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History
¾ In 1839 Edmond Becquerel accidentally discovered photovoltaic
effect when he was working on solid-state physics.
¾ In 1878 Adam and Day presented a paper on photovoltaic effect.
¾ In 1883 Fxitz fabricated the first thin film solar cell.
¾ In 1941 ohl fabricated silicon PV cell but that was very
inefficient.
¾ In 1954 Bell labs Chopin, Fuller, Pearson fabricated PV cell
with efficiency of 6%.
¾In 1958 PV cell was used as a backup power source in satellite
Vanguard-1. This extended the life of satellite for about 6
years.
Photovoltaic Cell
Contact
I
n
Anti reflective coating p-type
L
O
p A
Load
D n-type Resistance
Base metallization V R
Photovoltaic Cell-1
I
Id Ish
Il
Rshunt
Photovoltaic Cell-4
Current Current
Voltage Voltage
Current
Voltage
_
PV Module I-V Characteristics
Terminology:
¾ Solar Cell: The smallest, basic Photovoltaic device that
generates electricity when exposed to light.
¾ PV Module: Series and parallel connected solar cells (normally
of 36Wp rating).
¾ PV Array: Series and parallel connected PV modules (generally
consisting of 5 modules).
¾ A solar cell delivers different amount of current depending on the
irradiation (or insolation) to the cell, the cell temperature and
where on the current-voltage curve the cell is operated.
PV Module I-V Characteristics-1
¾ A PV cell behaves differently depending on the size/type of load
connected to it.
¾ This behaviour is called the PV cell 'characteristics'.
¾ The characteristic of a PV cell is described by the current and
voltage levels when different loads are connected.
¾ When the cell is not connected to any load there is no current
flowing and the voltage across the PV cell reaches its maximum.
This is called ‘open circuit' voltage.
¾ When a load is connected to the PV cell current flows through the
circuit and the voltage goes down.
¾ The current is maximum when the two terminals are directly
connected with each other and the voltage is zero. The current in
this case is called ‘short circuit' current.
PV Module I-V Characteristics-2
Experimental Setup
¾ There are two ways of measuring the characteristics of the PV
module, via is,
¾ Noting down each operating point on the characteristics by
varying the load resistance. The setup is as shown in Fig 1.
¾ Applying a varying signal (sinusoidal) to the cell and
observing the characteristics in the XY mode of the
oscilloscope.
¾ One of the requirements in the second method is that the
variable source should have the sinking capability.
PV Module I-V Characteristics-3
D1
R2
Voltage 500E, 1125W
R4
PV Module 10K, 1W
S3 44W
A K
D2
R1
0.5E, 10W
Current Ref
D1
230V/18V
T2 T1 Voltage
1 1 5
230V AC 2 R4
10K, 1W PV Module
3 4 8 44W S3
A K
D2
R1
0.5E, 10W
Ref Current
D1
230V/18V
T2 T1 D3 R2 Voltage
1 1 5 Q1
2N3055
230V AC 2 22E, 10W R4 PV Module
10K, 1W 44W S3
3 4 8
K
D2
A
R3
100E, 1W
R1
0.5E, 10W
Ref Current
Waveforms:
¾ Below are the PV module IV characteristics taken at different
time instances of the day with the experimental setup shown in
Fig 3
PV module IV Characteristics (Date -
22/05/03 Tim e - 10:15 AM)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Voltage (vo lts)
PV Module I-V Characteristics-8
Waveforms:
PV Module IV Characteristics (Date -
22/05/03 Tim e - 12:15 PM)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Vo ltage (vo lts)
PV Module I-V Characteristics-9
Waveforms:
PV Module IV Characteritics (Date - 22/05/03
Tim e - 1:30 PM)
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Vo ltage (vo lts)
PV Module I-V Characteristics-10
Waveforms:
PV Module IV Characteristics (Date -
22/05/03 Tim e - 2:45 PM)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Vo ltage (vo lts)
