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INTRODUCTION TO
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PETROLEUM SEISMOLOGY
Luc T. Ikelle
Lasse Amundsen
Published 2005
TN271.P4I65 2005
622'.1828–dc22
2005051614
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SEG
Statoil ASA
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
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Chapter 2 The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions
in Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Appendix D Definitions of Some of the Integral Transforms Used in Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
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Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The “Bottom Line” of Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Petroleum Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
How Does Petroleum Seismology Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Challenges of Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring for Stratigraphic Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring the Subsalt Stratigraphic Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring the Subbasalt Stratigraphic Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Environmental Challenges of Exploring the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exploring for Gas Hydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Petroleum Seismologists in Production of Oil and Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Technological Advances outside the E&P Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Technological Advances inside the E&P Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Instrumented Oil Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Measurement while Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Reservoir Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chapter 2 The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions
in Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
An Example of Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Assumption of a Continuous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Continuous and Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Particle Positions and Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Homogeneous Media and Heterogeneous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Internal Forces (Stresses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Examples of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
vi
Table of Contents vii
Principal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Particle Displacement and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Particle Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Abbreviated Notation of the Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Examples of Strain Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Elastic Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law): General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Hooke’s Law with Abbreviated Tensor Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Reflection and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Snell’s Law: Fluid-fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Snell’s Law: Solid-solid and Fluid-solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Snell’s Law: Air-water and Air-solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
What is a free surface? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Snell’s law at the free surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Traveltime Equations for a Horizontal Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Direct Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Refracted Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Reflected P-P and S-S Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
P-S Converted Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Conversion Point Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Oblique incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Surface Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Motivations for Studying Surface Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Evanescent Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Phase Velocity of Scholte and Rayleigh Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Rayleigh waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Scholte waves: A fluid half-space on a solid half-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Scholte waves: A fluid layer above a solid half-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Surface-wave Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Linearized Zoeppritz’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Matrix Form of Zoeppritz’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Linearized Versions of Reflection Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Application to AVA Analysis: P-P Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Box 3.6 Some Probable Values of Reflection Coefficients at Normal Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Box 4.2 Orthonormal Basis of the Space of Signals: The Vector Space Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Box 6.3 Derivation of Lippmann-Schwinger Equation Using the Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
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Box 9.1 The Matrix-vector Differential Equation (9.14) for a Special Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Box 9.2 Relationship between Vertical-traction and Particle-velocity Vectors for Purely Upgoing or
Purely Downgoing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
xvi Table of Contents
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Horizontal components of the particle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Vertical component of the particle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Demultiple process as a function of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Acoustic Wavefield Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Application of U/D Decomposition to Towed-streamer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Box 9.4 The Relationship between Downgoing Field Components below the Seafloor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Box 10.1 Formulating the Representation Theorem to Predict Data Containing Multiples . . . . . . . . . . 401
Box 10.2 Another Choice for the Surface Integral in the Representation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
An Optimization of the Kirchhoff Series for the OBS Demultiple Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
A Synthetic Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
The Demultiple Process for VC Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Exercises in Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Chapter 11 An Example of an Inverse Problem: Linearized Seismic Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
A Multiple-step Inversion Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Basic Components of an Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Nonuniqueness, Instabilities, Convergence, Uncertainties, and Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
A Multiple-step Approach to the Seismic Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Key Assumptions of our Example of an Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
The Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Solving the forward problem, on the basis of the finite-difference technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Solving the forward problem on the basis of the Born approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Smooth-background medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
An Illustration of the Limitations of the Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Straight-ray Approximation: Hyperbolic and Nonhyperbolic Moveouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
An Optimal Data Set: The Common-azimuthal-section Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Box 12.8 Vertical Wavenumbers, Polarization Vectors, and Slowness Vectors in Isotropic Media . . . . 575
Box 12.9 Relationships of the Phase Velocity and the Quality Factor with Complex Moduli . . . . . . . . 599
Appendix D Definitions of Some of the Integral Transforms Used in Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . 641
The Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
The Mellin Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
The Hartley Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
The nth-order Hankel Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
The Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Analytic Function and Instantaneous Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
The Radon Transform in Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
The Abel Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
More on Abel Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
On the Discrete Fast Radon Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
On the Numerical Implementation of the Triangle Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
PREFACE
Seismology is a branch of geophysics that aims wide have modified their curricula. However, textbooks
for the understanding of earth’s interior, through the to accompany the ever-changing field of petroleum
analysis of ground motion. seismology are very limited; Exploration Seismology
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The science of seismology began with study of nat- (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982, revised 1992) is one of the
urally occurring earthquakes. Seismologists soon found few examples. We hope our book will add significantly
that seismic waves produced by earthquakes contained to the achievements of Sheriff and Geldart.
valuable information about earth’s interior (crust, man- This book is derived from lectures given to senior
tle, and core). Later they discovered that similar but undergraduate and first-year graduate students at Texas
much weaker man-made seismic waves could be used A&M University (U.S.A.) and to graduate classes at
to interpret the shallow structure of earth, to locate min- the Norwegian University of Science and Technology
erals, water, and petroleum resources. Thus, a special from 1998 to 2003. We have tried to provide stu-
branch of seismology known as petroleum seismology1 dents with the basic theoretical background needed to
and the associated seismic exploration industry were tackle challenges of petroleum seismology, especially
born. To distinguish between petroleum seismology and those related to seismic data acquisition and process-
the study of naturally occurring earthquakes, we will ing, to reservoir characterization, and to monitoring of
call the latter earthquake seismology. oil recovery based on sensors permanently positioned
Although both branches of seismology are based at the seafloor (4D seismics). Most existing textbooks
on study of the generation, propagation, and record- and syllabi related to petroleum seismology focus on the
ing of elastic waves in the earth and of the sources processing of P-wave energy. In this book, we include
that produce them, the job of a petroleum seismol- a background for processing S-wave energy in addition
ogist differs significantly from that of an earthquake to that of processing P-wave energy, as emerging tech-
seismologist. The advent of 3D seismics — which can nologies. Ocean-bottom seismic (OBS) potentially will
produce an enormous amount of detail about subsurface provide better access to S-wave energy, therefore lead-
geology and hydrocarbon reservoirs — has changed the ing to better characterizations of reservoirs. We used
job profile of a petroleum seismologist tremendously. this basic background to introduce state-of-the-art tech-
No longer isolated to the domain of academic, post- nology and to discuss possible solutions to some of the
doctoral, or postgraduate researchers or of similarly emerging challenges of petroleum seismology.
trained specialists in research centers of the oil and gas We further emphasize that our goal is to provide
industry, petroleum seismologists are widely accepted readers with the basic background needed to tackle not
today as key players in finding petroleum traps and even only present challenges of petroleum seismology but
producing oil and gas more efficiently from complex also some foreseeable challenges. The field is spanned
reservoirs. fully by several excellent solution-driven texts that our
In their new role, petroleum seismologists interact readers can use as specialized applications: Castagna
with computer scientists, signal processors, petroleum and Backus, 1993; Evans, 1997; Pieuchot, 1984; Sprad-
engineers, geologists, and others whose concerns in- ley, 1984; Stolt and Benson, 1986; Tarantola, 1987;
clude the simulation, monitoring, and controlling of Toksöz and Johnston, 1981; and Yilmaz, 1987, 2001.
processes critical to efficient exploration for and pro- The background required for effective reading of
duction from of petroleum reservoirs. Consequently, this book consists of the typical freshman/sophomore
the basic background requirements for petroleum seis- courses in calculus, elementary differential equations,
mologists have changed also. They no longer can be and geology. It is also helpful but not necessary to have
assimilated with those of earthquake seismologists, as had some exposure to physics.
was once the case at many universities. To accommo- One of the key features of this book is the use
date these changes, most geoscience programs world- of finite-difference modeling (FDM) to simulate wave
propagation and to generate and analyze seismic data.
The finite-difference modeling provides the reader with
1 We elect to use the term petroleum seismology rather than exploration the opportunity to verify theory and to experiment with
seismology, to emphasize that this science is no longer limited exclusively applications of the techniques studied. For example, in
to exploration but is used to enhance oil and gas recovery also. Chapter 2, an FDM simulation of wave propagation
xxii
Preface xxiii
is presented to give some concreteness to the basic acquisition, and processing. More than 100 problems
idea that a pressure source in a homogeneous, isotropic are included.
medium can produce only compressional waves. We are indebted to those students who have endured
Another feature is the inclusion of a wide range of preliminary versions of this material, and we invite them
examples and problems drawn from different aspects to replace those with this updated presentation of course
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name and sufficiently thank everyone who has helped We express our gratitude to Gary F. Stewart, Sharon
us to mature our insights in petroleum seismology Mason, and Anne H. Thomas for copy editing and to all
through numerous discussions during many years. Sev- of them and Sue Coffman for their meticulous efforts in
eral people have contributed directly to this book by proofreading the book. It was a great pleasure to work
critically reading and commenting on selected chap- with them.
ters or sections or by offering figures that have been We thank our publisher, SEG, especially Michael
included. In alphabetical order, they are Børge Arntsen, Cooper (Investigation in Geophysics Series editor),
Anthony T. Buller, Juan Carcuz, Anthony Gangi, Kai Ted Bakamjian, (director of publications), Rowena
Hsu, Alexander Kritski, Nick Moldevanu, Are Osen, Mills (manager of Geophysics, books, and digital
Erik Skjetne, Andre Tran, and Ryan Wilson. publications), William D. Underwood, Linda Adams,
We would particularly like to record our gratitude and Julie Colley for their encouragement and all their
to Anthony Gangi, SEG volume editor of this book, for behind-the-scenes efforts on this book project.
a critical review of an early version of the manuscript Luc Ikelle is deeply grateful to Albert Tarantola and
and subsequently for giving us many helpful comments Raul Madariaga. Tarantola invited Ikelle to his group
and suggestions. In particular, we have rewritten Boxes in the mid-1980s and introduced him to the exciting
3.1, 3.2, and 11.8 based on his suggestions. field of inverse scattering theory, to which Tarantola has
We also thank Kai Hsu for helping us gain more made substantial contributions. Madariaga introduced
insight into his past work on P-wave and S-wave drifts. Ikelle to finite-difference modeling and to asymptotic
His assistance was especially useful because the materi- techniques that play a key role in petroleum seismology.
als in the public domain related to his work on drifts are Our research in petroleum seismology during the
still limited to an SEG expanded abstract. We are also two years when we were writing this book was sup-
grateful that he provided us with high-quality figures. ported by Statoil, the Center for Automated Seismic
We extend our gratitude to Carmen Aroztegui Mas- Processing (CASP), and the Texas Advanced Research
sera and Amitava Sinharay for assistance in preparing Program under Grant No. 010366-0235-1999.
some figures.
We are indebted to CGG, ChevronTexaco, Conoco-
Phillips, PGS, Read Well Services, Schlumberger,
Statoil, and Veritas for permission to reproduce certain — Luc T. Ikelle
figures in the text. We are also indebted to ExxonMobil — Lasse Amundsen
xxiv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
mic inversion algorithms for CRAY Y-MP. From 1988 to 1997, he worked as a scientist at
Schlumberger Geco-Prakla, Schlumberger Doll Research, and Schlumberger Cambridge
Research.
Ikelle earned a Diplôme d’Études Approfondies and a Ph.D. in geophysics and geo-
chemistry from Paris 7 University in France. He received Le Prix de These du CNRS
in 1986 for his Ph.D. thesis. His research interests include looking at ways of automat-
ing seismic data processing for reservoir definition and monitoring. He is coeditor of
Anisotropy 2000: Fractures, Converted Waves, and Case Studies and is a member of
AGU, EAGE, and SEG.
xxv
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What challenges does the future hold? This chapter Petroleum Traps
is an attempt to answer this question.
