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population mean is less than 100
If sample results do not support this null hypothesis, then it should be concluded that something else
is true. The conclusion of rejecting the null hypothesis is called as alternative hypothesis H1. To put
it in simple words, the set of alternatives to the null hypothesis is termed as the alternative
hypothesis. If H0 is accepted, then it implies that Ha is being rejected. On the other hand, if H0 is
rejected, it means that Ha is being accepted.
MULTIPLE CORRELATION
When the value of a variable is influenced by another variable, the relationship between them is a
simple correlation. In a real life situation, a variable may be influenced by many other variables. For
example, the sales achieved for a product may depend on the income of the consumers, the price, the
quality of the product, sales promotion techniques, the channels of distribution, etc. In this case, we
have to consider the joint influence of several independent variables on the dependent variable.
Multiple correlations arise in this context.

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Suppose Y is a dependent variable, which is influenced by n other variables X1, X2, …,Xn. The
multiple correlation is a measure of the relationship between Y and X1, X2,…, Xn considered
together. The multiple correlation coefficients are denoted by the letter R. The dependent variable is
denoted by X1. The independent variables are denoted by X2, X3, X4,…, etc.
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
It is a statistical tool with an objective to assess the adequacy of a classification, given the group
memberships; or to assign objects to one group among a number of groups. For any kind of
Discriminant Analysis, some group assignments should be known beforehand.
Discriminant Analysis is quite close to being a graphical version of MANOVA and often used to
complement the findings of Cluster Analysis and Principal Components Analysis.
When Discriminant Analysis is used to separate two groups, it is called Discriminant Function
Analysis (DFA); while when there are more than two groups – the Canonical Varieties Analysis
(CVA) method is used.
In the 1930’s, 3 different people – R.A. Fisher in UK, Hoteling in US and Mahalanob is in India
were trying to solve the same problem via three different approaches. Later their methods of Fisher
linear discriminant function, Hoteling’s T2 test and Mahalanobis D2 distance were combined to
devise what is today called Discriminant Analysis.
Benefits and practical applications of discriminant analysis
Discriminant Analysis has various benefits as a statistical tool and is quite similar to regression
analysis. It can be used to determine which predictor variables are related to the dependant variable
and to predict the value of the dependant variable given certain values of the predictor variables.
Discriminant Analysis is also widely used to create Perceptual Mapping by marketers and has some
benefits over other methods that use perceived distances; like the option of using tests of
significance to check for dissimilarities among products and that the distances between two products
would not be impacted by other products included in the study.Discriminant Analysis has various
other practical applications and is often used in combination with cluster analysis. Say, the loans
department of a bank wants to find out the creditworthiness of applicants before disbursing loans. It
may use Discriminant Analysis to find out whether an applicant is a good credit risk or not. This
would serve as method of screening applicants and preventing later bad debts. In another scenario,
say a retail chain wants to conduct market segmentation. It might use a survey to get respondents to
rate various desirable service attributes and then use a combination of cluster analysis and
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Discriminant Analysis to segment its market and assign customers to different segments. This will
help the retailer get an idea of customer’s preferences in each segment an d also target them better in
their marketing camp
FACTOR ANALYSIS
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe variability among observed,
correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors.
For example, it is possible that variations in six observed variables mainly reflect the variations in
two unobserved (underlying) variables. Factor analysis searches for such joint variations in response
to unobserved latent variables. The observed variables are modelled as linear combinations of the
potential factors, plus "error" terms. The information gained about the interdependencies between
observed variables can be used later to reduce the set of variables in a dataset. Factor analysis
originated in psychometrics and is used in behavioral sciences, social sciences, marketing, product
management, operations research, and other fields that deal with data sets where there are large
numbers of observed variables that are thought to reflect a smaller number of underlying/latent
variables.
Type of factor analysis
i. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is used to identify complex interrelationships among
items and group items that are part of unified concepts. The researcher makes no a
priori assumptions about relationships among factors.
ii. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a more complex approach that tests the hypothesis
that the items are associated with specific factors. CFA uses structural equation modeling to
test a measurement model whereby loading on the factors allows for evaluation of
relationships between observed variables and unobserved variables. Structural equation
modeling approaches can accommodate measurement error, and are less restrictive
than least-squares estimation. Hypothesized models are tested against actual data, and the
analysis would demonstrate loadings of observed variables on the latent variables (factors),
as well as the correlation between the latent variables.
CLUSTER ANALYSIS
Cluster analysis or clustering is the task of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in
the same group (called a cluster) are more similar (in some sense or another) to each other than to
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those in other groups (clusters). It is a main task of exploratory data mining, and a common
technique for statistical data analysis, used in many fields, including machine learning, pattern
recognition, image analysis, information retrieval, bioinformatics, data compression, and computer
graphics.
Cluster analysis itself is not one specific algorithm, but the general task to be solved. It can be
achieved by various algorithms that differ significantly in their notion of what constitutes a cluster
and how to efficiently find them. Popular notions of clusters include groups with
small distances among the cluster members, dense areas of the data space, intervals or
particular statistical distributions. Clustering can therefore be formulated as a optimization problem.
The appropriate clustering algorithm and parameter settings (including values such as the function to
use, a density threshold or the number of expected clusters) depend on the individual data set and
intended use of the results. Cluster analysis as such is not an automatic task, but an iterative process
of knowledge discovery or interactive multi-objective optimization that involves trial and failure. It
is often necessary to modify data preprocessing and model parameters until the result achieves the
desired properties.
MULTIDIMENSIONAL SCALING (MDS)

