OUMH1203 English For Written Communication PDF

OUMH1203
ENGLISH FOR
WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION
Assoc Prof Dr Alias Mohd Yatim
Assoc Prof Hazidi Abdul Hamid
Mohd Helmi Abdul Rahim
Teo Hui Thian
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Alias Yatim

Assoc Prof Hazidi Abdul Hamid
Mohd Helmi Abdul Rahim
Teo Hui Thian
Enhanced by: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kwan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, May 2002

Second Edition, December 2012 (rs)
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2012, OUMH1203

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi–xv
Topic 1 Introduction to Communication 1

1.1 What is Communication? 1
1.1.1 Elements in Communication 2
1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication 3
1.2 Defining Written Communication 6
1.3 Why Written Communication? 6
1.4 Tips on Written Communication 8
1.4.1 The Writing Process 8
1.4.2 Pitfalls to Avoid 9
1.5 Challenges in Written Communication 12
1.5.1 New Technologies 12
1.5.2 When Others Fail to Respond 12
1.5.3 Asking the Right Questions 13
Summary 14
Key Terms 15
References 15

Topic 2 Communication Models – A Theoretical Perspective 16
2.1 Claude ShannonÊs Model 17
2.2 Roman JakobsonÊs Model 18
2.3 Model Based on Ulric NeisserÊs Work 19
2.4 Model Based on Michael PolanyiÊs Work 20
2.5 Some Ideas about Communication 21
2.5.1 Signs, Symbols and Abbreviations 21
Summary 23
Key Terms 24
References 24

iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 3 What are Essays? 25

3.1 Planning to Write Essays 26
3.1.1 Pre-writing Stage 26
3.1.2 Drafting Stage 28
3.1.3 Editing Stage 29
3.1.4 Final Draft Stage 29
3.2 Types of Essays 30
3.3 Discourse Markers 31
3.4 Writing Paragraphs 34
Summary 37
Key Terms 37
References 38

Topic 4 Types of Essays 39
4.1 Explanation Essay 40
4.2 Argumentation Essay 44
4.3 Discussion Essay 48
4.4 Supporting Evidence 48
4.4.1 Types of Evidence 49
4.4.2 How to Use Evidence 49
4.5 Logical Fallacies 50
4.5.1 Hasty Generalisation 51
4.5.2 Missing The Point 52
4.5.3 Post Hoc (False Cause) 53
4.5.4 Slippery Slope 53
4.5.5 Weak Analogy 54
4.5.6 Appeal to Authority 55
4.5.7 Ad Populum 55
4.5.8 Ad Hominem and Tu Quoque 56
4.5.9 Appeal to Pity 57
4.5.10 Appeal to Ignorance 57
4.5.11 Straw Man 58
4.5.12 Red Herring 59
4.5.13 False Dichotomy 59
4.5.14 Begging the Question 60
4.5.15 Equivocation 61
Summary 62
Key Terms 62
References 63


TABLE OF CONTENTS  v
Topic 5 Tackling Essays 64

5.1 Writing Paragraphs 65
5.2 Tackling Essay Questions 67
5.3 Creative Writing 68
5.4 Bibliographies and Plagiarism 69
5.4.1 Bibliographies 69
5.4.2 Plagiarism 72
5.5 Screening for Useful Resources 73
5.6 Describing Visual Data 73
Summary 75
Key Terms 76
References 76
Topic 6 Persuasive Writing 78

6.1 Arrangement of Persuasive Writing 79
6.1.1 Reasons for and Purposes of Persuasive Writing 80
6.1.2 Types of Reasoning Processes 80
6.1.3 Source of Information, and Relating to Arguments 84
and Evidence
6.2 Persuasive Strategies 85
6.3 The Reasoning Process 86
6.4 Direct and Indirect Patterns of Organisation 86
6.5 Voice and Credibility 87
Summary 88
Key Terms 89
References 89
Topic 7 Report Writing 90

7.1 The Process of Preparing a Report 91
7.1.1 Stages/Tasks in Report Preparation 91
7.1.2 Gathering the Data 92
7.1.3 Analysing and Sorting the Results 93
7.1.4 Outlining the Report 94
7.1.5 Writing the Draft 96
7.1.6 Revising the Draft 97
7.2 Style Matters 98
7.2.1 The Report Style 98
7.2.2 The Writing Style 99
7.3 Tips and Guidelines 102
Summary 108
Key Terms 108
References 108

vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 8 Writing and Presenting Proposals 109

8.1 What is a Research Proposal? 110
8.2 Elements of a Research Proposal 111
8.3 Writing a Research Proposal 114
8.3.1 Stakeholders and Their Concerns 114
8.3.2 Critical Factors in Proposal Evaluation 114
8.3.3 Putting a Proposal Together 115
8.4 Other Types of Proposals 117
8.4.1 Formal and Informal Proposals 117
8.4.2 Business Proposals 118
8.4.3 Proposals for Feasibility Study 119
Summary 122
Key Terms 122
References 123

Topic 9 Fundamentals of Writing a Research Paper 124
9.1 What is a Research Paper? 125
9.2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper 126
9.2.1 Selecting a Topic 127
9.2.2 Planning the Research Design and Process 130
9.2.3 Compiling Research Resources 132
9.3 Getting Started 134
9.3.1 Outlining and Organisation 134
9.3.2 Support Your Argument 135
9.3.3 Writing Tips 135
9.3.4 Citation Styles 136
9.3.5 Presentation 140
9.4 Tips and Guidelines 141
9.4.1 Read, Read, Read 141
9.4.2 Organise Your Discussion 141
9.4.3 Categorise Information 142
9.4.4 Develop Note-Taking Skills 143
9.5 Looking at Examples 144
Summary 147
Key Terms 148
References 148


TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii
Topic 10 Collaborative Writing 149

10.1 Stages in Collaborative Writing 149
10.1.1 The Invention Stage 150
10.1.2 The Drafting Stage 151
10.1.3 The Revision Stage 151
10.2 Team Communication 152
10.3 Team Management 153
10.3.1 Team Building and Task Analysis 153
10.3.2 Management of Time, Writing and Documents 154
10.4 Managing Collaborative Writing Projects 155
10.5 Practice in Writing Step-by-Step Instructions 156
10.6 Conflict Management 157
10.7 Collaborative Writing Practice and Related 158
Matters to Consider
Summary 160
Key Terms 160
References 160

viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS

COURSE GUIDE

COURSE GUIDE  xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you may need to spend
in order to complete the course successfully. Please refer to this Course Guide
from time to time as you go through the course material as it will help to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
OUMH1203 English for Written Communication is one of the courses offered by
the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM).
This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students of OUM. It aims to impart some basic
writing skills that are important to students pursuing higher education.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you
begin this course, please ensure that you have the right course material, and
understand the course requirements as well as how the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii  COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. Write different types of essays with a certain degree of confidence;
2. Come up with a good research proposal; and
3. Write a properly structured and organised research paper.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented as
follows:
Topic 1 deals with the basic principles of written communication. It is designed

to help you become more aware of the importance of written communication as
well as the challenges and pitfalls.
Topic 2 introduces various models of communication. Four different models

are discussed, namely the models by Claude Shannon, Roman Jakobson, Ulric
Neisser and Michael Polanyi.
Topic 3 takes you through paragraph writing and show you how to plan
an essay. It introduces the stages involved in essay writing, beginning from
pre-writing to the final draft. It also describes the outline for writing different
types of essays. Since an essay is made up of paragraphs, this topic also includes
a sub-topic on sentence connectors to help you link your ideas together.

COURSE GUIDE  xiii
Topic 4 delves deeper into the types of essays. It shows you how to go about
writing specific essay types. It explains what a topic sentence is and how to
support it with evidence. It also introduces fallacies so that you learn to avoid
making weak arguments.
Topic 5 is on tackling essays. It talks about a variety of things related to

essay writing, from developing paragraphs to essay structures and writing
bibliography. It also touches on plagiarism and interpreting visual data.
Topic 6 is about persuasive writing, a form of writing that sets out to influence or
change oneÊs perceptions or thoughts about something. It is also known as an
argumentation essay which utilises logic and reason to show that a certain idea is
more legitimate than another.
Topic 7 deals with report writing. Learners will learn to write good reports for
academia as well as be introduced to other kinds of research reports.
Topic 8 is about writing and presenting research proposals. You will learn the
various steps involved in coming up with a good research proposal, including
planning and writing one.
Topic 9 deals with the steps and process of writing a good research paper. Here,
learners learn about formatting and the various techniques required to write a
good research paper.
Topic 10 focuses on collaborative writing. The goal in collaborative writing is to

get you to work in groups, share written documents, write drafts and make
amendments or changes to improve a piece of writing.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.

xiv  COURSE GUIDE
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to
solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or research.
It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and
apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate
instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.

COURSE GUIDE  xv
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Bleich, D. Collaboration and the pedagogy of disclosure. College English 57(1)
(January, 1995) 43–61.
Bormann, E., & G. (1975). Discussion and group methods. New York: Harper &
Row.
Cook, C. K. (1985). Line by line: How to edit your own writing. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
Harris, J. (1994). Towards a working definition of collaborative writing. In

J. S. Leonard, C. E. Wharter, & J. Harris (Eds.), Authority and Textuality:
Current view of collaborative writing (pp. 77–84). West Conwall, CT: Locust
Hill P.
Howard, R. M. (2000). Collaborative pedagogies: A bibliographic guide. Ed.

G. Tate, A. Rupiper & K. Schick. (Eds.) New York: Oxford University Press.
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

DIGITAL LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for
the use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible
through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases
comprising e-journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases
available are EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books,
Emerald Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner,
you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this
library.

xvi  COURSE GUIDE

Topic  Introduction to
1 Communication
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain what is meant by the word „communication‰ in general;
2. Identify the main elements in the communication process;
3. Differentiate between oral and written communication;
4. Highlight some basic tips on writing; and
5. List the common pitfalls to avoid in written communication.
 INTRODUCTION
This topic gives you an overview of communication and introduces you to the
main elements in the communication process. It also highlights the importance of
writing clear, positive messages and offers you some basic tips and guidelines on
this form of communication so that you may become more proficient in the kind
of writing needed at home as well as in the college and workplace. You will also
learn about some of the common pitfalls which may impede the effectiveness of
written communication.
1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

Communication is a learned skill. However, while most people are born with the
physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they make special
efforts to develop and refine this skill further. Very often, we take the ease with
which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we
sometimes forget how complex the communication process actually is.

2  TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
1.1.1 Elements in Communication

Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while
others fail to get their message across? What are the elements that must be
present in the communication process before it can be successful and effective?
Well, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or

exchanging information, ideas and opinions so that the „message‰ is completely
understood by both parties. Look at Figure 1.1 below. The illustration shows
clearly that in a communication process, there must be a sender who speaks or
sends a message, and a receiver who listens or receives the message.
Figure 1.1: The communication process
The sender sends a message with a certain intention in mind. The receiver of the
message tries to understand and interpret the message sent. He then gives
feedback to the original sender, who in turn interprets the feedback. This process,
repeated continuously, constitutes communication.
Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process – a

sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, context. There is both a speakerÊs
intention to convey a message and a listenerÊs reception of what has been
said. Thus, listening skills are just as important as speaking skills in order for
communication to be effective.
This means that if you want to get your message across accurately, you need to
consider these three things:
(a) The message;
(b) The audience or receiver; and
(c) How the message is likely to be received.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION  3
A message is only considered successfully communicated when both the sender

and the receiver perceive and understand it in the same way. If this does not
happen, then there may be a breakdown in communication, which may
ultimately stand in the way of you realising your goals, either personally or
professionally.
ACTIVITY 1.1
The meaning of communication lies in the way that it is received.
Do you agree with the above statement? Discuss with your friends
during the next tutorial session.
1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication

As mentioned earlier, effective communication is a two-way process but there are
a number of factors which may disrupt this process and affect the overall
interpretation and understanding of what was communicated. Myriad problems
can pop up at different stages of the communication process. These can relate to
any of the elements involved – the sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback
and context. It is therefore important to understand some of the factors that affect
communication so that you can try to get your message across with minimal
misunderstanding and confusion.
Below are some possible problem areas that may turn out to to be barriers to
effective communication:
(a) Status/Role
The sender and receiver of a message may be of equal status within a
hierarchy (e.g. managers in an organisation) or they may be at different
levels (e.g. manager/employee, lecturer/student, business owner/clients).
This difference in status sometimes affects the effectiveness of the
communication process.
(b) Cultural Differences

Cultural differences, both within or outside the organisation (for example,
inter-departmental dealings and communication with outside organisations
or ethnic minorities) may impede the communication process.

(c) Choice of Communication Channels

Before you choose your communication channel, you should ask yourself
whether the channel is appropriate for a particular purpose and the
person/receiver you have in mind. Sending messages via inappropriate
channels can send out wrong signals and end up creating confusion.
(d) Length of Communication

The length of the message also affects the communication process. You
need to be sure that it serves the purpose and is appropriate for the
receiver. Is the message too long or too brief?
(e) Use of Language

Poor choice of words or weak sentence structure also hampers
communication. The same goes for inappropriate punctuation. The two
sentences below illustrate clearly how different placement of punctuation
can change the entire meaning of a sentence:
Woman, without her, man is nothing.

Woman, without her man, is nothing.
(f) Disabilities
Disabilities such as impaired sight, dyslexia and poor mental health can
also be barriers to good communication, and should be taken into
consideration when evaluating the effectiveness of the communication
process. You may need to use hearing aids, sign language, magnifying
systems, and symbols to alleviate problems caused by disabilities.
(g) Known or Unknown Receiver

Whether the receiver is known or unknown to you also plays a major role
in determining the effectiveness of your communication. A known receiver
may be better able to understand your message despite having insufficient
information as both of you probably have common experiences and a
shared schemata. An unknown receiver, on the other hand, may require
more information and time to decode the message.
(h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities

Sometimes, the method of communication needs to take into consideration the
receiverÊs personality traits, age and preferred style. The elderly and children,
for example, have different communication needs and preferences when
compared to young adults. Is the receiver of your message a visual, auditory,
or kinesthetic sort of person? How do you think they will react to your
message? Can you adapt your communication style to suit theirs?

(i) Atmosphere/Noise/Distraction
Our surroundings can sometimes pose as barriers to effective communication.
A noisy place (a party, for instance) usually puts a strain on oral
communication as both the sender and the receiver need to put extra effort to
get the message across and ensure that it is understood clearly and correctly.
(j) Clarity of Message

Is the message conveyed in a clear or ambiguous manner?
(k) Lack of Feedback

Feedback is important as it enables confirmation of understanding to be
made by both parties. The lack of feedback can sometimes create problems
as it can lead to uncertainty and confusion.
ACTIVITY 1.2
Your father is not keen on your decision to study medicine in the United
Kingdom. How can you persuade him, bearing in mind the barriers to
communication that you might encounter?
When choosing the most appropriate channel of communication, you should

heed the following:
(a) Consider all aspects of the communication process (interpretation,
understanding, feedback).
(b) Think carefully about possible barriers.
(c) Evaluate the complexity of the message and decide how it might be best
conveyed.
(d) Ask yourself these questions:
(i) Who? – Characteristics of the receiver(s).
(ii) Why? – Purpose of the communication.
(iii) What? – Content of the message.
(iv) How? – Oral, written, visual or a combination of all three.
(v) Where? – Location of the meeting.
(vi) When? – Timing/time limit/expected response time.

(e) Determine whether you are meeting or writing to the people concerned. Is
the communication via face-to-face interaction, telephone, letter, e-mail,
memo or a report?
(f) Decisions about the most appropriate channel of communication also
depend on factors such as cost, time, confidentiality, convention, urgency
and whether written documentation is required.
1.2 DEFINING WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

As mentioned earlier, communication can be oral or in written form. What is the
difference between these two main types of communication?
Oral communication involves conveying ideas, thoughts or information via a
spoken language. In written communication, however, information is exchanged
using written symbols, that is, via words and sentences. Written communication
is the sharing and exchanging of written symbols between individuals or groups.
It is also the presentation of ideas in a coherent manner in written form.
Written communication can take place via:

(a) Letters;
(b) Faxes;
(c) Email;
(d) Reports;
(e) Memos; and
(f) Advertisements.
You can acquire good writing skills through extensive reading, note-taking and
listening. In order to communicate effectively via writing, you need to have a
sound grounding in grammar and vocabulary so that you can present ideas,
together with supporting details, in a unified and coherent manner.
1.3 WHY WRITTEN COMMUNICATION?

The next question that arises is: „Why do we need to communicate in written
form? Why is there a need to document our work or keep written records?‰ The
answers to these questions are many and varied.

For one thing, once you put something into writing, the message is there for
posterity, so that others can read it again and again, whenever they like. This is
especially useful for research purposes where you need to build up on existing
pools of knowledge.
Writing also means that information can be stored and transferred from
individual to individual and group to group without relying on memory.
Through the written word, records can exist independently of the writer.
The written document also helps you to keep abreast of development in whatever
project you are involved in as it provides an avenue not only for the sharing of
ideas or opinions, but also for the presenting and defending of viewpoints.
Written communication can also serve as a form of acknowledgement – proof

that something has been done in case verification is needed later.
Sometimes, documenting work helps to clarify thoughts and thinking processes

as it allows you to mull over things slowly, at your own pace. It is „thinking
made public‰.
So, what must be documented? Any idea, logic, argument or phraseology derived
from an outside source must be documented. In academic writing, you must give
credit for all borrowed materials, for example, quotations, references, information
from primary and secondary sources, facts, data, statistics, opinions, ideas and
interpretations which you have gathered from your reading and research.
Such material must be acknowledged and cited, irrespective of whether you

have paraphrased, summarised or quoted directly. The only exception is what
is loosely termed „general knowledge‰ or „common knowledge‰, which is
information or ideas generally known and accepted by everyone, including the
writer and the audience.
You must cite and document all ideas and arguments borrowed from an
outside source.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Why do you think formal work should always be documented?

1.4 TIPS ON WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
We all use language to communicate, express ourselves, get our ideas across
and connect with the person to whom we are speaking. When a relationship
is working, the act of communication seems to flow relatively effortlessly.
When a relationship is deteriorating, the act of communicating can be as
frustrating as climbing a hill of sand.
Chip Rose
As the above quote shows, writing is a complex process. There is no short cut to
being a good writer. If you want to write well, you need to first of all, read
extensively. You must read not just books on writing but magazines, websites,
newspapers, newsletters and others – anything that you can get your hands on.
Do not be overly concerned with grammar and spelling when you first start out.
You can always fix those later. What is important is to put your thoughts down
on paper first. The next section will outline some tips and guidelines to help you
get started.
1.4.1 The Writing Process

Successful written communication requires careful thought and planning. It
should contain comprehensive information about a specific subject and yet be
clear, correct and easy to read.
A well-written piece of work requires you to pay attention to the following three
stages in the writing process:
 Planning;
 Writing; and
 Editing.
(a) Planning
To write a good report, you need to plan what you want to say. After you
have decided on what you want to say, list down all the points and arrange
them in a logical and suitable sequence. This approach will ensure the
clarity of your message and help you to avoid omitting relevant details.

(b) Writing
The writing stage requires careful planning. It includes a pre-writing stage
where you gather all the information necessary to ensure that there is
substance to your writing. Start writing in simple and plain English and
move from something concrete to something more abstract and expressive.
In order to improve your writing skills, you need to practise writing in the
target language everyday until you are able to express yourself clearly
and meet the needs of your reader. Once you start writing, the words,
sentences, paragraphs and lay-outs become writing tools which you can use
to convey your message concisely, courteously, and confidently.
Sebranek, Meyer and Kemper (1996) summed it up in a nutshell when they

say that writing is like „... basketball and juggling, (it) is not a God-given
mysterious talent given only to a chosen few but, rather, a skill that gets
better with practice, practice that involves increased challenges and,
therefore, risk.‰
Adopt a plain, straightforward style when writing as this makes your work
easy to understand and reduces the chances of misunderstanding arising
from ambiguity.
(c) Editing
The third stage in the writing process is editing. It is crucial to check for
grammatical errors and ensure that there is smooth language flow. The
longer the report, the more editing is usually required. It can be useful to
get someone else to read through the written piece for you.
1.4.2 Pitfalls to Avoid

Basically, there are four types of errors that you must try to avoid in written
communication, as shown in Figure 1.2.
(a) Confusing Language

Confusing language refers to words that mislead the reader and cause
communication breakdown. It may also result in barriers being erected
between the writer and the reader. Avoid words which are ambiguous,
bombastic, vague, sexist, exaggerated, inflated and archaic. Remember to
write in plain, good English.

Figure 1.2: Common errors in writing
(b) Verbosity
Verbosity means the use of too many words, so much so that they interfere
with understanding. If verbosity persists, it may antagonise, confuse, and
bore the reader.
Check out the examples below:

(i) Adnin was the winner! (OK)
Adnin won! (Better)
(ii) The rugby ball flew all the way up, over to the centre field. (OK)
The rugby ball sailed to the centre field. (Better)
(iii) The stability and quality of our financial performance will be
developed through the profitable execution of our existing business,
as well as the acquisition or development of new businesses. (Too
long, too wordy, passive voice.)
We will improve our financial performance not only by executing our

existing business more profitably but by acquiring or developing new
businesses. (Better, shorter, active voice.)
ACTIVITY 1.4
In writing, why do you think it is better to omit needless words?

Discuss.

(c) Poor Sentence Structure

Poor sentence structure often leads to fragmented writing and choppy
sentences that impede understanding. Try to keep your sentence(s) short
and concise to ensure that they are correct, logical and easy to understand.
Word order is important for meaning. Remember that words should be
structured in such a way that those which precede should be in accordance
with those that follow.
ACTIVITY 1.5
The following examples have misplaced modifiers*. Re-order the words

to make them acceptable, presentable and grammatically correct.
 For sale. Antique desk suitable for lady with thick legs and large
drawers.
 Enraged cow injures farmer with an axe.
(Ratner, B. D., 2004)
(*A modifier is an adjective or adverb that changes the meaning of a noun
or verb. It is an optional element in a sentence.)
(d) Information Overload

Information overload means giving so much information till you feel
overwhelmed and confused. This may cause frustration and cast doubts on
the writerÊs credibility. Therefore, as a writer, you must decide on the type
of information required and present this to produce a clear, concise and
relevant piece of written work.
ACTIVITY 1.6
Tell me and IÊll forget.

Show me and I may not remember.
Involve me and IÊll understand.
In your opinion, how does this saying relate to the art of written
communication?

1.5 CHALLENGES IN WRITTEN

COMMUNICATION
Although some people are intimidated by writing, there are times when writing
is perceived as the best way to communicate and to get your message across.
Some people consider written communication to be more concrete and „solid‰, as
there is less room for errors and mistakes when compared with other forms of
communication like oral communication.
1.5.1 New Technologies

Written communication, however, poses challenges such as spelling, grammar,
punctuation, style of writing, and actual wording. Thankfully, todayÊs
technology makes writing memos, reports, letters, and proposals a breeze by
providing tools that can check and even correct misspelt words and incorrect
grammar.
Unfortunately, these tools are not foolproof and will require your attention, thus
making knowledge in this area important. Currently, you can even send
messages electronically via e-mails or networking technologies such as SMS.
Irrespective of the form that written communication takes, you need to adhere to
certain accepted norms when communicating; otherwise, others might not be
able, or want to, communicate with you.
1.5.2 When Others Fail to Respond

In order to get messages conveyed effectively, you must understand what your
message is, who you are sending it to, and how it will be perceived. You
must also be able to carefully consider the circumstances surrounding your
communication such as the situation, context, culture, and whether it is formal or
informal.
Sometimes, people may not respond to your communication for the following
reasons:
(a) Their own poor writing skills (for example, language deficiencies).
(b) Too much information in the text/message.
(c) Too many grammatical errors and mistakes.
(d) Barriers between the sender and receiver (cultural, status, role).
(e) Message is not clear or precise.

(f) Wrong choice of delivery channel/ format.