Forecasting the future is difficult and dangerous; Commercial accumulations of petroleum are
erroneous forecasts can have catastrophic effects. An almost exclusively in sedimentary rocks, where sub-
example related to petroleum seismology is the predic- surface geometries of strata stop the upward migration
tion of oil prices. In 1997, experts claimed that oil prices of petroleum. Such geometries are known as petroleum
would neither fall below $15 per barrel nor increase traps. They can be classified in three groups: (a) struc-
to more than $25 per barrel, at least until the demand tural traps, caused by folding or faulting, (b) traps
exceeded 80 MBOP1 (for comparison, the present associated with diapirs, caused by extraordinary dif-
demand is about 70 MBOP). However, by the end of ferences in densities of materials, and (c) stratigraphic
1998, oil prices had plunged to as low as $10 per barrel, traps, caused by uncommon variation in sedimentation
resulting in huge layoffs. The low oil price in 1998 was or erosion. Examples of these three types of traps are
caused by overproduction of 1%, and the increase to shown in Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. Figure 1.1 illus-
$26 per barrel in late 1999 was related to a reduction of trates examples of structural traps caused by faulting.
about 1.5% in world production. Note that a requirement for a commercial accumulation
In the context of building an educational back- of petroleum is an impermeable cap rock (also known as
ground, forecasting the challenges of petroleum seis- a seal) that inhibits upward movement of petroleum. In
mology does not have similar consequences. If the each example of petroleum traps in Figure 1.1, the fault
forecast we make here is inaccurate, we will have given plane and shale that overlies the reservoir constitute the
our students a stronger or weaker background than they seal.
will need: But one thing is sure — the forecast and the Figure 1.2 shows an example of a diapiric trap. As
preparation for it will be a step higher than the present sediments are buried, the density and acoustic veloc-
curriculum. ity generally increase, except in situations in which
the density of sediment layers decreases locally with
depth. This situation causes the denser overlying sedi-
ment to move downward, and to displace the less dense
material. The displaced low-density material generally
THE “BOTTOM LINE” OF moves upward to form subcircular domes, as described
PETROLEUM SEISMOLOGY in Figure 1.2. This figure shows that upward movement
of the less dense material gives rise to many kinds of
Before we discuss our vision of the future chal-
potential traps.
lenges of petroleum seismology, it is important to recall
Stratigraphic traps are results of local vagaries of
that the ultimate goal of modern petroleum seismology
deposition or erosion. They include traps that are asso-
is to help discover new petroleum reservoirs2 and to
ciated with unconformities — such as onlap pinch-
enhance production from existing ones, through imag-
outs and truncations — and traps not associated with
ing of these reservoirs. To understand this better, let
unconformities (e.g., channels, barrier bars, and reefs).
us elaborate on how petroleum in commercial quantity
Figure 1.3 illustrates some types of stratigraphic traps.
accumulates in the subsurface and how petroleum
seismology allows us to image the subsurface.
1
2 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Depth
sandstone pinch-out trap; E
E D indicates a trap owing to trun-
cation of a limestone reservoir
beneath a regional unconfor-
mity. (Adapted from Selley,
1983.)
others do not? Why are reflections at the sharp cor- found, and most have been put into production. Now the
ners of the model different from those at the smooth E&P industry has to find the more elusive traps associ-
interfaces? Why does the energy seem to decay with ated with unconformities and pinch-outs that have been
time? We will study the answers to the questions in overlooked because of limitations in seismic resolution.
detail, in the coming chapters. These sorts of stratigraphic traps may constitute a large
In summary, seismic data is acquired in many ways amount of petroleum reservoirs yet to be discovered.
and in several settings, as we will illustrate in the com- Most undiscovered stratigraphic traps are in strata
ing chapters. Each setting requires its own techniques, so thin or so conformable to their surrounding geome-
but all work on the same premise: Set off a bang (the try that the subtleties critical for identification are nearly
source), let waves bounce through the subsurface, and invisible in traditional seismic data, and detection there-
record the reflected energy at various locations in the fore requires data of the highest possible quality. In this
earth. context, high quality means large frequency bandwidth
and small spacing between sensors, to resolve small
features.
CHALLENGES OF PETROLEUM Detecting these subtle traps also requires the capa-
SEISMOLOGY bility of attenuating multiple reflections (unwanted
reflections that tend to obscure these subtle features)
Exploring for Stratigraphic Traps and of reducing differences of scale between seismic
images and well logs. Furthermore, our processing and
Decades ago, exploration for petroleum consisted our simulation of seismic data must incorporate sophis-
simply of deducing subsurface geology from evidence ticated models of the subsurface — models that take into
at the surface — signs such as seeps of oil, creek beds account small-scale heterogeneities of strata. Our mod-
of anomalous configuration, and landforms associated els must evaluate the anisotropic and anelastic behavior
with salt domes — and drilling where the party chief of rock.
poked his stick. Those days are long gone. Petroleum
seismology has revolutionized the search for petroleum
and has led to many remarkable discoveries. Exploring the Subsalt
Despite these tremendous strides, most discover- Stratigraphic Column
ies were relatively easy compared with the necessities
for future exploration searches. In fact, most discov- One of the most effective processes in nature for
eries have been structural traps composed of faults the trapping of oil and gas is the piercing of strata by
and anticlines that manifested themselves readily in salt domes; moreover, bedded rock salt is a superb seal
seismic data, and stratigraphic traps that revealed them- in some petroleum-rich basins. Many of the petroleum
selves in seismic data as bright spots (reflections with accumulations in North America are trapped in salt-
anomalously high amplitudes). For years, techniques related structures, as are significant amounts in oil
of acquisition and processing seismic data have been provinces around the world (see Figure 1.6). We are
tailored to accentuate the attributes of these features. finding that commercial accumulations of petroleum
In almost all of the world, such reservoirs have been are also below extensive strata of salt in many basins.
4 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Space (km)
Depth (km)
0
Time (s)
2s
Space (km)
0
Time (s)
2s
FIGURE 1.4. Snapshots of wave propagation through a structural trap (top), and the corresponding seismic
data for horizontal and vertical arrays of sensors.
Introduction 5
However, the geometry of many of these accumula- be thin tabular “blankets” that shield traps with rich
tions makes the traps difficult to identify from seismic reserves. Detecting these traps requires more energy
data. To gain insight into this problem, we have dis- penetration than is employed in traditional acquisi-
played an example of a geologic model constructed by tion of seismic data. It also requires the attenuation
the SMAART JV group (Figure 1.7), which included of multiple reflections (i.e., obscuring reflections that
contributions from representives of four major oil com- arrive at almost the same times as reflections from sub-
panies (BP, BHP, ChevronTexaco, and ExxonMobil). salt strata, and with higher energy than that of the
The physical properties of salt — density of 2.1 g/c2 desired, informative reflections from the subsalt strata).
and velocity of 4400 m/s or more — are in sharp con- Drilling through salt is particularly difficult because of
trast with properties of the surrounding sediments or pseudoplastic flow under subsurface temperatures and
sedimentary rock, which are generally denser and have pressures, and low permeability make drilling through
lower velocities. Strong contrasts in velocity and den- salt bodies similar to drilling through fluids. These
sity at the sediment-salt interface act like an irregularly operational difficulties increase the need for accurate
shaped lens. Petroleum seismologists have treated this imaging of subsalt traps, so as to reduce the risks of
contrast like a mirror, producing images that portrayed drilling.
rock-units of salt as bottomless diapirs that extend to
the deepest level of seismic data. Once considered
as impenetrable barriers to seismologic probing for
0m
oil and gas traps, many salt structures are proving to
3000 m S S S
6000 m
9000 m
Exploring the Subbasalt of such basalts commonly have been altered to clays.
Stratigraphic Column Longitudinal-wave velocities of the clays range from
2.5 to 3.5 km/s, whereas velocities of the crystalline
Many oil and gas fields with large reserves are interior basalt range from 5 to 6 km/s. Flood basalts
beneath extensive formations of complex volcanic rock, typically have average vertical longitudinal wave veloc-
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or are sandwiched between two such formations. Most ities of 4 to 5 km/s, and seismic waves propagate
of these formations are basaltic, and the sedimentary anisotropically through them. If the volcanic rocks
strata beneath them are broadly termed “subbasalts.” were formed in shallow-marine environments, then the
Some offshore basins in the Atlantic Ocean are targets rocks are heterogeneous deposits of fragmented lavas,
of exploration, e.g., the basins on the Faroe Islands, tuffs, and basalt boulders with average longitudinal-
basins in locations marginal to West Greenland, Brazil, wave velocities of 3 to 5 km/s. Basalt deposits of
Angola, and Namibia, as well as basins offshore from deep-marine environments mostly are highly fractured
mid-Norway. Figure 1.8 shows locations of large basins pillow basalts. The average longitudinal wave velocity
that contain extensive basaltic complexes, identified depends strongly on the fracture density; the velocity
along rifted continental margins. Notice that parts varies from 2.5 to 6 km/s.
of these basins are in deep waters; in some places The large variation in the structure of basalts and,
water is deeper than 2000 m. Petroleum explorationists accordingly, in seismic properties of the rock, leads
and producers working in these areas are faced with to a wide range of difficulties in seismic imaging. For
significant challenges in acquisition, processing, and instance, consider the “simple” situation of a high
interpretation of data, and — because of deep water velocity, homogeneous, isotropic basalt. Primary waves
and thick complexes of volcanic rock — high risks in reflected from subbasalt sedimentary strata will have
drilling. undergone the transmission effect of four large acoustic-
Seismic imaging of subbasalt regions is gener- impedance contrasts (two on the way down and two on
ally complex. The complexity depends on the types the way up). This results in an unusually weak rendering
of volcanic eruptions (see Appendix A) that gave of images of the primary waves. In addition, high
rise to the basaltic formations which overlie the acoustic-impedance-contrast interfaces lead to strong
sedimentary-rock sequence. If eruption of lava was multiple energy, which tends to arrive at the same time
subaerial, (the so-called “flood basalts”), the basalts as subbasalt primary waves, thus limiting the imaging
show layered velocity “structure.” The uppermost parts resolution of potential hydrocarbon traps below basalt.
–30
–60
Source
Offset
Receiver Environmental Challenges
of Exploring the Arctic
No business can call itself efficient if it threatens the
environment in which it operates. Acquisition of seis-
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Water
mic data is the component of petroleum seismology that
can affect the environment directly or secondarily if
special care is not taken. Potential damage to the envi-
Overburden
ronment includes adverse effects on health and safety,
hazards to endangered species, general habitats, and
Basalt vegetation, and temporary closing of access roads. At
θ no place in the world are these hazards more acutely
potential than in territories bordering and near to the
Subbasalt 1
Arctic Ocean (Figure 1.10), yet these territories may
contain much of the world’s reserves of oil and gas.4
Subbasalt 2 Because the Arctic climate is forbidding, and
because the area is remote from the world’s principal
FIGURE 1.9. A very simple model of sedimentary strata markets, it has remained among the areas least affected
overlain by basalt. The raypath describes wave propaga- by industry. Nevertheless, oil exploration and produc-
tion from the source to subbasalt sedimentary rock, and tion have been under way for many years in parts of
from these strata to the receiver. Observe that the angle of Alaska, Canada, and Siberia. Governments in the region
reflection in the subbasalt rock is quite small.
Permafrost Ice
5 Note that natural disasters have been associated with gas hydrates.
Unfrozen basal rock
The best known was associated with the eruption of overpressured free gas
Ice Permafrost, up to Active layer, up to 1 m from decomposed gas hydrates in Cameroon (Lake Nyos) in 1986. More
1500 m thick thick
than 1700 people were killed by carbon dioxide released from the lake.
Furthermore, risks associated with exploration for and production of gas
FIGURE 1.11. A diagram typical of the Arctic subsurface. hydrates include exposure of drilling-rig personnel to gasification of drilling
(Adapted from Read et al., 1993.) mud and increase in pressures.
Introduction 9
methane.
Gas hydrates have been found at the seafloor, but
in most instances they are in sediments 100 to 500 m
below the seafloor. Significant accumulations have been
identified offshore Japan; on the eastern seaboard of
the United States; on the Cascade continental margin
off Vancouver, Canada; and offshore New Zealand.
(a) Figure 1.14 shows known and inferred occurrences of
gas hydrates.