Multidimensional scaling (MDS) is a means of visualizing the level of similarity of individual cases
of a dataset. It refers to a set of related ordination techniques used in information visualization, in
particular to display the information contained in a distance matrix. An MDS algorithm aims to place
each object in N-dimensional space such that the between-object distances are preserved as well as
possible. Each object is then assigned coordinates in each of the N dimensions. The number of
dimensions of an MDS plot N can exceed 2 and is specified a priori. Choosing N=2 optimizes the
object locations for a two-dimensional scatter. It an be considered to be an alternative to factor
analysis (see Factor Analysis). In general, the goal of the analysis is to detect meaningful underlying
dimensions that allow the researcher to explain observed similarities or dissimilarities (distances)
between the investigated objects. In factor analysis, the similarities between objects (e.g., variables)
are expressed in the correlation matrix. With MDS, you can analyze any kind of similarity or
dissimilarity matrix, in addition to correlation matrices.
The following simple example may demonstrate the logic of an MDS analysis. Suppose we take a
matrix of distances between major US cities from a map. We then analyze this matrix, specifying
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that we want to reproduce the distances based on two dimensions. As a result of the MDS analysis,
we would most likely obtain a two-dimensional representation of the locations of the cities, that is,
we would basically obtain a two-dimensional map.
In general then, MDS attempts to arrange "objects" (major cities in this example) in a space with a
particular number of dimensions (two-dimensional in this example) so as to reproduce the observed
distances. As a result, we can "explain" the distances in terms of underlying dimensions; in our
example, we could explain the distances in terms of the two geographical dimensions: north/south
and east/west.
Orientation of axes. As in factor analysis, the actual orientation of axes in the final solution is
arbitrary. To return to our example, we could rotate the map in any way we want, the distances
between cities remain the same. Thus, the final orientation of axes in the plane or space is mostly the
result of a subjective decision by the researcher, who will choose an orientation that can be most
easily explained. To return to our example, we could have chosen an orientation of axes other than
north/south and east/west; however, that orientation is most convenient because it "makes the most
sense"
CONJOINT ANALYSIS
Conjoint analysis is a statistical technique used in market research to determine how people value
different attributes (feature, function, benefits) that make up an individual product or service.
Conjoint analysis is a particular application of regression analysis. Conjoint analysis is a popular
marketing research technique that marketers use to determine what features a new product should
have and how it should be priced. Conjoint analysis became popular because it was a far less
expensive and more flexible way to address these issues than concept testing.
The following properties are applicable:
 Data are collected among multiple individuals (respondents) whereas there are multiple data
points for each individual, which makes it a layered model
 The dependent variable reflects a choice or trade-off situation
 The independent variables are categorical, thus coded as binary number
REGRESSION ANALYSIS
Regression analysis is a statistical process for estimating the relationships among variables. It
includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the
relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables (or 'predictors').
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More specifically, regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent
variable (or 'criterion variable') changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while
the other independent variables are held fixed. Most commonly, regression analysis estimates
the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables – that is, the
average of the dependent variable when the independent variables are fixed. Less commonly, the
focus is on aquantile, or other location parameter of the conditional distribution of the dependent
variable given the independent variables. In all cases, the estimation target is a function of the
independent variables called the regression function. In regression analysis, it is also of interest to
characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the regression function which can be
described by a distribution. Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting, where
its use has substantial overlap with the field of machine. Regression analysis is also used to
understand which among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable, and to
explore the forms of this relationship
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
Multiple regression is an extension of simple linear regression. It is used when we want to predict
the value of a variable based on the value of two or more other variables. The variable we want to
predict is called the dependent variable (or sometimes, the outcome, target or criterion variable). A
statistical tool that allows you to examine how multiple independent variables are related to a
dependent variable. Once you have identified how these multiple variables relate to your dependent
variable, you can take information about all of the independent variables and use it to make much
more powerful and accurate predictions about why things are the way they are. This latter process is
called “Multiple Regression”.
CORRELATION (PEARSON, KENDALL, SPEARMAN)
Correlation is a bivariate analysis that measures the strengths of association between two
variables. In statistics, the value of the correlation coefficient varies between +1 and -1. When the
value of the correlation coefficient lies around ± 1, then it is said to be a perfect degree of association
between the two variables. As the correlation coefficient value goes towards 0, the relationship
between the two variables will be weaker. Usually, in statistics, we measure three types of
correlations: Pearson correlation, Kendall rank correlation and Spearman correlation.
Pearson r correlation: Pearson r correlation is widely used in statistics to measure the degree of the
relationship between linear related variables. For example, in the stock market, if we want to
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measure how two commodities are related to each other, Pearson r correlation is used to measure the
degree of relationship between the two commodities.
Kendall rank correlation: Kendall rank correlation is a non-parametric test that measures the
strength of dependence between two variables. If we consider two samples, a and b, where each
sample size is n, we know that the total number of pairings with a b is n(n-1)/2.
Spearman rank correlation: Spearman rank correlation is a non-parametric test that is used to
measure the degree of association between two variables. It was developed by Spearman, thus it is
called the Spearman rank correlation. Spearman rank correlation test does not assume any
assumptions about the distribution of the data and is the appropriate correlation analysis when the
variables are measured on a scale that is at least ordinal.
Ordinal data: Ordinal scales rank order the items that are being measured to indicate if they
possess more, less, or the same amount of the variable being measured. An ordinal scale allows us
to determine if X > Y, Y > X, or if X = Y. An example would be rank ordering the participants in a
dance contest. The dancer who was ranked one was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked
two. The dancer ranked two was a better dancer than the dancer who was ranked three, and so
on. Although this scale allows us to determine greater than, less than, or equal to, it still does not
define the magnitude of the relationship between units.
Role of statistics in research
Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing and making inference from data. Statistics is a
particularly useful branch of mathematics that is not only studied theoretically by advanced
mathematicians but one that is used by researchers in many fields to organize, analyze, and
summarize data. Statistical methods and analyses are often used to communicate research findings
and to support hypotheses and give credibility to research methodology and conclusions. It is
important for researchers and also consumers of research to understand statistics so that they can be
informed, evaluate the credibility and usefulness of information, and make appropriate decisions.
Statistics is a scientific approach to analyzing numerical data in order to enable us to maximize our
interpretation, understanding and use. This means that statistics helps us turn data into information;
that is, data that have been interpreted, understood and are useful to the recipient. Put formally, for
your project, statistics is the systematic collection and analysis of numerical data, in order to
investigate or discover relationships among phenomena so as to explain, predict and control their
occurrence. The possibility of confusion comes from the fact that not only is statistics the techniques
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used on quantitative data, but the same word is also used to refer to the numerical results from
statistical analysis.
Statistics can be divided into two branches – descriptive and inferential statistics.
1. Descriptive statistics is concerned with quantitative data and the methods for describing them.
(‘Data’ (facts) is the plural of ‘datum’ (a fact), and therefore always needs a plural verb.) This
branch of statistics is the one that you will already be familiar with because descriptive statistics are
used in everyday life in areas such as government, healthcare, business, and sport.
2. Inferential (analytical) statistics makes inferences about populations (entire groups of people or
firms) by analyzing data gathered from samples (smaller subsets of the entire group), and deals with
methods that enable a conclusion to be drawn from these data. (An inference is an assumption,
supposition, deduction or possibility.) Inferential statistics starts with a hypothesis (a statement of, or
a conjecture about, the relationship between two or more variables that you intend to study), and
investigates whether the data are consistent with that hypothesis.