(g) Past experiences (e.g. treatment received).
(h) Documents not structured, messy or not laid out well.
ACTIVITY 1.7
Think of possible reasons why people have failed to respond to your
written communication in the past. Share this with your friends at the
next tutorial session.
1.5.3 Asking the Right Questions

If a channel of communication is blocked or has come to a standstill, you may
need to pause a moment, and re-evaluate the situation. You have to find out
where things have gone wrong. One way to start doing this is by posing
questions to yourself:
(a) Where did it go wrong?
(b) Why was the message not understood or misinterpreted by the receiver?
(c) Was the timing bad?
(d) Did I use the correct channel to deliver the message?
(e) Were there many errors or mistakes in the document?
The answers to these questions may shed some light on where the
communication had gone wrong.
In order to make it easy for others to understand your communication and

respond accordingly, you should make sure that you provide the following:
(a) A clear indication of your purpose.
(b) Accurate and objective information.
(c) Appropriate headings and sub-headings.
(d) A suitable order of information.
(e) Concise and precise instructions.
(f) Desired action clearly spelled out.

Upon receiving the written communication or report, the reader should

understand the contents of the report clearly; know precisely what action needs
to be taken; how to do it; when to do it; and in what manner it should be done.
 This topic highlights the importance of communication, its meaning, and the
relationship between the message, sender and receiver.
 Communication is defined as the giving, receiving or exchanging of

information, opinions or ideas so that the message is completely understood
by everybody involved.
 A two-way process, communication comprises the following elements – the

sender, message, channel, receiver, feedback, and context.
 Barriers to effective communication include status and roles, cultural

differences, choice of communication channel, length of communication,
disabilities, use of language, individual perceptions, noise and distraction,
clarity of message, and feedback.
 There are three important stages to producing good written communication:

– Planning;
– Writing; and
– Editing.
 The pitfalls to avoid in written communication are using confusing language,

verbosity, poor sentence structure, and information overload.
 All borrowed materials must be cited.
 People sometimes fail to respond to written forms of communication for

various reasons, for instance, the message is not clear, the language is weak
or there is too much information.
 The receiver of any written report should be able to understand the contents
of the report, know precisely what action needs to be taken, how to do it and
in what manner it should be done.

Communication channel Sender

Information overload Status/roles
Receiver Verbosity
Cook, C. (2002). Line by line. New York: Longman.
Flesch, R. (1996). The art of plain talk. New York: Harper Brothers Publishers.
Hacker, D. (2003). A writerÊs reference (5th ed.). Boston/New York: Bedford/

St. MartinÊs.
Ludlow, R., & Panton, F. (1992). The essence of effective communication.

New York: Prentice Hall.
Strunk, W. Jr., White, E. B., & Roger, A. (2004). The elements of style: A style of
gender for writers (4th ed.). New York: Longman.
Taylor, S. (2000). Essential communication skills: The ultimate guide to successful

business communication. Boston: Pearson Educational.

Topic  Communication
2 Models –
A Theoretical
Perspective
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify important elements in the communication process;
2. Describe four models of communication; and
3. Explain the significance of the roles of signs, symbols, and metaphors
to meaning and interpretation.
 INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will learn about models of communication in order to
help you better understand the nature of communication. Several models of
communication will be presented to show you how various thinkers have tried
to explain the communication process. However, you must remember that all
models have their limitations as they only provide snapshots of a phenomenon,
and not the complete picture. It is not easy to fit something that we do almost
continuously, every waking moment – i.e. communicate – into a simple
illustration. But the models can serve as starting points for you to discover the
mystery of human communication, and to better conceptualise the written
communication process. Only when we have a clear understanding of this can
we hope to hone our skills towards more effective communication.

TOPIC 2 COMMUNICATION MODELS – A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE  17
2.1 CLAUDE SHANNON’S MODEL

Claude Shannon was an engineer who formulated an information theory based on
mathematical theorems. His model of a communication system – developed in the
1940s – can be summarised in a diagram, as illustrated in Figure 2.1, which shows
that information is transmitted from a source through a channel to a receiver:
Figure 2.1: Claude ShannonÊs model of communication
In ShannonÊs model, the encoding and decoding of information is of primary

importance. Put simply, encode is „to compose‰ a message, whilst decode means
„to interpret‰ the message. The process of encoding information for transmission,
and of decoding received information is affected by „noise‰.
Noise is interference on the channel or media through which the information is

transmitted. This can be external or inherent in the system and can mean many
things, from bad printing of text to static interference of radio waves.
ShannonÊs model, however, is considered by many to be too mechanical because

it ignores the reason people compose messages. The message itself is not always
the reason people communicate; sometimes a piece of communication aims not
so much to relay information as to build and maintain social relations.
For example, let us say that your clientÊs general manager has just met with an
accident and passed away. You send a letter of condolence to your client. In this
case, the content of the letter is of secondary importance.
What is more important is the gesture – the sending of the letter which says, „We
know of your loss and sympathise with you‰. This gesture aims to maintain the
good relationship you already have with your client, even if there is a change in
management. In this kind of cases, ShannonÊs model has limited impact.

18  TOPIC 2 COMMUNICATION MODELS – A THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE
2.2 ROMAN JAKOBSON’S MODEL
Figure 2.2: JakobsonÊs model of communication
Roman JakobsonÊs model (please refer to Figure 2.2) is particularly suited to

explain written communication as it takes into account code (the language
you write in) besides other major elements like writer, reader, context, message
and contact. However, it still does not take into consideration factors for
communication such as motives.
In this model, the contact is your medium of communication. The contact can
be something as simple as a poster on the wall, or something much more
complex (like the Internet which involves servers, satellites, or cables and other
sophisticated technology).
The code is the language you write in. It includes the alphabet and the discourse
conventions we normally use in written communication. If the writer and the
reader use the same code, then communication is simpler. Communication, for
example, is much easier if you write in Arabic and use legal discourse conventions
when you write to someone who is an Arab and a lawyer by profession.
Jakobson also borrows from ShannonÊs model (transmission via channel) but his
model still fails to take into account the learning that goes into communicating and
the recursiveness in writing and reading. JakobsonÊs model has been simplified but
this only produces a more limited model (see Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: JakobsonÊs simplified model of communication
2.3 MODEL BASED ON ULRIC NEISSER’S

WORK
Ulric NeisserÊs work is somewhat harder to put into a model. Neisser himself does
not present us with a model but we can construct a simple one to help us understand
his writings (please refer to Figure 2.4):
Figure 2.4: Ulric NeisserÊs model of communication

Figure 2.4 tries to capture the basic ideas of NeisserÊs work in the psychology
of cognition and perception and how they are applied in the writing process. It
presents perception as exploratory and recursive. We explore our world or a
specific phenomenon guided by our desires, needs, ideas and images of the
world. This exploration gives us a new perception or new information of the
world which, in turn, affects our needs, desires and worldviews. This again
changes our perception of the world and so we begin our exploration again. This
cycle continues as long as we are still learning and exploring.
This model is especially relevant in written communication. We write guided by

our ideas, beliefs, and motivations and as we write, we explore, discover and
learn. The information we produce triggers us to start thinking of new ideas.
These new ideas influence our beliefs, and so the exploration cycle begins again.
If you combine this model with those by Shannon and Jakobson, you will come
up with a rather good picture of the writing process which we can now see as
motivated, exploratory and recursive.
2.4 MODEL BASED ON MICHAEL POLANYI’S

WORK
Michael Polanyi was a philosopher whose work contributed significantly to our
understanding of written communication. He argues that a person needs to be
actively engaged in the process of knowing, and highlights the importance of the
„tacit dimension‰, the fact that we know more than we can say and that we often
say more than we realise.
The model is simple. A person discovers meaning in an experience or context, for

instance, he watched a beautiful sunrise. Subsequently, the person writes a text
to express his appreciation and to convey the meaning he had gained from the
experience. He may write a poem, novel, essay, letter or journal entry. Someone else
reads the text in another context (for instance, by the beach) and derives meaning
from it. Of course, in some instances, the reader may be the writer himself.
An important implication of this model is that the reader may not have shared
in the original experience but still derives meaning from the text. However,
the meaning that the reader discovers in the text may not be as intended by the
writer. In other words, a text cannot convey an experience, only meanings.

You should also not that some texts do not convey a single, unequivocal meaning
to all readers. These are texts we call literature. Both PolanyiÊs and NeisserÊs
models highlight the importance of interpretation in written communication.
In general, all the four models of communication could be summarised in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Summary of Communication
Model Key Ideas

The encoding and decoding of information is of primary
Claude Shannon
importance.
Roman Jakobson The contact is your medium of communication.
Perception is exploratory and recursive. We explore our
Ulric Neisser world or a specific phenomenon guided by our desires,
needs, ideas and images of the world.
The meaning that the reader discovers in the text may not
Michael Polanyi
be as intended by the writer.
2.5 SOME IDEAS ABOUT COMMUNICATION

Communication is a dynamic process. Over the years, there have been changes
not only in the way we communicate but also in the „code‰ or language form
used. This section introduces us briefly to the signs, symbols and abbreviations
commonly used in written communication as these may have meanings and
interpretations unique to particular contexts, and a failure to understand this can
also cause a breakdown in communication.
2.5.1 Signs, Symbols and Abbreviations

Signs, symbols and abbreviations are important in written communication. In
fact, signs and symbols are both primitive precursors of the written language
as well as important modern supplements to it. They preceded the Western
alphabet as a form of writing. However, the meanings they convey is culture-
bound and may or may not get interpreted correctly, thereby affecting the
effectiveness of the communication.

A sign can be anything that is used to point to, or stand for, something else. It can
be used to represent ideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings and concepts. In
a way, words are also signs, not unlike the painted metal plates on posts we see
by the roadside. The advantage of using signs in written communication is that
the actual objects represented by the signs need not be present when we write
about them.
However, it is important to choose the correct sign to use for the right occasion. A
„No Parking‰ sign says a thousand words if it is found beside a house, but would
probably create confusion if it is put beside a swimming pool or located inside a
gymnasium.
When we use signs to refer to complex things, we call them symbols. Symbols have
complex meanings in addition to literal ones. In some cases, a symbol may have
more than one meaning, some of which may be culture-bound. Take the picture of a
rice stalk, for example. In countries like Japan and Malaysia, this denotes fruitfulness
and abundance; sometimes, even fertility (please refer to Figure 2.5).
Figure 2.5: The rice plant is a symbol of fertility and abundance
The advent of technology today means that written communication has taken
on new forms such as email and SMS. Increasingly, emoticons and shorthand
notations (acronyms) are used to convey messages.
Commonly used emoticons are shown in Table 2.2:
Table 2.2: Meanings of Emoticons
Emoticon Meaning
:-) Happy or do not take me too seriously.
;-) Being cheeky or showing disbelief.
:-( Sad or disappointed.

E-mail communities are also increasingly using abbreviations, such as those shown
in Table 2.3, which have taken on universal meanings in written communication.
Table 2.3: Shorthand Notation
Shorthand Notation Meaning

<g> Grin
<hug> Hug
BTW by the way
FYI for your information
IMHO in my humble/honest opinion
RTM read the manual („manual‰ here refers to any documentation)
LOL [I] laughed out loud [at what you wrote]
RSN real soon now
ROTFL [I am] rolling on the floor laughing [at what you wrote]
TIA thanks in advance
TTFN Ta-ta for now
ACTIVITY 2.1
„Text does not convey the original experience to the reader. It conveys
meaning.‰ Elaborate.
 A model is a snapshot of a phenomenon, not the complete picture.
 Claude ShannonÊs model gives importance to the encoding and decoding of

information because of the need to counter noise but ignores the reasons why
people compose messages.
 Roman JakobsonÊs model considers the writer, reader, context, message, contact,
and code but does not account for motive.
 According to the model based on the work of Ulric Neisser, we undergo a cycle
of learning whereby we explore based on our existing perceptions, learn new
information, acquire new perceptions, and continue to explore.
 Similarly, we write guided by our beliefs and as we write, we discover new

information which leads to new ideas that influence our beliefs.
 According to the model based on Michael PolanyiÊs work, a piece of text does
not convey the original experience to the reader. Instead, it conveys meaning.
 A sign can represent ideas, experiences, images, objects, feelings and concepts.
 Symbols have complex meanings in addition to the literal ones.
 Emoticons and abbreviations are increasingly making an impact in written

communication.
Code Message
Contact Metaphor
Context Noise
Exploration Perception
Interpretation Sign
Literal Symbol
Meaning Symbolic
Hawkes, T. (1977). Structuralism and semiotics. Los Angeles: University of

California Press.
Kinneavy, J. L. (1971). A theory of discourse. New York: W. W. Norton.
Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive

psychology. New York: W. H. Freeman.
Polanyi, M. (1969). Knowing and being. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Price, R. (1984). A conversation with claude shannon: One manÊs approach to

problem solving. IEEE Comm. 22(5), 123–126.

Topic  What are
3 Essays?
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Plan an essay;
2. Identify different types of essays; and
3. Develop paragraphs.
 INTRODUCTION
Before you can actually communicate using different forms of writing, you need
to know basic writing skills. This topic will assume that you have passed the
sentence construction stage and know how to write good sentences. It will focus
on teaching you how to write paragraphs. The best way to acquire this skill is to
demonstrate it through essay writing.
According to the American Heritage Dictionary, an essay is:
A short literary composition on a single subject, usually presenting the

personal view of the author.
Over time, essays have become very important in the academic world. Academic
essays are used to measure how students fare in their writing performances.
Essays are also used to see the studentsÊ train of thought and ability to argue
certain issues. Due to the different purposes of writing, there are many types
of academic essays. Examples include the descriptive essay, narrative essay,
comparative essay, and argumentative essay.

26  TOPIC 3 WHAT ARE ESSAYS?
Even though there are many types of essays, the basic structure of one particular
essay type is very similar to another. Once you understand the basic structure,
you should be able to write any type of essay required of you.
Tip:
You need to read widely to improve your writing skills. The reading-writing
connection should not be ignored.
3.1 PLANNING TO WRITE ESSAYS

Writing good essays is more than just merely making sure the grammar and
vocabulary used are correct. There are many writing strategies you can employ
to write an essay. Some people like to write down key points as they come to
mind and try to rearrange them later into something acceptable, some prefer to
write straight away and think as they go along, while others may find it easier to
work by coming up with some sort of visual mind map or outline to further
develop their thinking.
As a beginner to essay writing, it is always good to plan what you want to write.
As they say, failing to plan is planning to fail.
The first thing to do is to make sure you understand what the question wants.
Read the question carefully, identify the main issue and understand any new key
terms there.
Basically there are four stages involved in essay writing:

(a) Pre-writing;
(b) Draft;
(c) Editing; and
(d) Final draft/essay.
3.1.1 Pre-writing Stage

In this stage you should think about the essay topic, then gather information and
scribble your ideas related to it, putting this down in the form of a bulleted list,
mind-map, outline and so on (please refer to Figure 3.1). Use the form that you are
most comfortable with.

TOPIC 3 WHAT ARE ESSAYS?  27
Figure 3.1: Ways of putting your thoughts and ideas in writing

Source: Cox, K. & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book. Melbourne: Addison Wesley
Longman Australia Pty. Ltd.

ACTIVITY 3.1
Do this activity either alone, in pairs, or in groups. Choose an

essay topic and brainstorm the content of the essay. Write down all
suggestions, no matter how silly they may sound to you. Keep these
suggestions aside until later.
3.1.2 Drafting Stage

Different people adopt different strategies at this stage. You can come up with
an outline and stick closely to this, or begin with the section you are most
comfortable with. Alternatively, you can just start writing without a plan. As a
beginner, it is always good to have an outline or a plan for your essay. An essay
outline might involve the following:
 Paragraph 1 – Introduction
 Paragraph 2 – Point (a)
 Paragraph 3 – Point (b)
 Paragraph 4 – Point (c)
 Paragraph 5 – Point (d)
 Paragraph 6 – Point (e)
 Paragraph 7 – Conclusion/Summary
ACTIVITY 3.2
Look at the notes you made during the pre-writing exercise

(Activity 3.1). Read through them again and decide what you want to
include and exclude from your essay. Rearrange and slot the points
according to paragraphs. Write your essay based on your outline.

3.1.3 Editing Stage

After you have finished writing your essay draft, the next step is to reread the
essay and edit it. At this stage, you will check the accuracy of content, clarity
of expression, grammar, vocabulary and other aspects such as spelling,
punctuation, format, and so on.
ACTIVITY 3.3
Reread your first draft and annotate on it. Exchange your annotated
essay with your friend and ask him/her to give you feedback. Do the
same for him/her. Take note of the suggestions and make changes
accordingly.
3.1.4 Final Draft Stage

The final stage is to rewrite your final essay neatly. Remember to check that the
format used is correct. It is always good to keep your annotated draft next to you
for easy reference.
ACTIVITY 3.4
Rewrite your final essay using the annotated draft as a guide. Write
neatly and ensure that the format is correct as you are going to hand in
your essay after this stage.
(You may want to re-edit and repeat Step 3 again and again until you
are satisfied.)

3.2 TYPES OF ESSAYS

Although there are many types of essays, we are going to look at the three most
common essays found in academic writing:
(a) Explanation Essay

An explanation essay usually starts with a general statement, followed by a
series of explanations to support the statement.
(b) Argumentation Essay

An argumentation essay, on the other hand, is persuasive in nature and
usually begins with a thesis statement. The writerÊs opinion is then argued
out and restated once again in the conclusion.
(c) Discussion Essay

The discussion essay is very similar to the argumentation essay, except
that it discusses both sides of the issue and lets the readers decide for
themselves.
You are expected to make judgement, or form an opinion, on the type of essay
you are going to write while researching your essay topic. One way to make
judgement is to look at key phrases found in the topic given. For example, take a
look at the essay questions below:
(a) Explain why computers are becoming more important in our daily lives.
(b) Many cosmetic and personal care products undergo safety testing before
they are made available to consumers. Most of the time, this means
exposing animals to chemical compounds. We should allow animal testing
in scientific research provided no animals are harmed in the process.
Discuss.
(c) China in this new millennium decided to reconsider the „bamboo curtain‰
policy in order to cooperate and strengthen its ties with other countries.
What has led to this policy shift and what are the possible consequences?
ACTIVITY 3.5
Look at the three essay questions above and underline the key terms
for each question. Then, write a brief explanation of what you should
include in your essay for each of the topics.

From Activity 3.5, you should have identified the key terms below:
 Explain.
 Discuss.
 What has.
 What are.
A brief explanation of what should be included in each essay is suggested below:
(a) I must talk about why computers are becoming more important.
(b) I must think about animal testing and make a decision whether I agree or
disagree with the premise: „We should allow animal testing in scientific
research provided no animals are harmed in the process.‰ I must define
„animal testing‰ and explain why this is an issue.
(c) There are two questions that need to be answered here. I must research and
find out what other people think about why China is trying to cooperate
and strengthen its ties with other countries. I must also explain the reasons
for the policy shift and speculate about possible consequences in the future.
3.3 DISCOURSE MARKERS
A discourse marker is a word or phrase used in a conversation to signal the

speaker's intention to mark a boundary:
„Anyway, I'll have to be going now.‰
The function of anyway is to signal a change in the direction of the

conversation, in this case to finish it, so anyway is a discourse marker here.
Discourse markers can be used to focus, clarify, contrast, change the subject,
show agreement or disagreement etc.
Source: Discourse Marker – Glossary Definition - UsingEnglish.com. (n.d.).

http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/discourse-marker.html
There are many types of discourse markers in essay writing, depending on the
purpose and relationship of the ideas you are trying to express. Table 3.1 shows
some common discourse markers that you usually position at the start of a
phrase or a clause.

Table 3.1: Examples of Different Types of Discourse Markers
Purpose/ Sentence Connectors Position within

Relationship Clause/Sentence
(i) Adding Moreover; In addition; Initial position

something Additionally; Further; Further to
this; Also; Besides; What is more
(ii) Making However; On the other hand; In Initial position

a contrast contrast; Yet
between two
separate things,
people, ideas
etc.
(iii) Making an Although; Even though; Despite the Initial position

unexpected fact that; In spite of the fact that;
Starts a
contrast Regardless of the fact that
second/subordinate
(concession)
clause
(iv) Saying why Because; Since; As; Insofar as Initial position

something is
Starts a
the case
second/subordinate
clause
(v) Saying what Therefore; Consequently; In Initial position

the result of consequence; As a result;
something is Accordingly; Hence; Thus; For this
reason; Because of this
(vi) Expressing a If; In the event of; As long as; So Initial position
condition long as; Provided that; Assuming
Starts a
that; Given that
second/subordinate
clause
(vii) Making what On the contrary; As a matter of fact; Initial position

you say In fact; Indeed
stronger

Besides the above examples, there are other types of discourse markers that we
usually use in essay writing. This includes:
(a) Time Sequence Markers

Time sequence markers link sentences together as shown in Table 3.2:
First, he went to the post office. Then, he stopped by the market.
Table 3.2: Time Sequence Markers
Types Sentence Connectors

(i) Time markers Before, since, as, until, meanwhile, at the moment, when,
(general) whenever, as soon as, just as
(ii) Sequence markers First(ly), initially, second(ly), third(ly), to begin with, then,
next, earlier/later, after this/that, following, afterwards,
finally, lastly
(b) Addition and Contrast Markers

Addition markers connect two sentences which are in agreement with each
other or support a point (please refer to Table 3.3). For example:
(i) He likes watching movies.
(ii) He enjoys listening to music.
 He likes watching movies and listening to music.
Contrast markers, on the other hand, link sentences which are not in
agreement with each other (please refer to Table 3.3). For example:
(i) He did not agree.
(ii) He went along with the plan.
 Although he did not agree, he went along with the plan.
Table 3.3: Addition and Contrast Markers

(i) Addition markers And, in addition, further, also, both, ⁄ not only ⁄ but
also, furthermore, moreover, besides
(ii) Contrast markers However, but, albeit, though, on the other hand, in
contrast, on the contrary, conversely, although, though,
while, whereas, in spite of, despite

(c) Contrast, Deduction, Example, Addition, Summation Markers

These markers connect sentences which add information, summarise or
give reasons to support a point (please refer to Table 3.4).
Table 3.4: Contrast, Deduction, Example, Addition, and Summation Markers

(i) Add information And, in addition, additionally, moreover, also,
furthermore, as well as, ⁄ not only ⁄ but also
(ii) Contrast But, whereas, on the contrary, on the other hand,
however, despite
(iii) Summarise/Conclude To summarise, in summary, in conclusion
(iv) Therefore, thus, though, because, as, if, so
Reason/result/cause
/effect
(v) Give examples For example, such as, for instance
(d) Cause and effect markers

Cause and effect markers connect sentences which show cause and effect
(please refer to Table 3.5). For example:
(i) There was a traffic jam.
(ii) I was late.
 There was a traffic jam, so I was late.
Table 3.5: Cause and Effect Markers

Cause and effect markers So, but, because, as, if, the reason, provided that, in
comparison
3.4 WRITING PARAGRAPHS

This section will show you how paragraphs evolve in essay writing. It is
assumed that you are already able to construct sentences on your own. Briefly, an
essay consists of three sections: (1) an introduction, (2) the body, and (3) a
conclusion. As every paragraph is a mini essay in itself, we can also say that the
three sections of the essay exist in every paragraph.