The compressional-wave velocity of pure hydrate
3000
is believed to be similar to that of ice, but the exact
value has not been agreed on. The acoustic velocity
P velocity (km/s)
Vp , Vs (hydrate to brine)
(c) Vp , Vs (hydrate to gas)
Like the values of the acoustic velocity of hydrates, classes: (a) those predominantly seeking to extend the
the characterization of BSRs is an open question. Early profitable life of existing reservoirs, (b) those essen-
investigations suggest that BSRs are identifiable in tially involved in exploration for new oil and gas fields,
conventional seismic data (ranging from 5 Hz to 70 Hz) and (c) those able to combine exploration and produc-
but not in high-resolution data, with frequencies as tion profitably, independent of the economic cycle. In
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high as 650 Hz (see Figure 1.15). These observations the past, the contribution of petroleum seismologists
suggest that BSRs are not well-defined interfaces but has been confined to the exploration for new fields, but
rather sets of small-scale heterogeneities with averages now petroleum seismologists are expected to contribute
dependent on the frequency content of the source signal. to efficient oil and gas production. They must be able to
Understanding of seismic propagation through small- work in any of these three categories of organizations.
scale heterogeneities may help in the identification of An important contribution expected from petro-
BSRs, which in turn would lead to the identification of leum seismologists is that they will take advantage of
gas hydrates. the increasing accuracy of seismic imaging and the con-
Some accumulations of gas hydrates are not comitant increasing quality of sensors to “watch” and
bottom-simulating reflectors. We expect that the con- to “listen” to movements of reservoir fluids far from
trast between seismic sections dominated by the energy the borehole. Knowing how the distribution of fluid
of compressional waves and those dominated by the changes over time is important for effective manage-
energy of shear waves will help us to identify these ment decisions. For example, tracking fluid contacts
other types of gas-hydrate deposits. during production can confirm or invalidate fluid-flow
models, thereby allowing the producer to change recov-
ery schedules. The monitoring of fluid movements also
can help to locate bypassed zones that may become
Petroleum Seismologists in targets of remedial operations.
Production of Oil and Gas The methods for watching and listening to the
movement of reservoir fluids depend on the rates of
The oil and gas industry will continue to extend the movement. For changes over weeks or months, as in
profitable life and effective production of existing reser- the case of a moving gas-oil contact, the method of
voirs and to make small and complex fields economi- choice is time-lapse seismic surveys, sometimes called
cally viable through advances in E&P technology — four-dimensional (4D) or repeated seismic. Images
as well as to capitalize by adaptation of technological from seismic data acquired before and during oil or
advances outside the industry. Depending on the eco- gas production are compared, and the differences
nomic cycle, oil and gas organizations will fall into three are attributed to movement of fluids. The challenge
is to obtain high-quality seismic data so that these of new fields and recovery from old fields, and thus
differences — many of which are subtle — are not reduce the cost of exploration and production.
biased by error inherent in acquisition. In addition,
the capability of repeating the seismic surveys with
use of the same source and receiver points is very
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Measurement while Drilling Moreover, in the drilling of infill wells, boreholes can
be steered toward undepleted reservoirs.
Figure 1.16 shows a diagram of seismic mea- However, SWD presents a significant number of
surements while drilling (SWD). The SWD uses bit technical challenges: The signal generated by a con-
vibrations as a downhole source for generation of waves ventional seismic source is well controlled (either an
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that propagate directly toward the surface and down- impulsive explosion or a sweep from a vibrator of
ward from the bit, reflecting off formations. Geophones known signature), making the time between its emission
at the surface of the earth, on the seafloor, or inside a and detection relatively easy to determine; but the
borehole record the reflection signals. bit’s signal essentially is continuous and uncontrol-
The economic impact of measurement while lable. Geophones at the surface of the earth continu-
drilling should be tremendous. In traditional borehole ously record seismic radiation transmitted through the
seismics, geophones are located inside the borehole and ground. In addition, generally the environment around
sources are at the surface of the earth, on the seafloor, a drilling rig is very noisy.
or inside a borehole. As in all wireline measurements, The key challenges of SWD are (a) processing of
drilling must stop, and the drill string must be removed signals that have been recorded continuously for min-
prior to running the seismic survey. Thus, conventional utes, (b) improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio of
borehole seismic surveys are carried out during open- recorded data, and (c) having all processing of data
hole logging, usually just before casing is run. The take place in real time, so that the interpretations can
results offer certain useful information, but some of this be used for steering of boreholes toward undepleted
information may have been acquired too late. The bore- formations.
hole may be in the wrong place — for example, on the
wrong side of a fault.
Seismic data recorded while drilling and logs Reservoir Model
recorded while drilling offer several advantages over
conventional borehole seismics. Drilling need not Irrespective of oil prices, the oil and gas
be stopped, and because measurements are made industry probably will push for integrated solutions to
continuously, the information allows well-trajectory problems of exploration and production. We believe the
decisions to be made before it is too late. In the E&P industry will move from separate contracts for 3D
drilling of exploratory wells, real-time interpretation of seismics, well construction, and so forth, to full-field
measurements while drilling can be used to identify, integration of seismic data, information from drilling,
locate, and intersect hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs. and from single-well measurements and interwell
Sensors
Drill bit
Introduction 13
measurements. An emerging nonseismic method of to simulate data and to model by using elastic wave
surveying the subsurface that may be included in this equations, Maxwell equations, and Darcy’s laws is
integration process is described in Box 1.1. important in the achievement of this goal. Figure 1.17
Development of an integrated solution to explo- shows an example of how such models can be con-
ration and production will require a model of the structed. In this example, we have chosen a poroelastic
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earth (commonly known as a “shared model”) that shared model for combining seismic and reservoir-
will honor all reservoir data (e.g., geologic data, flow data. One of the key questions is “How can we
geophysical data, and petrophysical data). Our ability scale our microscopic poroelastic model upward into
different computerized grids for elastic-wave equations The introduction of effective approximations of
and fluid-flow modeling?” Development of methods to anisotropy and anelasticity into our models of the
answer this question adequately — as well as that of subsurface will help us improve the mapping of faults,
cross-scaling between models — is expected. the interpretation of lithology, the identification of
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VP, VS, ρ σ K
Cross-scaling Cross-scaling
Poroelastic model
Borehole principle
Shale – very low resistivity; Water-bearing sandstone – low resistivity;
Hydrocarbon-bearing sandstone – high resistivity
FIGURE 1.18. Principle of marine electromagnetic logging — a resistivity-based hydrocarbon detection method. From evi-
dence on standard wireline logs (example above), a large resistivity contrast is known to exist between oil or gas reservoirs
and surrounding water-filled sediments (note that hydrocarbons are highly resistant to passage of electric currents). This
method exploits the contrast in resistivity: A line of receivers is placed on the sea floor in and around a target area; a power-
ful source transmits a low-frequency, electromagnetic signal down through the underlying rock formations. In the presence
of hydrocarbons, signals are reflected to the surface, where they are recorded by the receivers. This information is processed
to obtain bulk-resistivity images of the underlying rocks. However, the resulting images are much less detailed than the seis-
mic counterparts. Where hydrocarbons are absent, no response is received. The technique is currently designed to work in
water depths greater than about 300 m, where the depths of potential reservoirs below the seafloor have been predetermined
by seismic exploration. For successful exploration, depth of reservoir should be less than 2000 m.
Introduction 15
fluids, and even the mapping of fractures and other and Born and Kirchhoff scattering series (Chapters 10
textural properties of rocks. and 11). In Chapters 10 and 11, use of the Born and
Kirchhoff scattering series to simulate seismic data and
to recover physical properties of the earth are described.
The classical concept of forward and inverse problems
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17
18 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
seismograms can capture the characteristics of wave problems of prime importance in petroleum seismology
propagation needed to probe the subsurface. include making sure that sensors measure the desired
To summarize: In petroleum seismology we do not physical quantities effectively, and that they are dis-
have direct access to images of waves propagated in tributed adequately to capture the main characteristics
the earth; our data are limited to seismograms recorded of wave propagation. To address these problems prop-
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from sensors deployed either at the surface of the earth, erly, we need to develop an understanding of wave
just below the surface, or deeper, in boreholes. Thus, propagation theory. In the following sections of this
chapter, physical quantities that enter into this theory
are introduced — namely, seismic sources, internal
2.0 km forces, displacement and strain, and physical properties
(a)
2.0 km
2.0 km
Max
1 13
(b)
240
2.0 km
280
300
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
320
360
380
400
420
Min
FIGURE 2.2. (a) Snapshots of propagated waves, with
FIGURE 2.1. Snapshots of propagated waves. Throughout positions of receivers. Only one-half of each snapshot is
this chapter, the color scale displayed here is used to dis- illustrated because they are symmetric, as shown in Fig-
play amplitude variations in snapshots. Max and Min are ure 2.1. Rectangular dots indicate positions of receivers.
maximal and minimal values of quantity being displayed. (b) Particle motion in a model of fluid. Time is recorded in
Time is recorded in milliseconds. milliseconds.
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 19
of rock formations. In the example described earlier in and strain) that enter into wave-propagation theory are
this section, a dropped stone is an external force. The assumed to be continuous — as well as derivatives
resulting disturbance (deformation) can be character- of these functions, if they enter the logic. There is
ized by measurements of displacement and/or strain, as one exception to the continuous-medium assumption:
well as measurement of the internal forces (stresses) physical properties of rock formations — the map-
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that restore the medium to equilibrium. Before these pable strata. Mathematical functions that describe these
quantities are introduced formally, the assumption of a properties of formations can contain a finite num-
continuous medium — held throughout this book — is ber of surfaces separating regions of continuity. In
redescribed. other words, rock formations can be described as con-
sisting of piecewise-continuous regions separated by
interfaces, where the parameters of the medium are
discontinuous.
THE ASSUMPTION OF A The assumption of a continuous medium permits us
CONTINUOUS MEDIUM not only to define stress, displacement, and strain at the
scale of particles (macroscopic scale, as compared with
Continuous and Isotropic Media microscopic scale), but also to use the laws of contin-
uous mechanics for study of seismic-wave propagation
A material is considered to be continuous if it fills and seismic data.
the space it occupies, leaving no pores or empty spaces, Two additional assumptions are often made about
and if its properties can be described by continuous rock formations: they are linearly elastic and isotropic.
functions. By definition, elastic rock formations return to equilib-
Like all other substances, rocks are composed rium after deformation and, for linearly elastic media,
of atoms. The atoms compose minerals, of which the force-displacement relationship at any point is
rocks are composed. Some rocks are almost entirely linear. These assumptions are valid when forces, result-
solid, but most rocks contain pores (for example, see ing displacements, and gradients of displacements are
Figure 2.3). This attribute is especially true of sed- small. The word isotropic means that physical proper-
imentary rocks, which are the common petroleum ties of rock formations are identical in all directions.
reservoirs (see Appendix A). However, the atomic scale This fact should be clearly understood: The assump-
is to be disregarded. For our purposes, rocks are envi- tion of isotropism is completely independent of the
sioned as being without empty spaces. Furthermore, “homogeneous and heterogeneous” assumption, which
the mathematical functions (force, stress, displacement, will be discussed later.
1 mm
20 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
vector. For cases in which the product is a scalar, the (cross product). It yields a vector. For two given
product is referred to as a “scalar product,” “inner vectors, a and b, the vector product can be written
product,” or “dot product.” Consider two vectors: as follows:
a1 b1 i1 i2 i3 a2 b3 − a3 b2
a = a2 , b = b2 . (2.1) c = a × b = a1 a2 a3 = a3 b1 − a1 b3 .
a3 b3 b1 b2 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Their scalar product is given by (2.10)
a, b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (2.2) By use of these definitions, we can conclude
that the unit vectors i1 , i2 , and i3 form the following
or vector products:
a, b = a b cos θ, (2.3)
with i1 × i1 = i2 × i2 = i3 × i3 = 0, (2.11)
a = a12 + a22 + a32 , b = b12 + b22 + b32 , (2.4) i1 × i2 = i3 , i2 × i3 = i1 , i3 × i1 = i2 ,
(2.12)
where θ is the angle between the two vectors, and
a and b are the magnitudes of a and b, respectively. and
Alternatively, we will also denote as follows:
i2 × i1 = −i3 , i3 × i2 = −i1 , i1 × i3 = −i2 ,
a · b = a, b . (2.5) (2.13)
where 0 represents the zero vector.
From these definitions, the scalar product of
As one application of the vector product, let us
any two orthogonal unit-base vectors can be deter-
calculate the “curl” of the vector field u = u(x, t):
mined to be zero, because cos 90◦ = 0, whereas
the scalar product of any unit vector by itself equals ∂u3 ∂u2
i1
∂ i 2 i 3 ∂x − ∂x
unity: ∂ ∂ ∂u21 ∂u33
∇ × u = ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 = ∂x3 − ∂x1 .
i1 , i1 = i2 , i2 = i3 , i3 = 1, u1 u2 u3 ∂u2 ∂u1
∂x1 − ∂x2
and (2.6)
i1 , i2 = i2 , i3 = i3 , i1 = 0. (2.7) (2.14)
As one application of the scalar product, let us
calculate the “divergence” of a vector. We start by ∇ × u is called the “curl” of u. Neither the num-
introducing the “del” vector (the gradient operator), ber, ∇, u, nor the vector, ∇ × u, depends on
defined as follows: the coordinate system {i1 , i2 , i3 } in which it is
∂ ∂ computed.