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Unit V: Ethis in research
Report writing – types of report, guidelines to write report, typing instruction, need of summary,
importance of language in the preparation of research report, oral presentation. Recording the
findings of research – publication- contents to meet the journals standard – impact factor –
citation and citation index, policy on academic honesty and integrity – academics cheating and
plagiarism. Opportunities to carry out research projects with funding/assistance from various
Government agencies.
Reports vary in length and type. Students’ study reports are often called term papers, project reports,
theses, dissertations depending on the nature of the report. Reports of researchers are in the form of
monographs, research papers, research thesis, etc. In business organizations a wide variety of reports
are under use: project reports, annual reports of financial statements, report of consulting groups,
project proposals etc. News items in daily papers are also one form of report writing. In this lesson,
let us identify different forms of reports and their major components
Types of reports
Reports may be categorized broadly as Technical Reports and General Reports based on the nature
of methods, terms of reference and the extent of in-depth enquiry made etc. On the basis of usage
pattern, the reports may also be classified as information oriented reports, decision oriented reports
and research based reports. Further, reports may also differ based on the communication situation.
For example, the reports may be in the form of Memo, which is appropriate for informal situations
or for short periods. On the other hand, the projects that extend over a period of time, often call for
project reports. Thus, there is no standard format of reports. The most important thing that helps in
classifying the reports is the outline of its purpose and answers for the following questions:
What did you do?
Why did you choose the particular research method that you used?
What did you learn and what are the implications of what you learned?
If you are writing a recommendation report, what action are you recommending in response to what
you learned?

