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IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGY for AIIMS

1. DISORDERS OF EXCRETORY SYSTEM
(1) Polyuria – Formation of more than the normal amount of urine.
(2) Oligouria – Less urine.
Check Point
(3) Anuria – No urine formation. 1. Name the followings:
(4) Phenylketonuria – Phynylketone bodies in urine (a genetical- autosomal recessive disease). (i) The pressure/s that act against
ultra-filtration
Such Persons are mentally retarded. (ii) Structures that produce
(5) Alkaptonuria – Alkapton bodies in urine (also an autosomal recessive disorder). The urine maximum tubular secretion
(iii) Hormone that is directly
turns black on exposure. responsible for water
(6) Glycosuria – Occurrence of glucose in urine. absorption
(iv) Disorder in which urine turns
(7) Haematuria – Presence of blood or RBC in urine. black on exposure.
(8) Albuminuria – Passing of protein (Albumin) in urine. (v) Substances which are fully
(100%) reabsorbed from
(9) Cysteinuria – Presence of amino acid (Cystein) in urine. It is an inborn error of glomerular’s filtrate.
metabolism.
(10) Uremia – Accumulation of excess urea and other toxic substances like phenols and organic
acids in the blood. Urea is removed by dialysis.
(11) Nephritis (Bright’s disease) – The Nephritis is a kidney disorder which develops due to
various reasons. It is mainly a bacterial disease in which negative (-ve) charges in glomerular
wall are dissipated, and the albumin (protein) can pass into filtrate without an increase in
the size of pores in the membrane.
Glomerulonephritis – It is the inflammation of glomeruli of kidney.
(12) Pyuria – Occurrence of pus-cells in urine.
(13) Milky urine – Presence of Phosphates in urine.
(14) Diabetes insipidus – It is a condition of more, and diluted urine, due to hyposecretion of
ADH or Vasopressin.
(15) Diabetes mellitus – It is the presence of glucose in urine due to hyposecretion of
insulin.
(16) Kidney stones (Renal calculi)– They develop when the amount of uric acid, calcium
phosphate or oxalates increases in the urine. These chemicals get precipitated in the urinary
passage as kidney stones.
(17) Cystitis – It is inflammation of urinary bladder causing frequent urination and burning
sensation.
2
2. PARAHORMONES/ LOCAL HORMONES
 Parahormones are short-lived chemicals which are produced from almost all body cells
(except mammalian RBCs).
 These chemicals affect the functioning of either the neighbouring cells (Paracrine
hormones) or the same cells from which they are secreted (Autocrine hormones).
 Most of the local hormones are paracrine type and include Prostaglandins, Neurotransmitters
and Interferons etc.

(a) Prostaglandins
• They were discovered by Von Euler (1935) in the semen of human and were thought
to be the secretion of Prostate glands, and hence named so.
• They are derivatives of polyunsaturated fatty acids (eg. Arachidonic acid).
• They regulate BP by contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles of blood
vessels.
• These chemicals also regulate Peristalsis and secretion of the digestive juices.
• They cause pain at injury site and induce fever. They also promote inflammation.
(The pain killers inhibit the secretion of prostaglandins).
• Prostaglandins also cause contraction of uterine muscles, vas deferens and oviduct
etc.

(b) Neurotransmitters/ neuro-regulators

• These chemicals are peptides and are synthesized in the nerve cells.
• They help in transmitting nerve impulses to muscles/glands or across the synapses.
• Neuro-regulators are of two types,
1. Excitatory - eg. Acetylcholine, Nor-epinephrine, Serotonin and Dopamine etc.
2. Inhibitory– eg. Glycine, Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA), Endorphins and
Nitric Oxide (NO) etc.

(c) Interferons
• They are low molecular weight proteins secreted by virus infected cells and provide
resistance to the neighbouring cells (For details please refer ‘Immune system’ )

PHEROMONES or ECTO HORMONES/ SEMIOCHEMICALS

ƒƒ The term ‘pheromone’ was given by Karlson.
ƒƒ The pheromones are volatile and odorous.
ƒƒ They travel through air and alter the functioning of the other members of the same species.
The ‘confusion technique’ is based upon the use of pheromones.
ƒƒ The important examples of pheromones are bombycol, geradioal and muskone.
ƒƒ Bombycol is secreted by Bombyx mori ( Silkmoth ) as a sex attractant for mating. This
was the first pheromone discovered. Geradiol is secreted by honey bees for aggregation
and muskone is secreted from musk deer.
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hypothalamus
pineal gland
pituitary gland
(hypophysis)
parathyroid gland
thyroid gland

thymus

adrenal gland

pancreas
ovary

testis

Fig. 1.1 Human endocrine glands

3. FATTY ACIDS
They usually contain even number of carbon atoms. (eg. 14 C, 16C and 18C etc)
a. Unsaturated fatty acids
 They have one or more double bonds between C-atoms
 e.g. Oleic acid (one double bond), Linoleic acid (2-DB), Linolenic acid ( 3-DB)
and Arachidonic acid (4-DB). The first 3-fatty acids are 18-C, compounds whereas
Arachidonic acid is a 20-C, compound.
(Prostaglandins, which participate in allergy, inflammatory and other reactions,
are derivatives of Arachidonic acid)
(Unsaturated fatty acid-chains bend at double-bond and do not fit closely together,
resulting in lowering of Melting point, and hence are liquid at room temperature-
e.g. oils)
b. Saturated fatty acids
 They do not have double bonds between carbon atoms
 e.g.Acetic acid, Propionic acid, Butyric acid, Palmitic acid, Stearic acid etc.
Essential fatty acids –
 They are not synthesized in the body
 All are Polyunsaturated (with more than 1-double bond), so called PUFA (Poly unsaturated
fatty acids).
 e.g. Linoleic acid ( in corn, pea and cotton), Linolenic acid (In Linsid oil and pea nut
oil).
(Margarine has high content of polyunsaturates. Mustard oil is one of the most unsaturated
oil; sunflower oil is rich in linoleic acid; and coconut oil has minimum fatty acid
content)
(Arachidonic acid can, however, be synthesized in body from linolenic acid)
 Human body - fat contains 50% Oleic acid, 25% Palmitic acid, 10% Linoleic acid and 5%
Stearic acid.