∂x ∂x For three given vectors, a, b, and c, the
1 ∂
∇ = ∂x∂ 2 = ∂y . (2.8) following properties hold:
∂ ∂
∂x3 ∂z a, b = b, a
Suppose that u = u(x, t) is a vector field, i.e., a a × b = −b × a
function of position. The scalar product of the “del” a × b × c = a, c b − a, b c
vector and u = u(x, t) is a, (b × c) = b, (c × a) = c, (a × b)
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∇ × (∇ × a) = ∇ ∇, a − ∇ 2 a
∇, u = + + , (2.9) (2.15)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
where
where u1 , u2 , and u3 are the components of u. The
term ∇, u is called the “divergence” of u. ∇ 2 = ∇, ∇ . (2.16)
22 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
z
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FIGURE 2.6. Illustration of a four-dimensional model that describes the Gullfaks field in the Norwegian sector, North Sea. This model varies in time as well as in
space, with time being the fourth dimension. In this figure the time variable takes only two values: 1985 and 1999. The 1999 survey (bottom) clearly shows the effect
of production of oil, when compared with the baseline survey of 1985 (top). The difference in the seismic reflection strength of the top of the reservoir is related
not only to reduction of oil saturation, but also to the original oil-column height. Where water replaces oil, the acoustic impedance in the reservoir increases, caus-
ing a dimming effect on what was a strong response from the top of the reservoir. The strong seismic response from the oil-water contact (OWC, middle panel) in
1985 also has been dimmed, owing to production of oil. Red and yellow represent a decrease in acoustic impedance, whereas blue represents an increase in acoustic
impedance. Structure of the oil traps and fluid content of the reservoir are shown in cross-sectional models, on the right. The smaller oil accumulation (to the left of
the fault) was drained by 1999, whereas much oil was still to be recovered from the larger trap (to the right of the fault). (Courtesy of Statoil.)
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 23
24 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
y
0 τzz
xy
zy
Tx
yy
[Traction on the y-z plane]
Ty
These traction forces lead to the following stress tensor:
Normal in the x-direction
[Traction on the x-z plane]
Normal in the y-direction
z
τxx 0 0
[τ ] = 0 τyy 0 . (2.27)
FIGURE 2.7. Traction forces acting on a particle of a rock. 0 0 τzz
i1
where p is a scalar known as pressure. The minus x
y
Tx Tx
Examples of Stresses [Traction on the y-z plane]
F
F
c z
x
τ xz
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τ zx
F
F c
c
F1
F3
z y
F y
Surface (A y=A)
F
c F3
Surface (A x = A z )
F1 x
FIGURE 2.9. Traction forces acting on a uniformly
compressed bar.
The forces produce nonzero shear stresses. Notice that represent this vector with a single uppercase letter and
these forces tend to rotate the volume rather than to a subscript taking the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6:
compress it or extend it. However, for this volume to
be motionless, F1 must be equal to F3 ; in other words, τxx σ1
τxz = τzx . These results can be generalized to other τyy σ2 | normal stresses
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shear stresses. By similar argument, τxy must be equal τzz σ3
σI ⇔
τyz = σ4 .
to τyx , and τyz must be equal to τzy . Observe that ideal
fluids cannot support shear stresses. τzx σ5 | shear stresses
τxy σ6
(2.35)
Abbreviated Notation
The relation between a single uppercase subscript and
of the Stress Tensor two lower-case subscripts is shown in Table 2.1.
In Example 3, we saw that the following conditions,
TABLE 2.1. The relation between the single uppercase
τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx and τyz = τzy , (2.34) subscript and the two lowercase subscripts.
I ij (number) ij (Cartesian)
on components of the stress tensor must be satisfied
for any medium in equilibrium. These components 1 11 xx
2 22 yy
constitute the shear stress, whereas τxx , τyy , τzz are 3 33 zz
normal-stress components. Thus there are six indepen- 4 23, 32 yz, zy
dent stress components instead of nine, and therefore 5 13, 31 xz, zx
6 12, 21 xy, yx
stress can be written as a six-component vector. We will
other changes of axes are tabulated conveniently as These orthogonality conditions can be
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then
y' Fp = ip , F = ip , F, iq iq
i'2 = ip , iq F, iq = apq Fq ; (2.43)
φ
z y or
i2
F1 a11 F1 + a12 F2 + a13 F3
i1 φ i'1 F = a21 F1 + a22 F2 + a23 F3 . (2.44)
2
F3 a31 F1 + a32 F2 + a33 F3
FIGURE 2.11. Rotation of the coordinate system with To prove this identity, we simply use the fact that
respect to the z-axis; the symbol indicates the
rotation axis. ip , ip = 1 and iq , ir = δqr . (2.46)
28 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
eral case) of an old coordinate system to a new of the old coordinate system through an angle, φ —
one can be defined by three angles (ψ, θ , φ), as about the z axis — can be deduced from (2.47) by
shown in Figure 2.12. Thus, in the most general taking θ = ψ = 0◦ .
case, the matrix [a] can be written as a product of
three elementary rotation matrices:
cos φ sin φ 0 cos θ 0 − sin θ cos ψ sin ψ 0
[a] = − sin φ cos φ 0 × 0 1 0 × − sin ψ cos ψ 0 . (2.47)
0 0 1 sin θ 0 cos θ 0 0 1
The Stress Field gradients from point to point in stresses. Second, rocks
are made up of grains, layers, or other entities that are
For a given medium, the stress field is simply mineralogically distinct from adjacent parts; therefore
the values of stress components at every point in the they have somewhat different responses to stress. Some
medium. The stress field can be characterized as homo- of these parts resist deformation more than others and
geneous (or uniform) if all stress components are the thereby carry the higher stresses. Given sufficient time
same at every point. This is the case for the tank of or temperature, the parts with the lower stresses may
water described with reference to Figure 2.1, before the decay, but they always will be present to some degree.
stone is dropped. However, the stress field can be inho- Third, as reservoirs are depleted they may subside or be
mogeneous even in the absence of external forces, as damaged by stress fatigue. Therefore, in our theory of
the example in Figure 2.13 shows. wave propagation, the state of the stress field must be
Most petroleum-seismology models of the sub- considered as an important parameter especially if the
surface assume — sometimes implicitly — that the medium is considered to be nonlinearly elastic1 . We can
stress field is homogeneous, in the absence of external seek to recover the stress field from measurements, or
forces (i.e., before the triggering of the external force
responsible for generating seismic waves). Obviously,
this assumption is not true. First, body forces are always 1 Nonlinear elasticity is discussed in detail in Abeele et al. (1997),
present in rock formations, a condition that introduces Johnson and Rasolofosaon (1996), and Kadish and Johnson (1996).
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 29
Let us now add to equation (2.44) the rule for Notice that for
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we can enter it into our theory as an initial condition if This coordinate system can be deduced by diago-
it becomes available from independent measurements. nalizing the stress tensor; in other words, by subtracting
λ from the elements of the trace, and by setting the
determinant of the resulting matrix to 0:
Principal Stresses τxx − λ τxy τxz
τxy τyy − λ τyz = 0. (2.54)
Stress-field variations with time are important data τxz τyz τzz − λ
for monitoring of petroleum reservoirs. However, as
described in Box 2.5, stress components also can vary Solving for p gives
with coordinate systems. This means that if the coor-
dinate system in which measurements are to be taken λ3 − aλ2 + bλ − c = 0, (2.55)
were to change for various reasons (e.g., borehole where
damage), we would lose consistency in our measure- a = tr(τij ) = τxx + τyy + τzz , (2.56)
ment of stress-field variations with time. Fortunately,
we can alternatively use physical quantities known as
principal stresses, the values of which are independent b = minor(τij ) = τxx τyy + τyy τzz + τxx τzz
of the coordinate system (but they can change with − τxy
2
− τyz
2
− τxz
2
, (2.57)
time).
Let us now determine the principal stresses: and
Regardless of the state of stress at a given point, x,
and a time, t, it is always possible to choose a spe- c = det(τij ) = τxx τyy τzz + 2τxy τyz τxz − τxx τyz
2
Fault
selected as the principal direction. Furthermore, hydro-
static stress is the only kind of stress that can exist in a
fluid at rest.
PARTICLE DISPLACEMENT
AND STRAIN
(b)
Particle Displacement
Figure 2.14 shows one portion of the snapshots
described in Figures 2.1 and 2.2. This time we have
Fault placed side-by-side the positions of particles at t = 0 ms
(a)
FIGURE 2.13. Stress field near the end of a fault. (a) Homo-
geneous stress field before displacement of the faulted rock
occurs. (b) Stress field after displacement on the fault, in
homogeneous stress field. (Adapted from Means, 1976.)
and those at t = 200 ms, so as to illustrate better the relative displacements — are a more appropriate means
displacement of particles with time. For a given particle of describing deformability (i.e., change of shape). We
located at x = {x, y, z} in equilibrium (i.e., t = 0), the will see that strain, as a tensor, is defined in terms of the
displacement of it at t is a vector that can be written as: spatial derivatives of components of the displacement
field.
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inside a material. The classic example used to illus- a sufficiently small deformation, tan α ∼ = α; therefore
trate this point is a stone that is being kicked around; the shear strain in the xz plane is defined by
the stone will rotate and move. The displacement is
1 1 ∂uz ∂ux
nonzero, but all particles of the stone have maintained exz = (tan α1 + tan α2 ) = +
2 2 ∂x ∂z
their relative positions during the rotations. In this case,
displacement can be an indicator of the stone’s mass but 1
≈ (α1 + α2 ) . (2.67)
not of its deformability. Strains — which are a set of 2
32 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
∆x
exx exy exz
[e] = eyx eyy eyz
ezx ezy ezz
∆x ∂ux 1
∂ux ∂uy
1
∂ux
∂uz
∆y + +
∂x 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂z ∂x
(b)
1 ∂u ∂uz
y ∂ux ∂uy 1 ∂uy
= + + .
2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂z ∂y
1 ∂u ∂ux 1 ∂uz ∂uy ∂uz
∆z z
+ +
2 ∂x ∂z 2 ∂y ∂z ∂z
(2.69)
Notice that the strain tensor is symmetric. By definition,
Abbreviated Notation
∆z of the Strain Tensor
Because the strain tensor (2.69) is symmetric, we
α1 can introduce a system of abbreviated subscripts. So,
the strain tensor can be defined according to the scheme
∆x
exx exy exz ε1 21 ε6 21 ε5
Undeformed state [e] = eyx eyy eyz = 21 ε6 ε2 21 ε4 ,
Deformed state ezx ezy ezz 1 1
2 ε5 2 ε4 ε3
FIGURE 2.15. Illustration of (a) linear strain, (b) volumetric (2.71)
strain, and (c) shear strain.
or as a six-component vector rather than a nine-element
square matrix, in the following form:
So by definition, the three components of shear strain ∂ux
are ∂x
ε1 ∂uy
ε2
∂y
ε3 ∂uz
eyz =
1 ∂uz
+
∂uy
, ezx =
1 ∂ux
+
∂uz
and εI ⇔ = ∂z
ε4 ∂uz + ∂uy . (2.72)
2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
ε5 ∂uz ∂ux
1 ∂uy ∂ux ε6 ∂x + ∂z
exy = + . (2.68) ∂uy ∂ux
2 ∂x ∂y ∂x + ∂y
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 33
Example 6. Until now, only static examples have I and III: Nonlinear
been considered. The simplest examples of time-
Strain
II: Linear
varying vibration are plane waves. In a uniform plane
wave, propagation is in a particular direction, but the
field is uniform in planes perpendicular to the direction
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Fracture
of propagation. For example, point
cos(ωt − ky)
u(y, t) = 0 (2.81)
0
is a uniform plane wave of x-polarized particle dis-
placement propagating along the y-axis. Here the
Stress
quantity I II III
2π
k= (2.82) Elastic deformation Plastic deformation
L
is called the wavenumber, where L is the wavelength. FIGURE 2.17. Typical stress-strain relation for a solid
The propagation velocity of a point of constant phase material.