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Two types of report formats are described below:
1.A Technical Report
A technical report mainly focuses on methods employed, assumptions made while conducting a
study, detailed presentation of findings and drawing inferences and comparisons with earlier
findings based on the type of data drawn from the empirical work.
An outline of a Technical Report mostly consists of the following:
Title and nature of the study:
Brief title and the nature of work sometimes followed by subtitle indicate more appropriately either
the method or tools used. Description of objectives of the study, research design, operational terms,
working hypothesis, type of analysis and data required should be present.2Abstract of Findings:
A brief review of the main findings just can be made either in a paragraph or in one/two pages.
Review of current status:
A quick review of past observations and contradictions reported, applications observed and reported
are reviewed based on the in-house resources or based on published observations.
Sampling and Methods employed
Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. In the case of experimental methods, the
nature of subjects and control conditions are to be specified. In the case of sample studies, details of
the sample design i.e., sample size, sample selection etc are given.
Data sources and experiment conducted
Sources of data, their characteristics and limitations should be specified. In the case of primary
survey, the manner in which data has been collected should be described.
Analysis of data and tools used.
The analysis of data and presentation of findings of the study with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts are to be narrated. This constitutes the major component of the research report.
Summary of findings
A detailed summary of findings of the study and major observations should be stated. Decision
inputs if any, policy implications from the observations should be specified.
References
A brief list of studies conducted on similar lines, either preceding the present study or conducted
under different experimental conditions is listed.
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Technical appendices
These appendices include the design of experiments or questionnaires used in conducting the study,
mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular techniques of analysis etc.
2. General Reports
General reports often relate popular policy issues mostly related to social issues. These reports are
generally simple, less technical, good use of tables and charts. Most often they reflect the journalistic
style. Example for this type of report is the “Best B-Schools Survey in Business Magazines”. The
outline of these reports is as follows:
1. Major Findings and their Implications
2. Recommendations for Action
3. Objectives of the Study
4. Method Employed for Collecting Data
5. Results
Contents in the different types of reports
Reports are written for different purposes. They therefore contain different information and
structures, including headings and subheadings, and these form the outline of the report. The table
below shows the sections commonly found in these types of reports.
Short report
1. Title page
2. Introduction
3. Discussion
4. Recommendations
5. References
Science report
 Title page
 Introduction
 Method & materials
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusion
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 Appendices
 References
Business report
1. Title page
2. Executive summary
3. Table of contents
4. Introduction
5. Discussion
6. Conclusion
7. Recommendations
8. Appendices
9. References
Engineering report
 Title page
 Executive summary (optional)
 Introduction
 Objectives
 Analysis
 Discussion
 Recommendations & action plan
 Conclusion
 Appendices
 References
Research report
 Title page
 Executive summary
 Introduction
 Method / methodology
 Results / findings
 Discussion

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 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendices
 Bibliograph
Report writing Styles
There are atleast 3 distinct report writing styles that can be applied by students of Business Studies.
They are called:
1. Conservative
2. Key points
3. Holistic
1. Conservative Style
Essentially, the conservative approach takes the best structural elements from essay writing and
integrates these with appropriate report writing tools. Thus, headings are used to deliberate upon
different sections of the answer. In addition, the space is well utilized by ensuring that each
paragraph is distinct (perhaps separated from other paragraphs by leaving two blank lines in
between).
2. Key Point Style
This style utilizes all of the report writing tools and is thus more overtly ‘report -looking’. Use of
headings, underlining, margins, diagrams and tables are common. Occasionally reporting might even
use indentation and dot points. The important thing to remember is that the tools should be applied in
a way that adds to the report. The question must be addressed and the tools applied should assist in
doing that. An advantage of this style is the enormous amount of information that can be delivered
relatively quickly.
3. Holistic Style
The most complex and unusual of the styles, holistic report writing aims to answer the question from
a thematic and integrative perspective. This style of report writing requires the researcher to have a
strong understanding of the course and is able to see which outcomes are being targeted by the
question.
Essentials of A Good Report:
Good research report should satisfy some of the following basic characteristics:
1. Style
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Reports should be easy to read and understand. The style of the writer should ensure that
sentences are succinct and the language used is simple, to the point and avoiding excessive
jargon.
2. Layout
A good layout enables the reader to follow the report’s intentions, and aids the communication
process. Sections and paragraphs should be given headings and sub¬-headings. You may also
consider a system of numbering or lettering to identify the relative importance of paragraphs
and sub-paragraphs. Bullet points are an option for highlighting important points in your
report.
3. Accuracy
Make sure everything you write is factually accurate. If you would mislead or misinform, you
will be doing a disservice not only to yourself but also to the readers, and your credibility will
be destroyed. Remember to refer to any information you have used to support your work.
4. Clarity
Take a break from writing. When you would come back to it, you’ll have the degree of
objectivity that you need. Use simple language to express your point of view.
5. Readability
Experts agree that the factors, which affect readability the most, are:
 Attractive appearance
 Non-technical subject matter
 Clear and direct style
 Short sentences
 Short and familiar words
6. Revision
When first draft of the report is completed, it should be put to one side atleast for 24 hours. The
report should then be read as if with eyes of the intended reader. It should be checked for spelling
and grammatical errors. Remember the spell and grammar check on your computer.
7. Reinforcement