PV Module I-V Characteristics-11
Waveforms:
PV Module IV Characteristics (Date -
22/05/03 Tim e - 4:30 PM)
1.5
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Vo ltage (vo lts)
PV Module I-V Characteristics-12
The PV characteristics as measured by the experiment setup
shown in Fig
PV Module Characteristics (Date - 22/05/03 Time - 10:30
AM)
6
5
4
`
3
2
1
0
-20 -10 0 10 20
Voltage (volts)
Isc D1 Rp
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 5 10 15 20
Vo ltage (vo lts)
PV Module I-V Characteristics-15
RP
+
V RL
-
ID IRp
Iph
PV Cell concepts-1
I ph = I D + I Rp + I
¾ We get the following expression for the photovoltaic current
from the above equation:
I = I ph − I D − I Rp
⎡ ⎛ V + I ⋅ Rs ⎞ ⎤ ⎡V + I ⋅ R s ⎤
I = I ph − I o ⋅ ⎢exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎝ VT ⎠ ⎦ ⎢⎣ R p ⎥⎦
PV Cell concepts-2
where,
¾ Iph = Insolation current
¾ I = Cell current
¾ Io = Reverse saturation current
¾ V = Cell voltage
¾ Rs = Series resistance
¾ Rp = Parallel resistance
¾ VT = Thermal voltage = KT/q
¾ K = Boltzman constant
¾ T = Temperature in Kelvin
¾ q = charge of an electron
PV Cell concepts-3
¾ V-I characteristics of the cell would look as shown in the
following figure:
Current
(Amps)
ISC
Imp
Lower irradiance
reduces current
Rse
Rsh
R series
R shunt
Current Current
Voltage Voltage
Quality of cell-3
¾ To find the quality of the solar panel fill factor is used .
¾ It is defined as (Vmp*Imp)/ (Voc*Isc).
¾ A good panel has fill factor in the range of 0.7 to 0.8. for a bad
panel it may be as low as 0.4.
¾ Vmp, Imp, Voc, Isc are defined as shown in figure.
¾ The variation fill factor with insolation is as shown in figure 2.
Vmp ,Imp
Isc
Current
Fill factor
Voc
Insolation
Voltage
Series and Parallel combination of cells
Cells in Series
When two identical cells are connected in series, the short circuit
current of the system would remain same but the open circuit
voltage would be twice as much as shown in the following figure:
I
+
VOC1
- +
I1
+
-
VOC2
I2 -
VOC1 VOC1+VOC2
Series and Parallel combination of cells-1
¾ We can see from the above figures that if the cells are
identical, we can write the following relationships
I1 = I2 = I
VOC1 + VOC2 = 2VOC
¾ Unfortunately, it is very difficult to get two identical cells in
reality.
¾ Hence, we need to analyze the situation little more closely.
¾ Let ISC1 be the short circuit current and VOC1 be the open circuit
voltage of first cell and ISC2 and VOC2 be the short circuit
current and open circuit voltage of the second cell.
Series and Parallel combination of cells-2
¾ When we connect these in series, we get the following V-I
characteristics:
1/RL
ISC2
ISC
ISC1
V
VOC1 VOC2 VOC1+VOC2
Series and Parallel combination of cells-3
¾ We can see from the V-I characteristics that when we connect
two dissimilar cells in series, their open circuit voltages add up
but the net short circuit current takes a value in between ISC1 and
ISC2 shown by red color curve .
¾ To the left of the operating point, the weaker cell will behave
like a sink.
¾ Hence, if a diode is connected in parallel, the weaker cell is
bypassed, once the current exceeds the short circuit current of
the weaker cell.
¾ The whole system would look as if a single cell is connected
across the load.
¾ The diode is called a series protection diode.
Series and Parallel combination of cells-4
Cells in parallel
¾ When two cells are connected in parallel as shown in the
following figure. The open circuit voltage of the system would
remain same as a open circuit voltage of a single cell. But the short
circuit current of the system would be twice as much as of a single
cell.