(ωt − ky = constant) is called the phase velocity,
ω
V= . (2.83)
k if strain is increased past a certain limit — typically in
From equation (2.69), the nonzero strain components the range 10−4 to 10−3 for relatively rigid materials —
are deformation is no longer elastic. Beyond this elas-
1 ∂ux k tic limit, the medium deforms permanently (plastic
exy = eyx = = sin(ωt − ky). (2.84) deformation) and ultimately fractures (materials are
2 ∂y 2 no longer elastic). Ordinarily, the region of plastic
deformation is not of interest in study of petroleum
seismology. For small deformations, we will limit our
ELASTIC MODULI discussion to linear elasticity.
Up to this point, we have introduced mathemati-
cal descriptions of stress, displacement, and strain. To
Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law):
complete this list of all physical quantities entering into
General Case
wave propagation theory, we need to introduce mass
density, ρ, and in addition, elastic properties that char- For a given point, x, at time t, the generalized
acterize individual rock formations — basically, the Hooke’s law states that stress is linearly proportional
resistance to deformation. As discussed earlier in this to strain:
chapter, we are essentially considering small deforma- [τ ] = [c][e]. (2.85)
tions, so that we can use a linear relationship between
stress and strain. In subscript notation, this linear relationship can be
For small deformations, an experimentally observed written as follows:
fact is that the strain in a deformed body is lin-
τij (x, t) = cijkl (x) ekl (x, t)
early proportional to the stress applied (generalized
Hooke’s law). In this case, deformation is charac- i, j, k, l = x, y, z or i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3. (2.86)
terized as being linearly elastic. As increasing defor-
The constants of proportionality, cijkl = cijkl (x), are
mations are imposed, the relationship between strain
known as “elastic moduli” or “stiffness constants.” They
and stress becomes increasingly nonlinear, but the body
define the elastic properties of a medium — more
still returns to its original state when the stress is
particularly, its resistance to deformation. These con-
removed2 . In this second case, deformation is character-
stants constitute a fourth-rank tensor that is known as
ized as being nonlinear elastic (Figure 2.17). However,
the “stiffness tensor.” Notice that the elastic moduli
in equation (2.86) are assumed to be independent of
2 In an elastic body, stress depends only on strain (and vice versa). time t. This is the case, because in this chapter we
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 35
have assumed that the materials under consideration To summarize, the elastic stiffness constants (or
are elastic. (Anelastic materials will be discussed in compliance constants) of the most general elastic,
Chapter 12.) anisotropic material satisfy cijkl = cklij (or sijkl = sklij )
Note that we have used the summation convention in addition to the symmetry relation,
over the repeated subscripts k and l in equation (2.86).
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Each stress component can be expressed as a linear cijkl = cijlk = cjikl , (2.92)
combination of cijkl . For example, τ11 can be written or
as follows: sijkl = sijlk = sjikl , (2.93)
τ11 = c1111 e11 + c1112 e12 + c1113 e13 and correspond to only 21 independent elastic moduli
(or 21 independent compliance constants).
+ c1121 e21 + c1122 e22 + c1123 e23
+ c1131 e31 + c1132 e32 + c1133 e33 . (2.87)
Let us go back to Hooke’s law. Because the stress Hooke’s Law with Abbreviated
and strain tensors each contain nine components, there Tensor Notation
are nine equations in expression (2.86) and 81 elastic
In the previous sections, we introduced abbrevi-
moduli. However, the symmetry of the stress tensor,
ated notations by which stress and strain tensors can be
τij = τji → cijkl = cjikl , (2.88) expressed as six-component vectors, because they are
symmetric. Using these abbreviated notations, Hooke’s
and that of the strain tensor, law can be expressed as follows:
ekl = elk → cijkl = cijlk , (2.89) σI = CIJ εJ . (2.94)
reduce the number of independent equations to six and Because expression (2.94) contains six equations and
the number of independent elastic moduli to 36. A each equation contains six strain variables, there are
further symmetry relation is 36 elastic stiffness constants. Hence, by comparing
expression (2.94) with expression (2.86), we can deduce
cijkl = cklij , (2.90) that
which immediately reduces the number of indepen- CIJ = cijkl . (2.95)
dent elastic moduli to 21 for the arbitrarily anisotropic This relationship is another way of verifying that
medium. Derivation of this symmetry relation is based the symmetry of stress and strain tensors implies a
on thermodynamic considerations that we will not dis- reduction of independent elastic moduli to 36. The sym-
cuss here, because this derivation requires introduction metry related to the thermodynamic argument can be
of concepts that are not essential for education of expressed in this case as follows:
petroleum seismologists. However, this derivation can
be found in Auld (1990), Kolsky (1953), and Malvern CIJ = CJI , (2.96)
(1969).
implying that the constants are further reduced to 21.
Alternatively, the strains can be expressed as linear
This is the maximum number of constants for any
functions of all stresses:
linearly elastic, anisotropic medium; it is known as “tri-
eij = sijkl τkl clinic symmetry.” In most cases the number is much
smaller than this, because of additional restrictions
i, j, k, l = x, y, z or i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3. (2.91)
imposed by the microscopic nature of the medium.
In this case, the constants, sijkl — called “compliance Alternatively, equation (2.94) can be written
constants” — are measures of the deformability of the
εI = sIJ σJ , (2.97)
medium. The compliances take large values for easily
deformed materials and small values for rigid materials. where
Relation (2.86) and its converse (2.91) are called “elas-
tic constitutive relations.” The symmetries described 1 for I and J = 1, 2, 3
SIJ = sijkl × 2 for I or J = 4, 5, 6 . (2.98)
earlier for stiffnesses also hold for compliance con-
stants. 4 for I and J = 4, 5, 6
36 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
The stiffness and compliance constants are Then, by equating equations (2.100) and (2.103)
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defined with respect to a certain Cartesian coor- and assuming that some of the elements of ekl are
dinate system. However, in some instances this nonzero, we arrive at
system may not be the most convenient choice of
axes for solving a specific problem; therefore it is ii , im ij , in ik , ip il , iq cmnpq − cijkl
e kl = 0,
necessary to consider how the stiffness and com- (2.104)
pliance constants can be transformed into other which is equivalent to
coordinate systems.
Since Hooke’s law applies in all coordinate cijkl = ii , im ij , in ik , ip il , iq cmnpq
systems, the required transformation laws may be
deduced from expression (2.50). = aim ajn akp alq cmnpq , (2.105)
Suppose that
τij = cijkl ekl (2.99) where the aim are the cosine directions introduced
in Box 2.3.
in axis system {i1 , i2 , i3 }, and
Physical quantities that transform from one
τij = cijkl
e kl (2.100) coordinate system to another based on equa-
tion (2.105) are called fourth-rank tensors.
in axis system {i1 , i2 , i3 }. The two axis systems have Let us summarize the general pattern of the
the same point of origin. If we use the rule for laws for transforming tensors from one coordinate
changing second-order tensor components under system to another: A first-rank tensor (or vector)
the rotation of axes in equation (2.50) and the con- transforms according to this law:
stitutive equation in expression (2.99), τij can be
written ui = aij uj , (2.106)
τij = ii , im ij , in τnm = ii , im ij , in cmnpq epq . and a second-rank tensor, like the strain, was shown
(2.101) to transform according to
Again, we use the rule for changing second-order
e ij = aik ajl ekl . (2.107)
tensor components, this time for the strain tensor:
epq = ip , ik iq , il e kl . (2.102) The fourth-rank stiffness tensor transforms as
By substituting expression (2.102) in equa- cijkl = aim ajn akp alq cmnpq . (2.108)
tion (2.101), we arrive at
Note that expression (2.108) is true for any fourth-
τij = ii , im ij , in ik , ip il , iq cmnpq e kl . (2.103) order tensor.
The differences between equations (2.95) and (2.98) Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law):
result from the manner in which the factors of the Isotropic Case
two are introduced into the definition of strain, in the
abbreviated notation. If a different definition of strains An isotropic material is one in which the physical
were used, the 2s and 4s could be removed from the properties of any given point are independent of direc-
compliances and put into the stiffnesses, but common tion. A liquid is an isotropic material. A rock formation
convention specifies the forms given here. made of very small, randomly oriented crystals or grains
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 37
can be treated as being isotropic at the macroscopic in which the medium is anisotropic and the stiffness
scale. tensor is
Let us start by considering two examples of wave
propagation, first through an isotropic medium and sec-
λ⊥ + 2µ⊥ λ⊥ υ 0 0 0
ond through an anisotropic medium. Figure 2.18 shows λ⊥ λ⊥ + 2µ⊥ υ 0 0 0
snapshots of wave propagation for a case in which the υ υ λ + 2µ 0 0 0
[C] =
0
,
medium is isotropic and the stiffness tensor is 0 0 0 µ 0
0 0 0 0 µ 0
0 0 0 0 0 µ⊥
λ + 2µ λ λ 0 0 0
λ λ + 2µ λ 0 0 0 (2.110)
λ λ λ + 2µ 0 0 0
[C] =
0
.
0 0 µ 0 0
0 0 0 0 µ 0 which in this case is described by five parameters. Note
0 0 0 0 0 µ that in the first case the speed of wave propagation does
not depend on direction (axis system), whereas in the
(2.109) second case it does. In the first case, the material is
characterized as being isotropic; in this case the stiffness
Notice that this tensor can be described by two param- tensor must be invariant under rotation and reflection.
eters only. Figure 2.18 also shows snapshots for a case In the second case, the material is characterized as being
38 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
0 0 0 0 M 0
can be written 0 0 0 0 0 M
cijkl = λδij δkl + µ δik δjl + δil δjk , (2.111) (2.116)
λ 1
=− , M= . (2.117)
0 for i
= j 2µ(3λ + 2µ) 4µ
δij = i, j = 1, 2, 3. (2.112)
1 for i = j
The relation between the stiffness tensor, cijpq , and the
By substituting expression (2.111) into equation (2.108), elastic compliances, sijpq , results in
we can effectively verify that the stiffness tensor in sijrs crspq =
ijpq , (2.118)
(2.111) is unchanged by rotation of the coordinate sys-
tems, hence confirming that this stiffness tensor is where
invariant with direction.
1
Before relating the isotropic stiffness tensor to rock
ijpq = (δip δjq + δiq δjp ) (2.119)
properties, let us address the following question: Is the 2
description of a stiffness tensor in (2.111) unique for all is the symmetrical fourth-rank unit tensor (
ijpq
pqrs =
isotropic media? Theoretically, the answer is “no.” We
ijrs ), characteristic for elastodynamics. Actually, the
can show that the following tensor is isotropic: relationship between compliances and stiffnesses in
equation (2.118) also is valid for anisotropic rock
cijkl = λδij δkl + µδik δjl + ηδil δjk , (2.113) formations.
We have seen that each of the six independent com-
and it is the most general case of an isotropic fourth- ponents of stress at a point is a linear function of the set
rank tensor. Observe that it is described by three of six independent components of strain. The result is
parameters instead of two, as we have seen previ- 36 elastic constants, which can be reduced to 21, based
ously. However, when cijkl = cjikl — as is the case in on thermodynamic considerations. The most general
all petroleum-seismology models — we end with this anisotropic materials are described by 21 constants.
condition: Fortunately, the elastic properties of many materials
and material composites in the earth are predominantly
(µ − η) δik δjl − δil δjk = 0. (2.114) independent of direction. Hence the stiffness in tensor
(2.111) is an appropriate first-order approximation of
This condition is valid for all the subscripts in equa- most rock formations.
tion (2.114), including the case in which i = k = 1
and j = l = 2, which implies that η = µ. Therefore the
description of the stiffness tensor of isotropic materials, Physical Interpretation of Elastic
as set out in (2.111), is the most general description for Moduli for an Isotropic Medium
petroleum seismology.
