CHAPTER 5: WALLS

KA 10802
CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Chapter Overview

5.0 Introduction
5.1 Functional Requirements
5.2 Damp-Proof Courses (DPC)
5.5 Bricks and Brickwork (Physical Properties)
5.9 Loadbearing Brick and Block Walls
5.14 Steel Frame Wall Construction
5.15 Internal and Party Walls
5.0: Introduction
 Introduction
Define a “wall”?
 Wall: Continuous (usually) vertical structure; thin compared to its length
and height.
 A wall should have sufficient strength and stability to be self-
supporting and also support roofs & upper floors.
State the prime function of an external wall.
 Provide shelter against wind, rain and variations of outside
temperature for reasonable indoor comfort.
Please classify walls according to their structural requirement.
 Structural requirement classification of walls:
 Loadbearing: Carry the loads from roofs and upper floors + self-weight
 Non-loadbearing: Free-standing, carry self-weight only

*For this chapter, the focus is on loadbearing walls and timber-framed

buildings familiar to domestic and small-scale developments.
5.1: Functional Requirements
 Functional Requirements
What is the function of external walls and internal walls?
What are the common materials used for wall construction?
 Function:
External wall: Enclose, Internal Wall: Divide space
protect a building within a building
 A wide variety of materials are used to construct walls:
Brick and
Stone Timber Concrete
block

Straw
Glass Steel Earth
bale
 Most walls for single-, double and triple-storey buildings are
constructed with loadbearing masonry walls or framed from
timber, steel or concrete.
 Functional Requirements
What are the functional requirements for a wall?
State 4 requirements.
Resistance to Durability and
Strength and
weather and freedom from Fire safety
stability
ground moisture maintenance

Resistance to Resistance to
the passage of airborne and Security Aesthetics
heat impact sound

How do we determine the strength of materials?

 The strength of the materials used in wall construction:
Depends on the material’s resistance against compressive
and tensile stress.
 Strength and Stability
What is the criteria of choosing materials for wall construction?
 The characteristic working strengths of materials determine their use in
the construction of buildings, for example:
Material Strength Characteristics
Timber Moderate compressive and tensile strength, used for houses
Steel & Concrete Good strength, used for structural frame members of large
buildings.
Brick & Stone Good compressive strength, good durability and fire resistance
– common material used for walls.
For loadbearing walls in small houses, is the wall thickness design adequate
to withstand the load?
 For small buildings (houses) – wall thickness designed to fulfil the stability
and weather resistance requirements is in excess of wall thickness
required for strength.
 As such, the wall thickness is sufficient to withstand the load.
 Strength and Stability (Cont.)
What are the factors that might affect the stability of a wall?
 Stability of a wall may be affected by:
Expansion
Foundation Lateral forces (temperature and
Eccentric loading
movement (wind) moisture
changes)

What is an eccentric and lateral load? How does eccentric and lateral loads
affect wall stability?
 Eccentric loads (not acting on the centre of the wall) e.g. floors and roofs
 Lateral forces (acting on wall surface) e.g. wind, tend to deform and
overturn walls.
 The greater the eccentricity of the loads and the greater the lateral
forces, the greater the tendency of a wall to deform, bow out of the
vertical and lose stability.
 Strength and Stability (Cont.)

What is the advantage of irregular profile

walls compared to straight walls?

 Figure 5.1: Irregular profile walls

have greater stiffness against
deformation than straight walls
because of the
buttressing/reinforcing effect of the
angle of the walls
 More pronounced chevron, zigzag, offset
or serpentine of the wall = More stiffer it
will be.
 Resistance to weather and ground moisture
How does moisture penetrate a wall?
 Moisture (incl. water vapour and liquid water) may penetrate a wall by
 Absorption of water from the ground in contact with the foundations
 Rain falling on the wall.

How do we prevent moisture penetration in walls?

 Impermeable materials are used to form damp-proof courses (dpcs) and
damp-proof membranes (dpms) to prevent water rising in floors and
walls.

What affects the ability of a cavity wall to resist moisture on the inside face?
 This depends on its exposure to wind-driven rain and the
construction of the wall.
Resistance to weather and ground moisture(Cont.)
 Fire Safety
What are the two (2) principal considerations for fire safety?
 2 principal considerations for fire safety:
 Structural integrity of the wall in a fire Determined by the
 Surface spread of flame materials used

What is the importance of specifying fire resistance period for structural

elements? Give examples of fire resistance periods.
 Min. fire resistance period of structural elements – Important to specify,
we restrict premature failure of structural stability and enable
building occupants to escape during a fire.
 Periods of fire resistance:
 30 minutes: Dwellings with a top floor < 5 m above ground
 120 minutes: Industrial building (without sprinklers) with top floor < 30 m
above ground
 Resistance to the passage of sound
How is sound transmitted? Classify and explain two (2) types of sounds.
 Sound is transmitted as airborne sound and impact sound.
 Airborne sound: Generated as cyclical disturbances of air e.g. radio,
which radiate from the sound source, with diminishing intensity
with distance from the source.
 Impact sound: Contact with surface, e.g footsteps on a floor causing
vibrations in walls and floors – turns into vibrations of air around them.
How do we provide effective insulation for both types of sound?