ISC1+ISC2 I
ISC1+ISC2
ISC1 ISC2
+
+ +
VOC
VOC1 VOC2 RL ISC1
-
- -
V
VOC
Series and Parallel combination of cells-4
¾ We can see from the above figures that if the cells are identical,
we can write the following relationships:
ISC1 + ISC2 = 2ISC
VOC1 = VOC2 = VOC
¾ However, we rarely find two identical cells.
¾ Hence, let us see what happens if two dissimilar cells are
connected in parallel.
¾ The V-I characteristics
I would look as shown in the following
figure: I +I
SC1 SC2
1/RL
ISC2
ISC1
V
VOC1 VOC2
VOC
Series and Parallel combination of cells-5
¾ From the above figure we can infer that, when two dissimilar
cells are connected in parallel, the short circuit currents add up
but the open circuit voltage lies between VOC1 and VOC2,
represented by VOC.
¾ This voltage actually refers to a negative current of the weaker
cell.
¾ This results in the reduction of net current out of the system.
¾ This situation can be avoided by adding a diode in series of
each cell as shown earlier.
¾ Once the cell is operating to the right of the operating point, the
weaker cell’s diode gets reverse biased, cutting it off from the
system and hence follows the characteristic curve of the
stronger cell.
Maximum Power Point
¾ We have seen in earlier section that the quality of a cell can be
determined once we know ‘open circuit’ voltage.
¾ ‘short circuit’ current, and voltage at maximum power point and
current at maximum power point.
How do we get the last two points?
¾ It is a two-step procedure.
¾ First step is to plot ‘voltage’ Vs ‘power’ graph of the cell.
¾ Power is calculated by multiplying voltage across the cell with
corresponding current through the cell.
¾ From the plot, maximum power point is located and
corresponding voltage is noted.
Maximum Power Point-1
¾ The second step is to go to the V-I characteristics of the cell and
locate the current corresponding to the voltage at maximum
power point. This current is called the current at maximum
power point.
¾ These points are shown in the following figure:
I/P
Load line
ISC 1/Ro
Imp Operating Point
I-V Plot
Pm
P-V Plot
V
Vmp VOC
Maximum Power Point-2
¾ The point at which Imp and Vmp meet is the maximum power
point.
¾ This is the point at which maximum power is available from
the PV cell.
¾ If the ‘load line’ crosses this point precisely, then the maximum
power can be transferred to this load.
¾ The value of this load resistant would be given by:
Vmp
Rmp =
I mp
Buck Converter
¾ This is a converter whose output voltage is smaller than the
input voltage and output current is larger than the input current.
¾ The circuit diagram is shown in the following figure. The
conversion ratio is given by the following expression:
Vo I in
= =D
Vin I o
¾ Where D is the duty cycle. This expression gives us the
following relationships:
Vo
V in =
D
Buck Converter-1
S1 L1
Vin 1 2 Vo
V1 S2 C1 R1
I in = I o D
Knowing Vin and Iin, we can find the input resistance of the
converter. This is given by
Vin (Vo D ) (Vo I o ) Ro
Rin = = = 2
= 2
I in Io D D D
¾Where Ro is the output resistance or load resistance of the converter.
Boost Converter
¾ This is a converter whose output voltage is larger than the input
voltage and output current is smaller than the input current.
¾ The circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.
L1 S2
Vin 1 2 Vo
V1 S1
R1
C1
Boost Converter
¾ The conversion ratio is given by the following expression:
Vo I in 1
= =
Vin I o 1 − D
Where D is the duty cycle. This expression gives us the
following relationships: V = V (1 − D )
in o
Io
I in =
1− D
Knowing Vin and Iin, we can find the input resistance of the
converter. This is given by
Vin Vo (1 − D) ⎛ Vo ⎞
Rin = = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟(1 − D )2 = Ro (1 − D) 2
I in (I o (1 − D )) ⎝ I o ⎠
Here, Rin varies from Ro to 0 as D varies from 0 to 1 correspondingly.
Buck-Boost Converter
¾ As the name indicates, this is a combination of buck converter
and a boost converter.