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Reinforcement usually gets the message across. This old adage is well known and is used to good
effect in all sorts of circumstances e.g., presentations - not just report writing.
TELL THEM WHAT YOU ARE GOING TO SAY: in the introduction and summary you set the
scene for what follows in your report.
THEN SAY IT : you spell things out in results/findings
THEN TELL THEM WHAT YOU SAID: you remind your readers through the discussion what it
was all about.
8. Feedback meeting
It is useful to circulate copies of your report prior to the feedback meeting. Meaningful discussion
can then take place during the feedback meeting with recommendations for change more likely to
be agreed upon which can then be included in your conclusion. The following questions should be
asked at this stage to check whether the Report served the purpose:
 Does the report have impact?
 Do the summary /abstract do justice to the report?
 Does the introduction encourage the reader to read more?
 Is the content consistent with the purpose of the report?
 Have the objectives been met?
 Is the structure logical and clear?
 Have the conclusions been clearly stated?
 Are the recommendations based on the conclusions and expressed clearly and logically?
9. Format And Presentation Of A Report /Common Elements of A Format
Any report serves its purpose, if it is finally presented before the stakeholders of the work. In the
case of an MBA student, Project Work undertaken in an industrial enterprise and the findings of
the study would be more relevant, if they are presented before the internal managers of the
company. In the case of reports prepared out of consultancy projects,
 Title Page
 Introductory Pages
 Body of The Text
 References
 Appendix
Ethics in thesis writing
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A variety of ethical issues may develop during the phases of writing a dissertation, spanning from
the identification of the research problem to disseminating the findings. Doctoral research involving
human subjects presents a researcher with potential ethical dilemmas, especially when the researcher
values the outcome of the study more than the protection of the research participants. The research
problem should be worthy of doctoral research, providing benefits beyond satisfying the researcher’s
curiosity or personal agenda. Studying the problem should not create biases or negatively affect
participants in the study. Researching the problem should hold benefits for the participants. The
purpose of the research should be clearly delineated to the participants and not contain the elements
of deception to induce participation. The intent of the study should be unambiguous, allowing
potential participants to make an informed decision about the personal benefits and risks of
participation. The temptation to disguise the intended purpose of the study, even slightly, must be
overcome to conduct the research in an ethical manner.
Ethical considerations abound within the data collection process. A researcher should design an
informed consent form for the purpose of informing participants of the benefits, purpose, risks, and
other identification aspects of the survey. Participants should not be put at undue risk for economic,
emotional, legal, physical, or professional injury. Health and Human Services (HHS) regulations
cover ethical considerations of research involving human subjects. Although the regulations hold
protections for every human subject, HHS grants additional protections to pregnant women, human
fetuses, newborns, children, and prisoners. Doctoral students increase the potential to receive
Institutional Review Board approval by avoiding research involving classes that receive additional
HHS protections.
Inaccurate or biased data interpretation alters the outcome and creates a violation of ethics. A
researcher must guard against the fraudulent practice of modifying, falsifying, or concealing findings
to change the result of the study to align with predetermined research goals, or for any other reason.
An essential ethical consideration is the anonymity, or at a minimum confidentiality, of the
participants. Coding removes personal identifiers, allowing the participants to maintain their right to
privacy. Researchers must guard against writing with biased language, such as placing insensitive
labels upon people groups or singling out people due to age, ethnicity, or gender. Taking authorship
of the writings of others is unethical. Writing a dissertation will require numerous supporting journal
articles from peer-reviewed authors. Learning the process of properly citing other authors removes
the potential to commit plagiarism. The findings and the details of the research should be
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disseminated in such a way that promotes accountability, authenticity, and accuracy. Finally, safety
storing data for a specified period (typically 5 years) prevents misuse or exposure of the participants’
personal or professional information.
Doctoral research holds ethical dilemmas for researchers. The ethical treatment of participants
includes protection and privacy. The researcher should commit to research of integrity and high
ethics, allowing the data to dictate the findings as opposed to personal opinions or biases. As with
many aspects of dissertation writing, maintain ethical standards oftentimes requires outside
assistance to ensure compliance. Prior to allowing an ethical violation from destroying the research,
seek the advice of a competent doctoral coach that recognizes and understands the ethical
considerations associated with the study.
SCOPUS
Scopus is a bibliographic database containing abstracts and citations for academic journal articles. It
covers nearly 22,000 titles from over 5,000 publishers, of which 20,000 are peer-reviewed journals
in the scientific, technical, medical, and social sciences (including arts and humanities). It is owned
by Elsevier and is available online by subscription. Searches in Scopus also incorporate searches of
patent databases. Since Elsevier is the owner of Scopus and is also one of the main international
publishers of scientific journals, an independent and international Scopus Content Selection and
Advisory Board was established to prevent a potential conflict of interest in the choice of journals to
be included in the database and to maintain an open and transparent content coverage policy,
regardless of publisher. Scopus Content Selection and Advisory Board consists of scientists and
subject librarians who assess the articles to be published in the listed journals.
GOOGLE SCHOLAR
Google Scholar is a freely accessible web search engine that indexes the full text or metadata
of scholarly literature across an array of publishing formats and disciplines. Released in beta in
November 2004, the Google Scholar index includes most peer-reviewed online journals of Europe
and America's largest scholarly publishers, plus scholarly books and other non-peer reviewed
journals. While Google does not publish the size of Google Scholar's database, third-party
researchers estimated it to contain roughly 160 million documents as of May 2014 [1] and an earlier
statistical estimate published inPLOS ONE using a Mark and recapture method estimated
approximately 80-90% coverage of all articles published in English. Google Scholar is similar in