Connecting Concepts

The carbon atoms of fatty acids are numbered starting from the carboxylic (–COOH)
group. However, the carbon atoms may be numbered, starting from methyl group, as Omega
(ω) 1, 2, 3 etc.
6 5 4 3 2 1
C H3 − C H 2 − C H 2 − C H 2 − C H 2 − C OOH
ω1 ω2 ω3 ω4 ω5

A saturated fatty acid

Amongst unsaturated forms (with double bonds), there are 3-families of Omega (ω)
fatty acids.
1. ω3 -family eg. Linolenic acid
2. ω5-family eg. Linoleic acid and Arachidonic acid
3. ω9-family eg. Oleic acid
Linolenic acid (a 18-C compound) belongs to ω3 family since its first ‘double bond’
begins from ω3 carbon.
CH3 − CH 2 − CH = CH − CH 2 − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − COOH
ω3

The omega (ω)-3 unsaturated fatty acids, present abundantly in fish oil, are of
great nutritional value, and are required for proper mental growth especially of the
‘grey matter’.

Test for Lipids - (1) Grease Spot Test (2) Sudan III (black) or Sudan red test
Functions -
 Poor conductor of heat (For Insulation)
 Shock absorber
 Food storage (Its primary function)
Metabolism of fats -
β-oxidation : It is the conversion of fatty acids into Acetyl Co-A.
The fatty acids through Acetyl Co-A enter Kreb’s cycle. The glycerol enters Kreb’s cycle
at PGAL.
The oxidation of fatty acids requires more 02 ( R.Q. = 0.7). In shortage of carbohydrates
or oxygen, the ketone bodies are formed.

Problem : How many ATPs will be produced in β-oxidation and complete oxidation of
palmitic acid (16-C, compound)
(i) 2-ATP are used in conversion of Palmitic acid into palmitoyl Co-A.
(ii) 1 mol. of Palmitoyl Co-A (16-C, compound) produces 8 mol. of Acetyl Co-A
(2-C, compound), and 7 molecules (due to 7-cleavages), each of FADH2 and
NADH.
(iii) Each FADH2 produces 2-mol. of ATPs, and each NADH produces 3-mol. of
ATPs.
(iv) So, total ATPs produced will be
(I) 2 ATPs × 7 = 14 ATPs
(II) 3 ATPs × 7 = 21 ATPs
TOTAL : 35 ATPs
(v) Since 2-ATPs are used in the conversion of palmitic acid into palmitoyl Co-A
[see Step (i)].
So net. ATPs produced will be = 35 – 2 = 33 ATPs Ans.
For short cut = [(No. of cleavages × 5) – 2]
(No. of cleavages = One less than half the number of carbon atoms in the fatty
acid)
 On complete oxidation each acetyl Co-A will produce 12-ATPs, and net production
of ATPs (on complete oxidation of Palmitic acid) will be = 33 ATPs + (12 ATPs
× 8) = 33 + 96 = 129 ATPs Ans.

Fat Metabolic Disorders

1. Gaucher’s disease - Autosomal recessive. The liver and spleen are enlarged. Erosion of
long bones and Mental retardation occur.
2. Tay Sach’s disease (Infantilc amaurotic idiocy) - Autosomal recessive. Mental retardation,
Blindness and Death by the age of 3 years.

4. CELL THEORY
ƒƒ Cell theory was proposed by Schleiden and Schwann in 1855 to explain the concept of
the cellular nature of living organism.
ƒƒ But they did not explain as how new cells are formed. Rudolf Virchow in 1858 made a
generalization “omnis cellula e cellula” i.e., all cells comes from pre-existing cells.
The three fundamental facts of the cell theory are as follows:
ƒƒ All living organisms (animals, plants and microbes) are made up of cells and cell products
i.e., cell is the structural unit of life.
ƒƒ All metabolic reactions in unicellular and multicellular organisms take place in cell i.e.,
cell is the functional unit of life.
ƒƒ Cells originate only from pre-existing cells, i.e., no cell can originate spontaneously
or de novo

Exceptions to cell theory :

Check Point
i. Viruses are acellular and do not have a cellular components. But posses genetic mate-
Fill in the blanks
rial and show multiplication.
1.
In prokaryotic cells, ______ chro-
ii. In some organisms, the body is not differentiated into cells through it may have numer- mosome present in the center of
cell in a region called ______ .
ous nuclei (coenocytes, e.g., Rhizopus).
2. ______ and ______ are membrane
iii. Protozoans and some thallophytes have a uninucleate body (e.g., Acetabularia) which less organelles.
3. ______ is the smallest cell
cannot be divided into cells. They are acellular.
4. Active cells have surface volume ra-
iv. Bacteria and cyanobacteria do not have nucleus and membrane bound organelles. tio.
5. WBC, perform ______.
v. RBCs and sieve tube cells are the cells without nucleus.

vi. Protoplasm is replaced by nonliving materials in the surface cells of skin and cork.
ƒƒ Significance of cell theory : Cell theory is one of the fundamental generalisation of
biology.