¾ The circuit diagram is shown in the following figure:
Vin Vo
1
S1 S2
L1
V1 C1 R1
2
Buck-Boost Converter
¾ Here, the output voltage can be increased or decreased with
respect to the input voltage by varying the duty cycle.
¾ This is clear from the conversion ratio given by the following
expression: Vo I in D
= =
Vin Io 1− D
Where D is the duty cycle. This expression gives the following
relationships: ⎛1− D ⎞
Vin = Vo ⎜ ⎟
⎝ D ⎠
⎛ D ⎞
I in = I o ⎜ ⎟
⎝1− D ⎠
Knowing Vin and Iin, we can find the input resistance of the
converter. This is given by
Buck-Boost Converter-1
Vin ⎛ Vo ⎞ (1 − D )
⎛ 2
⎞ ⎛ (1 − D )2 ⎞
Rin = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟⎜⎜ ⎟ = Ro ⎜
⎟ ⎜ D2
⎟
⎟
I in ⎝ I o ⎠⎝ D 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Here, Rin varies from ∞ to 0 as D varies from 0 to 1 correspondingly.
¾Now let us see how these converters come into picture of PV.
¾ So far we have seen three different types of converters and its input
resistance Rin’s dependency on the load resistance and the duty cycle.
Buck-Boost Converter-3
¾ To the PV cell/module, the converter acts as a load and hence
we are interested in the input resistance of the converter .
¾ If we see that Rin of the converter lies on the Vmp-Imp point,
maximum power can be transferred to the converter and in turn
to the load.
¾ Let us see the range of Rin values for different converters as
shown in the following figures:
Buck Converter: I R =R
in o
1/Rin
At D=1
V
Rin= ∞
At D=0
Buck-Boost Converter-4
Boost Converter:
Rin = 0 1/Rin
At D = 1
Rin = Ro
At D = 0
V
Buck-Boost Converter-5
Buck-Boost Converter:
1/Rin
Rin = 0
At D = 1
Rin = ∞
At D = 0
V
An Example of DC – DC Converter:
¾ In our earlier discussion we have seen different types of DC – DC
converters such as Buck, Boost and Buck – Boost converters
¾ We had also seen the range of operation in conjunction with the PV
cell/module characteristics.
¾ The selection of type of converter to be used for an application
would depend on the operating point of the load.
¾ However, we have seen that the range of operation of Buck – Boost
converter covers the entire V-I characteristics of the PV cell/module
and hence it is a safe converter to be picked for any application.
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-1
DC-DC
Load
PV C Converter
module
Control parameter
D (Duty Cycle)
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-2
¾ A capacitor is connected at the output of the PV module to
eliminate any ripple or noise present.
¾ Normally a high value of capacitor is chosen to do the job.
¾ The capacitor also provides a constant voltage to the input of
the DC – DC converter.
¾ We had seen earlier that the conversion ratio of any converter is
a function of duty cycle and hence it becomes the control
parameter to the converter.
¾ Let us take a Buck – Boost converter in detail, as it is the most
versatile converter that can be used in any application and for
any operating point.
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-3
Q1 D1
-
2
V1 L1
C1 R1
Vo
1
+
Q1 and D1 are the two switches, which are open one at a time.
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-4
¾ To derive an expression for the conversion ratio, we can apply
any of the following principles under steady state conditions:
¾ Volt-Second balance across inductor L1.
¾ Amp-Second balance across capacitor C1.
¾ If one of the above two are obtained, power balance across the
entire circuit.
¾ That is, assuming zero losses in the circuit,
input power = output power.
Let us apply volt-second balance to the inductor. The voltage
across inductor for Q1-ON, D1-OFF and for Q1-OFF, D1-ON,
assuming negligible ripple is as shown in the following figure:
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-5
Q1-ON Q1-OFF
vL D1-OFF D1-ON
V1
t
T
DT (1-D)T
-Vo
L1 C2 R3
C1 R2
U1
11
10
8
TL494
E1
E2
C1
C2
7
12 COMP GND
VCC
VREF
IN1+
IN2+
DTC
IN1-
IN2-
OC
CT
RT
V1
16
15
14
13
1
2
5
6
3
4
R5
C3 R4
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-9
¾ The procedure for doing the experiment is as follows. After
rigging up the circuit setting R3 = 10 Ω, the module currents
and module voltages are measured for different duty cycle.
