Operations of Smart Inverters in Active Distribution Networks

Nokhum Markushevich

1. Introduction

High penetration of renewable generation in the Electric Power Systems (EPS) will introduce
many new objects that should be monitored and controlled either locally or centrally. The
combined performance of these components will also constitute some aggregated variables to be
monitored and controlled by both distribution and transmission operators and applications. These
aggregated variables are the dominant components of Transmission Bus Load Model (TBLM)
[1]-[6]. In this paper, we discuss some aspects related to the operations of distributed resources
with smart inverters capable of generating and absorbing reactive power. The Distributed
Energy Resources (DER) can provide a significant voltage and var support for the customers and
for EPS. In relation to Volt/var support, the possible modes of operations of conventional
generators are as follows:

 Constant active and constant reactive power (PQ mode), with or without voltage
override
 Constant active power and constant voltage (PV mode)
A set of volt/var control curve for the smart inverters is suggested in [7[-[8]. The curves
suggested in these publications are presented in a general manner under unconstrained
conditions.

This paper is an attempt to supplement these publications with a discussion on the relationships
between the volt/var control curves and actual capabilities of the smart inverters under possible
operating condition of the grid and the DERs. The real power injections by the solar and wind
generators cannot be considered constant for any given extended time interval, because they
depend on the ambient conditions. Therefore, the PQ and PV modes cannot be directly applied to
these DERs. The following modes of volt/var control can be suggested for such generators:

 Variable P and constant Q, with or without voltage override

 Variable P and constant Power Factor, with or without voltage override
 Variable P and constant voltage at a given bus.
 Variable P and maximum (minimum) Q, with or without voltage override

All these modes of operations of DER are constrained by the DER capability curves, which
present relationships between the reactive and active powers and the voltage.

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The following aspects in relations to these modes are discussed in this paper:

1. The capability curves as functions of the following parameters:

 Real power injections by the DER
 Voltage at the DER terminals
 Critical voltages at the nodes of the relevant grid
2. The capability of the DERs with smart inverters to meet different objectives of the
Volt/var optimization.

The following assumptions are made for this discussion:

 The operations of the inverter are limited by the AC current

 The capability curve is symmetrical for the inductive and capacitive modes of inverter
operations.

2. Capability of PV inverter as a reactive resource

The capability curve of an inverter expressed as a dependency on the AC voltage is presented in
Figure 1. As seen in the figure, the reactive power capability changes in a wide range dependent
on both active power and voltage. Under no or small active power generation, the reactive power
capability may exceed the rated apparent power of the DER, when the voltage is above the rated
level. When the voltage is low, even under active power below the rated value, the reactive
power capability may significantly drop.

If the inverter is set into a constant reactive power mode, it can be executed until the voltage is
above a certain level and the active power is below a certain value. For instance, as follows from
Figure 1, the setpoint of Q=0.5 under P=1.0 can be met as long as the voltage is above 1.06, and
if P=0.9, the voltage should be above 0.98.

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 1.5

0.5

Reactive Power

0
0.85 0.87 0.89 0.91 0.93 0.95 0.97 0.99 1.01 1.03 1.05 1.07 1.09 1.11 1.13 1.15
Voltage

-0.5

-1

-1.5
Active Power 0 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

Figure 1. Capability curves of an inverter. Power factor=0.9

Figure 2 presents a graph of the dependency of the reactive power of an inverter in the constant
Q mode (Q=0.5) with voltage override beyond 0.95-1.05. Figure 3 presents the graph for the
maximum reactive power mode with voltage override beyond 0.95-1.05 (e.g., for the reactive
power support of the EPS). Figure 4 presents the constant power factor in absorption mode with
voltage override beyond 0.95-1.05. This mode was suggested for mitigating the intermittency of
the DERs [9] and was discussed in [10].

Figure 5 presents the curves for the constant voltage mode, when the voltage override is beyond
the target voltage range from 0.99 through 1.01 (the voltage quality objective). Figure 6 presents
the constant voltage mode when the voltage override is beyond the target voltage range from
0.95 through 0.97 (Conservation Voltage Reduction - CVR objective). The target voltage can
also be adaptive to the existing conditions to better mitigate the intermittency of the DERs [10].
As seen in the figures, under some levels of active power and voltages, the desired settings
cannot be achieved, and the volt/var control curves of the inverters look significantly different
from the” nominal” curves presented in [7]-[8]. They are three-dimensional (Q-P-V) curves,
where Q depends on V and P. The real power is an independent variable (if it is not intentionally
used for providing additional reactive power [11]). The voltage, in relation to var capabilities, is
partially an independent variable, but it also depends on the injection of the DER reactive power,
i.e., a greater var capability can increase the grid voltage.

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 1

0.8

Reactive power generated by DER, p.u.

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07

-0.2
Voltage, pu

P=0 P=0.5 P=0.7 P=0.8 P=0.9 P=1

Figure 2. Inverter in Q=const mode with voltage override. Initial reactive power = 0.5. Standard voltage quality objective.

1.2

1
Reactive power generated by DER, p.u.

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07
Voltage, pu

P=0 P=0.5 P=0.7 P=0.8 P=0.9 P=1

Figure 3. Inverter in Q=max mode with voltage override. Standard voltage quality objective

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 0.6

0.4

Reactive power generated by DER, p.u.

0.2

0
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
Voltage, pu

P=0 P=0.5 P=0.7 P=0.8 P=0.9 P=1

Figure 4 . Inverter in PF=const. mode with voltage override. Standard voltage quality objective

1.2

0.8
Reactive power generated by DER, p.u.

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6
Voltage, pu

P=0 P=0.5 P=0.7 P=0.8 P=0.9 P=1

Figure 5. Inverter in V=const mode with initial reactive power = 0.5. Voltage quality objective.

5
 0.7

0.6

Reactive power generated by DER, p.u.

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05
Voltage, pu

P=0 P=0.5 P=0.7 P=0.8 P=0.9 P=1

Figure 6. Inverter in V=const mode with initial reactive power = 0.5. CVR objective.

Figure 7 displays the effect of the var capability on the grid voltage for an inverter in constant
voltage mode. In this example, there are two scenarios: a) the initial voltage is low (0.95), and
the inverters tries to raise the voltage to the target voltage = 0.99, and b) the initial voltage is
high (1.05), and the inverter tries to reach the target voltage = 1.01. The initial Q=0.3 in both
cases. The impact of the reactive power injection depends on the value of the injection and on the
reactance of the grid upstream from the inverter. In this figure, the ratio of the reactive power
injection to the short circuit power is 0.1 (the DER is connected to the secondary circuit). As
seen in the figure, the increase of the var injection under the low voltage conditions increases the
grid voltage. It reached V=0.966 instead of the target V=0.99, when P=0.9 due to the limited
reactive power capability under the corresponding voltages. When P=0.5, there was enough
reactive power capability to reach the target voltage.

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 0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

DER Vars 0.3

Initial Low InitialInitial

0.2
Voltgae High Voltage
Target Voltage

0.1

0
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06

-0.1

-0.2
Grid voltage
Generating Q needed to raech Vmin. P=0.9 Absorbing Q needed to reach Vmax. P=0.9
Generating Q needed to raech Vmin.P=0.5 Absorbing Q needed to reach Vmax. P=0.5

Figure 7. Inverter in constant voltage mode. Voltage setting = 0.99 – 1.01. The initial voltage in low voltage scenario is 0.95.
The initial voltage in high voltage scenario is 1.05. P=0.9 and P=0.5. Short Circuit ratio = 0.1.

Figure 8 presents the case, where P=0.5, but the short circuit ratio is 0.04 (the DER is in the
primary distribution). As seen in the figure, the target voltage 0.99 is out of reach, although the
real power injection is only 50%.

0.8

0.6

0.4
Initial Low
Voltgae InitialInitial
Target Voltage
0.2 High Voltage
DER Vars

0
0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8
Grid voltage
Generating Q needed to raech Vmin. P=0.5 Absorbing Q needed to reach Vmax. P=0.5

Figure 8. . Inverter in constant voltage mode. Voltage setting = 0.99 – 1.01. The initial voltage in low voltage scenario is 0.95.
The initial voltage in high voltage scenario is 1.05. P=0.5; Short Circuit ratio = 0.04

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The above considerations were based on the reduced reactive power limits due to the real power
injections and the voltages at the terminals of the inverters. These limits were derived from the
nominal parameters of the particular DER (inverter). We call these limits “nominal capabilities”.

However, the reactive power of some DERs can be further limited to avoid voltage violations in
other voltage-critical nodes of the relevant grid. We call these limits “operational capability”.

Figure 9 presents an example grid diagram for comparing the nominal and operational var
capabilities of the DERs connected to this grid.

If all DERs were injecting their nominal var capabilities, several nodes of this circuit would
experience voltage violations. The maximum voltage violations of this grid are presented in
Figure 10.

To avoid the voltage violations, var injections of some DERs were reduced. The comparison of
the total nominal capability with the total operational capability is presented in Figure 11. This
comparison was done for var generating mode of the DERs. As seen in the figure, the operational
capability can be significantly lower than the nominal one.

V bus

Node 1 Node 2 Node 9

. . . . .
V1 V2 V9
G G G
1 1 1

Figure 9. Sample circuit for determining operational capabilities

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 0.02

0.018

0.016

Nodal voltage violations, pu of Vnom

0.014

0.012

0.01

0.008

0.006

0.004

0.002

0
1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.1 1.11
Bus voltage, pu

Nom-cap-Volt_Violations-DER=90% Nom-cap-Volt_Violations-DER=50%

Figure 10. Maximum violations of nodal voltages if nominal capability is used.

9.00

8.00

7.00

6.00
Sum Q-DER

5.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00
1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.1 1.11
Bus voltage, pu

Operatinal DER capacity, DER part.=90% Nominal DER capacity, DER part.=90%
Operatinal DER capacity, DER part.=50% Nominal DER capacity, DER part.=50%

Figure 11. Total nominal and operational capabilities of the DERs connected to the sample circuit

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Another operational limitation of the DER’s var capability may be based on the desired mode of DER
operations. Figure 12 presents a case, where the distribution system operator’s (DSO) objective is CVR.
To keep voltages at the customer terminals in the range of 0.95-0.97 pu, the DERs should reduce the var
injections. As seen in the figure, the total var injection is significantly smaller than the maximum
operational capability. If the transmission system operator’s (TSO) objective is maximum var support
from the distribution system, this reduced injection is a more restricted operational limit for the
transmission operations. If the TSO’s request is met by the DSO, the distribution system will experience
a loss of benefits from CVR.

Figure 13 presents the difference in the natural real load and in the net real load under these two
objectives. Such information can be used for contractual relationships between these two stakeholders.
10

2
Sum of DERs' vars., pu

0
0.97 0.98 0.99 1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.1
-2

-4

-6

-8

-10
Bus voltage, pu

Q-sum for CVR mode Operatoional Max Capability

Figure 12. Total Q in CVR mode and maximum operational Q capability

31

30

29

28

27
Total Load, pu

26

25

24

23

22

21

20
1 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.1
Bus voltage, pu

Net-kW-CVR Nat-kW-CVR Net-kW-Max Nat-kW-Max

Figure 13. Natural and net kWs with CVR and Q-max modes of DERs

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3. Conclusions
1. The high penetration of DERs with smart inverters provides a significant resource
of reactive power for distribution and transmission operations.
2. The available capacity of this resource of reactive power is highly changeable,
depending on the real power injections of the DERs, on voltage at the inverters’
terminals, on operational limits in the corresponding grid, and on the modes of
DER’s operations chosen by the stakeholder in charge.
3. The utilization of the DERs’ reactive power can be driven by different objectives
of different stakeholders, such as the owners of the DERs, distribution and
transmission operators, and third parties aggregators. These objectives can be in
conflict with each other.
4. In order to utilize the reactive power resources provided by the Active
Distribution Networks in a coordinated manner, an adequate information exchange
between the parties involved should be provided, and contractual or rule-based
conditions should be established for the interactions of the interested parties.
5. The capability curves and the current modes of operations of the distributed energy
resources are significant attributes of the DER object model. The corresponding
interoperability standards should support such DER’s object models.
6. The simulation and optimization applications of EPS energy management systems
should include some individual, some group, and also aggregated models of the
DER current operations, their dependencies on operating and ambient conditions,
as well as their capabilities under the near-real time and short look-ahead
conditions.

4. References

1. Nokhum Markushevich, Cross-cutting Aspects of Smart Distribution Grid

Applications, Presented at IEEE PES GM 2011, Detroit. Available from IEEE
Explore.
2. Nokhum Markushevich, “Transmission Bus Load Model – the Bridge for Cross-
Cutting Information Exchange between Distribution and Transmission Domains”.
Available: http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-
sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/SGOC_presentation_to_SGIP_03-30_-2011a.pdf
3. Nokhum Markushevich, Use Case for the Transmission Bus Load Model (TBLM),
http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-
sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/Use_Case_for_TBLM.pdf
4. Nokhum Markushevich,” Update on the Use Case for the Transmission Bus Load
Model (TBLM)”. Available: http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-
sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/Update_on_TBLM_development-
SGIP_2012_Summer_Meeting.pdf
5. Nokhum Markushevich, Update on the Use Case for the Transmission Bus Load
Model, Available: https://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-
sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/Update_on_TBLM_SGIP_2012_Winter__Meeting.pdf
6. Development of Transmission Bus Load Model (TBLM), Available:
http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/TnD/TBLMUseCase_V14-03-
13-13-posted.pdf

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7. Advanced Power System Management Functions for Inverter-based DER Devices,
Draft v.9b. Available: http://collaborate.nist.gov/twiki-
sggrid/pub/SmartGrid/PvInverter/Advanced_Functions_for_DER_Inverters_v9b.docx
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EPRI 1020906, Tech. Rep., 2010. Available:
http://www.epri.com/abstracts/Pages/ProductAbstract.aspx?ProductId=00000000000
1020906&Mode=download
9. Nokhum Markushevich, On the Subject of Mitigating Voltage Fluctuations due to the
Variability Of DER. Available:
https://www.scribd.com/document/376625816/Mitigation-of-Voltage-Fluctuations-
by-Controlling-Reactive-Power-of-DER
10. N. Markushevich and A. Berman, New Aspects of IVVO in Active Distribution
Networks, Presented at IEEE PES 2012 T and D. Available from IEEE Explore.
11. Nokhum Markushevich, Vars versus Watts from Distributed Energy Resources.
Available: https://www.scribd.com/document/376740872/Vars-versus-Watts-from-
Distributed-Energy-Resources
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penetration photovoltaics,” NREL/SR-581-42298, Tech. Rep., 2008. Available:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/42298.pdf
13. Reigh Walling and Gao Zhi, Eliminating voltage variation due to distribution-
connected renewable generation, DistribuTech 2010
14. Nokhum Markushevich, “Voltage/var Optimization in Active Distribution Networks”
https://www.scribd.com/document/376758184/VVoltage-var-Optimization-in-Active-
Distribution-Networks
15. Coordination of Volt/var control in Connected Mode under Normal Operating
Conditions, Use Case Description. Available:
http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
16. Update aggregated at PCC real and reactive load-to-voltage dependencies, Use Case
Description. Available: http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/
17. Updates of capability curves of the microgrid’s DERs, Use Case Description.
Available: http://smartgrid.epri.com/Repository/Repository.aspx/

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