As the name suggests, the introduction paragraph introduces the subject matter
of the essay. Usually, the initial sentence introduces the topic and is followed by
supporting sentences. The topic sentence, or thesis statement, gives readers an
understanding of what your essay is all about while the supporting sentences
comprise evidence to support, verify, or provide meaning to the topic sentence
(sometimes, with examples). The paragraph then ends with a concluding
sentence that sometimes includes information on what comes next in the essay.
The next few paragraphs, called body paragraphs or support paragraphs, contain
supporting evidence for the essay. The topic that you have chosen must now be
supported through a description, explanation or argument. In order to do that,
list all your main points to support your topic and expand each main point into a
paragraph.
This process will result in several paragraphs within the body of the essay. Write
each paragraph as if it is on its own, clearly stating what that paragraph is about
in a topic sentence, then support that topic sentence with evidence (four or five
sentences).
You can also provide examples, quotations, facts, and other evidence to support
this paragraph. Some writers end with a summary line but this is not necessary.
Lastly, write the summary or concluding paragraph. This paragraph will

summarise the whole essay, thus making clear to your readers your
understanding of the essay topics. Many people do not take this paragraph
seriously as they think it is just a matter of stringing the points together. In actual
fact, writing this paragraph can be tricky because you might add too many
details or too little information.
The best thing to do is to read all your main points and sub-points. Then, in your
own words, write about your understanding of the whole essay in the order it
appears. You can use the thesis statement to begin this paragraph if you want to.
Remember to be concise and precise. Revise and check for accuracy. There you
have it. It is done. You have written a very basic form of essay. You might want
to let a few of your friends read your essay and revise accordingly based on their
feedback.

The following is a basic outline for an essay:
INTRODUCTION
– Topic sentence/thesis statement of the whole essay.
– Support/Evidence.
– Conclusion for this paragraph and what is to come in next
few paragraphs.
BODY
Support Evidence 1 – Topic sentence for this paragraph.
– Support/Evidence for Evidence 1.
– Examples/Quotations etc.
– Conclusion (optional).
Support evidence 2 – Topic sentence for this paragraph.

Support evidence 3 – Topic sentence for this paragraph.

Support evidence 5
CONCLUSION – Write your summary of the whole essay. Remember to be as clear

and convincing as you can as this is the last paragraph your readers are reading.
It is fine if you are not producing great essays at this point as we will focus on
each part of the essay in greater detail in the topics to come. At this stage, it is
good if you can practice the four steps in essay planning: (1) pre-writing,
(2) draft, (3) editing, and (4) final draft. It is also good to know the outline of a
basic essay.

 Writing a good essay requires some amount of planning. Basically, there are
four stages involved:
– Pre-writing;
– Draft;
– Editing; and
– Final draft/essay.
 In academic writing, the three most common types of essay are:

– Explanation essay;
– Argumentation essay; and
– Discussion essay.
 A discourse marker is a word or phrase used in a conversation to signal the

speaker's intention to mark a boundary.
 An essay consists of three sections:

– Introduction;
– Body; and
– Conclusion.
Body Introduction
Conclusion Thesis statement
Discourse markers Topic sentence
Evidence

Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Teacher's book. Alexandria, VA:
Prentice Hall.
Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book. Melbourne: Addison
Wesley Longman Australia Pty. Ltd.
Moore, S., & Murray, R. (2006). The handbook of academic writing. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Feak, C. A., & Swales, J. M. (2004). Academic writing for graduate students
(2nd ed.). Essential tasks and skills (Michigan series in english for academic &
professional purposes). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press/ESL.
Discourse Marker – Glossary Definition – UsingEnglish.com. (n.d.). Retrieved

September 6, 2009, from http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/
discourse-marker.html
Discourse Markers. (n.d.). Retrieved September 6, 2009, from

http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/

Topic  Types of
4 Essays
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the different types of essays;
2. Prepare outlines for different essay types;
3. Discuss the concept of supporting evidence; and
4. Explain the concept of logical fallacies.
 INTRODUCTION
Essay writing is a very basic skill which should be learned by everybody. You
were introduced to the basic essay outline in the previous topic. In this topic, you
will learn that there are indeed many types of essay genres out there, for
instance, narration, description, definition, evaluation and so on. This topic will
highlight the three most frequently used essay genres in academic writing and
some of the fallacies commonly found.
As explained in the previous topic, there are three main types of essays – the
explanation essay, the argumentation essay, and the discussion essay.
The main objective of an explanation essay is to clarify or explain issues, usually

in the context of natural and social sciences. To make your essay comprehensive,
try answering all the Wh- questions pertaining to the topic you are writing on.
The argumentation essay, on the other hand, not only provides information but
also contains supporting and opposing ideas. Its main objective is to persuade
readers to side with the essay writer.

40  TOPIC 4 TYPES OF ESSAYS
The discussion essay is somewhat similar to the argumentation essay at first

glance, but it is actually the most taxing to write of the three genres mentioned. It
contains information as well as the writerÊs personal views, supported by facts
and evidence. It should not get too personal as the readerÊs approval is not really
the objective. The main objective is to discuss the issues objectively and let the
readers think for themselves. As we delve deeper into this topic, we will learn
these three genres in greater detail.
4.1 EXPLANATION ESSAY

According to the Cambridge LearnerÊs Dictionary, an „explanation‰ means:
⁄ the details or reasons that someone gives to make something clear or easy to
understand.
This is further defined by dictionary.com as:
⁄ the act or process of explaining.

OR
⁄ a statement made to clarify something and make it understandable.
Thus, an explanation essay can be defined as an essay that explains things or

processes in sequential order. The use of the simple present tense would be in
order here.
So how do you handle an explanation essay? The same planning stages you have
learned earlier can be applied when writing any essay. The only things to watch
out for are the different content and various styles of writing essays.
For instance, it is always good to start an explanation essay by giving the readers
some general information about the subject that you are writing about in your
introductory paragraph. The main idea sentence must be able to stand on its own
and make complete sense by itself.

TOPIC 4 TYPES OF ESSAYS  41
Try asking yourself some Wh-questions before writing your thesis statement:
(a) What?
(b) Who?
(c) Why?
(d) What for?
(e) When?
(f) How?
The body of the essay can be written based on three structural styles:
(a) Temporal Sequential

The points of the essay are written in a pretty linear way, as in a  b  c
 d. Time markers are usually used to begin each paragraph to show the
processes involved.
(b) Cyclical
The main points are presented in a cyclical manner, for example, when we
write about the hydrological cycle (formation of rainfall).
(c) Cause and Effect

An example of this type of essay would be explaining why traffic jams are
common in a big city.
You can conclude the essay by summarising or giving additional information

related to the process before ending.

ACTIVITY 4.1
An essay which is explanatory in nature can be written in three

structures: (1) linear, (2) cyclical, or (3) cause and effect. Read the titles
below and see which structure suits each essay.
1. Explain the life cycle of a butterfly.
2. One very important issue surrounding families today is the issue
of working mothers. Women should not be allowed to work until
their children are at least 12 years old. Discuss.
3. China in the 21st century is committed to strengthening exchange
and cooperation with countries around the world. What are the
historical and political factors which have led to this policy shift
and what will be the possible economic consequences?
4. Explain the causes of youth unemployment and its effects on
young people.
5. Explain the four seasons which occur in many parts of the world.
6. It wasnÊt until the 1960s that the rights of minorities became a
focused issue for many Western countries. Trace the history of the
policies in Australia which led to the end of the ÂWhite AustraliaÊ
policy in 1974.
Possible structures:
(a) Steps in linear process ___________________________
(b) Steps in cyclical process ___________________________
(c) Explanation of something that has factors and conditions,
reasons and effects ______________________________
Source: Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: Students' book.
Melbourne: Addison Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd.

Essay Example 1 shows the outline of an essay which describes the process of
making an omelette:
How to Make an Omelette
An omelette is usually made with two or three eggs and is cooked very
quickly in a sauté pan. As with so many established recipes and cooking
techniques, the French are the masters of the omelette, which if cooked
correctly, is light, moist, and slightly puffy. A non-stick pan works very well
for preparing an omelette and is often preferred by the home cook, but
professional chefs use an iron pan with a long handle that can be exclusively
used for omelette making. A properly seasoned iron pan can be cleaned after
each use simply by wiping it with a clean cloth or paper towel, rubbing the
pan with salt, and giving the pan a final wipe to remove the salt. The salt
treatment helps prevent eggs from sticking to the pan the next time it is used.
To begin preparing an omelette, crack open 2 or 3 eggs over a bowl, add salt
and pepper (optional), and stir the eggs just until the whites and yolks begin
to blend. The eggs should not be beaten vigorously.
Then place the sauté pan on high heat and thoroughly coat the bottom and
sides of the pan with butter. After the butter is melted, it will begin to
foam. When the foaming stops, the pan is hot enough to begin cooking the
omelette. Make sure the pan is not so hot that the butter begins to brown. If
this happens, the butter will quickly reach its smoke point, which will cause
an unsatisfactory result.
Next pour the eggs into the pan. The eggs should begin to coagulate almost
immediately. Using a few side to side and turning movements of your arm
while grasping the handle of the pan, distribute the eggs in the pan, creating
an even layer over the entire bottom of the pan.
After heating for a few more seconds, the eggs should begin to form into a
mass resembling the unfolded omelette shape. Jerking the pan toward you
should cause the omelette to roll over upon itself as it hits the side of the pan.
Continue doing this for a few seconds until the omelette is folded into a
pleasing form.

After tilting the omelette from the pan onto a plate, it is ready to serve. The
actual cooking time is usually no more than 30 to 45 seconds. The omelette
should be tender and moist. A dry omelette indicates that it has been cooked
too long.
Ingredients that are more substantial in volume (such as cheese or chopped

meat), should not be added to the omelette until after the eggs have
coagulated, but the ingredients must be added prior to flipping the omelette
in half. These ingredients are placed on one side of the omelette; then the
omelette is folded. Folding the omelette in the pan using the flipping
technique might not work as well as it does when folding a plain omelette, so
a spatula is most often used to fold the omelette in the pan. The extra
ingredients can also be placed on top of the plain omelette immediately
before serving.
4.2 ARGUMENTATION ESSAY

In this type of essay, you try to win your readers over so that they will agree with
what you say, accept your facts, embrace your values, and adopt your arguments
and way of thinking.
I am sure that sounds like a lot of hard work but that is only because it actually
is! For your essay to be effective, there must be a certain convention that needs
to be followed. This is why you must take time to plan before writing an
argumentation essay.
The first thing to do is to read the topic given to you. Once you have read the
topic, underline the key words. Write down a few other words, if possible, that
are similar in meaning with the key words. This will help your understanding
further.
Once you have understood the topic, you have to decide whether you are for or
against the idea found in the topic. Just merely agreeing or disagreeing would
not help you write a good essay. Besides considering the position you are going
to take, you also need to ensure that you have reasons to back your stand. You
also need to be clear about the two conflicting perspectives that you are going to
present in the essay before taking a stand and backing it up with your reasoning
or evidence.

After all this is done, write the conclusion and re-emphasise your position or
stand about the issues discussed.
Use the basic essay outline discussed earlier. Your essay should have an
introduction, body and conclusion. The introductory paragraph of your essay
should provide a general explanation of your topic, some background
information and a thesis statement or topic sentence.
In this type of essay, your thesis statement would be your stand or the position
you are taking concerning the topic. The body of your essay is like the main
course of a meal, so it is very important that the argument is solid. This is where
you present your arguments in greater detail with evidence to support your
stand, and try to convince the audience why your stand is the right one.
You can use a variety of ways to present your evidence such as statistics, other
studies, popular beliefs and stories. While arguing your points, avoid and look
out for „logical fallacies‰ or poor arguments. We will discuss more of these
fallacies towards the end of this topic.
When making claims in an argumentation essay, it is not enough to only have

solid evidence to back them up. You also need to anticipate counter-arguments
and be prepared to address them.
There are a number of ways by which you can generate counterarguments:

(a) By taking the opposing side for a moment;
(b) By doing thorough research on the topic; and
(c) By discussing the topic with a friend.
The conclusion is very important since it is the last part that your readers will read
and probably what they will remember most. So make sure you make your stand
clear and not confusing. In this paragraph, you should remind your readers about
the issue at hand, summarise the main points, re-emphasise your opinion (if you
have given it earlier) and give a glimpse of what is to come if the situation remains
or changes. Remember to keep your conclusion precise and concise, not lengthy.
Your essay layout can be as basic as 1-3-1. This means that the essay comprises
five paragraphs:
(a) An introduction (one paragraph);
(b) Three arguments that support the thesis (three paragraphs); and
(c) A conclusion (one paragraph).

Tip:
While the conclusion part is almost similar to the introduction part, avoid
using the same words. Rephrase or use different words to convey the same
meaning. This is why you need to widen your pool of vocabulary. For
practice, try using the thesaurus to look up synonyms from time to time.
Essay Example 2 shows an essay using the basic 1-3-1 layout.
Health and Healing at Your Fingertips
Throw out the bottles and boxes of drugs in your house. A new theory
suggests that medicine could be bad for your health, which should at least
come as good news to people who cannot afford to buy expensive medicine.
However, it is a blow to the medicine industry, and an even bigger blow to
our confidence in the progress of science. This new theory argues that healing
is at our fingertips: we can be healthy by doing Reiki on a regular basis.
Supporters of medical treatment argue that medicine should be trusted since

it is effective and scientifically proven. They say that there is no need for
spiritual methods such as Reiki, Yoga, Tai Chi. These waste our time,
something which is quite precious in our material world. There is medicine
that can kill our pain, x-rays that show us our fractured bones or MRI that
scans our brain for tumors. We must admit that these methods are very
effective in the examples that they provide. However, there are some „every
day complaints‰ such as back pains, headaches, insomnia, which are treated
currently with medicine. When you have a headache, you take an Aspirin, or
Vermidon; when you cannot sleep, you take Xanax without thinking of the
side effects of these. When you use these pills for a long period, you become
addicted to them; you cannot sleep without them. We pay huge amounts of
money and become addicted instead of getting better. How about a safer and
more economical way of healing? When doing Reiki to yourself, you do not
need anything except your energy so it is very economical. As for its history,
it was discovered in Japan in the early 1900s and its popularity has spread
particularly throughout America and Western Europe. In quantum physics,
energy is recognized as the fundamental substance of which the universe is
composed. Reiki depends on the energy within our bodies. It is a simple and
effective way of restoring the energy flow. There are no side effects and it is
scientifically explained.

Opponents of alternative healing methods also claim that serious illnesses

such as HIV/AIDS and cancer cannot be treated without drugs. They think
so because these patients spend the rest of their lives in the hospital taking
medicine. How can Reiki make these people healthy again? It is very
unfortunate that these patients have to live in the hospital losing their hair
because of chemotherapy, and losing weight because of the side effects of the
medicine they take. Actually, it is common knowledge that except for when
the cancer is diagnosed at an early stage, drugs also cannot treat AIDS or
cancer. Most of the medicine these patients use are to ease their pain and their
sufferings because of the medical treatment they undergo. Instead of drugs
which are expensive and have many side effects, you can use your energy to
overcome the hardships of life, find an emotional balance, leave the stress of
everyday life and let go of the everyday worries. Most of the chronic
conditions such as eczema or migraine are known to have causes such as
poor diet and stress. Deep-rooted anger or other strong emotions can
contribute to viral infections as well. Since balancing our emotions and
controlling our thoughts are very important for our well-being, we should
definitely start learning Reiki and avoid illnesses before it is too late.
Some people may still maintain that in our material world, everything depends
on time. It is even „lacking time‰ that causes much of the stress that leads to the
illnesses we mentioned. How would it be possible to find time to do Reiki to
ourselves and the people around us when we cannot even find time to go to
the theater? This is one good thing about Reiki; it does not require more than
15 minutes of our time. There is no need for changing clothes or special
equipment. It is a wonderfully simple healing art, an effective method of
relaxation and stress-relief. Most important of all, it is less time consuming than
medicine if we think of all the time we spend taking medicine for some
complaints and taking some more for the side effects as well.
Having said these, resistance to Reiki would be quite illogical. Reiki is natural
and drug-free. What is more, it is easy to learn by anyone, regardless of age
and experience. It can be used anywhere, anytime. It also enhances physical,
mental, emotional and spiritual well-being and the benefits last a lifetime. It is
definitely high time to get away from the drug boxes we store in our drug
cabinet!
Oya Ozagac. Health and healing at your fingertips. (n.d.). Retrieved

September 2004, from http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/

ACTIVITY 4.2
There are various stages in an argumentation essay. Using the essay

Health and Healing at Your Fingertips, can you identify these stages?
Discuss with your tutor.
4.3 DISCUSSION ESSAY

The last type of essay we are going to look at is the discussion essay. In academic
writing, the term „discussion‰ usually refers to discussing both sides of an issue
or topic, or discussing the results of a certain research and its implications. In an
argumentation essay, we present our views and provide evidence to support our
arguments in order to persuade the readers to agree with us. However, in a
discussion essay, we do not actually do this. In this type of essay, we present
both sides of the issue and let the readers decide for themselves which side of the
fence they want to be on.
Basically, as the writer of a discussion essay, you should cover both sides of the
issue/topic, provide evidence for your discussion, and weigh the evidence to
make your conclusion.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What is the difference between a discussion essay and an

argumentation essay?
4.4 SUPPORTING EVIDENCE

Having a good thesis statement and outline does not guarantee a good essay. It
needs to be supported with solid evidence in order to convince the readers.

4.4.1 Types of Evidence

There are many types of evidence that you can use in essay writing and they can
be from primary or secondary sources. Primary source, as the name suggests is
first hand information, while secondary source simply means information that is
created out of the primary source.
Evidence can be in the form of facts, quotes, opinions of experts, anecdotes,

examples, or charts and diagrams. The role of evidence or supporting details is to
support your thesis statement:
(a) Fact: Fact is information from something that actually exists in reality, for
example, statistics.
(b) Quotes: Comments from a credible source. Remember not to overuse this.
(c) Opinions of experts: Opinions from experts on the subject of your writing.
(d) Anecdotes: Short accounts of interesting or humorous incidents. These can

liven up a boring academic essay.
(e) Examples: An example is one that is a representative of the whole group.

Examples are great at clarifying your points.
(f) Charts/Diagrams: Drawings or illustrations can be used to clarify complex

concepts in our writing.
4.4.2 How to Use Evidence

To ensure that your thesis statement is strongly supported, you must follow
certain rules to ensure that the evidence used is credible and valid:
(a) Ensure the accuracy of each fact – accuracy of information is crucial

especially with dates, figures, and names.
(b) Facts must be recent (not outdated), reliable and not biased.
(c) Only use facts that are relevant to your writing.
(d) Make sure you have enough facts for each point you want to make.
(e) Arrange facts from general to specific or vice versa.

4.5 LOGICAL FALLACIES

According to the online Encyclopedia Britannica, a fallacy is:
⁄ an erroneous reasoning that has the appearance of soundness.
This error of reasoning is further explained by a website on logical fallacies:
⁄ when someone adopts a position, or tries to persuade someone else to adopt a

position, based on a bad piece of reasoning, they commit a fallacy.
You need to be aware of fallacies when writing essays, especially the

argumentative kind. There are many types of fallacies. Some, as listed by
www.logicalfallacies.com, are as stated on the next page:
Fallacies of Relevance
(a) Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)
(b) Bandwagon Fallacy
(c) FallacistÊs Fallacy
(d) Fallacy of Composition
(e) Fallacy of Division
(f) GamblerÊs Fallacy
(g) Genetic Fallacy
(h) Irrelevant Appeals
(i) Appeal to Antiquity/Tradition
(ii) Appeal to Authority
(iii) Appeal to Consequences
(iv) Appeal to Force
(v) Appeal to Novelty
(vi) Appeal to Pity
(vii) Appeal to Popularity
(viii) Appeal to Poverty
(ix) Appeal to Wealth
(i) Moralistic Fallacy
(j) Naturalistic Fallacy
(k) Red Herring
(l) Weak Analogy

Fallacies of Ambiguity
(a) Accent Fallacies
(b) Equivocation Fallacy
(c) Straw Man Fallacy
Fallacies of Presumption
(a) Affirming the Consequent
(b) Arguing from Ignorance
(c) Begging the Question/Circular Reasoning
(d) Complex Question Fallacy
(e) Cum Hoc Fallacy
(f) False Dilemma/Bifurcation Fallacy
(g) Hasty Generalisation Fallacy
(h) „No True Scotsman‰ Fallacy
(i) Post Hoc Fallacy
(j) Slippery Slope Fallacy
(k) Sweeping Generalisation Fallacy
(l) Subjectivist Fallacy
(m) Tu Quoque Fallacy
We will not cover all the fallacies listed above. You can visit the website and read
it in greater detail if you are interested to know more about these fallacies.
However, we will highlight and explain the more popular ones, as listed in the
University of North Carolina website www.unc.edu.
4.5.1 Hasty Generalisation

Definition:
Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample
that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or just too small). Stereotypes
about people (For example, Frat boys are drunkards; Grad students are nerdy.)
are common examples of the principle underlying hasty generalisation.

Example:
My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one IÊm in is hard, too.
All philosophy classes must be hard!
Two peopleÊs experiences are, in this case, not enough on which to base a
conclusion.
Tip:
Ask yourself what kind of „sample‰ you are using: Are you relying on the
opinions or experiences of just a few people, or your own experience in just a
few situations? If so, consider whether you need more evidence, or perhaps a
less sweeping conclusion. (Notice that in the example, the more modest
conclusion „Some philosophy classes are hard for some students‰ would not
be a hasty generalisation.)
4.5.2 Missing the Point

Definition:
The premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion – but not the
conclusion that the arguer actually draws.
Example:
The seriousness of a punishment should match the seriousness of the crime.
Right now, the punishment for drunk driving may simply be a fine. But drunk
driving is a very serious crime that can kill innocent people. So the death penalty
should be the punishment for drunk driving.
The argument actually supports several conclusions – The punishment for drunk
driving should be very serious in particular – but it does not support the claim
that the death penalty, specifically, is warranted.
Tip:
Separate your premises from your conclusion. Looking at the premises, ask
yourself what conclusion an objective person would reach after reading them.
Looking at your conclusion, ask yourself what kind of evidence would be
required to support such a conclusion, and then see if you have actually
given that evidence. Missing the point often occurs when a sweeping or
extreme conclusion is being drawn, so be especially careful if you know you
are claiming something big.

4.5.3 Post hoc (False Cause)

This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase post hoc, ergo propter hoc, which
translates as „after this, therefore because of this.‰
Definition:
Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of course, sometimes one event
really does cause another one that comes later – for example, if I register for a class,
and my name later appears on the roll, it is true that the first event caused the one
that came later. But sometimes two events that seem related in time are not really
related as cause and effect. That is, correlation is NOT the same thing as causation.
Examples:
President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent crime went up. Jones is
responsible for the rise in crime.
The increase in taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but
the argument has not shown us that one caused the other.
Tip:
To avoid the post hoc fallacy, the arguer would need to give us some
explanation of the process by which the tax increase is supposed to have
produced higher crime rates. And that is what you should do to avoid
committing this fallacy: If you say that A caused B, you should have
something more to say about how A caused B than just that A came first and
B came later!
4.5.4 Slippery Slope

Definition:
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire
consequence, will take place, but there is really not enough evidence for that
assumption. The arguer asserts that if we take even one step onto the „slippery
slope,‰ we will end up sliding all the way to the bottom; he or she assumes we
cannot stop halfway down the hill.