¾ The duty cycle can be set by varying the values of CT and
RT connected to Pin numbers 5 and 6 of TL494.
¾ From the readings of Vmodule and Imodule, power of the
module and Rin for the converter can be calculated for each
duty cycle.
¾ From the P-V plot and I-V plot of the module, several
parameters can be found such as Pmp, Imp, Vmp and Dmp.
¾ We can also verify that the Rin calculated is equal to the Rin
expression we had derived earlier for a buck-boost converter
given by: ⎛ (1 − D)2 ⎞
Rin = Ro ⎜⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
⎝ D ⎠
An Example of DC – DC Converter:-10
⎛ (1 − D )2 ⎞
R3 D Imod Vmod Pmod = I mod ⋅ Vmod R =
V mod ule Rin = Ro ⎜⎜ 2
⎟
⎟
in I mod ule
⎝ D ⎠
0.1
0.3
10 0.5
Ω
0.7
0.9
I 1/RO1
1/RO2
ISC1
Dmp1
ISC2 Pmp1
Pmp2
Dmp2
V
VOC1
VOC2
Maximum power point tracking-2
¾ In the figure, ISC1, VOC1 and Pmp1 are the short circuit current,
open circuit voltage and maximum power point of the module
at instant 1.
¾ 1/Ro1 is the slope of the load line that cuts the V-I
characteristics of the module corresponding to Pmp1 .
¾ maximum power is transferred to the load.
¾ ISC2, VOC2 and Pmp2 are the short circuit current, open circuit
voltage and maximum power point of the same panel at
reduced insolation that we call as instant 2.
¾ Now 1/Ro2 is the slope of the load line that would cross the
characteristic curve corresponding to Pmp2.
Maximum power point tracking-3
¾ we know that Ro1 is the actual load and that cannot be
changed.
¾ we need to translate the load Ro1 to Ro2 such that maximum
power can be transferred to it.
¾ This is achieved by changing the value of Dmp which
controls the power conditioner circuit.
¾ The power conditioner circuit could be any of the types of
dc-dc converters.
¾ We had seen earlier that actual load is connected to the
output of a converter and there is a relationship between
input resistance and output resistance of the converter.
Maximum power point tracking-4
¾ We also know that the input resistance of the converter is
same as the output resistance of the PV cell/module.
¾ we can have a relationship between the output resistance of
the PV cell/module and the actual load. For maximum
power transfer using buck-boost converter, we may have
the following relationship:
(1− D ) 2
Rout(module) = Ro(Load) ⋅
mp
2
D mp
Maximum power point tracking-5
¾ Since R o(Load) cannot be changed, the right hand side
quantity can be matched to R out(module) by changing the
value of Dmp through a feedback network as shown in the
following block diagram:
Power
Conditioner RLoad
Buck-Boost
v Converter
i
Dmp
Maximum power point tracking-6
¾ Therefore, maximum power point tracking system tracks the
maximum power point of the PV cell/module and adjusts Dmp
from the feedback network based on the voltage and current
of the PV module to match the load.
¾ Let us take an example of charging a battery (load) using a
PV module.
¾ Following are the steps that we need to follow before we
connect the load to the module.
¾ Obtain source (PV module) V-I characteristics .
¾ Obtain load (battery) V-I characteristics.
¾ Check for intersection of the characteristics and stability. This
would be the operating point.
Maximum power point tracking-7
Battery, 24 V
Maximum power point tracking-8
¾ Following the above-mentioned steps, let us obtain the V-I
characteristics of load and source and superpose one over the
other. Following are the characteristics:
I
1/Ro(module)
1/Rload
A
B
Pmp
V
Vmp=16 V VOC=20 V VB=24 V
Maximum power point tracking-9
¾ We can see in the figure that the V-I characteristics of the
PV module and the load (battery) do not intersect at any
point.
