Fluids

Density is defined as mass of the substance per unit volume. Symbol: ρ SI unit: kg/m3,
Dimension: M/L3 𝜌=𝑚/𝑉

Relative density (σ), or specific gravity, is the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of a given reference material.
𝜎=𝜌𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡/𝜌𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
Specific volume, defined as the volume occupied by one kilogram of a particular substance
(reciprocal of density). Symbol: v, SI unit: m3/kg. Dimension: L3/M.
𝑣=𝑉/𝑚 𝜌=𝑚/𝑉 𝑣=1/𝜌
Derivation of dynamic viscosity

Fluid Resistance:

Velocity Gradient:

Law of Viscosity

Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids

Fluids obeying Newton’s law of viscosity are known as Newtonian fluids. Most common
fluids fall into this category, for which shear stress is linearly related to velocity gradient.
Fluids which not obeying Newton’s law of viscosity are known as non- Newtonian Fluids.
The kinematic viscosity is the ratio of the dynamic viscosity μ to the density of the fluid ρ. It
is usually denoted by the Greek letter nu (ν).

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Ideal Fluid
An ideal fluid is assumed to have zero viscosity-it is INVISCID; Ideal fluid does
not exist ;The concept of an ideal fluid can be useful, enabling problems to be
simplified; For example, theoretical solutions obtained for ideal fluid often give
valuable insight into the problems involved and can, where necessary, be

related to real conditions by experimental investigation .

Vapour pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapour in

thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases (solid or liquid) at a
given temperature in a closed system
Vapour pressure and boiling point: Increasing temperature increases
molecular activity, and therefore, vapour pressure also increases. When
vapour pressure reaches the pressure above the liquid, boiling occurs
(molecules escape rapidly from the liquid), the related temperature is boiling
point.

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Fluid statics
For a static fluid, the only stress is the normal stress since by definition a fluid
subjected to a shear stress must deform and undergo motion.

Shear stresses due to viscosity are only generated when there is relative
motion of fluid particles. Therefore, the principles of fluid statics also apply to
cases in which the fluid is moving as a whole but all parts are stationary
relative to each other.

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Buoyancy–Archimedes’ principle
When a body is submerged in a fluid, the net vertical force acting on it due to
fluid pressure is called the BUOYANCY or UPTHRUST

The buoyancy (R) on the body is equal to the weight of fluid displaced by it:

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In a steady flow, the conditions (velocity, cross-sectional area) at a given point
do not vary with time.

Flow is uniform if the conditions do not vary with point by point in the fluid.

An internal flow is completely bounded by a solid surface e.g. pipe flow.

An unbounded flow is an external flow e.g. air flow around an aircraft.

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An open channel flow is an internal flow where the duct is not full e.g. flow in
rivers, drainage channels
Laminar and turbulent flow

Closed system and control volume system

Closed system–a fixed mass of fluid. The shape of the system boundary may
vary with time, but it always contains the same mass of fluid and there is no
mass flow across the system boundary.

Control volume–fixed geometric region which the fluid flows through. Its
shape does not change with time. The boundaries may be either real or
imaginary e.g. solid boundaries or a streamtube.

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Law of conservation of energy:

In fluids, the kinetic energy, potential energy, and energy due to pressure,
these three forms of energy are exchangeable. Ignoring frictional losses, the
total energy is constant. This is an expression of the law of conservation of
energy applied to a fluid.

These three energy types can be represented by velocity, elevation, and

pressure respectively. Thus the relationship between those parameters
together with density gives us the energy equations:
•Euler’s Equation –Differential form
•Bernoulli’s Equation –Integral form

The stream tube shown is of length ds.

The surrounding fluid exerts a pressure pside on the walls of the stream tube.
Assuming the fluid is ideal (inviscid, no viscosity) there are no shear stresses on
the stream tube walls.

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Bernoulli’s equation

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Momentum

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Thermodynamics
The first law of thermodynamics: An expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
•The first law asserts that energy is a thermodynamic property.
•The second law of thermodynamics: It asserts that energy has quality as well
as quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality of
energy.

Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross
its boundary

A special case, even energy is not allowed to across the boundary, it is called
an isolated system.

Open system (control volume):A properly selected region in space.

•It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
•Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
A control volume can involve fixed, moving, real, and imaginary boundaries
•Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or
imaginary

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Energy

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Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid):
A substance that it is not about to vaporize (water exists at 1 atm an 200c)
Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize(water exists as a liquid
ready to vaporize at 1 atm an 1000c)
Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the liquid and vapor
phases coexist in equilibrium.
Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense.
Superheated vapor:A vapor that is not about to condense (i.e.,not a saturated
vapor).

As pressure increases:
Boiling point increases
Specific volume of saturated liquid increases
Specific volume of saturated vapor decreases
Represented on diagram by the “saturation line” becoming shorter
“Saturation line” continues to shrink until the saturated liquid and vapor are
identical:
Critical point: The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapor
states are identical.
At triple-point pressure and temperature, a substance exists in three phases in
equilibrium (all states at same temperature and pressure, but different specific
volumes)
Sublimation: Passing from the solid phase directly into the vapor phase.

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Enthalpy—A Combination Property
Internal Energy (u), Pressure (P) and Volume (v)

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