Example:
Animal experimentation reduces our respect for life. If we donÊt respect life, we
are likely to be more and more tolerant of violent acts like war and murder. Soon
our society will become a battlefield in which everyone constantly fears for
his/her life. It will be the end of civilisation. To prevent this terrible consequence,
we should make animal experimentation illegal right now.
Since animal experimentation has been legal for some time and civilisation has
not yet ended, it seems clear that this chain of events will not necessarily take
place. Even if we believe that experimenting on animals reduces respect for life,
and loss of respect for life makes us more tolerant of violence, that may be the
spot on the hillside at which things stop – we may not slide all the way down to
the end of civilisation. So there is insufficient reason to accept the arguerÊs
conclusion that we must make animal experimentation illegal right now.
Like post hoc, slippery slope can be tricky to identify because sometimes a chain
of events can be predicted to follow a certain action. Here is an example: If I fail
English 101, I wonÊt be able to graduate. If I donÊt graduate, I probably wonÊt be
able to get a good job, and I may very well end up doing temp work or flipping
burgers for the next year.
Tip:
Check your argument for chains of consequences, where you say „if A, then
B, and if B, then C,‰ and so forth. Make sure these chains are reasonable.
4.5.5 Weak Analogy

Definition:
Many arguments rely on an analogy between two or more objects, ideas or
situations. If the two things that are being compared are not really alike, the
analogy is a weak one, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of
weak analogy.
Example:
Guns are like hammers – theyÊre both tools with metal parts that could be used to
kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase of hammers
– so restrictions on purchasing guns are equally ridiculous.
While guns and hammers do share certain features, these features (having metal
parts) are not the ones at stake in deciding whether to restrict guns. Rather, we
restrict guns because they can be used to kill large numbers of people at a

distance. This is a feature hammers do not share – it would be hard to kill a

crowd with a hammer. Thus, the analogy is weak and so is the argument based
on it.
Tip:
Identify what properties are important to the claim you are making, and see
whether the two things you are comparing both share those properties.
4.5.6 Appeal to Authority

Definition:
Often we add strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or
authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we are discussing. If,
however, we try to get readers to agree with us simply by impressing them with
a famous name or by appealing to a supposed authority who is not much of an
expert, we commit the fallacy of appeal to authority.
Example:
We should abolish the death penalty. Many respected people, such as actor Guy
Handsome, have publicly stated their opposition to it.
While Guy Handsome may be an authority on matters related to acting, there is

no particular reason why anyone should be moved by his political stand.
Tip:
There are two easy ways to avoid committing this fallacy. First, make sure
that the authorities you cite are experts on the subject you are discussing.
Second, rather than just saying „Dr Authority believes x, so we should
believe it, too,‰ try to explain the reasoning or evidence that the authority
used to arrive at his/her opinion. It also helps to choose authorities who are
perceived as fairly neutral or reasonable, rather than people perceived as
biased.
4.5.7 Ad Populum
Definition:
The Latin name of this fallacy means „to the people.‰ There are several versions
of the ad populum fallacy, but what they all have in common is that the arguer
takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with
others and uses that desire to try to get the audience to accept his/her argument.

One of the most common versions is the bandwagon fallacy, in which the
arguer tries to convince the audience to do something because everyone else
(supposedly) does.
Example:
Gay marriages are just immoral. 70% of Americans think so!
While the opinion of most Americans might be relevant in determining what

laws we should have, it certainly does not determine what is moral or immoral.
Tip:
Make sure that you are not recommending that your audience believe your
conclusion because everyone else believes it, all the cool people believe it,
people will like you better if you believe it, and so forth. Keep in mind that
popular opinion is not always right.
4.5.8 Ad Hominem and Tu Quoque

Definitions:
The ad hominem („against the person‰) and tu quoque („you, too!‰) fallacies
focus our attention on people rather than on arguments or evidence. In both of
these arguments, the conclusion is usually „You shouldnÊt believe So-and-SoÊs
argument.‰ The reason for not believing So-and-So is that So-and-So is either a bad
person (ad hominem) or a hypocrite (tu quoque). In an ad hominem argument, the
arguer attacks his or her opponent instead of the opponentÊs argument.
Examples:
Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that pornography harms
women. But Dworkin is an ugly, bitter person, so you shouldnÊt listen to her.
DworkinÊs appearance and character have nothing to do with the strength of her
argument, so using them as evidence is fallacious.
In a tu quoque argument, the arguer points out that the opponent has actually
done the thing he/she is arguing against, and so the opponentÊs argument
shouldnÊt be listened to. Here is an example: Imagine that your parents have
explained to you why you should not smoke – the damage to your health. You
reply: I wonÊt accept your argument because you used to smoke when you were
my age. You did it, too! The fact that your parents have done the very thing they
are condemning has no bearing on the premise they put forward in their argument
(smoking harms your health and is very expensive), so your response is fallacious.

Tip:
Be sure to stay focused on your opponentsÊ reasoning, rather than on their
character.
4.5.9 Appeal to Pity

Definition:
Appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a
conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.
Examples:
I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give me an A.
My cat has been sick, my car broke down, and IÊve had a cold, so it was really
hard for me to study.
The conclusion here is „You should give me an A.‰ But the criteria for getting
an A has to do with learning and applying the material from the course. The
principle the arguer wants us to accept (people who have a hard week deserve
AÊs) is unacceptable. The information the arguer has given might feel relevant
but it is not, and so the argument is fallacious.
Tip:
Make sure that you are not simply trying to get your readers to agree with
you by making them feel sorry for someone.
4.5.10 Appeal to Ignorance

Definition:
In the appeal to ignorance, the arguer basically says: „Look, there is no
conclusive evidence on the issue at hand. Therefore, you should accept my
conclusion on this issue.‰
Example:
People have been trying for centuries to prove that God exists. But no one has yet
been able to prove it. Therefore, God does not exist.
Here is an opposing argument that commits the same fallacy: People have been
trying for years to prove that God does not exist. But no one has yet been able to
prove it. Therefore, God exists. In each case, the arguer tries to use the lack of
evidence as support for a positive claim about the truth of a conclusion. There is

one situation in which doing this is not fallacious: If qualified researchers have
used well-thought-out methods to search for something for a long time, they
have not found it, and it is the kind of thing people ought to be able to find, then
the fact that they have not found it constitutes some evidence that it does not
exist.
Tip:
Look closely at arguments where you point out a lack of evidence and then
draw a conclusion from that lack of evidence.
4.5.11 Straw Man

Definition:
One way of making your argument stronger is to anticipate and respond in
advance to the arguments that an opponent might make. In the straw man
fallacy, the arguer sets up a wimpy version of the opponentÊs position and tries
to score points by knocking it down. But just as being able to knock down a
straw man is not really impressive, defeating a watered-down version of your
opponentÊs argument is not impressive either.
Example:
Feminists want to ban all pornography and punish everyone who reads it! But
such harsh measures are surely inappropriate, so the feminists are wrong: porn
and its readers should be left in peace.
The feminist argument is made weak by being overstated – in fact, most feminists
do not propose an outright „ban‰ on porn or any punishment for those who
merely read it; often, they propose some restrictions on things like child porn, or
propose to allow people who are hurt by porn to sue publishers and producers,
not readers, for damages. So the arguer has not really scored any points; he or
she has just committed a fallacy.
Tip:
Be charitable to your opponents. State their arguments as strongly,
accurately, and sympathetically as possible. If you can knock down even the
best version of an opponentÊs argument, then youÊve really accomplished
something.

4.5.12 Red Herring

Definition:
Halfway through an argument, the arguer goes off on a tangent, raising a side
issue that distracts the audience from what is really at stake. Often, the arguer
never returns to the original issue.
Example:
Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do. After all, classes
go more smoothly when the students and the professor are getting along well.
Let us try our premise-conclusion outlining to see what is wrong with this
argument:
Premise: Classes go more smoothly when the students and the professor are
getting along well.
Conclusion: Grading this exam on a curve would be the most fair thing to do.
When we lay it out this way, it is pretty obvious that the arguer went off on a
tangent – the fact that something helps people get along doesnÊt necessarily make
it more fair; fairness and justice sometimes require us to do things that cause
conflict. But the audience may feel like the issue of teachers and students
agreeing is important and be distracted from the fact that the arguer has not
given any evidence as to why a curve would be fair.
Tip:
Try laying your premises and conclusion out in an outline-like form. How
many issues do you see being raised in your argument? Can you explain how
each premise supports the conclusion?
4.5.13 False Dichotomy

Definition:
The arguer sets up the situation so it looks like there are only two choices. The
arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so it seems that we are left with only
one option: the one the arguer wanted us to pick in the first place. But often there
are really many different options, not just two – and if we thought about them
all, we might not be so quick to pick the one the arguer recommends!

Example:
Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a new building,
or we continue to risk studentsÊ safety. Obviously we shouldnÊt risk anyoneÊs
safety, so we must tear the building down.
The argument neglects to mention the possibility that we might repair the
building or find some way to protect students from the risks in question – for
example, if only a few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldnÊt hold classes
in those rooms.
Tip:
Examine your own arguments: If you are saying that we have to choose
between just two options, is that really so? Or are there other alternatives you
havenÊt mentioned?
4.5.14 Begging the Question

Definition: Basically, an argument that begs the question asks the reader to
simply accept the conclusion without providing real evidence; the argument
either relies on a premise that says the same thing as the conclusion („circular
reasoning‰), or simply ignores an important (but questionable) assumption that
the argument rests on.
Examples:
Active euthanasia is morally acceptable. It is a decent, ethical thing to help
another human being escape suffering through death.
Let us lay this out in premise-conclusion form:
Premise: It is a decent, ethical thing to help another human being escape

suffering through death.
Conclusion: Active euthanasia is morally acceptable.
If we „translate‰ the premise, weÊll see that the arguer has really just said
the same thing twice: „decent, ethical‰ means pretty much the same thing as
„morally acceptable,‰ and „help another human being escape suffering through
death‰ means „active euthanasia.‰ So the premise basically says, „active
euthanasia is morally acceptable,‰ just like the conclusion does! The arguer hasnÊt
yet given us any real reasons why euthanasia is acceptable; instead, she has left
us asking „well, really, why do you think active euthanasia is acceptable?‰ Her
argument „begs‰ (that is, evades) the real question.
Tip:
One way to avoid begging the question is to write out your premises and
conclusion in a short, outline-like form. See if you notice any gaps that are
required to move from one premise to the next or from the premises to the
conclusion. Write down the statements that would fill those gaps. If the
statements are controversial and youÊve just glossed over them, you might
be begging the question. Next, check to see whether any of your premises
basically says the same thing as the conclusion (but in other words). If so,
youÊre begging the question. The moral of the story: You cannot just assume
or use as uncontroversial evidence the very thing you are trying to prove.
4.5.15 Equivocation
Definition: Equivocation is sliding between two or more different meanings of a
single word or phrase that is important to the argument.
Example:
Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to our
money.
The equivocation here is on the word „right‰: „right‰ can mean both something
that is correct or good (as in „I got the right answers on the test‰) and something
to which someone has a claim (as in „everyone has a right to life‰). Sometimes an
arguer will deliberately, sneakily equivocate, often on words like „freedom,‰
„justice,‰ „rights,‰ and so forth; other times, the equivocation is a mistake or
misunderstanding. Either way, it is important that you use the main terms of
your argument consistently.
Tip:
Identify the most important words and phrases in your argument and ask
yourself whether they could have more than one meaning. If they could, be
sure you are not slipping and sliding between those meanings.

 An explanation essay can be defined as an essay that explains things or

processes in sequential order.
 An argumentation essay tries to win the audience over so that they agree
with what we say, accept our facts, embrace our values, and adopt our
arguments and way of thinking.
 In a discussion essay, we present both sides of the issue and let the audience
decide for themselves which side of the fence they want to be on.
 Having a good thesis statement and outline does not guarantee a good essay.
It needs to be supported with solid evidence in order to convince the
audience.
 When someone adopts a position, or tries to persuade someone else to adopt

a position based on a bad piece of reasoning, they are committing a logical
fallacy.
Ad hominem Fallacies of relevance

Ad populum False dichotomy
Appeal to authority Hasty generalisation
Appeal to ignorance Logical fallacies
Appeal to pity Missing the point
Argumentation essay Post hoc (false cause)
Begging the question Red herring
Discussion essay Slippery slope
Equivocation Straw man
Explanation essay Supporting evidence
Fallacies of ambiguity Tu quoque
Fallacies of presumption Weak analogy

Argumentative Essay. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2009, from

http://www.buowl.boun.edu.tr/students/types%20of%20essays/ARGUME
NTATIVE%20ESSAY.htm#sample_essay
Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: TeacherÊs book. Alexandria, VA: Prentice
Hall.
Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: StudentsÊ book. Melbourne: Addison
Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd.
(2007). Cambridge LearnerÊs Dictionary with CD-ROM (Cambridge LearnerÊs

Dictionary). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Explanation Definition|Definition of Explanation at Dictionary.com. (n.d.).

Retrieved September 6, 2009, from http://dictionary.reference.com
Fallacy (logic) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24,

2009, from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked
Fallacies. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2009, from

http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb
Kitchen-tip. How to make an egg omelette. (n.d.). Retrieved September 11, 2009,
from http://www.recipetips.com
Logical fallacies. (n.d.). Retrieved September 24, 2009, from

http://www.logicalfallacies.info/

Topic  Tackling
5 Essays
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Write and develop paragraphs;
2. Answer one-part and multi-part essay questions;
3. Explain the relevance of creative writing;
4. Write bibliographies correctly;
5. Check for plagiarism and screen information effectively; and
6. Interpret visual cues.
 INTRODUCTION
In the earlier topics, we introduced you to essays and essay genres, and
explained how to plan for good essays. In this topic, you will be introduced to
techniques that will help you handle essay writing better. You will see how a
paragraph is developed and learn various techniques that can be used to develop
paragraphs. Although the previous topics highlighted the many rules and
structures found in different genres of essays, we would like to remind you that
creative writing has a role to play in academic writing too. Essay questions can
sometimes comprise more than one part; hence you will need to identify multi-
part essay questions so that you can answer all the parts in your essay. You will
also be taught to cite and acknowledge resources that you have borrowed so as
not to commit plagiarism. This topic also gives useful pointers on how to screen
for information needed for your research. You will also be given opportunities to
familiarise yourself with the language of charts and graphs.

TOPIC 5 TACKLING ESSAYS  65
5.1 WRITING PARAGRAPHS

You were introduced to paragraph writing in Topic 3. In this section you will be
shown in greater detail how a paragraph is formed.
A paragraph can be considered as a group of sentences that is self-contained and

focuses on a particular idea or point to develop the topic. It is made up of a topic
sentence, supporting sentence/s and a concluding sentence. In other words it is
like a mini essay in itself.
The topic sentence is usually a general statement about the topic. Most of the
time, it is the first sentence in the introductory paragraph. Next is the supporting
sentence or sentences. As the name suggests, the supporting sentence supports
the topic sentence. Sometimes, there can be a couple of supporting sentences.
They provide more information about the topic sentence. The concluding
sentence summarises the whole idea for the paragraph. However, if the
paragraph you are working on is the introductory paragraph of an essay, then
the concluding sentence does more than just summarise the paragraph; it also
gives you an idea of what is to come in the following paragraphs.
ACTIVITY 5.1
Do this activity in small groups:
Choose an essay topic, preferably one which is suitable for writing

a narrative essay. Write a first paragraph for the essay. To do this,
follow the structure described earlier, i.e. come up with a topic
sentence/s, supporting sentence and concluding sentence.
The steps below will guide you in writing the first paragraph:
(a) Begin with a topic sentence. After you have finished writing the
topic sentence, exchange it with the others in your group.
(b) Discuss and comment on each otherÊs topic sentence.
(c) Select the best topic sentence and use this for your essay.
(d) Now, do the same for the supporting details and concluding
sentence.
(e) Put all the adopted sentences together in one paragraph. Now
you have the first paragraph for your essay.

66  TOPIC 5 TACKLING ESSAYS
Another thing to remember is that when writing ideas in English, the main
thought or most important point usually comes first. This is true, even at a
sentence level. This is something useful to remember, especially when formulating
topic sentences.
For example, if you want to tell someone what you did last night (that is, read a
book):
You DONÊT say:

(a) The book I read last night was very good, OR
(b) I read a very good book last night.
You say:
(c) Last night, I read a very good book.
There is nothing grammatically wrong in sentence (a) or (b). But the order is
wrong. Of the three sentences above, (c) is the only one which correctly expresses
the importance of what you did last night.
In a nutshell, if your aim is to talk about what you did last night, then „Last
night, I ⁄‰ becomes the theme or the most important idea. Hence, it comes at the
beginning of the topic sentence. The end of the sentence – very good book – is the
other important idea in the sentence.
There are other ways to develop your topic sentence. You can do this by:
(a) Describing the Topic Sentence Further

(Topic sentence) I received a beautiful red bicycle for my birthday. It has a
small square rattan basket at the front and a blinking red tail light to make
it visible to others at night.
(b) Providing Reasons

(Topic sentence) This bank is better than that one. It gives a high interest
rate on all your savings regardless of the amount you deposited.
(c) Defining and Giving Examples

(Topic sentence) Technology has made it possible to put GPS on your
mobile phone. GPS or Global Positioning System is a navigation tool that
uses satellite technology to pinpoint your location. For example, you can
navigate from point A to point B simply by pressing a few buttons.

You can also develop your topic sentence by showing cause and effect
relationships, listing down details, drawing analogies, and comparing and
contrasting.
5.2 TACKLING ESSAY QUESTIONS

Part of successful essay writing is to ensure that you write according to what
the question wants. Read the question twice to be sure that you understand it
correctly. Try to interpret the question by underlining key words found in the
question. Some essay questions have more than one question in it.
An example of a multi-part essay question is given below.
CFC and a few other substances are responsible for ozone depletion. Explain
what CFC is and how it depletes the ozone layer. Discuss ways to prevent this
harmful substance from further damaging the ozone layer.
There are three parts to the question above:

(a) Explain what CFC is;
(b) How it depletes the ozone layer; and
(c) Discuss ways to reduce its harmful effects.
Once you understand the question, ask yourself if you know the subject matter. If
your answer is YES, start writing down the facts. However, if your answer is NO,
then start researching the topic and read more about it before you start writing.
It is always good to take another close look at all the key terms and try to
determine what the essay genre is. Recognising the genre will help you come up
with the appropriate essay outline.
It is usually sufficient to answer a straightforward essay question (a one-part

question) using the classic five-paragraph essay. This type of essay, as the name
suggests, comprises five paragraphs:
(a) Paragraph 1 – Introduction.
(b) Paragraph 2 – Body (point 1).
(c) Paragraph 3 – Body (point 2).
(d) Paragraph 4 – Body (point 3).
(e) Paragraph 5 – Conclusion.

However, this would not work with a multi-part essay. In the multi-part essay,
each main paragraph (body) must answer part of the question. Transition words
such as however, while, and, but and others are used to signal a change in
direction in the essay so as to accommodate other parts of the answer. There is no
specific outline for a multi-part essay question.
5.3 CREATIVE WRITING

In contrast to academic writing, creative writing does not have specific rules,
forms or outlines that you need to follow. Creative writing can be fiction, poetry
or non-fiction. Genres such as poetry, novels, short stories and even plays fall
under creative writing.
Marksberry in her book, Foundation of Creativity, quoted Witty and LaBrant to

define creativity as:
... a composition of any type of writing at any time primarily in the service of
such needs as:
(a) The need for keeping records of significant experience;
(b) The need for sharing experience with an interested group; and
(c) The need for free individual expression which contributes to mental
and physical health.
So why is creative writing mentioned here? While this module does not attempt
to teach creative writing per se, it does try to encourage you to be a little more
creative in your academic writing. Being in touch with your creative side will
enable you to express yourself better, with more precise words and original
sentences. It will also help you to find your own style, voice and tone within all
the rules, forms and outlines of academic writing. But to be able to do this, you
need to read extensively into creative writing genres. Reading will help build up
your vocabulary, exposing you to „fresh‰ approaches to writing sentences and
enlightening you with how others string their ideas together. After all this
reading, you will be better able to express yourself using your own words, and
move away from clichés and idiomatic expressions. When you are able to do this,
you will find that your essay sounds more original, your letter creates more
impact and your resume just may land you that job you are aiming for.

ACTIVITY 5.2
Read the sub-topic on Creative Writing again, either on your own or in

a group. Reflect and discuss in what way this sub-topic is written a
little differently from the rest.
5.4 BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND PLAGIARISM

In this section, we will discuss the following:
(a) Bibliographies; and
(b) Plagiarism.
5.4.1 Bibliographies
According to WordNet of Princeton University, bibliography is a list of writings
with time and place of publication (such as the writings of a single author or the
works referred to) in preparing a document etc. So when you do research and
borrow ideas from books, magazines, newspapers, websites, journals, films
and others, you must give credit to the source where your idea came from and
include a list of bibliographies in your report in order to avoid accusations of
plagiarism.
We will discuss plagiarism later. There are two popular ways of writing
bibliographies, namely, MLA and APA. The MLA documentation style is
recommended by the Modern Language Association and is widely used in
fields like humanities, history, literature, rhetoric and communication. The APA
documentation style, on the other hand, is recommended by the American
Psychological Association and is widely used in social sciences.
Both citation styles include In-text Citations and Works Cited Page. In-text
Citation simply means documenting your sources within your paper for
immediate view, while Works Cited Page means the last page of your paper that
lists all the sources you cited.

The following describes how you could make in-text citations and bibliography
entries based on the MLA style:
In-text Citations
Citations should be placed directly after a quotation from another source, or a
reference to intellectual property owned by others.
Books, Magazines, Newpapers, Journals:

1 author: (Last name, Page)
2 authors: (Last name and Last name, Page)
3 authors: (Last name, Last name and Last name, Page)
4+ authors: (Last name et al)
Encyclopedia
any authors: (Encyclopedia Name)
Bibliography Entries:
At the end of your paper, you should include a page with a listing of all the sources
you have used and referenced in your work.
Book: Last name, First name. Title. City: Publisher, Year.
Magazine: Last name, First name. „Title of Article.‰ Title of Magazine Date
published: page numbers.
Newspaper: Last name, First name. „Title of Article.‰ Title of Newspaper [City]
Date Published, Edition, Section: page numbers.
Website: Last name, First name. „Title of Page.‰ Title of Site. Editor. Date
and/or version no. Date of access <URL>.
Journal: Last name, First name. „Title of Article.‰ Title of Journal Volume
number. Issue number (Year): page numbers.
Figure 5.1: Citation according to MLA style

Source: (www.bibme.com)

The APA style of making in-text citations and bibliography entries is a little
different:
In-text Citations
Citations should be placed directly after any quotation from another source, or a
reference to intellectual property owned by others.
All Sources:
1 author: (Last name, Year)
2 authors: (Last name and Last name, Year)
3 authors: (Last name, Last name and Last name, Year)
4+ authors: (Last name et al., Year)
Magazine or Newspaper:
No authors: („Article title‰, Year)
Note: for direct quotes add page numbers: (Last name, year, p. #)
Bibliography Entries:
At the end of your paper, you should also include a page with a listing of all the
sources you used and referenced in your work.
Book: Last name, F. (Year). Title. City: Publisher.
Magazine: Last name, F. (Date published). Title of Article. Title of Magazine,
Volume, page numbers.
Newspaper: Last name, F. (Date published). Title of Article. Title of Newspaper,
volume, page numbers.
Website: Last name , F. (Date published). Title of Website/Article. Retrieved
Date, from URL
Journal: Last name, F. (Year). Title of Article. Title of Journal, volume(issue),
page numbers.
Figure 5.2: Citation according to APA style

Source: (www.bibme.com)

While it is good to know how to write your citation manually, in this electronic
age there are plenty of websites that can help you build your citation
automatically just by entering the IBSN number or title of a book, URL etc.
One of the websites you can visit is www.bibme.com. Another one is

www.easybib.com. You can browse the Internet to find one that suits you.
Samples of bibliographies can be seen at the end of every topic in this module.
5.4.2 Plagiarism
Plagiarising is considered a serious crime since it is actually stealing someone
elseÊs ideas or words and claiming them to be your own.
A definition of „plagiarism‰ taken from www.plagiarism.org quoted the

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary; to „plagiarise‰ means:
(a) To steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as oneÊs own.
(b) To use (anotherÊs production) without crediting the source.
(c) To commit literary theft.
(d) To present as new and original an idea or product derived from an existing
source.
This same website www.plagiarism.org goes on to explain what is meant by

plagiarism:
(a) Turning in someone elseÊs work as your own;
(b) Copying words or ideas from someone else without giving credit;
(c) Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks;
(d) Giving incorrect information about the source of a quotation;
(e) Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a source without
giving credit; and
(f) Copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes up the
majority of your work, whether you give credit or not.
Most cases of plagiarism can be avoided, however, by citing sources. Simply

acknowledging that certain material has been borrowed, and providing your
audience with the information necessary to find that source, is usually enough to
prevent plagiarism.