¾ Hence, we need to have a power conditioner circuit to match
the loads.
¾ Since we need to charge a 24-volt battery and we have only
Vmp of 16 V from the PV module, we can use either a boost
converter or a buck-boost converter.
¾ Ideally, the V-I characteristics of the battery should be a
vertical line indicating a constant voltage source.
¾ However, we see a slope. This is due to the internal
resistance of the battery.
Maximum power point tracking-10
¾ Hence, the battery can be modeled as a voltage source in
series with a resistance as shown in the following figure:
rb
VB
2
D mp
DC-DC Load
Converter
Algorithms for MPPT-3
¾ The first step is to define K = (Vmp/VOC) where 0<K<1. In the
block diagram, reference cell is supposed to be an identical
cell that is being used in an application.
¾ The Vmp of this cell is used to compare the voltage of the
actual cell.
¾ Vmp of the reference cell is obtained by multiplying VOC with
K.
¾ When Vmodule matches with Vmp, there will be zero error and
the module is delivering maximum power.
¾ If error is not zero, then the error signal is fed into a controller
that would create a rectangular pulse of appropriate duty cycle
which is fed to the power conditioner circuit (here it is a DC-
DC converter).
Algorithms for MPPT-4
¾ Depending on the D value, Vmodule would change.
¾ Once Vmodule matches with Vmp of the reference cell, then we
know that maximum power is transferred to the load.
¾ At this point the error signal is zero and the D value remains
same as long as the error signal remains zero.
The control works as follows:
¾ If Vmodule increases beyond Vmp, the error becomes negative.
¾ This would make the control unit to generate pulses with larger
D value.
¾ This decrease Vmodule automatically such that it matches with
Vmp.
¾ if Vmodule decreases below Vmp, we get a positive error.
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 2
Reference
Module
Actual
Module Power
Conditioner
Load
D
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 2
¾ Current from the reference cell is converted to proportional
voltage through an op-amp and fed to a multiplier.
¾ This quantity is multiplied with K resulting in Imp.
¾ This is compared to the current from the actual module.
¾ If the currents match, then the module is delivering maximum
power to the load.
¾ If the currents do not match, an error signal is generated.
¾ The polarity of the signal would depend on if the module
current were greater than the Imp or smaller than Imp.
¾ Let us say that the module current is smaller than Imp*, then the
error produced is positive.
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 2
DC-DC Load
Converter
S
Modulator
C
V α Vmodule
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 3
¾ The sense voltages should be connected to module terminal
voltage.
¾ During the period when open circuit voltage is to be sensed,
S is closed and Q are opened.
¾ This will disconnect the power conditioner and load from the
module.
¾ The capacitor voltage will charge up to Voc.
¾ Then S is open and Q is closed for normal operation of the
module and load.
¾ It is be noted that the duty cycle for switching S should be
very small i.e. less than 1%, so that the normal operation is
not affected.
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 3
P & V – in phase
Decrease D
Pmp P & V – out of phase
Increase D
V
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 4
¾ The following block diagram explains the algorithm for
tracking maximum power point:
Load
Vmodule
DC - DC
Converter
Imodule
Modulator
Pmodule
Vmodule
DC ZCD
Block Phase + VCC
Detecter
∫
ZCD
DC
Block - VCC
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 4
+Vcc
dc- ZCD
block
-Vcc
Vmodule Load
DC-DC
Converter
Vd
D
Modulator Average
Imodule Pslow
+5V
Large RC
P
+ Q
-
Small RC Pfast Toggle FF
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 5
Pmp
• Pfast
• Pslow
V
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 5
¾ To the left of the peak power point, when the voltage increases
and D value decreases.
¾ there will be two values of power, Pfast and Pslow. Pfast is going
to be a higher value compared to Pslow.