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function to the freely available CiteSeerX and get CITED. It also resembles the subscription-based
tools, Elsevier's Scopus and Thomson Reuters' Web of Science.
THOMSON REUTERS
Thomson Reuters Corporation is a major multinational mass media and information firm founded
in Toronto, Ontario, Canada and based in New York City and Toronto. Thomson Reuter’s Web of
Science (WOS) and Elsevier’s Scopus are the most widespread databases on different scientific
fields which are frequently used for searching the literature (Guz&Rushchitsky, 2009). WOS from
Thomson Reuters (ISI) was the only citation database and publication which covers all domains of
science for many years. However, Elsevier Science introduced the database Scopus in 2004 and it is
rapidly become a good alternative (Vieira & Gomes, 2009). Scopus database is the largest searchable
citation and abstract source of searching literature which is continually expanded and updated (Rew,
2009). WOS is challenged by the release of Scopus, an academic literature database which is built on
a similar breadth and scale.
H-INDEX
The h-index is a metric for evaluating individual scientists. For measuring h-index, the publication
records of an author, the number of papers published during the selected number of years and the
number of citations for each paper are considered. The measurement is dependent on both quantity
(number of publications) and quality (number of citations) of an academic's publications. Example:
h-index is 10 if 10 articles have each received at least 10 citations; their h-index is 81 if 81 articles
have each received at least 81 citations. The h-index is automatically computed in both databases for
every author and collections of articles which are selected by the user.
IMPACT FACTOR
The journal Impact Factor is published every year by Thomson Reuters. It measures the number of
times an average paper in a particular journal has been referred to.
The Impact Factor of journal J in the calendar year X is the number of citations received by J in X to
any item published in J in (X-1) or (X-2), divided by the number of source items published in J in
(X-1) or (X-2). The Impact Factor can be a useful way of comparing citability of journals, but the
absolute Impact Factor is of limited use without those of other journals in the field against which to
judge it. You can find the most recent Impact Factors of an individual journal on their homepages.
PUBLICATION IN SCOPUS
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Publication malpractice is an unfortunate occurrence in the world of scholarly literature. It happens
in all subject areas and in all jurisdictions and few journals or books are immune. Here at Scopus, we
have recently received notification of journals that purport to be indexed by Scopus but really are
not. These journals have even gone as far as to forge letters from the Head of Scopus Content
(signature and all)! And just because a journal may have a Scopus logo on their web site, this does
not mean they’re indexed in Scopus.
As an author, if you would like to know if your published article will be included in Scopus, we urge
you to take note of the following before submitting your work to a journal or conference.
 Check the title list. First check the publicly available Scopus title list. If you don’t see the title, you
can also look at “Browse sources” on the Scopus.com home page to see what titles are indexed.
 Search in Scopus. Use a Scopus search for the name of the journal or conference and check if any
current content is available to see if the title is indeed indexed.
 Ask! When in doubt, send an email to the Scopus Helpdesk and one of our Customer Service
representatives can let you know if that title is indexed (or is going to be indexed).
OPPORTUNITIES TO CARRY OUT RESEARCH PROJECTS WITH FUNDING/
/ASSISTANCE FROM VARIOUS GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
I.Government Agencies
University Grants Commission (UGC)
UGC strives to promote teaching and research in emerging areas in Humanities, Social Sciences,
Languages, Literature, Pure Sciences, Engineering & Technology, Pharmacy, Medical, Agricultural
Sciences etc.
All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) has been performing its regulatory,
planning and promotional functions through its Bureaus, namely: Administration; Finance; Planning
and Coordination; Under Graduate Studies; Post Graduate Education and Research; Faculty
Development; Quality Assurance; and Research and Institutional Development Bureaus; and through
its Regional Offices located in various parts of the country.
II. Name of scheme(s)
i) Research & Institutional Development Schemes
a) Modernization & Removal of Obsolescence Scheme (MODROBS)

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To equip technical institutions with modern infra-structural facilities in
laboratory(s)/workshop(s)/computing facilities to enhance functional efficiency for teaching, training
and research purposes. Creation of new laboratories is not envisaged. Maximum Funding is Rs. 15
lakhs with 2 years duration.
The aims are contemporary Lab Work, relevant project work, indirect benefits to faculty/students of
the institution through training programs and consultancy work.
b) Research Promotion Schemes (RPS)
ii) Industry-Institute Interaction Schemes
a) Industry Institute Partnership Cell (IIPC)
b) Entrepreneurship Development Cells (EDC)
c) National Facilities in Engineering & Technology with Industrial Collaboration (NAFETIC)
d) Nationally Coordinated Project (NCP)
III. Areas of research support
Engineering and Technology, Architecture , Town Planning, Management , Pharmacy, Hotel
Management and Catering Technology, Applied Arts and Crafts etc.
(3)Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
The major functions of CSIR include promotion, guidance and coordination of scientific and
industrial research in India; establishment or development of and assistance to existing special
institutions or departments for scientific study of problems affecting particular industries and trades;
award of fellowship; utilization of Council’s R&D results for industrial development; and
technology generation, absorption and transfer.
The Human Resource Development (HRD) Group of Council of Scientific & Industrial Research
(CSIR) has a mandate to develop and nurture S&T manpower at the national level. It also promotes,
guides and co-ordinates scientific & industrial research through research grants to
Scientists/Professors working in Universities/R&D Institutes of Higher learning.
II. Name of scheme(s) & Objective(s)
1. Research Schemes
2. Sponsored Schemes
3. Emeritus Scientist Scheme
4. Research Fellowships/Associate ships
(4) Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO)
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DRDO is dedicatedly engaged in the formulation and execution of programmes of scientific
research, design and development, testing and evaluation leading to induction of state-of-art
weapons and equipment which would comp ete and compare favorably with its contemporary
systems available elsewhere in the world. It consists of a chain of laboratories/establishments
situated all over the country, pursuing assigned scientific goals with delegated powers under the
policy direction provided by the headquarters in New Delhi. DRDO also supports a substantial
amount of extramural research in academic institutions and other laboratories on defence related
problems through various grants -in-aid schemes and other sponsored projects.
II. Name of scheme(s)
1. Extramural Research Scheme
2. Aeronautics Research & Development Board
(5) Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
I. Introduction
The Department of Atomic Energy supports research programmes in Nuclear Science and
Technology through the Board of Research in Nuclear Sciences (BRNS). BRNS support the
following schemes.
(6) Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
The setting up of a separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT), under the Ministry of Science and
Technology in 1986 gave a new impetus to the development of the field of modern biology and
biotechnology in India. In more than a decade of its existence, the department has promoted and
accelerated the pace of development of biotechnology in the country. Through several R&D
projects, demonstrations and creation of infrastructural facilities a clear visible impact of this field
has been seen. The department has made significant achievements in the growth and application of
biotechnology in the broad areas of agriculture, health care, animal sciences, environment, and
industry.
(7) Department of Coal (DOC)
The Central Mine Planning and Design Institute Limited (CMPDI) is the nodal agency for
coordinating R&D activities in Coal and Lignite sectors. The Ministry of Coal normally supports
project of shorter duration (2-4 years). The findings of which, if completed successfully, can be used
directly for commercial exploitation and benefit to the industry. However, in exceptional cases,