Sound Effective Insulation

Type
Airborne Heavy and dense barrier e.g. solid wall, which absorbs the
Sound energy of the airborne sound waves.
Impact Denser materials transmit impact sound easily.
Sound We use absorbent material e.g. carpet to insulate impact sound.
Resistance to the passage of sound (Cont.)
 Maintenance, Security and Aesthetics
Maintenance: How do we indicate and compare wall durability?
 Wall durability: Indicated by frequency and extent of maintenance
work necessary to maintain functional requirements and an
acceptable appearance.
 Durability of different walls is compared through the cost of maintenance
over several years.
Security: What is the wall function in terms of security?
 Walls (with doors and windows) provides a secure enclosure – protects
buildings from unauthorized entry to property (domestic or commercial).
 Therefore wall resistance to e.g. ram raiding is a primary wall function.
Aesthetics: Explain the requirements of wall function in terms of aesthetics.
 Walls are visually important: (i) Must satisfy client’s and designer’s
aesthetic goals , (ii) Comply with local planning authority requirements.
5.2: Damp-proof courses (DPC)
 Damp-proof course (DPC)
What is the general function of dpc?
 The function of a dpc is to act as a barrier to the passage of moisture or
water between the parts separated by the dpc.
How should dpc be installed in walls? Why?
 Continuous horizontal dpc above ground in walls are required when
foundations are in contact with the ground
 Justification: Prevent moisture from the ground rising through the
foundation to the wall above ground – eventually cause wall surfaces to
be damp and damage wall finishes.
What is the requirement of dpc installed in walls?
 Fig. 5.4: Dpc must be continuous for the whole length and thickness of
the wall, at least 150 mm above finished ground level.
 Damp-proof course (DPC)
What is the general function of dpc?
 The function of a dpc is to act as a barrier to the passage of moisture or
water between the parts separated by the dpc.
How should dpc be installed in walls? Why?
 Continuous horizontal dpc above ground in walls are required when
foundations are in contact with the ground
 Justification: Prevent moisture from the ground rising through the
foundation to the wall above ground – eventually cause wall surfaces to
be damp and damage wall finishes.
What is the requirement of dpc installed in walls?
 Fig. 5.4: Dpc must be continuous for the whole length and thickness of
the wall, at least 150 mm above finished ground level.
 Damp-proof course (DPC)
State and describe three (3) types of flexible dpc.
Flexible dpc Description

Bitumen dpc Reasonably flexible and can withstand distortion due to

moderate settlement in walls without damage.
Economical, flexible, reasonably durable and convenient
to lay.
Polyethylene (PE) Most cost-effective and are most commonly used for both
sheet and horizontal and vertical applications in domestic
thermoplastic construction.
polymetric Disadvantage: Fairly readily damaged by sharp particles
products in mortar or coarse edges of brick.
(Photo 5.1 & 5.2)
Polymer-based Thinner than bitumen sheets.
sheets It may be punctured by sharp particles and edges.
(e.g.pitch polymer Have better tensile strength and higher tear and puncture
and co-polymer resistance compared with pitch polymer dpcs.
thermoplastic)
Damp-proof course (DPC) – (Cont.)
5.5: Bricks and Brickwork
 Physical Properties of Bricks
 Performance specification will need to consider the following
parameters (provided by brick manufacturers):

Size and Compressive Soluble salt Visual

type strength content appearance

Compressive strength
 Brick compressive strength: Found by crushing 12 of them
individually until they fail or crumble.
 The avg. compressive strength of the brick is stated as N/mm 2 to
ultimately crush the brick. Varies from 3.5 N/mm2 (soft facing bricks)
up to 140 N/mm2 (engineering bricks).
 Physical Properties of Bricks
Water absorption and suction
 Water absorption: Guide to its density and strength in resisting crushing.
Rates vary between 1% and 35%.
 Level of water absorption is most critical for bricks to be used below dpc
level or for dpcs.