¾ The difference is going to be negative. As the voltage is
further increased, the value of Pfast increases till it reaches Pmp
and then starts decreasing beyond that point .
¾ A point is reached at which Pslow would have a higher value
compared to Pfast.
¾ The net difference at this point would be positive.
¾ This would trigger the positive edge triggered toggle flip-flop
changing its output state.
Reference Cell Based algorithm-Method 5
Trigger
Vd
D↓ D↑
Energy Storage
Reference
DOD x%
100%
energy,
100%
charge
Energy Storage-4
¾ Any rechargeable battery is charged 100% for the first time.
¾ While using the battery after initial charge, one has to be aware
of DOD rating of the battery so that it is not discharged below
that level.
¾ DOD rating of the battery depends on the type of battery.
Following are the types of batteries commonly used:
SLI battery:
¾ It is an abbreviation for Starter, Lighting, Ignition batteries.
¾ From the name itself we can say that they must have been
designed to be used in automobiles.
¾ They are valve regulated batteries.
¾ They have very high power density but low energy density.
Energy Storage-5
Tubular battery:
¾ These are deep discharge batteries having a DOD of 80%.
¾ They have very low power density but very high energy density.
¾ These batteries can be used for a longer period since the depth of
discharge can go up to 80%.
Capacity of battery:
¾ Capacity of battery gives the energy storing capacity of a battery.
¾ The actual capacity is measured in watt-hours (Whr). Since the
voltage across the battery is normally constant, the capacity is
given in amp-hours (Ahr), commercially.
Energy Storage-6
I discharge
1.5 A C/x 8A
4A
¾As long as we draw C/x amps from a Cx battery, we are not
harming the battery.
¾The capacity of the battery remains constant.
¾But if the current drawn is more than C/x amps, we see the
detoriation in the capacity of the battery.
Energy Storage-8
Life of battery:
¾ Life of a rechargeable battery is given in terms of number of
cycles.
¾ One cycle is equal to one charge and one discharge.
¾ If a battery has life of 1000 cycles, it means that the battery
can be charged 1000 times and discharged 1000 times.
¾ After 1000 times, no matter what you do, the cell will not get
charged.
Energy Storage-9
Charge controller:
¾ To understand the need for charge controller, let us re-visit the
earlier section where we discussed about the capacity of the
battery.
¾ This is an important measure of the battery. Based on the load
requirement, we select the battery.
¾ Every battery has a depth of discharge (DOD) and depending
the type of the battery, DOD may be shallow or deep.
¾ For most of our applications, we can assume the DOD to be
about 40%.
¾ The watt-hour size of the battery is obtained by dividing watt-
hour required by the DOD value.
Energy Storage-10
DOD Wh/ηB
Battery
should be
rated for
this
PUMP:
¾ Let us consider the following application where a DC motor is
connected to PV panel on one side and some load such as a
pump on the other side as shown in the following figure:
ia Ra La Rf
1 2
Vf
+ +
1 Lf 2
T
Va eb
GY
- - w
Applications-1
¾Here, eb is the input effort and ω is the output flow. We again see
a cross relationship. Hence, we can see that the DC motor is a
gyrator.
¾For the above circuit, we can write the following relationship:
v a = i a ⋅ R a + eb
Applications-5
I
V-I characteristics
ia
V
va
From equation (4), we have seen that the angular velocity of the
shaft is related to the back emf, eb developed at the motor.
Re-arranging equation (5), we can write the expression for eb as:
eb = v a − i a ⋅ R a
Applications-7
¾ Here, we can see the relationship between eb and va. Equation
(4) gives an important relationship between eb and ω that
specifies eb required for the desired speed of the motor. From
the equations (4) and (7), we would know va required for
desired speed of the motor.
¾ It is clear from the above discussion that DC motor takes
electrical input and delivers mechanical output.
¾ This output may be used for driving a load such as a pump.
¾ Hence, in a big picture, we need to match the characteristics of
the PV panel providing the electrical input to the characteristics
of the load that is being driven by the mechanical output.
¾ The parameters describing the characteristics of the panel are
voltage and current.