Students, as new writers and researchers, should take plagiarism seriously and
refrain from copying and pasting information from websites and e-documents
without proper citation. They should also avoid taking paragraphs or passages
from other sources, and inserting them into their own essay or research paper,
and claiming all these to be their own.
5.5 SCREENING FOR USEFUL RESOURCES

One way to quickly screen through piles of resources such as books, journal articles
and websites when doing research for an essay or report is to read the abstract or
précis. According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary; abstract means a
summary of points (as of a writing) usually presented in skeletal form whilst précis,
originating from a French word, means a concise summary of essential points,
statements or facts. While both words seem to have similar meaning, many take
abstract as the summary done by the author and précis as the summary of an abstract
rewritten using your own words.
Another way to quickly screen materials and resources to see itsÊ relevance is by
reading the introduction of a book or an essay. When reading the introduction, be on a
look out for what is known as „stages‰. The three stages found in an introduction are:
(a) The topic sentence – a general statement about the essay.
(b) Supporting details – explanation, definition or description of subject matter.
(c) Preview or scope – what is to come or what the topic is going to cover.
Utilising these methods will help you save a lot of time screening through
materials for your essay or research.
5.6 DESCRIBING VISUAL DATA

Visual data such as charts and graphs are common in essays, especially those
in scientific research papers. You need to familiarise yourself with words used
in this type of essay and learn how to interpret charts and graphs. In order to
do this, you should start reading essays and articles featuring them. The easiest
way to do this is to google „interpreting charts and graphs‰ and look through
the websites listed, so as to find out more about how charts and graphs
are interpreted. Some websites provide activities that you can participate in to
practise these skills.

The most common types of graphic aids normally found in academic writing
include the following:
(a) Tables;
(b) Line graphs;
(c) Bar charts;
(d) Pictographs; and
(e) Pie charts.
ACTIVITY 5.3
Instructions:
Read the verbs below. They are often used to describe changes in line
graphs. Look up the meanings of the verbs and answer the questions
that follow.
(a) Plummet
(b) Increase
(c) Peak
(d) Soar
(e) Rocket
(f) Fluctuate
(g) Level out
(h) Drop
(i) Decrease
(j) Decline
(k) Rise
(l) Fall
Questions:
(a) Which five verbs mean „go up‰?
(b) Which three verbs „go up suddenly/a lot‰?
(c) Which five verbs mean „go down‰?
(d) Which verb means „stay the same‰?
(e) Which verb means „go up and down‰?

ACTIVITY 5.4
The line graph shows the movement in the price of gold in year 2001.
Study it carefully and fill in the blanks in the the text below, using the
words provided in the box.
marginally slightly steadily sharply gradually
The price of gold rose _________ (i) during the first quarter from its
turn-of-the-year price (RM255 per ounce) but turned up ___________ (ii)
towards the end of June and continued to climb until the end of
the third quarter, when it fell ___________ (iii).
However, it picked up __________ (iv) again in November and

December and is expected to rise ________ (v) in the New Year.
 This topic introduces a few tools needed to handle essay writing.
 A paragraph is made up of a topic sentence, supporting sentence/s and a

concluding sentence.
 A multi-part essay question may have several questions subsumed within it.
 Creative writing does not always follow the rigid rules, forms or outlines
commonly found in academic writing.

 When you borrow ideas from books, magazines, newspapers, websites,

journals and films, you must give credit to the source by citing it in your
bibliography.
 There are two popular ways of writing bibliographies – the MLA and the
APA style.
 Plagiarising is a serious crime as it refers to stealing someone elseÊs ideas or

words and claiming them to be your own.
 Writers need to be careful to avoid plagiarism.
 Visual cues such as charts and graphs are often used in essays, especially in
scientific research papers.
Abstract Plagiarism
Bibliography Précis
Concluding sentence Supporting sentence
Creative writing Topic sentence
Essay Visual cues
Paragraph
Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: TeacherÊs book. Alexandria, VA: Prentice
Hall.
Cox, K., & Hill, D. (2004). EAP now!: StudentsÊ book. Melbourne: Addison
Wesley Longman Australia Pty Ltd.
Marksberry, M. L. (1963) HarperÊs series on teaching: Foundation of creativity.

London: Harper & Row.
Abstract – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (n.d.).

Retrieved October 10, 2009, from
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/abstract
Bibliography. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2009, from

wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=bibliography
BibMe: Fast & easy bibliography maker – MLA, APA, Chicago, Turabian – Free.
(n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2009, from
http://www.bibme.org/citation-guide
What is plagiarism?. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2009, from

www.plagiarism.org/plag_article_what_is_plagiarism.html

Topic  Persuasive
Writing
6
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the nature of persuasive writing;
2. Identify different types of persuasive writing;
3. Explain the reasons for and purposes of persuasive writing; and
4. List the persuasive strategies.
 INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, we learnt about argumentation essays which utilise a lot of
persuasive skills. Persuasive writing is a type of writing that sets out to influence
or change the readerÊs thoughts or actions to agree with those of the writer. This
type of writing is often found in advertisements in the real world and in
argumentation essays in the academic world. It uses logic and reason to show
that one idea is more legitimate and true compared to another. It attempts to
persuade a reader to adopt a certain point of view or to take a particular course
of action. The persuasive essay uses sound reasoning and gives evidence by
stating facts, giving logical reasons, citing examples and quoting experts. There is
also a deliberate effort to avoid the logical fallacies highlighted in Topic 4.

TOPIC 6 PERSUASIVE WRITING  79
6.1 ARRANGEMENT OF PERSUASIVE WRITING

If you want to write a persuasive essay, structure your writing as follows.
(a) Introduction
Begin by explaining the subject matter. Sometimes, your readers might not
have the background information to understand what the subject matter
involves. A clear explanation would help them understand what the issue is all
about and prepare them for any assertions that you may make later on.
(b) Body – Assertion

An assertion is when the writer strongly presents a certain opinion to the
reader. After stating the issue or subject matter, you should clearly express
your stand, usually in the topic sentence. This will help your readers know
whose side you are on or the stand you intend to take. At this stage, it is
important not to sound too aggressive.
(c) Body – Concession/Rebuttal

The next important stage is the concession or the rebuttal. You should discuss
other opinions besides your own. Failure to do this will lead readers to think
that you are not well informed or that you may be trying to cover up
something. Remember not to exaggerate or distort other peopleÊs viewpoints.
Just state what they are without defending them.
(d) Body – Proof

The next stage, which makes up the bulk of the writing, is proof. In an
argumentation essay, this calls for the evidence to be presented. This can be
done either inductively or deductively using examples, facts and observations.
It is best to present proof in increasing order of strength, which means saving
the best argument for last or as your closure.
(e) Conclusion
You should rephrase the topic sentence at this stage to emphasise the assertion.
Try to put it in a different perspective and remember not to introduce any new
argument at this point. The conclusion needs to be seen as drawing everything
together clearly so as to leave a strong impression on your readers.

80  TOPIC 6 PERSUASIVE WRITING
ACTIVITY 6.1
What are the differences (if any) in the stages of arrangement between
persuasive writing and argumentation essays? In your opinion, when do
you need to do persuasive writing?
6.1.1 Reasons for and Purposes of Persuasive Writing

There are, in fact, many reasons and purposes for persuasive writing. The first
reason is to influence or change your readersÊ thoughts and actions. Through
your writing, you want people to believe what you say, remember what you
have written and take appropriate action based on your written work. How
convincingly you argue your points in your writing will determine whether your
document works or not. To succeed, you have to appeal to your readersÊ sense of
reason, emotions and good character.
6.1.2 Types of Reasoning Processes

There are two types of reasoning processes, namely induction and deduction.
Deductive reasoning introduces a general principle or premise and draws a
specific conclusion from it. The example below portrays this type of reasoning:
All people who drink liquor endanger their health. (Major premise)
My good friend, John, drinks.
Therefore, my friend is endangering his health. (Conclusion)
What do you think? Is the argument strong? You would need to support your
claim with evidence, and you might find it hard to provide this evidence or
prove the connection between JohnÊs drinking with his health.
Evidence you may want to consider which may lend support to your argument
includes:
(a) The history of family members who drink and suffer ill health; and
(b) The statistics of people who have died due to drinking.

ACTIVITY 6.2
Imagine the following scenarios:
(a) A group of students have put forth their arguments to the teachers
and school principal that students should get a week away from
regular classes to carry out fund-raising activities for local charities.
(b) A group of part-time employees at a local fast food restaurant

are arguing with the employer that a workersÊ union would be
beneficial.
In small groups, come up with at least three counter arguments to the

positions taken. Present these to your friends at the next tutorial session
and let them decide how to deal with the issue.
Inductive reasoning, on the other hand, supports a general conclusion by looking

at specific facts or evidence. For example:
My friend, John, drinks.

When John drinks, he becomes violent, angry and loses his temper.
He quarrels and fights with his wife and breaks things in the house.
He spends lots of money on liquor and is running into debt.
Therefore, my friend is endangering his health. (Conclusion)
Other evidence you may want to consider using in order to lend support to your
arguments:
(a) Alcohol intoxication statistics;
(b) Some form of statement by doctors/researchers;
(c) Financial costs; and
(d) History of adverse effects of drinking on family members.

Basically, whether it is inductive or deductive reasoning, you need to appeal to

your readersÊ sense of reason, emotions and good character to persuade and win
them over.
(a) Appeal to Reason

Argument in this context is not a physical fight or shouting match, but an
appeal to a personÊs sense of reason. It is a conscious and deliberate action,
using logic to make others agree with you. You must remember that there
are at least two sides to every issue. Do not leave your readers after writing
only about your side.
In order to persuade others, you need to be clear of your own stand on the
issue you are writing about. How are you to convince others if you yourself
are not clear which side you are on?
For example:
Should my friend, John, stop drinking?
Position: Yes.
Ask yourself these questions:

(i) Is there sufficient evidence?
(ii) Is my evidence trustworthy?
(iii) Are the assumptions I use in my argument fair?
(iv) When I make a claim, does the conclusion follow logically?
(b) Appeal to Emotion

While appealing to reason is a great way to persuade others, there is
another way to go about this, i.e. by evoking their emotions. This can be
done via creating clear images in their heads.
For example, a child paints a mental picture when she appeals to her father
to stop smoking:
„I remember when grandfather died of lung cancer. I saw you cry for the
first time, Daddy. I remember hearing you promise Mummy youÊd never
smoke again.‰

However, remember to be very careful when you use emotional appeal,

especially if you are using it on close friends or relatives. You must be sure
that you are using it in a „real‰ sense. Do not use emotional appeal as a
substitute for logical and/or ethical appeal. Try not to draw on stereotypes
or manipulate emotional fears just to get an automatic reaction from
someone. You may upset or hurt your readers if you use emotionally
charged language or examples which have the tendency to create ill-feeling
or hatred in readers.
(c) Appeal to Good Personality/Character

The last example is the appeal to ethics. The appeal to good behaviour or
ethics can occur at several levels in an argument and is based on answers to
the following questions:
(i) Are you reasonable enough to listen, compromise and concede a point
of view?
(ii) Are you ready to listen and reason with someone?
(iii) Do you have the authority or power to stand by your decision?
(iv) Are you an ethical/moral person?
This moral/ethical appeal only works if your readersÊ perception of you,

the writer, is good. In other words, if your readers trust you as the writer,
they are more likely to accept your argument. This type of appeal can be
the strongest way for you to win over your readers. Further elaboration and
examples can be found in sub-topic 6.3: „The Reasoning Process‰.
ACTIVITY 6.3
You have been asked to design and put up a promotional poster in

your workplace, inviting your colleagues to support a fund-raising
project for your favourite charity. Before creating the poster, prepare
the outline of a plan or proposal which includes objectives and
persuasive strategies to give your campaign pattern and voice. In
your outline, explain how you will attempt to establish your
credibility.

6.1.3 Source of Information, and Relating to

Arguments and Evidence
Remember that the purpose of persuasive writing is to assert an opinion which
you are going to defend and to offer supporting evidence (data) in order to
convince the reader to agree with you. You must ensure that your evidence is
convincing.
Ask yourself the following questions:

(a) Do you have enough evidence to present your case?
(b) Is the evidence trustworthy? Does it come from reliable, informed, valid
sources?
(c) Is the evidence verifiable? (Can you corroborate it through sources other
than your own?)
Convincing evidence is the first element of a good argument. You MUST have
evidence which is valid, reliable, sufficient, trustworthy and can be verified.
The next element is appeal to authority. If you want to confirm that something or
someone is authoritative, you must consider the following elements:
(a) Do people question your authority on a particular subject?
(b) Is your expert opinion current or up to date?
(c) Do your peers accept and respect your opinion?
(d) Is your expert advice free of bias?
The last element is the proper evaluation of statistics. You must always
remember that when you use facts, data and statistics of any sort, you need to
use them ethically and accurately. Try to be as objective as possible. Have
samples which are representative and unbiased. Have statistics accurately
tabulated and see that they are not taken out of context.
Remember that when you quote a source, you must quote it in context, never out
of context. Do NOT change content to fit your case. Use your own judgement,
which is only commensurate to the knowledge that you have at a given time. Be
mindful that a celebrity endorsement of a product is not quite the same as an
expert opinion, unless that celebrity really uses the product that he/she endorses.

6.2 PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES

Understanding persuasive strategies can help you in two very important ways:
(a) Knowing the strategies helps you to analyse strategies that other people
may be using to persuade you. This way, you can protect yourself, for
example, when unethical marketers try to take advantage of you.
(b) Knowing the strategies helps you to choose the most effective way to
persuade your readers.
If you wish to be a persuasive writer, you must plan what strategies to use
to gain reader support for the actions you recommend and the positions
you advocate. Possible persuasive strategies include:
(i) Emphasising ReadersÊ Benefits

Explain to readers how they will benefit from performing the action,
taking the position or purchasing the product recommended. If the
targeted readers are members of an organisation, you can try stressing
organisational objectives and growth needs.
(ii) Addressing ReadersÊ Concerns

It is always a good strategy to try and predict what readersÊ responses
or concerns will be so that you can counteract any negative thoughts
or arguments that may arise in their minds.
(iii) Showing Sound Reasoning

Sound reasoning is your best weapon. In many cases, it is not enough
to merely identify the benefits of taking a position or an action. You
need to persuade readers that the decisions or actions recommended
will actually bring about benefits and explain why, for example, the
new computer will reduce costs because ⁄; the book modification
recommended will boost sales because⁄
(iv) Presenting Reliable Evidence

Reliable evidence is the kind of evidence readers are willing to
accept. What is acceptable depends on the situations. For example, in
many business scenarios, personal observations and anecdotes by
knowledgeable individuals are accepted as reliable evidence. In
scientific fields, however, certain experimental procedures are accepted
as reliable, whereas common wisdom and ordinary observations are
not. You need to use common sense to determine what type of evidence
is needed in what situations.
SELF-CHECK 6.1
1. What persuasive strategies do you think you can apply in your

writing?
2. Based on your understanding, why is it important to address
readersÊ concerns when it comes to persuasive writing?
6.3 THE REASONING PROCESS

In order to have confidence in the writer, readers must understand:
(a) The WriterÊs Claim

This is the position you, as the writer, wants readers to accept.
(b) The Evidence

The evidence consists of observations, facts and other information provided
in support of the claim.
(c) The Line of Reasoning

The line of reasoning is the connecting link between the claim and the
evidence – the reasons given for believing that the evidence proves the
claim.
There are two basic types or reasoning processes: deduction and induction, as
stated earlier in sub-section 6.1.2.
6.4 DIRECT AND INDIRECT PATTERNS OF

ORGANISATION
The following paragraphs will look at the direct and indirect patterns of
organisation:
(a) Organising to Create a Positive Response

It is not only the variety and amount of information that is critical
in a communication, but also the way in which readers process that
information. As a persuasive writer, you must carefully choose the
organisational pattern which best suits your purpose. You must also ensure
that all the parts of your persuasive piece fit together tightly.

(b) Direct Pattern of Organisation

In a direct pattern of organisation, you state your main point first.
(Evidence and other related information are given afterwards). For
example, if you wish to recommend that a company makes a particular
purchase, you begin with the recommendation and present the arguments
in favour of the purchase.
The direct organisational pattern works well when you are recommending
a course of action or presenting an analysis which you expect your readers
to view favourably.
(c) Indirect Pattern of Organisation

An indirect pattern of organisation postpones the bottom-line statement
until all the evidence and related information have been presented. You
first discuss the situation; then make your recommendations after
presenting your arguments. By using an indirect pattern, you prepare
readers for the recommendations about to be made. This pattern is
particularly useful when you are conveying information which your
readers might view as threatening as it reduces the risk of inciting the
readerÊs initial negative reactions. However, it can frustrate some readers
who may want to know the „bottom line‰ quickly.
6.5 VOICE AND CREDIBILITY

Voice, in the context of written communication, means: „Who am I as a writer?
Am I deputising someone else or do I assume another role?‰ It is good to be
yourself when you write. Be sincere when you try to persuade others or win
them to your side. People will accept you for being „you‰ because they know
that you are credible and can be trusted.
(a) Consider the Reasoning Process and Types of Reasoning

You need to consider how you reason out things in your writing. This
means that you have to reflect on what, when, and how to say things.
Reasoning out is a process which takes time and perseverance. How do you
argue or put forward your thoughts to the readers? You can do this using
the deduction or induction method (refer to 6.1.2).

(b) Choosing an Appropriate Voice

The voice you choose is an important element of your persuasive strategy;
it represents both the role you assign yourself and the role you assign your
readers. For example, if you intend to write for your peers but assume the
voice of a superior authority, your readers may resent their implied role as
inferiors. If your readers respond to your voice in a negative way, they will
not receive your message openly.
(c) Establishing Credibility

Your credibility is the belief your readers have regarding whether you are
a good source of information and ideas. When people believe you are
credible, they are more likely to accept the things you say. If people do not
find you credible, they may refuse to consider your ideas seriously, no
matter how soundly you present your case.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. What is persuasive writing? What are the reasons for, and purposes
of, persuasive writing?
2. Why is establishing credibility essential in persuasive writing?
3. State the different types of reasoning processes in persuasive
writing. How do you establish credibility in your writing? How do
you choose an appropriate voice?
 This topic defines persuasive writing as compared with other forms of

writing.
 It also presents the „dos and donÊts‰ of persuasive writing and provides you
with examples in clarifying a position, preparing arguments and organising a
persuasive written report or article.
 It gives opportunities for you to present yourselves and to respond to the

persuasive writing of others so that you can decide, for yourselves, what
makes an effective piece of writing.

Appeal to emotion Direct pattern of organisation

Appeal to good personality/character Indirect pattern of organisation
Appeal to reason Inductive reasoning
Assertion Introduction
Concession/rebuttal Persuasive strategies
Conclusion Persuasive writing
Credibility Proof
Deductive reasoning Voice
Sebranek, P., Kember, D., & Meyer, V. (2001). WriterÊs INC: A studentÊs
handbook for writing and learning. Wilmington: Houghton Mifflin
Company.
Stoll, C. (1991). Write to the point and feel better about your writing. New York:
Columbia University Press.

Topic  Report
7 Writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the process involved in preparing a report;
2. Explain the style for report writing; and
3. Write a report based on the format given.
 INTRODUCTION
Report writing is an important skill for both the technical and non-technical
sectors. It is perhaps even more important for those involved in business.
However, a report is not something that you can create out of thin air. A good
report requires systematic, structured and careful thinking accompanied by
careful planning and preparation. Good report writing skills are relatively easy
to acquire but it takes some practice to achieve perfection. These are extremely
important skills to have when you are at work because no matter how well you
carry out a project, your efforts may go unnoticed unless you can report it to the
people who matter.

TOPIC 7 REPORT WRITING  91
7.1 THE PROCESS OF PREPARING A REPORT

Let us take a look at the process of preparing a report. There are, in total, six
stages.
7.1.1 Stages/Tasks in Report Preparation

Information is valuable but only when it is researched, gathered and presented in
a coherent and easily understood way. Your job may be to primarily execute a
plan and implement a project but it is also your responsibility to show that your
efforts have achieved the intended target. This can only be done with a good
report. The important steps in report writing, presented in the form of tasks, are
shown in Figure 7.1:
Figure 7.1: Important steps/tasks in writing a good report

92  TOPIC 7 REPORT WRITING
7.1.2 Gathering the Data

The first thing you need to do when preparing a report is to gather the necessary
data to write the report. In fact, the ability to work with data efficiently may be
more important than the writing skill itself because without good data and good
results, your writing will inevitably fail to shine.
The process of report writing begins when you plan your project. When making
your project plans, take into account how you will report your project because
this will give you an idea of what information you need to collect. You must have
an idea of how you want your project to unfold and how you intend to report
things at the end. This will give you direction as you execute your project plan.
Most importantly, keep accurate and complete notes.
Some tips for basic data gathering are illustrated in Figure 7.2:
Figure 7.2: Tips for basic data gathering

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Why is data gathering important when it comes to writing reports?
How would you go about gathering data for your report?
7.1.3 Analysing and Sorting the Results

Once you have gathered your data, it needs to be sorted out and analysed. Most
analysis is carried out after ALL the data has been collected. Begin by choosing
which data is relevant in relation to the report you want to write.
To analyse your data, first review the conclusion you are trying to achieve. Try
taking the following steps:
(a) Write down all the results and observations (in your data) in no particular
order.
(b) Note down all the opinions you have gained when gathering data.
(c) Note down new ones you get as you are compiling these opinions.
(d) Choose the ones that you need. Be strict with yourself; always remember
how long your final report is going to be and throw out everything except
the data you really need.
(e) Arrange all data in order of importance. Decide on what is important and
what is not. Some people like to start with the least important point and
lead up to the most important, whilst others prefer the converse. Decide
which format best suits your purpose.
(f) Select the data you want in your conclusion. In the conclusion, points are
often arranged in reverse order, with the most important ones first.
Remember to include only absolutely necessary points because too much
data will obscure your ideas and opinions.
(g) Support your points with illustrations as you present them. This will help
to make your report easily comprehensible and your presentation more
effective.
(h) Outline your final report and draft it.

7.1.4 Outlining the Report

Outlining is necessary as a report should be logically organised, concise and easy
to read, and outlining helps you achieve this. It is also a natural progression from
the analysis and sorting process.
Remember three key words to bear in mind as you draft the outline of your
report:
(a) Subject:
For example: The OUM Distance Learning Research Centre: Report On The
Effectiveness Of Distance Learning And Its Impact On StudentsÊ Families.
(b) Scope:
For example: Covers the results of a survey done on OUM students and
families from 2003 to 2005.
(c) Purpose:
For example: The study was done to help convince the Malaysian Ministry
of Women, Family and Community Development to increase sponsorship
opportunities and support infrastructure for studentsÊ families.
ACTIVITY 7.1
Suggest a possible topic for a research report, bearing in mind the

subject, scope and purpose. Share your topic with your friends at the
next tutorial session.
Basically, your outline not only needs to specify the scope of the report but
should also pay attention to the following aspects:
(a) Sections and parts;
(b) Relationship/connection between the various parts discussed;
(c) Amount of space to be given to each part;
(d) Order of treatment;
(e) Places for inclusion of illustrations; and
(f) Conclusions.

Remember, the more detailed your outline, the more useful it will be to you.
Headings and subheadings should be detailed enough to help you use them in
sentences and paragraphs.
Some typical report headings are:

(a) Abstract.
(b) Introduction.
(c) Symbols.
(d) Theory.
(e) Analysis.
(f) Discussion.
(g) Summary of results.
(h) Conclusions.
(i) Appendix.
(j) References.
If you are writing a technical report, your outline may include:

(a) Apparatus.
(b) Test specimens.
(c) Test procedures.
(d) Sample calculations.
Note that you do not need to use all these headings in every report; just the ones
that you need and that will help make your report better. You may also replace
these headings with others that you think are more descriptive and reflective of
your content. Be original but remember to be brief and clear.
The final outline should show the exact form and wording of the headings to be
used in the report. Your headings can be your guide to completing the final
report but do not be too rigid in following the outline because you might get
better ideas as you are writing your report.