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research in newly emerging and front line areas of science and engineering and projects having long
term implications can be supported.
(8) Department of Ocean Development (DOD)
The development in Ocean Science & Technology is linked with achievements in other scientific
and technological areas. The research efforts should lead to fundamental understanding and ensure
predictive capabilities. An important component of the development programme is technology. To
be self reliant such technologies would have to be largely developed, tested and operated
indigenously. Several new technologies will have to be commercialized and made cost effective
(11) Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
The primary aim of the ICMR is to promote research in the country in the fields of medicine, public
health and allied areas. The Council promotes biomedical research in the country through intramural
research (through Institutes totally funded by ICMR) and extramural research (through grants -in-aid
given to projects in non- ICMR Institutes).
(13 )Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) - Department of Space
The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) was established in 1969. The Indian space
programme has the primary objective of developing space technology and application programmes
to meet the developmental needs of the country. Indian Space programme includes development of
operational systems in the areas of satellite based remote sensing, telecommunications, broadcasting,
meteorology and development of suitable launch vehicles for putting the satellite in various low
earth orbits and geostationary orbits.
PATENTS
A patent is a set of exclusive rights granted by a sovereign state to an inventor or assignee for a
limited period of time in exchange for detailed public disclosure of an invention. An invention is a
solution to a specific technological problem and is a product or a process. [1]:17 Patents are a form
of intellectual property.
The procedure for granting patents, requirements placed on the patentee, and the extent of the
exclusive rights vary widely between countries according to national laws and international
agreements. Typically, however, a granted patent application must include one or more claims that
define the invention. A patent may include many claims, each of which defines a specific property
right. These claims must meet relevant patentability requirements, such as novelty, usefulness,

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and non-obviousness. The exclusive right granted to a patentee in most countries is the right to
prevent others, or at least to try to prevent others, from commercially making, using, selling,
importing, or distributing a patented invention without permission. [2][3]
Under the World Trade Organization's (WTO) Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual
Property Rights, patents should be available in WTO member states for any invention, in all fields of
technology,[4] and the term of protection available should be a minimum of twenty
years.[5] Nevertheless, there are variations on what is patentable subject matter from country to
country.
STEPS INVOLVED IN SUBMITTING A RESEARCH PAPER IN AN INTERNATIONAL
/NATIONAL JOURNAL
Find the right journal
As researchers, you make huge strides in advancing essential knowledge. Your achievements can
save lives and improve the way we live. If you’re ready to share your knowledge with the world, this
booklet outlines the best opportunities for publishing your research – and for seeing it shared
globally.
Preparation of an article
Title The title is the main advertisement for your article. A great title entices the audience to read on;
a poorly-titled article may never reach its target readers. Your article’s title should reflect its content
clearly, enabling readers to decide whether it’s relevant for them. Make the title catchy and keep it
specific.
Contents of an articles
1. Title of the article
2. Affiliations (Authors name/name of the institution)
3. Keyword list
4. Abstract
5. Body of the text
6. Method
7. Results
8. Discussion & conclusion
9. Acknowledgments
10. References
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Publishing an article
1. Submit and revise your paper
Once you’ve checked (and re-checked!) your manuscript, you’re ready to submit it to the
journal editor via the submission and peer review system.
2. Methods of Submitting a paper.
Elsevier’s Editorial System (EES) has transitioned to Evise®, a fully online workflow for
article publication. Submission is simple: direct links for registration and log-in are provided
from our journals’ Guide for Authors.
3. Peer review
After submission, each manuscript is checked for plagiarism, and assessed carefully to
determine if it fits the aims and scope of the journal. If journal representatives are
enthusiastic about the work, the journal editor will appoint reviewers.
4. After Acceptance
There are a few more things to consider that can optimise the publication of your work.
5. Articles in Press
Accepted articles are published online on Science Direct as an ‘article in press’, and assigned
an issue at a later date. You can track your article and citations throughout this process.
6. Proofing
Accurate proofreading and clear marking of corrections are essential for the production of a
quality article. As soon as your article has been typeset, you’ll receive an email with either a
PDF attachment of your article or a link to it on our online proofing system.
7. Share link and Offprint
Most of our journals give authors a personalized link that provides 50 days free access to the
final published version of their article on Science Direct. This link can also be used for
sharing via email and social networks
8. Copyright
When you publish with Elsevier, you enter into a legal agreement. This means that both we at
Elsevier and you as an author agree to certain rights and responsibilities, and promise to act
in a legally-sound manner.