Applications-8
¾ The parameters describing the characteristics of the load are
torque and angular velocity or speed.
¾ The following figure explains how we match the
characteristics of the source and load.
I
PV Panel
ω V
Load
T
Applications-9
¾ We see the load characteristics in the third quadrant given as
a function of torque (T) and the speed (ω).
¾ This characteristic is translated into second quadrant using
equation (2) that relates torque to the current.
¾ This characteristic is superimposed on the characteristics of
the PV panel to do the matching, as shown in the following
figure: I
1/Ra
Starting ia
Minimum
insolation
required
V
Applications-10
¾ When the motor is at rest, it does not have eb. Hence the current
required for starting the motor can be obtained from equation
(5) by substituting eb = 0.
va
ia =
Ra
¾ The point indicated by the arrow gives the minimum insolation
required for producing the starting current.
¾ This was an example where the characteristics of the PV panel
were matched to the mechanical (rotational) characteristics of
the load.
Applications-11
Delivery
Head, Hd
Stroke
Length, S Suction
Head, Hs
Reciprocating Pump-1
¾ In the figure, A is the cross sectional area and S is the stroke
length. If ω is the angular velocity then the rate of discharge is
given as: dQ
αA ⋅ S ⋅ω
dt
¾ Since area of the sectional area, and the stroke length are
constants for a given piston, we can write:
dQ
αω
dt
¾ We can see that the rate of discharge is independent of head.
¾ However, there is a theoretical limit of 10.33 meters and a
practical limit of 6 meters on the suction head, Hs.
¾ The static head of the reciprocating pump is the sum of delivery
head and suction head.
StaticHead = H S + H d
Centrifugal Pump
Delivery
Head, Hd
Impeller
Suction
Head, Hs
Foot valve
Centrifugal Pump-1
¾ The static head is equal to the sum of the delivery head and
suction head.
¾ We need to know at this point the amount of energy required
to pump the water overhead.
¾ Following block diagram gives the entire system, starting
from the PV panel as source.
Power
PV Conditio Motor Pum Water
Panel Load
ner p
D1 D3 D5 D7 D9
Vsc
PV Module PV Module PV Module PV Module PV Module R1 Peltier
44W 44W 44W 44W 44W 10K, 1W
S1 S2 S3 S4 D10 S5 R2 Junction
D2 D4 D6 D8 54 Ohm, 1/4W
K
K
A
A Ref
Data Analysis
¾ Curve fitting was done on the above data using two methods
¾ Linear regression &
¾ Exponential fit
¾ The scatter diagram plot along with curve fitting is shown
below, Current v/s Temperature
25
20
y = -2.3732x + 15.765
Temperature (C)
15
10
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
-5
Current (Amps)
Data Analysis-1
¾ Fig 1: Plot of the data points along with the linear fit
¾ Fig 2: Plot of the data points along with the exponential fit
Current v/s Temperature
25
20
-0.3465x
y = 20.293e
Temperature (C)
15
10
0
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00
Current (Amps)
Conclusions
¾ The experimental data fits better with an exponential curve.
¾ The mean square error is less in case of the exponential fit.
¾ The mean square error for linear fit is 3.05 as compared to
1.15 with exponential fit.
¾ One of the applications of the peltier junction is TEC (Thermo
Electric Coolers).
¾ The Cold and Hot side effect: The TEC is generally built by
having Negative and Positive type semi-conductors made of
bismuth-telluride, sandwiched between two ceramic plates.
¾ When current passes through the TEC, electrons jumping from
the P type to the N type semi-conductors leap to an outer level
of electrons, they absorb energy, thus "absorbing" heat.
Conclusions-1
Wattage:
¾ TECs measure their potential heat-dissipation in watts. Be
careful though, a 156 Watt TEC will NOT dissipate 156 Watts
of outside energy.
¾ To calculate outside heat dissipation implies complicated
calculations having to deal with different Temperatures,
Voltages, Amperages, insulation, etc, which is described in
the advanced peltier study in article.