Here are some tips when it comes to headings:

1. Be consistent in grammar.
2. Do not use verbs.
3. Should cover the whole report.
4. May need introductory and transition paragraphs to make the report flow
smoothly.
There is no „best‰ way of drawing up an outline. Just start listing what you think
are possible headings. You can always erase, add, re-arrange or edit them later.
For simplicity and clarity, stick to just three levels of headings and subheadings.
Too many levels may confuse your readers:
(a) Main Heading.
(b) Subheading.
(c) Run-in heading: This is indented on the same line as the first line of the
paragraph.
A good outline will make your writing more systematic and helps the report fall
into place logically and smoothly.
7.1.5 Writing the Draft

With a good outline and illustrations, you are well prepared to write your first
draft. Do not be too ambitious; no one gets a good final version on the first
attempt. Everyone edits. Most people edit extensively. Remember to always keep
in mind who you are writing for.
Start writing as soon as possible, after finishing your outline, while the ideas are
still fresh in your mind. Then, keep writing; let your ideas flow. Do not worry
about minor details as those can be dealt with in the editing stage.
In your second draft, check for style and look at how you want to say things.
Remember your readers; will they be able to understand your draft easily?
Be honest. Be tactful. Be concise and logical.

7.1.6 Revising the Draft

Next comes the revision stage. This is where you chisel your report out of the
rock that was your draft. This stage is very important; if your final report does
not look and sound good, it will probably not be effective.
Many new writers do not enjoy this stage and try to avoid it. It is important to
remember to maintain the structure as you work on the style and content. Keep
the basic structure intact. Be critical of yourself and your work. Sometimes, it
helps if you leave the draft aside for a short while, and then come back to look at
it again later. You tend to be more critical when you look at the draft again, after
a short lapse of time.
You can use the three stages shown in Table 7.1 below as a guide when you are
revising your draft:
Table 7.1: The Three Stages of Revision
Stage One Check for Material

Make sure that you have included all the data, statistics, opinions and
other material that you need to get your thoughts across in the report.
Stage Two Check for Organisation, Mechanics and Conventions
Make sure that your objective, subject and methods are clearly stated.
Check for a smooth flow, clear illustrations and proper labelling. Make
sure all the parts are there.
Stage Three Check Your Language
Make sure that your spelling, grammar and language mechanics are
correct. There are few things more damaging to a report than bad
language. Try to avoid unnecessarily complicated language. Language
is like a machine; the more parts you add to a machine, the more likely
it is to break down. Get a good grammar book to refer to, like the
Comprehensive Guide to the English Language by David Nunan (1999).
You can interchange stages one and two but you should keep the third stage for
last because you might still make language mistakes when you edit for other
things.
ACTIVITY 7.2
In your opinion, what will be the outcome if you miss out on writing
and revising the rough draft in report writing? Will your report be just
as effective?

7.2 STYLE MATTERS

Style is difficult to define but it is something that determines the success of your
report. If your readers do not like your style, your report will not be read with
enthusiasm and will definitely be less effective. So, how do you create your own
style? There is no simple answer and there are no short cuts. You need to practise.
This course is a good place to start if you have never written reports before.
7.2.1 The Report Style

Reports are written for different purposes and thus have different requirements, but
where style is concerned, four things are crucial in all reports. Good reports are:
(a) Clear;
(b) Concise;
(c) Smooth flowing; and
(d) Written from an objective point of view.
You write reports to convey ideas and support them with strong arguments, so
it is very important that the reader understands what he/she reads. Help the
reader understand your report by using plain, clear and unambiguous language.
Define all symbols adequately and re-read your report from the readerÊs
perspective when editing. This will make you more critical and help to ensure
that your reader understands what you wish to convey.
Your readers are usually busy people, so be concise. A good report is not
necessarily long but it must be clear. Reports explain problems. Describe your
plans to handle these problems, justify your plans, describe the implementation
of these plans, convey the findings and finally, defend the significance in as few
words as possible while maintaining clarity. Excessive and unnecessary content
will only obscure your main points.
A report must be logical, interesting and have good continuity between

sentences, paragraphs, sections and between texts, figures and tables. Use
transitional markers to lead your readers through the story. Use figures and
tables carefully; do not distract the reader from the main argument.

Reports should be objective and honest. Readers are already suspicious that you
are trying to convince them of something. Do not fuel their fears by hiding your
plans or the programmeÊs defects, or by misrepresenting your facts.
Your readers have feelings, so be tactful. You may have strong ideas but tone
down your narrative and rely more on facts to convince your readers. Try to
sound rational, not emotional.
7.2.2 The Writing Style

Write naturally. Use words and phrases that come naturally to you. Some writers
try to sound formal by using „big‰ words. This will only complicate your report
and increase the likelihood of things going wrong. The use of complicated
language can prove distracting to your readers because they will be focusing
on understanding the words you use rather than the things you want to say.
Concentrate on using simple words to convey your exact meaning. Your readers
will be more interested in what you have to say than how you say it.
To make your report clear to your readers, arrange your paragraphs and report
in the following manner:
(a) In the introduction, tell them what you are going to tell them in the rest of
the report.
(b) In the body of your report, tell them what you want to tell them.
(c) In the summary or conclusion, tell them what you have told them.
(d) At the end of each section, tie your parts together by telling them what you
want to do next.
Get to your point quickly. You are not writing a mystery novel. Everything you
write must lead to your objective. Do not get sidetracked and lead your readers
down blind alleys. They will lose interest and your report will fail. If you have to
add anything that is not directly related to the report, put it in an appendix. That
way you will not distract your reader from your main points.
Always emphasise your main ideas. They are the reason you are writing the
report in the first place. This is where your outline becomes useful as your
heading will help identify major and supporting ideas. To emphasise major
ideas, state them briefly at the beginning of each section and then summarise
them at the end of the section.

Keep your facts and opinions separated. Let your readers know which points are
facts and which points are your opinions. Generally, you can use the first person
pronoun to express your opinion:
(a) I conclude from the data that ⁄
(b) The resulting figures lead me to surmise that ⁄
Avoid statements like „Some believe that⁄‰ or „As it is commonly known⁄‰ as

your readers will not know whose opinion this really is and this may confuse
them.
The way you present your data is an important element of your writing style. It
will also be an indicator of your judgment. Only use figures and tables that are
essential to your reports; minor and irrelevant ones will distract the reader. You
can explain a table but do NOT repeat yourself unnecessarily. Present your data
in a way that is easiest for your reader to understand.
If you are writing a technical paper for experts, you can use more numbers and
charts but if you are writing for the layman, you might need to use more
narrative. Your data must support your conclusion · that is the objective. The
only data you can use are data that support your conclusions.
Quality is important, not quantity. Whether you tabulate or plot your data, or
use graphs, tables or simple listing, what is important is that you make your
illustrations as self-explanatory as possible. Do not make your reader go back
and forth between the illustrations and the main text.
In a technical report, three types of figures are commonly used; namely graphs,
drawings and pictures. Mark your figures in sequence consecutively with Arabic
numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ⁄) or with letters (a, b, c, d, e, ⁄) or Roman numerals (i, ii,
iii, ⁄). You can also group the figures on one page in sequence from top to
bottom to reduce the number of printed pages. If you are using graphs, try not to
use too many lines.
Tables are excellent for relaying exact and concentrated data but they can be
difficult to understand; so if you can put the information into words, do this first.

Figure 7.3: Microfiche

Source: usacademic.net
Technical films, videotapes, video clips and animation can be very informative
but they cannot be placed into a written text. However, they can be a big help
when you need to do an audio-visual presentation of your report. If your report
is in the form of a multimedia presentation, it is strongly recommended that you
use these.
Microfiche (please refer to Figure 7.3) and CDs are also extremely useful when
you need to present an enormous amount of data to back up your report. They
can be difficult to prepare but they can really help get your point across.
Now, start working on developing your writing style by reading the next section.
ACTIVITY 7.3
1. What is the difference between report style and writing style?

2. How does your personal writing style influence your report writing?

7.3 TIPS AND GUIDELINES

In this section, you will be offered general tips and guidelines that help ensure
your report reads well.
(a) Have a Catchy Title

The title of your report should catch readersÊ attention, yet be concise and
precise. As far as possible, mention the main variables involved.
(b) Include an Abstract

If your report is for academic purposes, for instance, a research report or
dissertation, it needs to have an abstract. An abstract is a concise, single-
paragraph summary of your work. It is usually about 200 words in length,
and informs readers about the rationale for the study, your approach to the
problem, pertinent results, and important conclusions or new questions.
Your abstract should be able to stand on its own, without having to refer to
any other part of the paper, or figure or table. If well written, an abstract
makes the readers want to learn more about your research. Take care that
what you write in the abstract is consistent with what is contained in the
actual report.
(c) Write a Good Introduction

It is important to spend some time and thought on writing a good
introduction for your report because:
(i) It is the first thing that your readers read;
(ii) It prepares your readers to easily receive what you intend to present
by telling them exactly what you plan to say, and why and how you
will say it;
(iii) It focuses your readersÊ attention on the subject to be treated, and

enables them to approach the body of the report naturally and
intelligently.
(iv) It sets parameters for dealing with the issue in question, making
clear the subject/problem under discussion, the reasons for
considering the subject for study, the organisation of ideas and the
scope of the report, etc.

Put in a nutshell, your introduction is important because it guides your

readers and prepares them for what they will encounter in the rest of the
paper. The introduction has parts that have very specific primary functions.
The primary functions of the introduction are elaborated in the following
paragraphs.
(d) State Subject

Your introduction must clearly identify the subject of your report. It tells
your readers exactly what you will be reporting on, including why it is
necessary for you to report it, and a definition of the subject.
(e) State Purpose

State your purpose clearly in the introduction. Tell your reader why you
are writing the report. You might need to give some background to
explain your objective. You can state your objective very explicitly, for
example,„The objective of this paper is ...‰ If you have more than one
objective, you can number them. Try to restrict your objectives to one.
However, if you have more than one, try not to exceed three, at the most.
More than that would be too ambitious.
(f) State Scope and Organisation

Your introduction should also alert your readers as to the organisation of
ideas in the paper. This is important in case your readers are interested in
finding out specific information about a particular thing and do not have
the time to read your entire report. Your readers need to be told:
(i) How long the report will be;
(ii) How the content will be arranged;
(iii) What the important parts are; and
(iv) Why they are important.
(g) Style and Length

Report styles vary but all reports must be clear, direct and accurate. Other
than that, you are free to exercise your creativity. Build in the functions
mentioned previously into paragraphs if you can but you can also just stick
to the basic style: The subject is⁄, The purpose is⁄, The organisation and
scope are⁄

Are you feeling worried? Well, donÊt be. All this advice may make writing
seem difficult but it is not. Just bring together everything you need and
start writing. Once you get the flow, it will be plain sailing. Complete the
introduction first and worry about the rest when you are editing the draft.
The length of your introduction depends on how much background you

want to give it. Try to restrict it to between 200 and 300 words, if it is a
simple report. If you are introducing new ideas, you might have to make
your introduction several pages long. One idea is to include only a brief
background in your introduction and put the rest into a section entitled
„theory‰ or „research background‰.
(h) Format
Earlier sections have already touched on this sub-topic. Basically, the
format of your report has to consider the following aspects:
(i) Arrangement of information;
(ii) References; and
(iii) Content and style.
(i) Arrange Report Systematically

Basically, the information in your report should be systematically arranged,
with headings and sub-headings, laid out in the following order:
(i) Title;
(ii) Abstract;
(iii) Introduction;
(iv) Methods (and logistics);
(v) Results;
(vi) Discussion; and
(vii) Conclusion.
(j) Cite References

When citing references, you need to be mindful of the following:
(i) Double or 1.5 spacing.
(ii) Font 12 – in Malaysia, the font Times New Roman is very popular for
reports.
(iii) „Left justify‰ is easier to read and the most commonly used
convention. It makes your references look neater.

(k) Content and Style

With regards to content and style, observe the following points:
(i) Avoid using footnotes. This is not really accepted in Malaysian

academia these days.
(ii) Use the past tense.
(iii) Put in headings for each section.
(iv) Subheadings also make things clearer.
(v) Avoid excessively long and complex sentences.
(vi) Avoid too many commas.
(vii) Avoid too many conjunctions (and, but, or).
(viii) Avoid too many nouns and adjectives.
(ix) Make your sentences positive: „The findings show that ⁄‰
(x) Reduce use of jargon or avoid it altogether, if possible.
(xi) Do not be repetitive.
(xii) Be concise and precise – if something is irrelevant, keep it out.
(l) WriterÊs Checklist

And finally, here is a checklist which may help you. After you have written
your report, ask yourself these questions:
(i) Is my title too long? You should keep your title short and sweet –
about 120 characters or less.
(ii) Have I included the Abstract, Summary, Introduction, Results and

Conclusion?
(iii) Have I made the significance and limitations clear?
(iv) Have I given the headings roughly equal weight? I should give each
heading about two subheadings respectively. Have I done that?
(v) Have I limited my abstract to 200 words or less?

(vi) Have I limited my summary to only things I included in the body of

the report? Is my conclusion based only on the things I have in the
body of the report?
(vii) Have I numbered my tables, figures, references and appendices in the

order I refer to them in my report? Have I given them all titles where
needed?
(viii) Are my references complete?
(ix) Have I defined my symbols, acronyms and abbreviations?
(x) Have I made my conclusions comprehensible?
(xi) Have I made my purpose and scope clear? Have I made my report
sound like it is worth reading?
(xii) Have I tailored my report to my target audience?
(xiii) Have I identified:

 The things I want my readers to learn from my report?
 What I need to know about my report?
 The important/significant parts of my report?
(xiv) Have I ordered my points consistently in:

 A decreasing order of importance in the conclusion?
 An increasing order of importance in the body?
 A chronological order for processes and experiments?
 A logical sequence?
SELF-CHECK 7.2
How does the writerÊs checklist help you in writing reports?

ACTIVITY 7.4
The sentences below highlight important rules in report writing.

However, they contain grammatical errors. See if you can spot the
errors and correct them.
Selected Writing Rules:

1. Verbs HAS to agree with their subjects.
2. And donÊt start a sentence with a conjunction.
3. Be more or less specific.
4. No sentence fragments.
5. Contractions arenÊt necessary and shouldnÊt be used.
6. Foreign words and phrases are not apropos.
7. Do not be redundant; do not use more words than necessary; itÊs
highly superfluous.
8. One should NEVER generalise.
9. Comparisons are as bad as cliches.
10. The passive voice is to be ignored.
11. Eliminate commas, that are, not necessary.
12. One-word sentences? Eliminate.
13. Never use a big word when a diminutive one would suffice.
14. Understatement is always the absolute best way to put forth earth-
shaking ideas.
15. Proof read carefully to see if you any words out.

 This topic highlights the processes in report writing.
 The stages are preparation, data collection, analysing data and sorting the
results, going through the first draft, writing it and revising it.
 In addition, the topic describes the writing styles writers should follow and
how the written work relates to the statement of purpose, organisation,
length and style.
AuthorÊs checklist Report writing

Data gathering Revision
Format Rough draft
Outlining Writing style
Report style
Ross-Larson, B. (1996). Edit yourself: A manual for everyone who works with
words. New York: WW Norton.
Strunk, Jr. W., & White, E. B. (2000). The elements of style. Reading, MA:
Longman.

Topic  Writing and
Presenting
8 Proposals
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Define what a research proposal is;
2. List the questions that should be addressed by a research proposal;
3. Outline the steps for writing a good research proposal; and
4. Explain other types of research proposals.
 INTRODUCTION
For any student writing a research paper, coming up with a good proposal is the
most important step. The quality of the proposal can be the deciding factor in
getting a proposal accepted or rejected. Unfortunately, not many students realise
what writing a research proposal entails; nor do they fully understand its
importance and significance. A badly-written proposal can doom a project even
if it somehow gets through the thesis supervisory committee. On the other hand,
a well-written proposal not only promises success for the project but also speaks
volumes about your potential as a researcher. This topic aims to provide you
with some basic skills in trying to write good research proposals. It explains what
a research proposal is, the questions it should address and the steps for writing a
good research proposal. You will also be introduced to general guidelines for
writing other types of proposals.

110  TOPIC 8 WRITING AND PRESENTING PROPOSALS
8.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROPOSAL?

A research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a research
project worth doing and that you have the skills and competency to successfully
complete it. Generally, it should contain information about all the key elements
involved in the research. Regardless of the topic and the methodology, all
research proposals should address the following questions (please refer to
Figure 8.1):
Figure 8.1: Questions to be addressed by research proposals
(a) What are You Studying?

Your research proposal should identify the subject or topic of research. You
need to inform the supervisory committee of your intent – what is it that
you wish to study.

WRITING AND PRESENTING PROPOSALS  111
(b) Who is It For?

You need to identify the stakeholders involved in the research project –
who is funding the project, possible sponsors, etc.
(c) What Do You Wish to Do?

Outline clearly what you intend to do once approval is given.
(d) What Do You Hope to Accomplish?

This relates to the significance of your research project. What are your goals
in carrying out this research? How will the research findings contribute to
the field of knowledge in general, or benefit stakeholders and the nation?
(e) Why Do You Want to Do It?

Explain your reasons for doing the study, including possible benefits
accruing from doing it.
(f) How are You Going to Do It?

Describe the procedures and methods you would use to gather data and
data analysis, including the tests to be carried out.
In a nutshell, you need to convince your reader and the supervisory committee
that you have an important research idea, a good grasp of the relevant literature
and major issues, and a sound methodology.
8.2 ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

You need to have a clear plan about your research proposal from the outset of
your project. Be very clear about the main elements you wish to put into your
proposal even though it is possible, indeed probable, that there may be changes
required at some later date. Figure 8.2 summarises the main elements that should
be found in a good research proposal.

Figure 8.2: Elements of a research proposal

Basically, your research proposal should have:
(a) A cover page, with the subject heading, your name as the writer, the degree
you are working for, and the name of the institution conferring it.
(b) A problem statement, i.e. the idea or research area that you propose to
investigate.
(c) Limitations of study. You need to define the limits of your research project
in terms of scope, sampling, questions asked and methods employed.
(d) A literature review of important works already carried out in the field so as
to give your readers a „state-of-the-art‰ perspective.
(e) A detailed research plan, with an outline of appropriate research methods.
(f) A time line for the various stages of the research.
(g) A statement on the type and availability of resources you intend to use for
your research.
If there are major changes to the research proposal later, they need to be
submitted to the appropriate parties (in this case, your tutor, lecturer or dean)
for approval. You must always remember that time spent on organising or
re-organising a proposal is never time wasted as it enhances the project and helps
avoid problems with examiners.
ACTIVITY 8.1
Have you ever written a research proposal? If you have, share your
experience with your friends at the next tutorial session.

8.3 WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Bear in mind that your research proposal should fit in with the needs, goals and
objectives of the organisation/institution/clients commissioning the research. To
do this, you need to consider the following as presented in the next paragraphs:
8.3.1 Stakeholders and their Concerns

Writing and implementing a proposal is hard work. Often, a research is the
fulfilment of oneÊs dreams and desires, and the researcher requires a great deal of
passion and dedication to see a proposal through to completion.
However, although passion is well and good, it is not enough. In the proposal
writing endeavour, the backing and support of the supervisor or institution one
works at is almost always necessary.
Think of the process from the researcherÊs point of view. As a researcher, you
are going to invest your resources into achieving some goals in an area of study
that interests you. You are going to enter into a contract with your tutor or
supervisor. You would want assurances that the supervisor or whoever you are
dealing with would be able to help you fulfil that contract.
In short, a research project involves several parties besides you (the proposal
writer) – the people who will supervise the project (your tutor or supervisor), the
people in the institution you are working for, and the people in the organisation
where the research is being carried out. All these people will affect the success of
your research project, so you need to consider their concerns.
8.3.2 Critical Factors in Proposal Evaluation

When writing a research proposal, it is important to have a clear-cut evaluation
process that can help you to clarify goals, define objectives and refine procedures
during the initial proposal development stage.
Evaluation serves a number of useful purposes:
(a) It clarifies the objectives of the research project;
(b) It enhances understanding of the steps and processes required by the

project;

(c) It provides people with information that will help them make decisions
about the project; and
(d) It helps to measure if, and how, goals and objectives can be met.
Overall, the evaluation assists everyone in understanding whether the project is

feasible and if not, then why and what may hinder its success.
As you assess your project proposal, ask yourself the following questions:
(a) What do you hope to learn from an evaluation of your project proposal?
(b) What does „success‰ mean in terms of the objectives developed for this
project?
(c) What are its goals and objectives?
(d) Who is going to gather data for the evaluation and analyse the information?
Are you going to hire someone from within or outside?
(e) How are you going to change the project activities if needed?
(f) Who is the evaluation for and who will make use of the findings from the
evaluation?
8.3.3 Putting a Proposal Together

This is the most important stage in the proposal writing process. The first
problem is to get the title right. Let us look at some probable titles:
(a) Weak title: Three Plays by A. Samad Said

Better title: A Comparison of Female Characters in Three Plays by
A. Samad Said
(b) Weak title: Improving English Education in Primary Schools

Better title: Innovative Instructional Materials to Improve English
Education in Primary Schools
(c) Weak title: New Perspectives in Learning

Better title: New Perspectives in Learning: A Programme to Facilitate
the Retention and Graduation of Distance Learners at Open
University Malaysia

SELF-CHECK 8.1
Based on the examples above, why do you think some titles are
considered „weak‰ and some „better‰?
Below are some tips to refine your research proposal:
(a) Keep filtering and redefining your title and content so that it becomes a
doable project.
(b) Talk about your ideas to your friends or supervisor. Talking helps to clarify
ideas.
(c) Write brief notes about your idea in one or two pages, especially on your
area of interest.
(d) Read through your proposal and put it aside for a while, then come back to
it and reread it; reflect on whether you have done a good job.
(e) Keep reading – spend time in the library, read through various texts and
attend to your areas of interest. Take notes (remember to reference the
texts).
(f) Mull over the write-up because you might find things you wish to change.
(g) Sort out the various sub-topics so that they are in order.
(h) Carry out referencing so that you acknowledge other peopleÊs work.
ACTIVITY 8.2
What are some of the challenges you might encounter when writing
proposals? List a few, and discuss with your friends at the next tutorial
session.

8.4 OTHER TYPES OF PROPOSALS

Bear in mind that there are other types of proposals besides research proposals.
This section touches briefly on some of them.
8.4.1 Formal and Informal Proposals

A formal proposal is usually submitted by or through an organisation such as a
school, college, university, non-profit organisation or museum to an organisation
such as a foundation, funding agency or corporation. For example, a non-profit
organisation may write and submit a research proposal for a project to a funding
agency which will then evaluate it and decide if the project should be funded.
Very often, a proposal begins with a person acting upon a genuine desire to fulfil
a need and do something for the benefit of others. Motivated by deep personal
convictions, people experiencing this strong desire recognise that in order to
solve a pressing problem, they may need to conduct research. They then go all
out to devote time and energy to satisfy this burning desire.
However, additional resources are often needed to achieve the desired goals.
This can be in the form of funding, „support‰ from people including peers, and
clearance for approval.
A formal proposal is written in a business-like manner. It is straightforward,

direct and precise. It informs readers about the purpose, aims and benefits
accruing from the study. A formal proposal also means that you need to know
exactly what you are going to do so that when you present it to the board or
funding agency, you can tell them everything they may need to know about it –
from the significance of the project to research methodology and instrument.
On the other hand, an informal proposal, although written neatly and in a

structured manner like a formal proposal, is usually done on a smaller scale and
normally carries less weight than a formal proposal.