A relation similar to expression (2.111) exists for The relations between stress and strain in the
the compliance isotropic case are
sijkl = δij δkl + M δik δjl + δil δjk , (2.115) τxx = λ + 2µexx
τyy = λ + 2µeyy
τzz = λ + 2µezz
(2.120)
3 Note that equation (2.110) is the stiffness tensor for a transversely
τyz = µeyz
isotropic medium. A detailed discussion of this equation is given in τzx = µezx
Chapter 12. τxy = µexy ,
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 39
a ∆x e
x three equations of particle motion at point x and time t
are
∆y τ xz
∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz ∂ 2 ux
fx = mγx ⇐⇒ + + =ρ 2 ,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
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∆z
b
f ∂τyx ∂τyy ∂τyz ∂ 2 uy
fy = mγy ⇐⇒ + + = ρ 2 , and
τ xx ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
y τ xx +
∂τxx
∆x
∂x ∂τzx ∂τzy ∂τzz ∂ 2 uz
d
h fz = mγz ⇐⇒ + + =ρ 2 .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂τxz
(2.131)
τ xz + ∆z
∂z
Using the subscript notation introduced in Box 2.2,
z equation (2.131) can be written in compact notation as
c g follows:
∂ 2 ui ∂τij
FIGURE 2.19. Element volume and illustration of stress ρ 2 = , (2.132)
∂t ∂xj
components in the x-direction, on opposite faces of the
volume. with
i, j = 1, 2, 3 or i, j = x, y, z.
These equations of wave motion are valid for what-
The stress component in the x-direction on the face ever stress-strain relations hold, including cases in
a-d-h-e
is τxy , whereas
on its opposite face, b-c-g-f, it which the medium is anelastic, or anisotropic; in other
∂τ
is τxy + ∂yxy
y . The difference gives the net stress, words, the behavior of material does not explicitly enter
which, when multiplied by into the equations of motion. We will discuss these
the area of the face (
x
z), cases in Chapter 12. In this chapter, we have limited
∂τxy
gives a force of ∂y
y (
x
z). our discussion to isotropic elastic media.
The stress component in the x-direction on the By combining Hooke’s law in equation (2.86) with
face a-b-f-e is τxz , whereas on its opposite face, the equations of wave motion in expression (2.132), we
∂τxz
d-c-g-h, it is τxz + ∂z
z . The resulting force is arrive at the following system of equations:
∂τxz
z (
x
z). ∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂τij (x, t)
∂z
ρ(x) = and
Hence the total force component in the x-direction is ∂t 2 ∂xj
given by ∂uk (x, t)
τij (x, t) = cijkl (x) , (2.133)
∂xl
∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz
fx = + +
x
y
z. (2.129) where
∂x ∂y ∂z
cijkl (x) = λ(x)δij δkl + µ(x) δik δjl + δil δjk . (2.134)
Substituting fx into Newton’s law of motion,
fx = mγx , where mass is given by m = ρ
x
y
z and The constants λ = λ(x) and µ = µ(x) are the Lamé
2
acceleration in the x-direction is given by γx = ∂ u2x , parameters, and δij is the Kronecker delta function nota-
∂t tion [see equation (2.40)]. The variables are explicit in
yields
these equations in order to emphasize that the density,
ρ = ρ(x), and the stiffness tensor, cijkl = cijkl (x),
∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz ∂ 2 ux are independent of time, under the assumption that the
+ + =ρ . (2.130)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t 2 medium is linearly elastic. This system of equations
governs wave propagation as a function of material
Similar considerations of stresses in the y and z direc- properties, {ρ, cijkl }. Therefore, under the assumption
tions lead to force components in the y- and z-directions that the earth is linearly elastic, the subsurface can be
and then to two additional equations of motion. The characterized by stiffness constants and density.
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 41
Notice that in addition to λ and µ, we have intro- If u0 = ±n, then equation (2.142) gives
duced another characteristic of rock formations, namely #
the density, ρ. Density of porous sedimentary rocks λ + 2µ
ranges from 1.8 g/cm3 to 2.6 g/cm3 . u0 · n = ±1 and V = VP = . (2.144)
ρ
To conclude this section, let us derive the elasto-
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into equation (2.136). Here, u0 and n are unit vec- ∇ 2 u = ∇(∇ · u) − ∇ × (∇ × u),
tors defining the directions of motion and propagation,
respectively. Using the relations = ∇(divu) − ∇ × (curlu) (2.146)
! "
ρ 2 (a)
− µ∇ × ∇ × ∇ × + ∂t ψ = 0. (2.149)
µ
A solution of expression (2.149) will exist if the Particle
following two equations hold: motion
2
∇ − VP−2 ∂t2 χ = 0, and (2.150)
∇ × ∇ × +VS−2 ∂t2 ψ = 0. (2.151)
Particle
motion
Equation (2.150) is the wave equation for the scalar
potential, χ, known as the P-wave displacement poten-
tial. For this solution there is no twisting of the medium, (b)
only stretching and squeezing. The motion vector is
parallel to the direction of propagation, as illustrated in
Figure 2.20a, where propagation is in the x-direction.
Equation (2.151) is the wave equation for the vector
potential ψ, known as the S-wave displacement poten-
tial. For this type of displacement the dilatation ∇ · u
is zero, so there is no expansion or contraction. There- Particle
motion
fore, the strain must be of the shear type. The vector
wave equation (2.151) can be written alternatively in
the standard wave equation form:
2 (c)
∇ − VS−2 ∂t2 ψ = 0. (2.152)
For S-wave propagation, the displacement can have We conclude that SV waves are governed fully by the
any direction in the plane normal to n. In an elastic y-component of the vector wave equation (2.152); i.e.,
medium where properties differ in the vertical direc- 2
tion only (a vertically inhomogeneous medium), we ∇ − VS−2 ∂t2 ψy = 0. (2.154)
normally choose the (x, z)-plane to contain the vector
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n, and we consider motions that are in the (x, z)-plane For SH waves
or normal to the (x, z)-plane. Such shear wave motions
are called “vertically (SV) and horizontally (SH) polar- ux = 0,
ized shear waves,” respectively. SH and SV motions ∂ψx ∂ψz
uy = − , (2.155)
are illustrated in Figure 2.20b and 2.20c, respectively, ∂z ∂x
for wave propagation in the x-direction. Assuming 2D uz = 0.
wave propagation, we can write for SV waves
∂ψy Thus SH waves are governed fully by the x- and
ux = − , z-components of the vector wave equation (2.152). It is
∂z straightforward to show that SH waves obey the wave
uy = 0, (2.153) equation
uz = −
∂ψy 2
∂x
. ∇ − VS−2 ∂t2 uy = 0. (2.156)
The scalar potential, χ, and the vector potential, Combining equations (2.160), (2.161), and (2.162),
ψ, are often called “Lamé potentials,” or “P-wave we see that the Lamé potentials are given in terms
and S-wave potential,” or “dilatational and rota- of displacements as
tional displacement potential,” respectively. The
completeness of this representation has been dis- ∂t2 χ = VP2 ∇ · u, (2.163)
cussed by Morse and Feshbach (1953). Note that ∂t2 ψ = −VS2 ∇ × u. (2.164)
the vector potential has only two independent com-
ponents. The part of ψ that can be expressed as a From equations (2.163) and (2.164) we deduce that
gradient of a scalar is discarded, whereas the part ∇ · u describes P-wave propagation, whereas ∇ × u
that has zero divergence is used. describes S-wave propagation.
4 Although our derivations in the section on elastic waves are for plane waves, decomposition into two wave equations [(2.161) and (2.161)]
is valid for any waves in homogeneous media (i.e., cylindrical waves, spherical waves, etc.).
44 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
at great distances from their sources, the fact is unit propagation vector, n, is then represented by
obvious that the initial curved wavefront tends to
become planar as the wave travels outward. The u = A u0 exp[ik(n · x − Vt)]. (2.167)
initial curvature thus becomes very small. For prac-
It is understood that the physical displacement
tical purposes the wavefronts may be considered
components are the real part of u. As seen in
as planar. In the far-field we should expect that
the section above on P-waves and S-waves, for
plane wave theory is an adequate approximation
an isotropic elastic medium, we have two types
of the exact theory. We shall see that dealing with
of plane harmonic waves: longitudinal (P) and
the propagation of elastic waves using plane-wave
transverse (S) waves, propagating with velocities
theory gives us a useful procedure for analyz-
V = VP and V = VS , respectively. For P-waves,
ing the elastic-wave equation. In Chapter 3, we
will see that wave propagation in elastic isotropic n · u0 = ±1; (2.168)
media with planar interfaces can be examined
with great ease by using plane waves. In particu- i.e., the motion vector, u0 , of the P-wave is parallel
lar, we use the plane-wave representation together to the direction of propagation n. For S-waves,
with the boundary conditions at elastic interfaces
to derive plane-wave reflection and transmission n · u0 = 0; (2.169)
coefficients.
A 3D plane-displacement wave propagating i.e., the motion vector, u0 , of the S-wave is normal
with phase velocity V is represented by to the direction of propagation n. We say that the
vector, u0 , in the plane perpendicular to n describes
u = u0 f (n · x − Vt), (2.165) the polarization of the shear wave.
In Box 2.7, the Helmholtz decomposition of
where u0 and n are unit vectors defining the direc- the displacement vector is introduced. In particu-
tions of motion (polarization) and propagation, lar, equations (2.163) and (2.164) give relationships
respectively, and x denotes the position vector. between the Lamé potentials and the displace-
Observe that n · x = constant is the equation of ment. This relation can be used to derive plane-
a plane normal to the unit propagation vector, n. wave expressions for the Lamé potentials. Consider
Thus equation (2.165) represents a traveling plane propagation in the (x, z) plane. Substituting equa-
wave with velocity V and planes of constant phase, tion (2.167) into (2.163), the P-wave potential is
the normals of which are n. With given as
with kS = ω/VS . For SV-waves, where direc- introduce physically unimaginable complex angles
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tions of propagation and motion are both in the of incidence, corresponding to imaginary verti-
(x, z)-plane, n × u0 = −ey , and only ψy is cal wavenumbers. Such plane waves are called
nonzero. Equation (2.172) gives, after two partial “inhomogeneous” or “evanescent” plane waves.
time integrations, Investigating the possibility of imaginary compo-
nents of n in the depth direction, one finds that the
ψy = VS A exp[ikS (n · x − VS t)]. (2.173)
amplitude of inhomogeneous plane waves grows or
For the plane wave we have introduced, the decays exponentially with depth. The amplitude is
direction, n, of propagation is assumed to be a then not constant on a wavefront. We will discuss
vector that has real Cartesian components. This this amplitude issue in Chapter 3. In the remaining
plane wave is normally called a “homogeneous part of this chapter we consider only homogeneous
plane wave.” Its amplitude is constant on a wave- plane waves.
front. Homogeneous plane-wave theory has some Finally, we remark that wave fields can
shortcomings, however (Grant and West, 1965). be analyzed conveniently by decomposition into
For instance, the theory does not account for monochromatic plane waves using Fourier trans-
the existence of head waves or the existence of forms. In general, the Fourier decomposition of
surface waves. One way to circumvent this prob- spherical waves gives a range of both homogeneous
lem while sticking to the plane-wave theory is to and inhomogeneous plane waves.
In vertically inhomogeneous elastic media, P-waves 2) P-wave impedance (ZP = ρVP ), S-wave impedance
and SV-waves — which both have polarizations in the (ZS = ρVS ), and density (ρ). If the medium is
(x, z)-plane — may couple at the interfaces of layers acoustic, ZS becomes zero, and P-wave impedance
of rock. SH waves have a different polarization — nor- is called “acoustic impedance.”
mal to the (x, z)-plane — and they do not interact with 3) P-wave velocity (VP ), the Poisson ratio ν as intro-
P- and SV-waves. Thus in this case SH motion separates duced in equation (2.124), and density (ρ).
from the coupled P-SV wave.
Poisson’s ratio, also introduced in expression
(2.124), can be determined from measurements of the
shear and compressional velocities:
Parameters of Isotropic, Elastic 2
Rock Formations 1 VP
−1
2 VS
ν= 2 . (2.174)
In an isotropic, elastic rock formation, the wave VP
VS −1
equation and the constitutive equation in (2.133) —
which govern wave propagation — contain three char-
In a fluid, S-wave velocity is zero; Poisson’s ratio in
acteristics of rock: density of mass, ρ; and Lamé’s
this case is 1/2. For rock formations, the Poisson ratio
parameters, λ and µ (µ being null for acoustic media).
is smaller but always positive (between 0.2 and 0.35 for
Therefore, an isotropic, elastic rock formation can be
most consolidated rocks and between 0.4 and 0.45 for
described by three independent parameters: {λ, µ, ρ}.
unconsolidated materials). This last statement implies
Other choices with more physical meaning generally
that
are adopted in petroleum seismology, including the VP √
following: ≥ 2 ≈ 1.41. (2.175)
VS
1) P-wave velocity (VP ), S-wave velocity (VS ), and Some examples of experimental measurements of these
density (ρ). If the medium is acoustic, VS becomes quantities are shown in Table 2.2 and in Figure 2.21.
zero, and the P-wave velocity is called “acoustic Other measurements of these quantities for gas, oil, and
velocity.” brine are in Appendix B.