Thermal and moisture movement

 All building materials move as a result of the expansion and contraction
caused by temperature or moisture changes.
 Expansion in long walls without adequate control joints may cause
 Figure 5.24: Bricks at the end of the wall oversailing the dpc
 Figure 5.25: Wall corner crack.
 For clay bricks, recommended joint width is 12 - 20 mm.
 Figure 5.26: Control joints made where there is lateral support.
5.9: Loadbearing Brick and Block Walls
 Functional Requirements

Strength and Stability

 In Approved Document A there is practical guidance to
meet requirements for the walls of three (3) types of small
buildings:
(1) Residential buildings  3 storeys
(2) Small single-storey non-residential buildings
(3) Small buildings forming annexes to residential buildings
(incl. garages and outbuildings)
 Functional Requirements (Cont.)

Height and Width

 Figure 5.41: Max. height of residential buildings: 15 m from
the lowest ground level to the highest point of any wall/
roof.
 Height of single-storey, non-residential buildings is 3 m
from the ground to the top of the roof.
 Figure 5.42: No floor enclosed by structural walls on all
sides should exceed 70 m2 and a floor without a structural
wall on one side, 30 m2.
 Functional Requirements
Stability: Thickness of walls
 General limitation for stability: Solid walls of brick or block
should be at least as thick as 1 16 of the storey height.
 Compartment walls: Formed to limit the spread of fire
and separating walls (party walls), or those that separate
adjoining buildings, e.g. walls between terraced houses.
 Figure 5.43: The min. thickness of external, compartment
and separating walls, relating thickness to height and
length of wall
 Internal loadbearing walls (except compartment and
separating walls) should be 𝟏 𝟐 thickness of external walls
shown in Fig. 5.13
5.10: Solid Wall Construction
 Solid Wall Construction
 Loadbearing walls were usually built as solid brickwork of
adequate thickness to resist the penetration of rain to the
inside face and to safely support the loads common to
buildings both large and small.

Rendering
 Rendering the surface of a brick or block wall smooth by
the application of a wet mix of lime, cement and sand
over the face of the wall.
 The rendering dries and hardens to a decorative
protective coating that varies from dense and smooth to
a coarse and open texture. Render improves the wall’s
resistance to rain penetration and alters its appearance.
 Solid Wall Construction (Cont.)
Resistance to weather
 Solid wall of brick resist penetration of rain to its inside face
by absorbing rainwater – will evaporate to outside air.
 A solid 1B thick wall: Sufficiently thick to prevent the
penetration of rainwater to its inside face for sheltered
positions (e.g. in urban areas, on low-lying land)
 In positions of moderate exposure a solid wall 1.5 B thick
will be effective in resisting the penetration of rainwater to
its inside face.
 In exposed positions such as high ground and near the
coast, a wall 2B thick may be needed to resist penetration
to inside faces.
5.14: Steel Frame Wall Construction
 Steel Frame Wall Construction
 Light gauge steel (cold-formed steel sections) are used in house
construction. The rolled steel sections can be assembled using three
types of construction:

Stick Panel Balloon

Stick Construction
 Individual members are delivered to site pre-cut, pre-punched for
holes to be cut or self-tapping screws to be used.
 Advantages of stick-build construction are:
❑ Slight modifications on sight can be accommodated.
❑ Adjustments can be made so that site tolerances can be
achieved.
❑ The structural members can be packed and transported in small
tightly packed loads.
 Stick build construction is labour intensive and is not widely used.
 Steel Frame Wall Construction (Cont.)
Panel Construction
 The panel construction has the advantage that the wall sub-frames,
panels, floors and roof trusses are prefabricated and delivered to site
ready assembled.
 The sub-frames and panels are connected on site using bolts or self-
tapping screws.
 The main advantages of panel construction are:
❑ Large prefabricated sections – saving labour time
❑ Speed of erection
❑ Good quality control achieved in factory production
❑ Accuracy of components and panels - easy to assemble on site.

Balloon Construction
 In balloon construction the panels are much larger, floor to roof, but the
components are much the same as panel frame construction.
5.15: Internal and Party Walls
 Internal and Party Walls
Internal Walls
 Internal walls may either be loadbearing or non-loadbearing.
 Non-loadbearing walls are usually referred to as ‘partition’ walls.
 In loadbearing masonry construction the internal walls were
usually constructed from brick or blockwork.
 Recently, the trend – use stud walls made of timber or metal,
which are quicker to erect and easier to move at a future date
(Figure 5.114)

Party Walls
 Where solid walls of brick or block are used to separate dwellings,
the reduction of airborne sound between dwellings depends
mainly on the weight of the wall and its thickness.
 Care should be taken to ensure that the wall and surrounding
structure are suitable to achieve the level of sound and fire
insulation required.