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9. Promote your paper
Promoting your research does not begin after your manuscript is finished and has been
published online. It should be on your mind even whilst you are doing it and writing up your
paper. Promoting your research also continues some time after it has been published and the
tracking the performance of your promotion activities will help drive improved results.
10. Monitor your impacts: article metrics
It’s worth bearing in mind that your peers and tutors monitor your impact. Being aware of
this helps you to submit your article to the most appropriate place (section 2.3), and also to
position yourself by proactively supplying information about your own performance. Just
like when you’re considering where to publish, the best approach to monitoring your impact
is to have multiple ways of assessing your performance.
Reliability:
According to Jope (2000) Reliability is defined as the degree to which the finding is
independent of accidental situation of the research. Reliability is the degree to which the
measures yield stable results and are free from error i.e. the measurement procedure
stableness. Reliability is also the consistency degree between two measures of common
thing. It is also the measure of how dependable, consistent, stable and trustworthy a test is in
measuring common thing every time. The reliability of the research outcomes enhances
whether or not the ethnographer would expect to acquire similar finding if she or he tried
again in similar way. The researcher has ensured reliability by confirming that all
respondents who had participated in that survey had answered all questions only once.
Validity:
Validity has been referred by the extent to which the measures of test what it claims to
measure. The measure is valid if it measures what does so cleanly and is supposed to
measure, without including these factors accidentally. Validity decides whether the research
measures truly which it was intended to measure or how real the outcomes of research are.
Generally researchers decide validity by asking a group of queries and will always view for
responses in others research (Elden and Chisholm, 1993). The researcher has ensured
validity by designing questionnaires with questions related to the research objectives.

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ACADEMIC HONESTY AND INTEGRITY – ACADEMICS CHEATING AND
PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism is a specific form of cheating which consists of the misuse of the published and/or
unpublished works of others by misrepresenting the material (i.e., their intellectual property) so used
as one's own work.
Academic integrity is the responsibility of all faculty (research guides) and students (research
scholars). Faculty members should promote academic integrity by including clear instruction on the
components of academic integrity and clearly defining the penalties for cheating and plagiarism in
their course syllabi. Students are responsible for knowing and abiding by the Academic Integrity
Policy as set forth in the Student Code of Conduct and the faculty members’ syllabi. All students are
expected to do their own work and to uphold a high standard of academic ethics.
A. Academic Integrity Violations
Cheating and plagiarism are academic integrity violations. Additional violations may be
added as deemed appropriate.
The following academic integrity violations are not to be considered all-inclusive:
 No student shall use or attempt to use unauthorized materials or devices to aid in achieving a
better grade on a component of a class.
 No student shall receive or give or attempt to receive or give assistance that are not authorized
by the instructor in the preparation of the research report.
 No student shall take or attempt to take, steal, or otherwise procure in an unauthorized manner
any material pertaining to the conduct of a class, including but not limited to tests,
examinations, laboratory equipment, and roll books.
 No student shall sell, give, lend, or otherwise furnish to any unauthorized person material
which can be shown to contain the questions or answers to any examinations scheduled to be
given at any subsequent date in any course of study offered by the University, without
authorization from the University.
 No student shall engage in plagiarism, which is presenting the words or ideas of another
person. Some typical examples of plagiarism are:
 Submitting an assignment as if it were one’s own work when, in fact, it is at least partly or
entirely the work of another.

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 Submitting a work that has been purchased or otherwise obtained from an Internet source or
another source.
 Incorporating the words or ideas of an author into one’s paper without giving the author due
credit, e.g., when direct quotations are used, they must be indicated, and when the ideas of
another are incorporated in the paper they must be appropriately acknowledged.
------------------------------------------------- ALL THE BEST--------------------------------------------------

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Research Methodology Notes by DR Kalailakshmi

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Unit I: Introduction

Research methodology – definition and significance, Types of research – exploratory research,

 “Research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”

 “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested

Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

The basic types of research are as follows:

i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:

Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

Dr.TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH

IV. On the basis of time dimension

The following are the characteristics of cross-sectional research

 Takes place at a single point in time

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

Extensive literature survey;

Developing the hypothesis;

Preparing the research desig

Collecting the data;

Execution of the project;

Generalizations and interpretation,

Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

1. Formulating the research problem:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

1. Understanding the problem thoroughly,

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

i. Conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories,

2. Extensive literature survey:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

Developing working hypotheses

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

Characteristics of A Good Research Design:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

ii) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:

A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a particular

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

iii) Experimental or Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

6. Collecting the data:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

10. Generalizations and interpretation:

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

Characteristics of A Good Research Design:

Importance of Research Design:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

Types of research design

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

iii) Experimental or Hypothesis-Testing Research Design:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

There are two methods of collecting data:

1. Direct Personal Interviews:

TR.KALAI LAKSHMI/ RESEARCH METHODOLOGY NOTES FOR Ph.D RESEARCH SHCOLARS

2. Indirect Oral Interviews: