118.

Chapter 4 / lmperfections in Solids

lmportant Terms and Concepts

alloy interstitial solid solution screw dislocation
atomic vibration mlcloscopy self-interstitial
atom percent microstructure solid solution
Boltzmann's constant mixed dislocation solute
Burgers vector photomicrograph solvent
composition point defect substitutional solid solution
dislocation line scanning electron microscope transmission electron
edge dislocation (SEM) mrcroscope (TEM)
gram slze scanning probe microscope vacancy
imperfection (SPM) weight percent

REFERENCES
ASM Handbook, Vol. 9, Metallography and Mi- Tilley, R. J. D., De/ects lir So/idg Wiley-Interscience,
crostructures, ASM International, Materials Hoboken, N! 2009.
Park, OH, 2004. Van Bueren, H. .Imperfections in C/),.r/a/i North-
G.
Brandon, D., and W. D. Kaplan, Microstntchual Holland, Amsterdam (Wiley-Interscience, New
Characterization of Materials, 2nd edition, York), 1960.
Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2008. Vander Voort, G. F., Metallography, Principles and
Clarke, A. R., and C. N. Eberhardt, Microscopy Practice, ASM International, Materials Park,
Techniqttes for Materials Sclence, CRC Press, oH, 1984.
Boca Raton, FL, 2002.
Kelly,A., G.W Groves, and P Kidd, Crys tallography
and Crystal Defeas, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, 2000.

QUESTIONS AND PROBIEMS

Vacancies and Self-lnterttitials tabulated in the following table for several el-
4,1 Calculate the fraction of atom sites that are ements; for those that are nonmetals, only
vacant tbr lead at its melting temperature of atomic radii are indicated.
327'C (600 K). Assume an energy for vacancy
Atomic
fbrmation of 0.52 ev/atom. Radius Crystal Electrc-
4.2 Calculate the number of vacancies per cubic Element (nm) Structure negati|it! Valence
meter in iron at 855'C.The energy for vacancy Cu 0.12'78 +2
formation is 1.08 ev/atom. Furthermore. the c 0.071
density and atomic weight for Fe are 7.65 H 0.046
g/cm- ano JJ.6) g/mot, o 0.060
0.7445 FCC 1.9 +1
4.3 Calculate the activation energy for vacancy
AI 0.1431 FCC 1.5 +3
formation in aluminum, given that the equi-
Co 0.12s3 HCP 1.8 +2
librium number of vacancies at 500'C (773 K) Cr 0.1249 BCC 1.6 +3
rs /.55 X l0 'm '. lhe atomic weighl and den- Fe 0.1241 BCC 1.8 +2
sity (at 500'C) for aluminum are, respectively, Ni 0.1246 FCC 1.8 +2
26.98 g/mol and,2.62 glcm3 Pd 0.13'.76 FCC 2.2 +2
Pt 0.1387 FCC 2.2 +2
lmpuities in Sohds Zn 0.1332 HCP 1.6 +2
4.4 Atomic radius, crystal structure, electronega- Which of these elements would you expect to
tivity, and the most common valence are form the following with copper:

(a) A substitutional solid solution having
complete solubility
(b) A substitutional solid solution of incom-
plete solubility
(c) An interstirial solid solution
4.5 For both FCC and BCC crystal structures,
there are two different types of interstitial
sites. ln each case, one site is larger than the
other and is normally occupied by impurlty
atoms. For FCC, this larger one is located at
the center of each edge of the unit cell; it is
termed an octaheilral interstitial site. On the
other hand, with BCC the larger srte type ls
found at 0 ] J positions-that is,lying on {100}
faces and situated midway between two untt
cell edges on this face and one-quarter of the
distance between the other two unit cell
edges; it is termed a tetrahed.ral interstitial site.
For both FCC and BCC crystal structures,
compute the radius r of an impurity atom that
will just fit into one of these sites in terms oI
the atomic radius R of the host atom.
S pecif icatio n of Co mposition
4,6 Derive the following equations:
(a) Equation 4.7a
(b) Equation 4.9a
(c) Equation 4.10a
(d) Equation 4.11b
4,7 What is the composition, in atom percent, of
an alloy that consists of 30 wto/" Zn a[d 70
wt% Cu?
4.8 What is the composition, in weight percent, of
an alloy that consists of 6 at% Pb and 94 at%
Sn?
4.9 Calculate the composition, in weight percent,
of an alloy that contains 218.0 kg titanium'
15 kg aluminum, and 10 kg vanadium
4.10 What is the composition, in atom percent, of
an alloy that contains 100 g tin and 68 g lead?
4.11 What is the composition, in atom percent, of
an alloy that contains 45.2 kg copper, 46.3 kg
zinc, and 0.95 kg lead?
4.12 What is the composition, in atom percent, of an
alloy that consists of 97 wt% Fe and 3 wt% Si?
4.13 Convert the atom percent composition in
Problem 4.11 to weight Percent.
Questions and Problemr f 19
4.14 Calculate the number ol atoms per cubic
meter in aluminum.
4.15 The concentralion of carbon in an iron-
carbon alloy is 0.15 wt%. What is the con-
centration in kilograms of carbon per cubic
meter of all
4.t6 Determine the approximate density of a high-
leaded brass that has a composition of 64.5
4.17 Calculate the unit cell edge length for an 85
wt% Fe-15 wt% V alloy. All of the vanadium
is in solid solution, and at room temperature
the crystal structure for this alloy is BCC.
Some hypothetical alloy is composed of 12.5
wt% of metal A and 87.5 wt% of metal B. If
the densities of metals A and B are 4.25 and
6.35 g/cm3, respectively, whereas their respec-
tive atomic weights are 61.5 and 125.7 g/mol,
determine whether the crystal structure for
this alloy is simple cubic, face-centered cubic,
or body-centered cubic. Assume a unit cell
edge length of 0.395 nm.
a solid solution consisting of two elements
(designated as 1 and 2), sometimes it is desir-
able to determine the number of atoms per
cubic centimeter of one element in a solid
solution, Nl, given the concentration of that
element specified in weight percent, C1. This
computation is possible using the following
expresslon:
NoCt
(4.18)
94t+L@o c,)
where
Na : Avogadro's number
p1 and p, = densities of the two elements
A1 = the atomic weight of element 1
Derive Equation 4.18 using Equation 4.2 and
expressions contained in Section 4.4.
4.20 Gold forms a substitutional solid solution
with silver. Compute the number of gold
atoms per cubic centimeter for a silver-gold
alloy that contains 10 wt% Au and 90 wt%
Ag. The densities of pure gold and silver are
1,9.32 and 10.49 g/cm3, respectively.
4.21 Germanium forms a substitutional solid solu-
tion with silicon. Compute the number of
germanium atoms per cubic centimeter for a
 f 2O ' Chapter 4 I lnpertedionr in Solids
germanium_silicon alloy that contains 15 wt%
Ge and 85 wt% Si. The densities of pure
gerrnanium and silicon are 5.32 and 2.33 g/cmr,
respectively.
4.22 Sometimes it is desirable to determine
weight percent of one element, Cl, that will
produce a specified concentration in terms of
the number of atoms per cubic centimeter, Nl,
for an alloy composed of two types of atomi.
This computation is possible using the
Iowing expression:
100
, Nl.Pz p2
NtAt pl
where
No :
Avogadro's number
p1 and, p2 = densities of the two elements
A, and Ar: the atomic weights of the two
elements
Derive Equation 4.19 using Equation 4.2 and
expressions contained in Section 4.4.
4.23 Molybdenum forms a substitutional solid so_
lution with tungsten. Compute the weight per_
cent of molybdenum that must be added to
tun^gsten to yield an alloy that contains 1.0 X
10" Mo atoms per cubic centimeter. The den-
sities of pure Mo and W
are 10.22 and 19.30
4.24 Niobium forms a substitutional solidl6iiE6i
with vanadium. Compute the weight percent
of niobium that must be added to vanadium
to yield an alloy that contains 1.55 X 1022 Nb
atoms per cubic centimeter. The densities of
pure Nb and V are 8.57 and 6.10
4.25 Silver and palladium both have the FCC crys_
tal slruclure. and pd forms a substitutional
solid solution for all concentrations at room
temperature. Compute the unit cell edge
length for a 75 wt% Ag-25 wt% pd alloy. The
room-temperature density ofpd is 12.02 g/cm3,
and its atomic weight and atomic radius are
106.4 g/mol and 0.138 nm, respectively.
D islocatio
- Linear D efeck
w
4.26 Cite the relative Burgers vector_dislocation
line orientations for edge, screw, and mixed
dislocations.
lnterfacial Defech
4.27 For-an FCC single crystal, would you expect the
surface for a (100) plane to be greater
_energy
or less than rhat for a { | l | ) plane? Whyl-( Norc,
the you may \^,ant lo consult lhe
solution to prob_
lem 3.54 at the end of Chapter 3.)
4.28 For^a BCC single crystal, would you expect
the
surface energy for a (100) plane to be greater
fof than that for a (110) plane? Why?
o-r, less
(Nore; You may want to consult the solution
to Problem 3.55 at the end of Chapter 3.)
(4.le) 4.29 (a) For a given material, would you expect the
sudace energy to be greater than, the iame as,
or less than the grain boundary energy? Why?
(b) The grain boundary energy of a smalf
angle grain boundary is less
tliin for a high_
angle one. Why is this so?
4.30 (a) Briefly describe a tw.in and a twin
boundary.
(b) Cite the difference between mechanical
and annealing twins.
4.31 For each of the following stacking sequences
lound in FCC metals, cite the type of planar
defect that exists:
(a)...ABCABCBACBA...
(b)...ABCABCBCABC..,
Noq copy the stacking sequences and indi_
cate.the position(s) of planar defect(s) with a
vertical dashed line.
G rain S ize Dete rminatio n
4.32 (a) Using the intercept method, determine the
g/cm3,
average grain size, in millimeters, of the spec_
rmen whose microstructure is shown in Fig_
ure 4.I4(b); use at least seven straightline
segments.
(b) Estimate the ASTM grain size number for
this material.
4.33 (a) Employing the intercept technique, deter_
mrne the average grain size for the steel speci_
men whose microstructure is shown il Figure
9.25(c);use at least seven straighrline segmlnts.
(b) Estimate the ASTM grain size number for
this material.
4.34 For an ASTM grain size of g, approximately
how many grains would there bJ per square
centimeter

QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
PIE .iroduction
fto
lese 5.1 Brielly explain the difference between self-
Ithe diffusion and interdiftusion.
5l Self diftusion involves the motion of atoms
I that are all of the same type: therefore, it is
not subject to observation by compositional
changes, as with interdiffusion. Suggest one
rvay in which sell-diffusion may be monitored.
Diffusion Mechanisms
Ito
ol 5J (a) Compare interstitial and vacancy atomic
lhe mcchanisms for diffusion.
us- (b) Cite two reasons why interstitial diflusion
is normally more rapid than vacancy diffusion.
Steady - State D iff u t ion
5.{ Briefly explain the concept of steady state as
it applies to diffusion.
55 (a) Briefly explain the concept of a driving
torce.
(b) What is the driving force for steady-state
diffusion?
f.o The purification of hydrogen gas by diffusion
tluough a palladium sheet was discussed in
Seclion 5.3. Compute the number of kilo-
grams of hydrogen that pass per hour through
a 5-mm-thick sheet of palladium having an
area of 0.25 m2 at 500'C. Assume a diflusion
coefficient of 1.0 x 10 8 m2ls, that the con-
centrations at the high- and low-pressure
sides of the plate are 2.4 and 0.6 kg of
hydrogen per cubic meter of palladium, and
that conditions have been attained.
of steel 1.8 mm thick has nitrogen
atmospheres on both sides at 1200"C and is per-
mitted to achieve a steady-state diffusion con-
dition. The diffusion coelficient for nitrogen
in steel at this temperature is 6 x 10-rr m2/s,
and the diffusion flux is found to be 1.2 x
tr' 10 7 kg/m'? . s. Also, it is known that the con-
cenlraliun of nirrogen in lhe \teel at lhe hiEh-
I pressure surface is 4 kg/mr. How lar into the
sheet from this high-pressure side will the
concentration be 2.0 kg/mr? Assume a linear
concentration profile.
t mm thick was exposed
1 (1127'C). Under these circumstances the carbon
to a carburizing gas atmosphere on one side
Quertions and Problems ' 145
and a decarburizing atmosphere on the other
side at 725"C. After reaching steady state, the
iron was quickly cooled to room temperature.
The carbon concentrations at the two sudaces
of the sheet were determined to be 0.012 and
0.0075 wt%. Compute the diffusion coetTicient
if the diffusion llux is 1.5 x 10 8 kg/m2.s.
Hint: Use Equation 4.9 to convert the con-
centrations from weight percent to kilograms
o[ carhon per cubic meter of iron.
ere ot
hydrogen gas, the concentration of hydrogen
in the iron, Cn (in weight percent), is a func-
tion of hydrogen pressure. pH- (in MPa), and
absolute temperature (I) according to
cH:1.34 x
1o '?tf[exp ft+#*) (5.14)
Furthermore, the values of D6 and Q,1 for this
diffusion system are 1.4 x 10-7 m2/s and
13,400 J/mol, respectively. Consider a thin
iron membrane I mm thick that is at 250'C.
Compute the diffusion flux through this mem-
brane if the hydrogen pressure on one side of
the membrane is 0.15 MPa, and on the other
side 7.5 MPa.
N onsteady - State Diffusion
5.10 Show that
p /.1 \
c': ?Dt*P ( +o,-J
is also a solution to Equation 5.4b. The
parameter B is a constant, being independent
ol both r and r.
5.11 Determine the carburizing time necessary to
achieve a carbon concentration of 0.45 wtTo at
a position 2 mm into an iron{arbon alloy that
initially contains 0.20 wtl" C. The surface con-
centration is to be maintained at 1.30 wt% C,
and the treatment is to be conducted at 1000'C.
Use the diffusion data for 7-Fe in Thble 5.2.
5.12 An FCC iron carbon alloy initially containing
0.35 wt% C is exposed to an oxygen-rich and
virtually carbon-free atmosphere at 1400 K
diffuses from the alloy and reacts at the surface
Chapter 2 3.53 (b) LDr11(W) : 3.65 x 10'm-'
2.3 (a) L.66 x 10-'?4 g/amu; : 1
(b) 6.022 x 102r atoms/g-mol 3.54 (a) PDlu
2R2\,5
z.r4
3.55 (b) PDlro(V) : L.522 x 10Le m 2

/ a Yu-'r
,r: \"8 3.59 70 : 81.24"
) 3.60 drle:0.2862nm
Lo- A-B 3.62 (a\ dzr: 0.1520 nm;
/a1t't-'' /e1'Lt "' (b) R:0.2463nm
\ia ) \,8 / 3.64 d1q : 0.2072 nm, a = 0.2845 nm

2.L5 (c) ro : 0.279 nm, Eo : -4.57 eY

2.19 63.2% for TiOz; 1.0% for InSb
Chapter 4
.4.1 N,/N
: 4.3 x 10-s
4.3 .Q, = 0.75 eV/atom
Chapter 3
4.5 For FCC, r : 0.41R
3.2 Vc = 6.62 x 1'0 2e
m3
4.7 C2" : 29.4 at"/", CL": 70.6 at'/.
3.8R:0.136nm 4.8 Cp5 = 10.0 wt%, Cs, : 90.0 wt%
3.ll (t'1 Vg: 1.40 x 10-28 m3' 4.10 C!, : 71..9 at%", Cpr : 28.1 at'/.
(b) a:0.323 nm,c:0.515 nm 4.14 N61 : 6.05 x 1028 atoms/ml
3.14 Metal B: face-centered cubic 4.17 a:0.289nm
3.16 (a) n : 8.0 atoms/unit cell; 4.20 NA" = 3.36 X 1021 atoms/cm3
(h) p:4.96g1cm3 4.24 CNy : 35.2 \\r"/"
3.!9 Vc:8.07 x 10 2 nm3 4,32 (a) d = 0.066 mm
3.22 000,100, 110,010,001, 101, 111, 011,1 ;0, 4.34 (b) NM : 198,300 grains/cm2
iLt,tLL,oli,Lo |, ano I t] 4.Dl CLi : 2.06 wt"/"
3,29 Direction 1: [012]
3.31 Direction ,4: [01!;
Direction C: [112] Chapter 5
3.32 Dreclion B:12321; 5.6 M:3.2 x 10-3 kgh
Direction D: [136] 5.8 D:4.23 x 10-11 mzls
3.33 (b) [T10], [10], and [110] 5.IIt:1.9.7h
3,35 Direction A: [1011] 5.15r:40h
3.41 Plane B: (1!2) or (712) 5.18 Z: 1.152K (879"C)
!,42 Plane A: (312) 5.21 (a) Qd : 252.4 kI lmol,
3.43 Plane B: (221) Do:2.2x 10 5
m2ls;
3.aa (c) [010] or [010] (b) D : 5.4 x 10 15
m2ls
3.a6 (a) (010) and (100) s.24 T:10s1 K (778'C)
3.s0 (b) (10T0) 5.29 .r : 1.52 mm
3.52 (a) LDlep =
1
5,33 to : 47.4 min
2R\/t 5.D1 Not possible