In terms of preparation, both types of proposals require almost the same amount
of time, but the informal proposal is not aimed at seeking funding or for an
academic degree. It is done to come up with some findings from a small project
that can be completed sooner than a bigger project of a formal proposal.
SELF-CHECK 8.2
What are the differences between informal and formal proposals?
8.4.2 Business Proposals
„Business in the nineties means fierce competition, aggressive marketing

and strategic alliances. The extent to which a business succeeds or fails often
depends on that businessÊ ability to be awarded contracts or to attract other
businesses into joint ventures or strategic alliances.‰
June Campbell, 2002
In any business, proposal writing is a lengthy process and costs time and money.
It takes researchers a long time to create business proposal templates but once
this is done, you should be able to present a business proposal that is well laid
out, looks professional and is compelling. With the right proposal, you stand a
better chance of winning a contract.
According to June Campbell (2002), business proposals are developed for one of
two possible reasons:
(a) A business company has called for tenders or has invited you to submit a
Request for Proposal (RFP). In this case, your goal is to be „shortlisted,‰
meaning that you will be one of three or four bidders called for interviews.
Your proposal must stand out among possibly dozens of submissions.
(b) You have an idea, concept or project that you want to propose to someone
with the goal of gaining support, funding or an alliance. In this case, there
is no competitive bidding process. However, your proposal must make a
favourable impression and must explain all aspects of your proposed
concept clearly and quickly. A document that is vaguely written, difficult to
understand or that presents more questions than answers is likely to be
discarded promptly.

Campbell further states that there are certain guidelines to producing a good,
workable business proposal. Keep these guidelines in mind and you will be off to
a good start. The guidelines are illustrated in Figure 8.3:
Figure 8.3: Guidelines for a good business proposal
8.4.3 Proposals for Feasibility Study

A feasibility study, which is another form of business proposal aims to give
readers an overview of the primary issues related to a business idea. The purpose
is to identify any „make or break‰ issues that may prevent your business
from being successful. In other words, a feasibility study determines whether a
business idea makes sense or not.
A feasibility study can also be considered a brief, formal analysis of a prospective

business idea. The goal is to give the entrepreneur a clear evaluation of the
potential for sales and profit from a particular idea. Feasibility studies, thus,
focus on market size and shares, competing products or services, the pricing
structure and the likely sales and profits of the prospective business.
As putting together a business plan is a significant investment of time and

money, you need to make sure that there are no major „blocks‰ to your business
idea before you make that investment. This is where market research proposals
and feasibility studies come in. Such proposals usually focus on the following
aspects:
 Market issues;
 Organisational/technical issues; and
 Financial issues.

(a) Market Issues

Market analysis needs to be conducted because it is critical to the success of
the business. If you cannot substantiate, through research, that there is
adequate demand for your product or service, then your project is not
feasible. And if the project is not feasible, you should, perhaps, cease
pursuing the matter altogether.
Your market analysis should answer these questions:
(i) What precisely constitutes the market?
(ii) Is the market growing, shrinking, or staying the same?
(iii) Is the market you have identified big enough to make it worth your
time investing in this business?
Once these market issues have been addressed, you can look at the
organisational and technological aspects.
The purpose of market analysis is to thoroughly acquaint yourself

with all aspects of your market so that you can formulate a plan to
capture a share of it.
Harold, J. McLaughlin, 2002
(b) Organisational/Technical Issues

Feasibility studies need to explore the organisational and technology needs
of the proposed business. This includes looking into organisational structure
and human resource as well as the equipment needed and costs involved.
Keep in mind that technology does not necessarily mean complex machinery;
if your business simply needs a personal computer, printer and fax machine,
then those are your technological needs.
(c) Financial Issues

Once your analyses of marketing, organisational and technical issues have
been completed, you can research key financial issues such as start-up costs
(costs incurred at the start of a new business), operating costs (rent, utilities
and wages), revenue projections, financing and profitability analysis.

To sum up, your feasibility study proposal should:

(i) Map out a projectÊs strengths and potential;
(ii) Analyse and predict the impact of expansion;
(iii) Highlight the pros and cons of your idea; and
(iv) Project profits and growth.
Figure 8.4 shows a sample table of content for a feasibility study proposal:
Figure 8.4: Sample of feasibility study

 A research proposal aims to convince others that you have a worthwhile

research project and that you have the competency and skills to successfully
complete it.
 Every proposal addresses certain key questions in research – what, for whom,
how, why, etc.
 A research proposal comprises key elements including an introduction,

problem statement, research methodology, analysis, conclusion and
bibliography
 Some research studies require you to find sponsors to fund the project.
 Proposals can be formal or informal. Informal proposals usually do not aim

to get funding or an academic degree.
 Business or marketing research proposals need to be clearly written in order

to help you win that contract.
 A feasibility study is another form of business proposal. It can be considered

a brief formal analysis of a prospective business idea to determine whether it
makes sense.
Business proposal Informal proposal

Feasibility study Research proposal
Formal proposal

Geever, J. C. (2004). The foundation centreÊs guide to proposal writing (4th ed.).
New York: The Foundation Centre.
Krathwohl, D. (1988). How to prepare a research proposal: Guidelines for

funding and dissertations in the social and behavioural sciences (3rd ed.).
Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
Larson, V. (1986). How to write a winning proposal. San Diego, CA: Classic
House.
Meador, R. (1991). Guidelines for preparing proposals (2nd ed.). Chelsea, Mich:
Lewis Publishers.
Stewart, R. D., & Stewart, A. L. (1992). Proposal preparation (2nd ed.). NY: Wiley.
Weirsma, W. (2002). Research methods in education: An introduction. Boston:

Allyn and Bacon.

Topic  Fundamentals
9 of Writing a
Research Paper
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the criteria for choosing a research topic;
2. Write a literature review on a topic that has been decided;
3. Identify the steps necessary to write a good research paper; and
4. Use the right format to effectively write a research paper.
 INTRODUCTION
At some point in your tertiary education, you may be asked to write a research
paper. Those who have done so know that this is no easy task. Even those who
write well are usually able to produce a good research paper only after many
attempts and much practice. However, this should not intimidate you. Most
university students are unprepared to write a research paper simply because they
have not had the opportunity to do so during their secondary school days or
when they were in college. They do not know the components of a research paper
and are unsure and bewildered when assigned to write one.
This topic attempts to remedy the situation. It provides you with an overview of
the fundamentals of writing a good research paper, highlighting its major
elements and explaining some of these elements in detail. In addition, it includes a
list of dos and donÊts applicable to most research papers. Finally, the topic also
offers some tips and strategies on how to get the grade that you are aiming for.

TOPIC 9 FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER  125
9.1 WHAT IS A RESEARCH PAPER?

Let us begin by asking ourselves two questions – who needs to write research
papers, and what makes a good research paper?
The answer to the first question is simple.
Writing research papers is an essential skill, not only for students and academics
but also for people working in organisations and institutions, who may need to
present ideas to others in decision-making positions. In todayÊs increasingly
competitive society, all organisations and businesses need to innovate. To do that,
they need ideas. The best ideas, however, can go nowhere unless they are shared
and turned into reality. This is where research and research papers come in – to
allow ideas to be shared, so that they can be implemented and translated into
reality.
To answer the second question, we need to understand what a research paper is

all about.
Basically, a research paper is a form of an extended essay, usually between 10

and 25 pages in length. It is a sustained inquiry in a particular subject. It presents
summarised information about the subject to prove a point. To do this, it cites
outside sources of information to support its stand. In a normal research paper,
three to 10 outside sources are cited.
You need to substantiate your claims when you write a research paper. Look at
the following sentence:
Many women are no longer contented to be just housewives.
This sentence is just an opinion unless you are able to back it up with other
sources that support the statement. For instance, you could cite articles that
explain why women are no longer contented to be just housewives. Or, you could
highlight cases of women with high profile jobs as proof that they are no longer
contented with being mere housewives.
All this is research and a crucial part of writing a good research paper. Remember
that you may come across a lot of facts but only some of these facts will be
relevant to your paper. It takes skills to separate the chaff from the grain, and
write a good research paper.

126  TOPIC 9 FUNDAMENTALS OF WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
ACTIVITY 9.1
Some of you may have had the experience of writing research papers.
Share this experience with your friends.
9.2 STEPS IN WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER
„If any man wishes to write in a clear style, let him first be clear in his
thoughts; and if any would write in a noble style let him first possess a
noble soul.‰
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
As the above quote shows, clarity in writing is very important. This is especially
true when writing a research paper. Remember that if the paper fails to
communicate its message well, then the research – no matter how well done – will
have little impact.
There is an old piece of advice that says: „Write like you speak.‰ This is good
advice to get you started on writing. However, when writing formal research
papers, you need to write a little differently. A good research paper is usually
written in the third person. This means that it is not presented from the
standpoint of „I‰ or „you‰ but rather from the standpoint of a narrator. The
writing of the paper is facilitated by using the outline for organisation and the
note cards for the recollection of facts.
Tip:
Give yourself time to work on a research paper. A good reserach paper does
not come out perfect the first time for anyone. Even the best writers have to
struggle to organise their papers and everyone needs to go through several
revisions before they reach the final product. So, do not feel bad and do not
skimp on revisions!
Next are key steps you can take to guide you in writing a good research paper.

9.2.1 Selecting a Topic

The first step in writing a research paper is to select your topic. Put careful
thought into this decision. It should be clear not only to yourself, but also to your
reader, why you have selected the topic. Pick one that you are interested in so that
writing the paper will be fun. However, the topic should also be one that you can
handle adequately, in the time frame that you have been given. Avoid topics that
are too broad or narrow in scope. Generally speaking, it is better to write on a
narrow topic in depth, rather than on a wider subject superficially.
Besides fufilling course requirements, the topic should be doable. A brief hunt on
the topic in the library and on the Internet will provide clues as to whether it is
doable or not. Be sure that the topic you choose has enough resources available.
You should decide on your topic as early as possible; brainstorm with your
lecturer for topic ideas if necessary.
Selecting a good topic is not easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to
be interesting, yet broad enough for there to be adequate information for
your research.
Below are tips to help you select your research topic:
(a) Brainstorm for Topic Ideas

Choose a topic that interests you. You might want to use the following
questions to help you generate topic ideas.
(i) Do you have a strong opinion on a current educational, economic or

social controversy?
(ii) Have you read a newspaper article or seen a TV broadcast recently that
excites your curiosity or makes you angry or anxious?
(iii) Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest you would like to
know more about?
(iv) Do you have a research paper due in a class this current or the
following semester?
(v) Is there an aspect of one of your courses that you are interested in
learning more about?
Write down words or phrases that may be of interest to you. Avoid

overused topic ideas.

(b) Read for Background Information

After you have decided on some topic ideas, read generally on the top two
or three topics you are considering.
(c) Narrow Down your Topic

A topic is difficult to research if it is too broad or too narrow. One way to
narrow down a broad topic such as „The Environment‰ is to set limits such as:
(i) Geographic regions;
(ii) Culture;
(iii) Time frame;
(iv) Discipline; and
(v) Population group.
Remember that a topic will be more difficult to research if it is too locally

confined, recent, broadly interdisciplinary or immensely popular. If you
have uncertainties about your topic, discuss with your tutor.
(d) Make List of Useful Words

Keep track of the words used to describe your topic. Look out for synonyms
of key words used in order to expand your search capabilities. Keep a list of
these words because you can use them again when you search in catalogues
and other online databases later on.
(e) Be Flexible
It is common to need to modify your research topic during the research
process. Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper or project.
(f) Restate Topic as Focused Research Question

You will probably begin with a word, then develop a more focused interest
in an aspect of something relating to that word and then start to frame
questions about the topic. For example:
(i) Idea: ZaÊba or modern Malay literature.
(ii) Research Question: How has ZaÊba influenced modern Malay

literature?
(iii) Focused Research Question: What structures used by ZaÊba are

common in contemporary Malay sentence structures?

(g) Brainstorm for Topic Ideas

Read, read, and read around the topic until you are sure of what you wish to
research on. It takes time and hard work but remember that selecting the
right topic is an important part of the research process.
(h) Formulate a Thesis Statement

Write your topic as a thesis statement. The title of your research paper may
not be exactly the same as your research question or thesis statement but it
should clearly convey the focus, purpose and meaning of your research.
(i) Discuss with Your Peers/Tutor

Remember to follow any specific instructions from your tutor.
These steps to choosing a research topic are summarised in Figure 9.1 below.
Figure 9.1: Key steps in choosing a topic

ACTIVITY 9.2
1. In your opinion, what is the best way to brainstorm for your topic
ideas?
2. How do you go about choosing a topic for your research paper?

What are the aspects that you need to take into consideration?
9.2.2 Planning the Research Design and Process

After choosing your topic, you need to come up with a good research design. A
strong research framework, sound data collection methods and rigorous data
analysis are the cornerstones for a good research paper.
Remember that the whole idea of writing a research paper is to provide new
ideas, or fresh insights, on a topic. Your research must provide evidence to prove
your hypothesis. How you go about collecting this depends on your research
methodology. Choose your methodology carefully – you can carry out laboratory
testing, surveys, close textual analysis, psychoanalytic search, etc. Do read up on
what other researchers have said about your topic.
Bear in mind that your work is supposed to be new, not a repetition of other
peopleÊs work. In the end, the best research papers combine good research with
original thinking. Try to maintain a critical attitude towards what you are reading
or examining; do not accept an argument just because it has ended up in print.
Ask yourself if you agree with it or not, and why.
One of the places to do research is the library. Do not be intimidated if the library
on your campus or in the city is big and unfamiliar. Even the most experienced
researcher needs help sometimes, particularly when handling specialised sources
such as government documents. The good news is you can ask the library staff for
such assistance. When you are lost, as we all are sometimes, ask the nearest
librarian for help. Sometimes, just standing around and looking confused is
sufficient to summon aid.

When you are doing your research, it is important to be creative. Below are some
tips to help you get started:
(a) Start by Reading Research Studies on Your Subject

This will give you a broad grasp of your topic and help you identify what is
important and what you need to focus on. Simply jumping in and starting
your research immediately may end up in you wasting a considerable
amount of your time. Textbooks can also be helpful.
(b) Treat Research Like a Detective Story

Search under various subject headings when looking for resources in the
physical or computerised card catalogue. If, for example, you are doing a
paper on tsunami, do not limit yourself to looking under „T‰ for „tsunami‰.
Other likely subject headings might be „earthquakes‰, „typhoon‰,
„hurricane‰ and „volcanic eruptions‰.
(c) Look At the Most Recent Books and Journal Articles First
These resources will usually contain a bibliography and notes that list earlier
works on the subject. This can be an invaluable, time-saving step in locating
supplementary resource material.
(d) Photocopy Important Material

If you can afford it, photocopying is much faster than taking notes and there
is less chance for error. If you must make written notes, use index cards.
Larger cards are better than smaller ones. Use one card for each quote,
statistic or other piece of research information that you collect. Cards work
well because they can be arranged and rearranged easily. For topics with
distinct parts, you might even want to try a different colour card for each
part. Some people use portable computers to take notes. If you do, be sure to
make a backup copy.
(e) Make a Careful and Complete Notation of the Source of Your Material
This is necessary to avoid problems in the future when and if you need to
look up a citation that you should have noted and completed.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
How would you go about, starting out on your research project?

9.2.3 Compiling Research Resources

Your library contains myriad resources that you can use in your research project.
The list given below is just a starting point. Make time to explore the library and
ask librarians about what is available. You may be surprised at how many new
resources there are in your library.
(a) Reference Works

One of the most important places in your library is the reference section. The
materials in this section are often useful to help you kickstart drafting the
outline of your topic. Encyclopedias and dictionaries are some of the main
resources you may want to check out.
(b) Books
Use your libraryÊs computer access system or card catalogue to search for
books on your subject. A good place to start with is the OUM Virtual System
(VLS) Headings for ways to cross-reference your search for books. As soon
as you switch on your computer in the Virtual Library System and perform
the necessary steps, you will see hundreds of books on display. Some books
are available in their entirety while others only partially. If you wish to
check these books out, just inform the librarian on duty.
(c) Journal Articles

Some issues, especially recent ones like the tsunami disaster of 26 December
2004, may be so recent that there are few or no books yet available. In such
cases, journals are more likely sources of information. You should consult
journals even on older topics because scholars may have found new
information or conducted new analyses on the subject. The places to
search for journal articles include the Ministry of Information Malaysia,
Government Printers, the Social Sciences Citation Index and the Social
Sciences Index. You should be able to find most, if not all of these, in your
libraryÊs reference room or any of the major book shops in town, like
Kinokuniya, Popular and MPH.
(d) Government Publications

You may also find valuable information published in the form of reports
by government agencies, reports by a parliamentary committee or the
PAC (Public Accounts Committee), or in the transcript of proceedings of
Parliament sittings. The United Nations and other international organisations
also publish proceedings and reports. There are several indexes available. At
some universities, accessing government documents can be a challenge. See
your librarians for help with government publications.

(e) News, Magazines and Newspapers

If you are researching a current topic or need a day-by-day account of events,
you may be forced to turn to news, magazines and newspapers. However, be
sure to check that these are acceptable sources of data for your project. They
are usually useful for facts or contemporary quotes but less acceptable if you
are looking at data for analysis. Your library may have a computerised access
system to assist you. The ReaderÊs Guide to Periodical Literature also helps
access this material. In addition, major newspapers like the New Straits
Times, The Malay Mail, The Sun, The Star, Utusan Malaysia and Berita Harian
are indexed. Some are now available in the form of CDs, allowing you to use
the computer to search by subject and then print out the relevant articles.
(f) Electronic Resources (World Wide Web)

Over the past few years, it has become increasingly easy to find research
information on the Internet. Until recently, the Gopher system of data
archives was the dominant form of Internet information access, but now,
most governmental and non-governmental organisations, universities and
even businesses have developed access to their research resources on the
World Wide Web.
There are many useful websites that can get you started in searching for
information you need to write your research paper. Although some of the
Uniform Resource Locators (URL) are for specific information sources, most
provide you with „hot-linked‰ lists that will get you to where you might
want to look for information. It is important to note that URLs change
frequently. If they do not work, double-check the URL or contact the
organisation sponsoring the page.
When using Internet articles, put in the name of the author, date, and title of
the web page, the URL and the date you accessed the articles.
Every reference in your main text must appear in the list at the end of your
paper and every reference in the list must be mentioned in your main text.
(g) Miscellaneous Sources

The listing here covers what is in your library. In addition, your library may
have a map room or an audio-visual section. Some libraries also contain
archives or a rare book collection. Talk to a librarian, lecturer or tutor
for additional information. You should also realise that no library has
everything. Consequently, you may find references to resources that are not
in your library. You can usually borrow such resources from other libraries
through the inter-library loan programme. Check with your librarians to
learn how to use this service. Be advised, however, that inter-library loans
take some time. So, order any needed resources as early as possible.

(h) External Sources

Knowledge is not confined to libraries. A lot of people have valuable
knowledge at their finger tips. Do not be afraid to speak to people whom
you think can help you. Even if they cannot help you, they may know others
who are experts on a certain policy or issue. You can try to conduct an
interview with a decision-maker or some other relevant person that you
may not know well. One person has been known to call Wisma Putra
directly for information and gotten what he wanted successfully. Others
have called the High Commissions and Embassies of foreign governments
involved to get information from them.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
Where can you obtain your research sources in Open University

Malaysia? What are the options open to you?
9.3 GETTING STARTED

You do not have to dread writing research papers; all you have to do is take time
to plan and prepare yourself for it. Keep this Chinese proverb in mind when you
start: A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step. Do not let the fear
of the paper keep you from writing what may be one of the best pieces of writing
that you will ever produce.
9.3.1 Outlining and Organisation

When it comes to actually writing the paper, being organised is crucial. Being
disorganised can ruin a paper but fortunately, there are guidelines to help you:
(a) Start with an introduction in which you establish your topic and state your
thesis statement. A thesis statement is a sentence that explicitly identifies the
purpose of the paper or previews its main ideas – it is the crux of the
research paper – everything else is included to support it;
(b) Move on to the body of your paper where, in a clear and logical manner,
you prove your thesis statement, step by step to convince your reader; and
(c) End with a conclusion where you do not just restate your thesis statement,
but give new findings and fresh insights as well.

Introductions which tend to be too general, and trite conclusions can ruin a paper.
Remember, these act as orientation marks for your reader. You tell him at the start
where you are heading, guide him along the way and tell him when you have
arrived. Bad organisation can cause you to lose your reader halfway through the
paper, so try to pick the best path to prove your thesis statement and guide him
along carefully.
9.3.2 Support Your Argument

When writing a paper, you have to convince your reader that your view of the
topic is correct. You have to organise your thoughts, present them logically and
provide evidence to back them up. You can say whatever you want, but if it is not
backed by evidence or logic, it means nothing. Be detailed and cite resources to
clearly ground your argument.
Another tip is to anticipate counter-arguments or counter-evidence, and argue

against them in your paper. Look for gaps in your own argument and try to fill
them in, but do not be afraid to acknowledge complications in your argument.
Honesty is better than putting up a good front without basis. Avoid errors in
reasoning such as using stereotypes, invalid assumptions, hasty generalisations or
appeals to the emotions.
9.3.3 Writing Tips

Smooth, clear, easy-to-read, creative writing can do wonders to a paper but not
everyone is born a Hemingway. However, there are some rules everyone can
follow.
(a) First, you should not write in a colloquial style unless absolutely necessary;
a professional, authoritative tone is important in academic writing.
(b) Second, avoid choppy short sentences and paragraphs.
(c) Third, make sure each paragraph has a central idea and connect the
paragraphs clearly.
(d) Fourth, avoid using the same words; look for synonyms to make your
writing more interesting.
(e) Fifth, and most important, check and double check your paper for
grammatical, punctuation, spelling and other errors.

There are some general house rules for writing style. For instance, titles of films,
books, TV shows and magazines are written in italics (thus, Utusan Malaysia);
titles of individual articles or entries and songs are put in quotations (for example,
„Widuri‰). With the exception of such titles, keep capitalisation of words to a
minimum. Use quotation marks for short quotations and block quotes for ones
over three lines in length.
ACTIVITY 9.3
„Writing is easy. All you do is stare at a blank sheet of paper until

drops of blood form on your forehead.‰ (Gene Fowler, American
journalist, author and dramatist).
What is your opinion of this statement? Personally, what are the

challenges you encounter in writing and how do you handle them?
9.3.4 Citation Styles

To „cite‰ is to point to evidence, authority or proof. To cite correctly, you need
to collect and assemble details of where your information comes from and
note this in your text. There are two main styles of citing (author-date and
footnote/endnote) although there are many variations.
There are different styles for citing. These include:
(a) Harvard: An Author-Date Style

The Harvard style is a type of author-date style. Generally, when using the
Harvard style, a citation in your paper requires only the name of the author
(or authors) and the year of publication (with no punctuation between the
two items). Citations should, whenever possible, be placed at the end of a
sentence (before the concluding punctuation).
Example 1:
⁄ as one writer puts it „the darkest days were still ahead‰ (Weston 1988: 45).
Alternatively, the authorÊs surname may be integrated into the text, followed
immediately by the year of publication in parenthesis, as in Example 2.

Example 2:
Adnin (1990: 564) has argued that ⁄
If there is more than one reference by the author in the same year, they are
generally labelled in order of publication with a lower case letter, as in Example 3.
Example 3:
⁄ Other researchers face this problem (Adnin 1996a: 89, Ali 1994: 102) while
Adnin (1996b:6) recognised ⁄
If the authorÊs name is unknown, you should give the title of the article, book or
webpage, as in Example 4.
Example 4:
⁄ the worst election loss in the partyÊs history (Utusan Malaysia 4 May, 2004: 10)⁄
The references made in the text are listed in alphabetical order by author(s) at the
end of the paper. If the author is unknown, use the title.
(b) Vancouver: A Footnote/Endnote Style

Using this system, references are numbered in the order in which they are
cited in the text.
Example 1:
⁄ as one author has put it „the darkest days were still ahead‰ [1]
⁄ this has been well documented in the literature [2–6]
The authorÊs name can also be integrated into the text, as in Example 2.

Example 2:
Adnin [2] has argued that ⁄
However, there are variations to the in-text citation format:
 Either square [ ] or curved brackets ( ) can be used as long as it is consistent.
 Superscript is sometimes used rather than brackets, for example, ⁄ was
discovered1.
References are listed in numerical order at the end of the paper, as in Example 3.
Example 3:
1. Adnin S. A., Aliana S. A. Tourism Management. Malaysian Tourism Board
Journal. 2004; 88–90.
A good way is to prepare cards with the full details of each source.
The cards can then be sorted when you are writing your reference list/
bibliography.
Make sure you keep track of the information sources you use and record the
necessary details in full, even if you are not sure whether you will actually
be using the source. This saves time as it is often difficult and time
consuming to find detailed information at the last minute.
(c) Styles Recommended by Journals and Professional Associations, e.g.