46 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
TABLE 2.2. (a) Poisson’s ratio for common types of sedi- Note that we also discussed the point that the bulk
ment and rock. (Adapted from Burger, 1992.) (b) Velocities modulus in equation (2.127) is consistently positive.
and densities of various materials. (Adapted from Burger, This condition imposes another constraint between VP
1992.) and VS , namely,
(a)
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VP ≥ 1.15VS . (2.176)
Type of sediment or rock Poisson’s ratio
Consolidated shale 0.25–0.35 However this constraint generally is not used because
Consolidated sandstone 0.15–0.25 it is taken into account by condition (2.175), which
Poorly consolidated shale 0.35–0.45 requires that Poisson’s ratio must simultaneously be
Poorly consolidated sandstone 0.30–0.35
High-porosity sandstone 0.35–0.40 positive and smaller than 0.5.
Low-porosity sandstone 0.15–0.25
Gas-charged sandstone 0.10–0.20
Oil-saturated sandstone 0.28–0.32
Salt 0.25–0.30 Relating Elastic Parameters
Dolomite 0.25–0.30 to Petrophysical Parameters
Limestone 0.25–0.35
Coal 0.35–0.45
Let us note that the characterization of rock forma-
(b) tions by VP , VS , and ρ — or any other combinations
of these parameters — often does not directly indicate
Substance Vp (m/s) Vs (m/s) Density (g/cm3 ) the presence of hydrocarbons. For instance, consider a
Quartz 5800 3600 2.65 fluid-saturated rock like the sedimentary rock described
Calcite 6400 3400 2.70 in Appendix A. Although VP , VS , and ρ properly
Dolomite 7000 3900 2.90
Halite 4600 2500 2.15
describe the elastic behavior of the rock at the parti-
Anhydrite 6100 3475 2.90 cle scale (the particle scale in petroleum seismology is
Methane 457 0 0.30 about 5 meters), these parameters do not tell us whether
Petroleum 1280 0 0.95 (heavy) fluid (gas, water, oil, etc.) is contained in the rock
0.80 (light)
Water 1500 0 1.00 or whether these rocks are dry. Also, these param-
eters do not tell us directly about the percentage of
empty space (pores) in the rock that is occupied by
fluid or about the interconnected pathways that allow
fluid to circulate through the pores. Figure 2.22 shows
0.5 examples of media with different amounts of porosity
Shale and with different permeability. Porosity is the ratio of
Limestone/dolomite
Coal open space (Vvoid ) to the total volume of the rock plus
0.4 2.5
openings (Vtotal ); φ = Vvoid /Vtotal , where φ is porosity.
(Fluid) In many instances φ is multiplied by 100 and expressed
VP / VS ratio
Poisson's ratio
40
φ = porosity
Most sedimentary
30
rocks are in this The Biot-Gassmann theory (Bourbie, 1987) relates
window.
P-wave and S-wave velocity and density of such rocks
Porosity (p.u.)
ρVS2 = µ, (2.178)
0
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 and
Permeability (md)
ρ = (1 − φ)ρs + φρf . (2.179)
Recall that the shear modulus describes how a body
deforms under shear stress, whereas the bulk modulus
measures a body’s resistance to change of volume under
pressure. The composite density is made up of density
FIGURE 2.22. General relationships of porosity and perme- contributions from matrix and fluid. The framework and
ability in reservoir rocks. Dark patterns indicate porosity. the pore-space bulk moduli are related to pore-fluid bulk
Porosity is given in “porosity units,” which are equivalent modulus, as follows:
to percentages. (Adapted from Selley, 1983.)
β2
and continue to lead to very productive empirical Kp = β−φ φ
, (2.180)
Km + Kf
relationships between elastic parameters and petro-
physical parameters, and (2) some theoretical devel-
where
opments, such as the famous Biot-Gassmann model Kb
of porous media, the Hertz-Mindlin contact theory β =1− , (2.181)
Km
(which models unconsolidated sediment as a random
packing of spherical elastic grains), and the White and where Km is the bulk modulus of the rock grains. So
model of attenuation and dispersion for heterogeneous, if the petrophysical parameters are known, it is straight-
fluid-saturated media. forward to estimate the elastic parameters VP , VS , and ρ
Our goal in this section is not to review petro- from equations (2.177) through (2.179). Unfortunately,
physics, but to draw the reader’s attention to the impor- the inverse is not true; knowing VP , VS , and ρ is not
tance of and the challenges of connecting elastic and sufficient for estimation of the petrophysical parame-
petrophysical parameters for exploration and produc- ters — ρs , ρf , µ, Kp , Kb , Km , Kf , and φ — because we
tion of petroleum. The importance probably is obvious, have a system of three equations and eight unknowns
but the challenges may not be obvious. To elaborate which, of course, is impossible to solve.
on the challenges of this connection, let us consider One classic objective in passing from elastic param-
the case of a sedimentary rock (quartzose sandstone) eters to petrophysical parameters is to estimate Kf , the
with porosity φ saturated by a homogeneous fluid. The pore-fluid bulk modulus, as an indicator of hydrocar-
pertinent notation is as follows: bons in sandstone formations. S-wave velocity mea-
surements give us µ, but we still need to know Km ,
VP = P-wave velocity Kb , and Kp to evaluate Kf . Laboratory measurements
VS = S-wave velocity of shear and compressional velocities, plus porosity
ρ = composite density measurements on gas-saturated, pure-quartz sandstone,
ρf = density of fluid yield the necessary information on these parameters.
ρs = density of matrix For instance, the experimental measurements of Mur-
µ = shear modulus of rock frame phy et al. (1993) reveal that porosity is linearly related
Kb = bulk modulus of rock frame to Kb and µ for these rocks (Figure 2.23). These
48 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(a)
50 Keff = effective bulk modulus of a dry, random,
Bulk Modulus Kb , GPa
40
identical-sphere packing
µeff = effective shear modulus
30 ν = Poisson’s ratio
P = effective (net) pressure (overburden
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40
sphere packing is given as
#
η C (1 − φ) µ
30 2 2 2
Keff = P, (2.182)
18π 2 (1 − ν)2
20
10
and the effective shear modulus is given by
#
0 5 − 4ν η 3C 2 (1 − φ)2 µ2
0 10 20 30 40 µeff = P. (2.183)
5(2 − ν) 2π 2 (1 − ν)2
Porosity (%)
This example shows how a combination of (1) the we will denote by Fi , and/or by stress distributions
empirical relationship derived from laboratory mea- that we will denote by the tensor −Iij . If the earth is
surements, (2) measurements of elastic parameters VP , at rest, the sources are null, and the wave motion obeys
VS , and ρ, and (3) the Biot-Gassmann theory can allow the equations in expression (2.133). However, if one of
us to estimate petrophysical parameters. these sources is not null, the equations of wave motion
For more discussion on the connection between can be modified as follows:
elastic and petrophysical parameters, we refer the reader ∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂τij (x, t)
to five examples: Bourbie (1987), Hornby et al. (1992), ρ(x) = + Fi (x, t)
Murphy et al. (1993), Castagna and Backus (1993), and ∂t 2 ∂xj
White (1965). τij (x, t) = cijkl (x)ekl (x, t) − Iij (x, t). (2.187)
Equation (2.187) is known as the generalized
Hooke’s law because the presence of the source term
−Iij . By substituting the generalized Hooke’s law into
SOURCES OF SEISMIC WAVES the equations of wave motion, we arrive at the elasto-
dynamic wave equations for the particle displacement
Definition of Sources in the Context field:
of Petroleum Seismology
! "
∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂ ∂uk (x, t)
In the first section, “An Example of Wave Propaga- ρ(x) − cijkl (x)
tion,” we saw that the dropping of a stone into a tank of ∂t 2 ∂xj ∂xl
water would generate acoustic waves. A sudden distur- ∂Iij (x, t)
= Fi (x, t) − . (2.188)
bance at the point of impact was responsible for exciting ∂xj
these waves. Faulting and earthquakes is another exam-
ple of sudden deformation that generates seismic waves. We have explicitly introduced the variables relative
Actually, waves are generated in almost any instance to particle positions in space and time in these equations
when a portion of a given medium is deformed suddenly to emphasize the fact that sources Fi = Fi (x, t) and
or moves suddenly. Iij = Iij (x, t) can be distributed over a volume (i.e.,
Examples of man-made sources of seismic waves volume source) or be located at a specific point (point
used to probe the subsurface are shown in Figure 2.24. source). In petroleum seismology, most sources can be
Seismic sources can be described as forces — body treated as point sources.
force and surface forces: Based on equations (2.187) and (2.188), we can
now conclude that a seismic source can be represented
1) Body forces are related to mass or volume. by a set, {Fk , Iij }. This set has three characteristics:
2) Surface forces or contact forces (also known as trac- (1) it determines the mechanism of the source via the
tion forces) act at the surface of the earth or at the nonzero elements of this set, (2) it defines the pulse,
sea floor. They reflect the pulling and pushing of which describes the magnitude, duration, and overall
atoms on one side of a surface against atoms on the time dependency of the source, and (3) it specifies spa-
other side. Surface forces are reckoned per unit area tial distributions of the source. To fix our idea, let us
across the surface on which they act. Stress forces, consider the weight drop in Figure 2.24b. Historically
which are associated with volumetric and angular weight dropping was the first means of creating seismic
deformation, can be characterized as a set of surface waves. The procedure can be represented as a vertical
forces. force at point xs , as follows:
Iij = 0 for i, j = 1, 2, 3,
Our next task is to include these sources in the equa-
F1 = F2 = 0 (2.189)
tion of wave motion and in Hooke’s law, which were
introduced earlier. F3 (x, t) = φ(t)δ(x − xs )
50 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Solenoid
Air supply
Water slug
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Upper
chamber
Shuttle
Lower
chamber
Gun port
Armed Fired
(d)
High Solenoid
pressure valve
air
Tr iggering
station
Port
Armed Fired
(e)
FIGURE 2.24. Examples of seismic sources. (a) An explosive source: a charge of dynamite is fired in a shot hole. Waves radi-
ate with equal strength in all directions, in spite of the presence of the hole (adapted from White, 1965). (b) An example
of falling-weight sources: the impact of a falling weight applies a force normal to the surface (adapted from White, 1965).
(c) An example of a horizontal-force source: similar to falling-weight sources, forces parallel to the surface of the ground
can be exercised by a moving mass (adapted from White, 1965). (d) A typical mechanical device of a water gun source, used
in seismic exploration at sea: it consists of two chambers; the upper firing chamber contains compressed air, and the lower
chamber is filled with water. When the gun is fired, the compressed air forces the shuttle downward, expelling water from
the lower chamber (adapted from Telford et al., 1990). (e) A typical mechanical device of an air gun source, used in seismic
exploration at sea: it consists of an air compressor, storage tanks of compressed air, and an electrical firing circuit. When the
firing command is received, the air gun releases a specified volume of high-pressure air into the water. (Adapted from Bolt
Associates, Inc., 1979.)
where φ(t) is the pulse of the weight-drop source. The Examples of Seismic-wave Radiation
term φ(t) is also sometimes called the “source sig-
nature” or “wavelet.” Figure 2.25 shows examples of Most seismic waves are generated and recorded in
pulses. A pulse contains information about the magni- either a fluid or a solid. Our objective in this section
tude and time dependency of the source. is to discuss examples of seismic-wave radiation in an
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 51
as
0.0 τij = −pδij , (2.192)
Going a step further by combining the two equations in We repeated the experiment shown in Figures 2.1
expression (2.195), we arrive at and 2.2 on an unbounded homogeneous solid, with
exactly the same source. Properties of this solid are
! " VP = 2000 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3 .
∂ 2p ∂ 1 ∂p ∂ 2 iv
− = Snapshots of wave propagation through this medium
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K K . (2.196)
∂t 2 ∂xj ρ ∂xj ∂t 2 are shown in Figure 2.26 for display of volumetric
deformation. This figure confirms that pressure sources
For a point source at xs , equation (2.196) reduces to generate only P-waves, irrespective of the properties
of the isotropic medium. Notice that the amplitude
! " radiation patterns are exactly the same as those of fluids,
∂ 2p ∂ 1 ∂p
−K = −Kρ −1 δ(x − xs )φ(t). i.e., invariant with direction.