Modern Language Association
This was discussed in Topic 5.
General Guidelines for Citation

Remember that the terms „citation‰ and „reference‰ are often used to mean the
same thing. Citing your sources of information is important for various reasons:
(a) To protect against charges of plagiarism;
(b) To prove that your work has a substantial, factual basis; and
(c) To help your readers to identify and retrieve the references for their own use.

Citing your sources is a form of honesty in which you admit an idea is not your
own. When you use ideas or even sections of writing you got from somewhere
else but do not clearly mark them as not your own, you are committing
plagiarism, which at some universities is an offence worthy of expulsion.
Never use the ideas or writing of others without citing them!
Not citing your sources can hurt your paper as, for instance, when you refer to
statistics without stating the source. To the reader, these could seem as made-up
numbers if you do not say where you got them. You can provide a bibliography
of the sources you use, but it is important to detail in the text where each idea or
quotation comes from.
(a) What Details Do I Need for a Source Citation?

The following details are usually required, but note that not every detail will
be applicable in every case:
(i) Author(s)Ês or editor(s)Ês names in full; or the group, body, organisation
responsible.
(ii) Title of article or chapter.
(iii) Name of the journal, periodical or book.
(iv) Edition (if applicable).
(v) Place of publication (for book).
(vi) Year of publication.
(vii) Volume number (for journal).
(viii) Issue number (for journal).
(ix) Page numbers.
(a) What Details Do I Need for an Electronic Citation?

When you are citing an electronic resource like a web page, you should note
the following details. However, some web pages do not contain all these
details, so do not be stressed out if you cannot find them all:
(i) Name of author or editor.
(ii) Title of the page (look at the bar at the top of your browser).

(iii) Title of the site (go to the siteÊs homepage).

(iv) Date the page was last updated or the copyright date.
(v) The full Internet address (URL) of the page (i.e. http://www. etc).
(vi) The date that you accessed the page.
(vii) Any other details that might help someone else find the part of the
page that you used.
(b) How Do I Put a Citation Together?

In order to make your citation or reference easy to follow, all the details
needed should be put together in a specific order. The order of the details
and punctuation can vary with the style you are using. Remember that once
you have chosen a style, you need to use it consistently throughout your
piece of work. That does not mean you have to use one style for the rest of
your life, just till the end of your assignment.
(c) How Do I Put a Bibliography Together?

The bibliography contains a list of all the sources you used to research your
paper. List your sources in alphabetical order by author and where there
is no author, by title or numerical order by file. Names of books and
magazines may be underlined or typed in italics. Specific article titles should
be placed within quotation marks. The bibliography can follow the MLA or
APA style of citation (as explained in Topic 5). The important point is to
choose the style that you find easy and comfortable to use, and then use it
consistently.
9.3.5 Presentation
A well-researched paper loses much of its impact on readers if it is not well
presented. To present your paper well, you must write it clearly. Your sentences
need to be clear and concise. The paragraphs and sentences should flow easily
and this can be achieved after some practice. Always make sure the paper is
cleanly typed or printed without any missing pages or errors. If you have any
figures or illustrations, make sure they are clearly labelled. Adding illustrations to
your paper is important if you want to make specific arguments about a visual
text, but images inserted just for appearanceÊs sake would not serve any purpose.
In the end, it is your words that count.

Other things to consider are your sentences. They should be checked for possible
errors in syntax, punctuation and style. This is not difficult with the spell-check
function in your word processor but you should also do it manually because no
matter how good your spell-checker is, there are always a few things that a
machine will fail to pick up or miss or not recognise, for example, the wrong use
of a word.
If your research paper has fulfilled all these characteristics, you have yourself a
good research paper.
9.4 TIPS AND GUIDELINES

Below are some important considerations that you should bear in mind to help
you come up with a good research paper.
9.4.1 Read, Read, Read

The first step to writing a good research paper, as mentioned earlier, is to look for
a good topic to research on and to write about. This means that you have to do
lots of background reading around your area of interest. A good starting point, if
nothing else comes to mind, is the Encyclopedia Britannica. Read books or articles
on topics that interest you. Follow up with the suggested reading found in the
course syllabus or bibliographies of the texts you read. Always bear in mind that
you should do this as early in the course as possible.
9.4.2 Organise your Discussion

The purpose of the discussion is to fit your work into the rest of the worldÊs state
of knowledge. Here is a typical structure to get started.
(a) Start with a paragraph that summarises the key results in the context of the
question(s) you asked in the introduction. In laymanÊs terms, explain why
the results are important.
(b) Compare and contrast your study with others in the literature review. What
contributions did your paper make?
(c) List the limitations of the study and suggest other studies that might resolve
them.

(d) Discuss the implications of your study in other fields such as culture and
religion.
(e) Hypothesise and speculate on the data. If possible, provide a model for what
the data might suggest.
(f) Proofread, check your references, do a final literature search to add new
information and hold a discussion with your instructor again before you
submit your paper.
9.4.3 Categorise Information

Your work should show some depth of thinking. A mere summary of the
materials you have researched is generally not acceptable. Your research is only
the starting point or framework for you to display your own ideas. Unless you
add something to what has already been written on the subject, there is not much
point in writing anything at all. A computer can be programmed to paraphrase
somebodyÊs writing faster and cheaper than you ever could. Your contribution
lies in being able to come up with something new and better.
In the course of doing your research, you will be inundated with facts but only
some of these facts will be relevant to your paper. It takes skills to sort out the
necessary information from the trivial and the irrelevant.
Basically, you need to remember that information related to your research is

necessary to validate your opinion and it can be organised into three categories:
(a) Background Information

Background information should be brief and to the point. It explains why
the topic you chose is significant or provides a brief history of your chosen
topic.
(b) Supporting Information

Supporting information helps to drive your argument forward and validates
your point. This category of information helps to make your opinion more
believable and plausible to the reader.

(c) Opposing Information

Opposing information is useful if it is used to strengthen your position on an
issue. You must remember that the reason you are including opposing
information is to counter it. After stating the opposing information, you
have to explain why it is not valid. This is a useful tactic to persuade readers
to take your side.
ACTIVITY 9.4
In writing your paper, how do you distinguish between relevant facts

and unnecessary information?
9.4.4 Develop Note-taking Skills

Note-taking is an essential skill to help you sieve through information. You can
begin by taking notes from the most valuable source and then progress through
all the sources available. One note card should be used for each major point.
Information about the source can be written in a corner of the note card: the name
of the book/article, the place and year it was published and the company that
published it. This will be useful later when you are organising the bibliography.
Incident notes should specify the people involved, the place, event, date and time.
Summary notes should recapitulate general information in concise phrases and
sentences that can later become a part of the body of the paper. Facts should be
written in the writerÊs own words.
Here are some tips for note-taking:
(a) Be accurate and honest when you take notes. Take care that you do not
distort the authorÊs meaning.
(b) Remember that you do not want to collect only those things that will
support your thesis and ignore other facts or opinions. The reader wants to
know the other side of the question too.
(c) Get facts, not just opinions.
(d) Note methods and procedures and do not be afraid to criticise them.

9.5 LOOKING AT EXAMPLES

This section offers you some samples of the Table of Contents page in several
research studies. The aim is to give you an idea of the sections and sub-sections
that should be found in every research paper. As a researcher, you would
definitely want to read the abstract to know what the research study is about, the
literature review, research methodology, discussions and research findings.
Check out the sample Table of Contents (Figures 9.2, 9.3 and 9.4) and comment on
them in your next tutorial session.
Figure 9.2: Outline of content (a)

Figure 9.3: Outline of content (b)
Figure 9.4: Outline of content (c)

There is no short cut to writing a good research paper. It is hard work, but the
journey is a highly satisfying one.
To recapitulate, Table 9.1 summarises the steps that you need to take to come up
with a good research paper:
Table 9.1: Steps to writing a good research paper
Steps Activity
Step 1 Choose a topic.
Step 2 Find information.
Step 3 State your thesis statement.
Step 4 Make a tentative outline.
Step 5 Organise your notes.
Step 6 Write your first draft.
Step 7 Revise your outline and draft
• Checklist One*
• Checklist Two**
Step 8 Type final paper.
*Checklist 1:
 Is my thesis statement concise and clear?
 Did I follow my outline? Did I miss out anything?
 Are my arguments presented in a logical sequence?
 Are all sources cited to ensure that I am not plagiarising?
 Have I proved my thesis with strong supporting arguments?
 Have I made my intentions clear in the paper?

**Checklist 2:
 Did I begin each paragraph with a proper topic sentence?
 Have I supported my arguments with documented proof or examples?
 Are there run-ons or unfinished sentences?
 Are there unnecessary or repetitious words?
 Does one paragraph or idea flow smoothly into the next?
 Are there any spelling or grammatical errors?
 Are the quotes accurate in source, spelling and punctuation?
 Are all my citations accurate and in correct format?
 Have I made my points clear and interesting but remained objective?
ACTIVITY 9.5
1. When you write a research paper, you cannot run away from doing
a fairly comprehensive literature review. Imagine that you are
planning to research „bullying in schools‰. State the steps that you
would take in order to produce a good piece of literature review.
2. Choosing a „researchable‰ topic is always a problem for a novice

researcher. In small groups, discuss the steps that you can take to
help you come up with a good research topic.
 This topic discusses the fundamentals of writing a research paper.
 It covers almost every aspect of writing a research paper, beginning with

defining what is meant by a good research paper, steps in writing a research
paper, useful tips and guidelines, to looking at samples of the Table of
Contents of good research papers.

 There are eight steps in writing a research paper: choose a topic, find
information, state thesis statements, make an outline, organise notes, write the
first draft, revise the outline draft and finally write the final paper.
 Among the tips and guidelines in writing a research paper are to read a lot
around the area of interest, organise the discussion, categorise the information
and develop note-taking skills.
Argument Outline
Background information Presentation
Brainstorming Referencing
Electronic citation Research paper
Government publication Supporting information
Journal article Source citation
Note-taking Thesis statement
Opposing information Topic
Ferris, S. (2000). How to be a writer. Chichester, UK: Summersdale Publishers Ltd.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.
Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Topic  Collaborative
Writing
10
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of the topic, you should be able to:
1. Work with other writers on an assignment;
2. Gather information from various sources; and
3. Analyse data collected, evaluate the group membersÊ various
interpretations and synthesise the ideas of the group.
 INTRODUCTION
According to Collins English Dictionary (2002), collaboration means „to work
with another or others on a joint project‰. In the context of writing, collaborative
writing refers to sharing written documents during the process of writing. You
may share the draft of a piece of written work with one or two others with the
goal of getting suggestions for improvement. In a collaborative writing process,
people write together in groups towards completing a written piece of work.
Collaborative writing projects are quite common in real-life settings such as
regular classrooms and business corporations.
10.1 STAGES IN COLLABORATIVE WRITING

According to Margaret Fleming (1988), there are three stages of collaborative
writing that we need to consider as we organise, plan and write a research paper.
These stages are shown in Figure 10.1:

150  TOPIC 10 COLLABORATIVE WRITING
Figure 10.1: Three stages of collaborative writing
10.1.1 The Invention Stage

In the invention stage, learners are engaged in preliminary discussions of ideas
and approaches using the following strategies · note-sharing and preliminary
debating.
In the note-sharing strategy, learners brainstorm about the topics by sharing

notes. They can trade materials with others.
On the other hand, learners using the preliminary strategy debate on an idea or a
topic as preparation for writing papers. Members of the group gather supportive
information for their positions, which then becomes shared material for the
group papers.

TOPIC 10 COLLABORATIVE WRITING  151
10.1.2 The Drafting Stage

There are three models in the drafting stage, namely the:
(a) Chunk Model

The „chunk‰ model merely divides the writing of a project into sections,
with each student writing one part. The advantage of this model is that
everyone participates, but the danger is that this may result in an
incoherent paper. To avoid this pitfall, all group members should be aware
of the parts or sections to be written, such as its introduction, conclusion
and transitions.
(b) Blended Model

The „blended‰ model will only work if learners have enough time to work
together. They have to be present in the same place at the same time and
discuss every aspect of the paper.
(c) Compiler Model

In the „compiler‰ model, each group member does the whole assignment.
Each memberÊs work is then assessed by the whole group and the best parts
will be selected to create the final draft.
10.1.3 The Revision Stage

Finally, in the revision stage, members of the group have to revise the paper once
the draft has been completed. The following are some of the ways to accomplish
this task:
(a) The group members can revise one anotherÊs drafts.
(b) The best writer of the group can become the chief editor of the draft.
(c) Other group members can give comments or suggestions.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Reflect on your previous experiences with collaborative learning:

1. What did you find helpful?
2. What problems did you encounter?

10.2 TEAM COMMUNICATION

Effective writing teams know why they exist and what they intend to accomplish.
They know their responsibilities, resources, strengths and weaknesses. They know
how to communicate well. Some characteristics of effective team communication
are listed in Figure 10.2:
Figure 10.2: Characteristics of effective team communication
ACTIVITY 10.2
How essential is effective communication in collaborative writing?
Discuss.

However, collaboration is not without its own set of problems which sometimes
arise and bring about negative results. Such problems include:
(a) Unsatisfactory negotiations;
(b) Non-acknowledgement of ideas/opinions;
(c) Over-zealous editing;
(d) Missed deadlines/non-delivery; and
(e) Non-understanding of subject matter.
ACTIVITY 10.3
„Too many cooks spoil the broth.‰ How do you think this saying
applies to team communication in collaborative writing?
10.3 TEAM MANAGEMENT

Other than the effective communication in a team, there are also other aspects
that need to be considered, such as team building and task analysis.
10.3.1 Team Building and Task Analysis

Students working on a project usually spend a great deal of time together and at
some point may be asked to put team goals ahead of their own. Therefore, they
need to make a conscious effort to find out more about each other. Practising
democracy is another aspect of team building. Every member needs to be given the
chance to speak, and respect must be shown for each personÊs ideas or opinions.
More creative energy as well as better quality product will emerge as a result of
team-work. In addition, students working as a team maximise the use of resources
and improve their profile. The use of technology may also help to ensure that their
product will be of better quality.
The group must analyse the task to be done so that each member has the same
interpretation. They must consider the major questions to be answered concerning
the writing project. The objective is to resolve related problems so that the task can
be completed on time.

10.3.2 Management of Time, Writing and Documents

Good management of time, writing and documents is essential in collaborative
writing.
Your first priority as a member of a team should be to meet deadlines or be on

time. You must be strict about time management.
Deadlines affect group writing tasks constantly as the group must not only find a
common time to get together but must also ensure that each section of the project
gets accomplished in a reasonable amount of time.
The next important task is to manage the writing, where to begin and what
things to include in the contents. To keep the writing on schedule, it is a good
idea to post a large chart or graph on the bulletin board, displaying both the
names of the sections to be completed, estimated dates of completion and the
names of the members or individuals who are supposed to do the task. As each
task is finished, it can be shaded; everyone can then see at a glance how the work
is progressing. An alternate idea would be to post sections of the work itself,
using a type of story-board format.
The writing task should be divided into sections. The group can then decide
which individuals or teams will work on which section and plan how long each
activity should take. The easiest way to do this is to make an outline of the
document or the steps in the writing process. The approach is then used to divide
the tasks. When the group members have identified the work that is to be done,
they must make decisions regarding the following:
(a) Group versus Individual Work

Members have to decide which activities are to be done as a group and
which are to be done by individuals. Be realistic about expectations. Do not
waste the groupÊs time if an individual can do the task well. However, do
not assign an individual to a task which requires group consensus every
step of the way.

(b) Equivalency of Tasks

Each group member should have an equal amount of work. This will help
the group complete the job as quickly as possible and ensure fairness.
Before agreeing on individual assignments, review the tasks as a group and
try to determine how much time each task will take. Some activities will be
more difficult than others. Even after estimating the difficulty of a task, it
may be necessary to re-estimate as the project gets underway and adjust
accordingly.
(c) Best Use of Individual Skills

Make every effort to give the right assignments to the right people. Match
individual skills with a job that utilises those skills. For this purpose, ask
group members to state their own strengths and weaknesses in the various
skill areas.
Finally, we need to know how to manage our document in stages - the steps to be
taken, the rules to be followed and what to edit or not to edit. In a large writing
project, keeping track of the document itself can be a problem, both at the
beginning when the work is spread out and later when the individuals start
making revisions. Often, writers complete as many as six or eight revisions.
When this happens, it becomes difficult to know if the revision you are reading is
the latest one. Therefore, writers need to find a way to keep track of what is being
written in each revision.
ACTIVITY 10.4
In your opinion, why is good management of time, writing and
documents essential in collaborative writing?
10.4 MANAGING COLLABORATIVE WRITING

PROJECTS
Writing in groups presents a unique challenge. Individuals have different
interests, different backgrounds and different attitudes towards writing.
Figure 10.3 lists several processes which are necessary for the management of
effective team writing experiences.

Figure 10.3: Necessary processes for the management of effective team writing
10.5 PRACTICE IN WRITING STEP-BY-STEP

INSTRUCTIONS
Writing instructions given to groups must be clear and precise. Members have to
know them well before they begin a project. It is a good idea for the group to
develop a style and format guide at the very beginning of the writing project. The
group should consider the following:
(a) What style guide will be used? Which spelling conventions?
(b) What size should the font type, margins and headings be?
(c) Will abbreviations be allowed and if so, which ones?
(d) Which technical terms will be used and which are necessary to define?
(e) Will processes be explained in point form or paragraph form?

ACTIVITY 10.5
In small groups (3 to 4 per group), prepare a set of instructions (20 to

25 words) for any of the following processes you are familiar with:
(a) How to teach a monkey to pluck coconuts.
(b) How to take a bus to Chow Kit Road.
(c) How to make pumpkin pie.
(d) How to throw a fishing net.
You can use notes, cautions and warnings. Remember to organise your
key points or instructions into five or six sub-categories, with appropriate
sub-headings, and create diagrams and illustrations accordingly.
10.6 CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Conflict of personalities, ideas and opinions may arise when writing in groups.
Groups need to face these conflicts with patience and understanding, and
respond to them directly.
Should there be a personality conflict between members, other members should

take steps to resolve the conflict as soon as they become aware that it exists. They
need to find the source of the problem; what the issue is, where it came from,
who started it and several other questions pertinent to the problem. For example,
does one group member feel overworked? Is credit for completed work being
given in an unfair manner?
Careful management of group meetings is essential for all members to remain

receptive to new ideas. One or two members should not be allowed to dominate
a group discussion. All members have equal standing in the group and should be
given every opportunity to participate voluntarily.
Some collaboration has to take place in the mind⁄ before the art of creation
can be accomplished. Some marriage of opposites has to be consummated.
Virginia Woolf (2000).

10.7 COLLABORATIVE WRITING PRACTICE

AND RELATED MATTERS TO CONSIDER
Students need to practise working in groups and they need to be told the rules
governing the assignment. They need to know what they are supposed to do. The
following activity is an example of a group project which can be done in groups
of three or four students.
ACTIVITY 10.6
For this activity, form a team with three or four of your coursemates.
Your local tourism board, which is updating its tourism brochure, feels
that certain attractions in your town or city should be described in more
detail. Your team has been asked to draft a 350-word description of sites
and activities which might interest tourists. Three to five photographs
should be used to illustrate the description.
Get your team to brainstorm, research, outline, draft and revise the
material which will be submitted to the Tourism Board.
Having said that, it definitely helps to have a standard manual and format of
writing. In order to produce a good group project/assignment, you should
have a user manual ready. The guidelines in the manual should be clear,
straightforward and easy to understand. Figure 10.4 illustrates the guidelines
which should be considered when preparing a manual.
Figure 10.4: Guidelines for preparing a manual

In addition to that, there are some general rules of style for writing. For instance,
titles of films, books, TV shows and magazines are written in italics (Berita
Harian); titles of individual articles, entries or songs, are put in quotations (for
example, „We are the world‰, „We are the leader and innovator in open
learning‰). Except for such titles, keep capitalisation of words to a minimum. Use
quotation marks for short quotations and block quotes for those over three lines
in length.
Writing as a group, is not so different from writing a paper. The steps are the
same – researching, synthesising, organising, preparing the materials and
presenting. While the following guidelines often refer to „writing‰, they may
easily be adopted by groups whose major project is an oral presentation rather
than a written paper.
Like other tasks, collaborative writing tends to take a bit more time than writing
alone. Each writer might have different ideas on what to write, how to write and
how much to write. This could become an issue. If at all possible, the group
should lay out a detailed series of deadlines and dates for meetings in order to
eliminate as much of the last-minute rush as possible. Like other group tasks,
collaborative writing also has the potential to be far superior to individual
writing, because the weaknesses and inadequacies of individuals are checked by
team members and all the strengths of the individuals are pooled together.
Consider the following questions as you reflect on your experiences in

collaboratively writing the topic paper and working with others online:
(a) What did I learn from this project?
(b) What questions do I have about collaborative writing?
(c) What learning strategies did I find useful?
(d) What problems did I encounter?
(e) How could they be overcome in the future?

ACTIVITY 10.7
1. Collaborate means to assist or work as a team and involves working

in stages. State each of the stages. Why are these stages important in
collaborative writing?
2. Team work is important in collaborative writing. How do you come

up with a good team? What are the important characteristics of a
good team? What are some of the disadvantages of being in a team?
• This topic introduces students to collaborative writing.
• It stresses the importance of communication skills in collaborative writing

and examines the differences in purpose and process between individual and
team writing.
• It clearly describes the processes of collaborative writing (the invention stage,

drafting stage and revision stage), the rules and procedures for the project,
plans for completing the project, and project management.
Blended model Invention stage

Chunk model Revision stage
Collaborative writing Style/format
Compiler model Task analysis
Conflict management Team building
Drafting stage Team communication
Fleming, M. B. „Getting Out of the Writing Vacuum.‰ Focus on collaborative

learning: Classroom practices in teaching english, 1988. Ed. Jeff Golub, et al.
Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, 1988.
MODULE FEEDBACK
MAKLUM BALAS MODUL
If you have any comment or feedback, you are welcome to:
1. E-mail your comment or feedback to modulefeedback@oum.edu.my
OR
2. Fill in the Print Module online evaluation form available on myVLE.
Thank you.
Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

(Pusat Reka Bentuk Pengajaran dan Teknologi)
Tel No.: 03-27732578
Fax No.: 03-26978702

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OUMH1203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Alias Yatim

Enhanced by: Assoc Prof Dr Woo Tai Kwan

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, May 2002

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2012, OUMH1203

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Communication 1

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Topic 3 What are Essays? 25

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Topic 5 Tackling Essays 64

Topic 6 Persuasive Writing 78

Topic 7 Report Writing 90

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Topic 8 Writing and Presenting Proposals 109

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Topic 10 Collaborative Writing 149

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 deals with the basic principles of written communication. It is designed

Topic 2 introduces various models of communication. Four different models

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Topic 5 is on tackling essays. It talks about a variety of things related to

Topic 10 focuses on collaborative writing. The goal in collaborative writing is to

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

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Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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Harris, J. (1994). Towards a working definition of collaborative writing. In

Howard, R. M. (2000). Collaborative pedagogies: A bibliographic guide. Ed.

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS)

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1.1 WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

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1.1.1 Elements in Communication

Well, communication has been defined as the act of giving, receiving or

Figure 1.1: The communication process

Clearly, there are several major elements in the communication process – a

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A message is only considered successfully communicated when both the sender

The meaning of communication lies in the way that it is received.

1.1.2 Factors Affecting Communication

(b) Cultural Differences

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(c) Choice of Communication Channels

(d) Length of Communication

(e) Use of Language

Woman, without her, man is nothing.

(g) Known or Unknown Receiver

(h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities

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(j) Clarity of Message