∂t 2 ∂xj ρ ∂xj Comparison of traveltimes of (a) the snapshots of
(2.197) pressure (Figure 2.26) and (b) the snapshots of particle
1500 m
propagation. The physical quantity displayed here is
the pressure, p. Notice that the amplitude of this defor-
mation is distributed uniformly in all directions with
respect to the source point. The reason for this uniform
distribution of amplitude with direction is that the sys-
tem of sources in equation (2.190), used in this example,
is invariant with direction and that the medium under 280 ms
consideration is homogeneous and unbounded.
In the section of this chapter titled “An Example
1500 m
of Wave Propagation,” we discussed snapshots of wave
propagation in seismic experiments cannot be seen or
analyzed directly. Sensors are put at certain locations
to record the evolution of pressure. These recordings
constitute seismic data. Figure 2.2b shows seismic
data for measurements of pressure using a horizontal
distribution of sensors. 360 ms
Although only volumetric deformation occurs in
nonviscous fluids, we can measure the displacement
1500 m
∂vk 1 ∂p
=− . (2.198)
∂t ρ ∂xk
1500 m
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280 ms 280 ms
1500 m
confirming that a horizontal force produces
both volumetric and angular deformations
(Figure 2.28). The amplitude radiation pat-
terns of particle velocity are totally different
from those of the explosive source, shown in
Figures 2.26 and 2.27.
Notice that although the source in this
360 ms 360 ms
case generates P- and S-waves, we can still
measure P- and S-waves separately by calcu-
lating div(u) and curl(u) (see Figure 2.29).
1500 m
Vx Vz
GEOMETRIC SPREADING
velocity (Figure 2.27) shows that the traveltimes are Figures 2.26, 2.27, 2.28, and 2.29 show wave
equal. However, the amplitude radiation patterns of the energy spreading outward from a disturbance, as a
components of particle velocity are different from those spherical wavefront. For each distance the wave travels,
of pressure data, as one might expect. the energy must be distributed over a much larger area.
Let us now consider a horizontal source in an Since the total energy on the ever-increasing sphere of
unbounded homogeneous solid (with VP = 2000 m/s, the wavefront is constant, energy density (energy per
VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3 ). The source can unit area) must decrease as the square of the distance
be represented as follows: from the source.
Consider the amount of energy distributed over a
small area of the spherical wavefront at one instant, and
Iij = 0 for i, j = 1, 2, 3, project that area onto the wavefront at a later instant.
F2 = F3 = 0 (2.199) Because the surface area of a sphere is 4πr 2 , where
r is the radius, the ratio of the areas must be equal to
F1 (x, t) = φ(t)δ(x − xs )
the ratios of the squares of the radii of the spherical
wavefronts. Thus energy distributed over the new area
and we can record the horizontal and vertical com- of the wavefront must decrease as 1/r 2 . Because wave
ponents of particle velocity (Figure 2.28). We can amplitude is proportional to the square root of wave
see that P- and S-waves are generated in this case, energy, the amplitude decreases as 1/r. The spherical
54 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
ρ(x)∂t vi (x, t) =
ijkl ∂j τkl (x, t) + Fi (x, t).
(2.202)
pqmr ∂m vr (x, t) − spqij (x)∂t τij (x, t)
= hpq (x, t), (2.207)
Generalized Hooke’s law: So far we have writ-
ten the Hooke’s law equation as a function of
where hpq represents strain-source rate distribution,
stiffnesses; i.e.,
τij (x, t) = cijkl (x)ekl (x, t) − Iij (x, t). (2.203) hpq (x, t) = ∂t hpq (x, t). (2.208)
where σ = 1/ρ is the specific volume (i.e., the Equation (2.215) can also be written as a function
reciprocal of the density) and κ = 1/K is the of gradient and divergence, as follows:
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Equations of wave motion: If we substitute equa- Upon ignoring the influence of the second term in
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1500 m
(a) the horizontal component of the particle veloc-
ity and (b) the vertical component of the particle
velocity.
1500 m
implying that the form of the pulse does not
change, but the amplitude varies as 1/r.
Notice that the plane-wave solution to
the wave equation in elastic media leads
to equations of the form f (t − x/V ), as
we have shown in Box 2.8. Therefore,
once the plane wave is generated, it con- 360 ms 360 ms
tinues to propagate without change in the
waveform or amplitude. The existence of
plane waves requires that the wavefronts 1500 m
have no curvature. This requirement is
certainly unrealistic, except as an approxi-
mation in very specific situations, such as
the one we will consider in the derivation
of Zoeppritz’s equations in Chapter 3.
(a) Vx (b) Vz
ISOTROPY, ANISOTROPY,
HOMOGENEITY, AND
HETEROGENEITY the two properties. Foremost, anisotropy describes vari-
ations of the physical properties with direction at a
Anisotropy is sometimes confused with hetero- given point (note that a point represents a particle),
geneity. There are two important distinctions between whereas heterogeneity describes variations of physical
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 57
1500 m
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280 ms 280 ms
(c) (d)
58 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Time (sec)
mograms corresponding to this 0.5
250
1D medium. (c) A homogeneous
Vp = 1510 m/s
medium. (d) Seismograms cor-
375
responding to this homogeneous
medium. Vp = 1500 m/s 1.0
500
Vp = 1490 m/s
Receivers 1.5
(a) (b)
Offset (km)
0.0 0.0
Source
125
0.5
Time (sec)
250
Vp = 1500 m/s
375
1.0
500
Receivers 1.5
(c) (d)
properties between two or more points. So, anisotropy help to clarify this point. First, Figure 2.31 shows a
describes the physical properties of a specific point one-dimensional medium that characterizes the P-wave
of the medium, whereas heterogeneity can be used velocity in the Atlantic Ocean in the summer. The
to describe point-to-point variations in geometries or density is assumed to be constant. Seismograms corre-
physical properties. sponding to this model are displayed in the upper panel
Generally, anisotropy and heterogeneity coexist. of Figure 2.31. A similar computation for a homoge-
Four general circumstances are possible: isotropic and neous medium (lower panel, Figure 2.31) shows that
homogeneous, isotropic and heterogeneous, anisotropic the two models of the ocean, based on seismic data, can
and heterogenous, and anisotropic and homogeneous hardly be distinguished. Therefore, the water column
(Figure 2.30). The third state, anisotropic and heteroge- in the Atlantic Ocean can be treated as being homoge-
neous, is found fairly commonly in studies of petroleum neous for seismic data. In other words, the notion of
seismology. An example would be a bed of rock with homogeneity is a relative concept: It is relative to the
acoustic velocity that varies in direction at any given scale of variations of physical properties. This exam-
point (anisotropy). If different anisotropy was observed ple shows that these variations are so small, that for
at different points, the bed would be both anisotropic seismic exploration the medium can be treated as being
and heterogeneous. homogeneous.
In this chapter we have focused primarily on Let us consider the second example, depicted in
homogeneous media. Although such substances are Figure 2.32. The model6 consists of randomly dis-
interesting theoretically, no homogeneous rock for-
mations are in the subsurface. However, there are
6 A detailed description of the heterogeneous model in Figure 2.32
situations in which a medium or a rock formation
is given in Chapter 12. This description includes the distribution of small-
can be treated as a homogeneous medium — with scale heterogeneities and the specific values of P-wave velocities, S-wave
beneficial effects. Consider three examples that can velocities and density.
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 59
2701 - 2816
2473 - 2587
2359 - 2473
2587 - 2701
2816 - 2930
2244 - 2359
MAX
MIN
tributed small-scale heterogeneities. The data corre- Let us conclude with the third example, shown in
sponding to this model were recorded by 91 receivers Figure 2.33. Here we are comparing a homogeneous
uniformly distributed along a quarter of a circle cen- medium and a relatively simple heterogeneous medium.
tered at the source point, as shown in Figure 2.32a. We The heterogeneous medium consists of a homogeneous
recorded the data for the same distribution of receivers medium with two small heterogeneities near the surface
as was used for the particular case in which the medium (z = 0 is the surface). Yet, as illustrated in Figure 2.33b,
was homogeneous. If we are interested only in using the presence of two small inhomogeneities significantly
the first arrival, we can treat the heterogeneous medium complicates the form of the seismograms. Therefore,
as being homogeneous. However, if we consider the despite the smallness of these heterogeneities and their
whole dataset, the homogeneous assumption of homo- localization in a small portion of the medium, this
geneity is not valid, due to “noise behind the signal,” medium is very heterogeneous as far as seismic data
which is generally known as a “coda.” (See Aki and are concerned.
Chouet, 1975; Ikelle et al., 1993; and Ikelle et al., So the notion of homogeneity in petroleum seismic
1994.) This example reiterates the fact that the defi- data is defined with respect to information in the seismic
nition of homogeneous media varies with the context data being studied. If differences due to heterogeneities
of the problem. of the model are insignificant in regard to information in
60 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Depth (km)
Time (sec)
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Time (sec)
0.5
Depth (km)
0.5
Source
Vs = 1000 m/s
1.0
= 1.0 g/cm3 1.5
(c) (d)
seismic data being studied, the medium can be treated (a) Calculate the strain tensor corresponding to the
as being homogeneous. displacement in equation (2.228).
(b) Is this compressional strain, shear strain, or
both?
2) The coordinates used in Exercise 1 are transformed
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING into new coordinates — described as x , y , and z —
by clockwise rotation of the coordinate axes through
1) Here is an example of particle displacement of a an angle θ about the z-axis, in which
uniform plane wave:
x = x cos θ − y sin θ
cos(ωt − ky) y = y sin θ + y cos θ
u= 0 , (2.228)
z = z
0
and the displacement in equation (2.228) becomes
with
cos θ cos[ωt − k(x sin θ + y cos θ )]
2π u = sin θ cos[ωt − k(x sin θ + y cos θ )] .
k= ,
l 0
(2.229)
where l is the wavelength. The propagation velocity
is called the phase velocity, V , where (a) Calculate the strain tensor corresponding to the
displacement in equation (2.229).
ω (b) Point out any differences between this strain
V= .
k tensor and the one obtained in Exercise 1.
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 61
(a) Is the material isotropic or anisotropic? Why? where δij is the Kronecker delta function notation,
(b) Calculate the corresponding compliance tensor
in terms of C11 , C12 , and C14 .
&
0 for i
= j
6) Calculate VP , VS , and density ρ of water-saturated δij = i, j = 1, 2, 3, (2.231)
Berea sandstone and of water-saturated Teapot sand- 1 for i = j
stone:
Parameter Berea Ss VP VS ρ
and where C11 , C33 , C44 , C66 , and C13 are elastic
Porosity of frame (%) 19
moduli. These elastic moduli are constants.
Permeability of frame (md) 200
P-wave velocity of frame (m/s) 3670
(a) Write the 6-by-6 matrix of the elastic moduli
S-wave velocity of frame (m/s) 2170
associated with the stiffness tensor in (2.230).
Density of fluid (kg/m3 ) 1000
(b) We are now going to use a pressure source to
Viscosity of fluid (cp) 1
generate waves in this Pierre Shale. What type
P-wave velocity of fluid (m/s) 1500
of waves are we going to generate (P-waves
Density of solid (kg/m3 ) 2650 only, S-waves only, or both)? Please justify
Bulk modulus of solid (Gpa) 37.9 your answer quantitatively.
62 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
INTRODUCTION Ray
Ray
separates the sea and the earth; and the solid-solid inter- (a) (b)
face. In this chapter, we consider what happens when
waves encounter such obstructions. First we will con- FIGURE 3.1. Expanding wavefronts. Huygens’ principle
sider a simple model of the subsurface that includes states that each point on a wavefront serves as a secondary
source. The tangent surface of waves expanding from sec-
only one interface separating two infinitely homoge-
ondary sources gives the position of the wavefront at a later
neous, isotropic, elastic media. The interface between
time. Rays perpendicular to wavefronts can be straight (a)
the two can be horizontal, laterally varied in position, or bent (b). (a) Wavefronts in a homogeneous medium.
or even discontinuous. Although the assumption of a (b) Wavefronts in a heterogeneous medium.
model with two media is simplistic, it provides the basis
for tackling models that are more complicated.
We begin our discussion by introducing three prin- for a medium with slowly varying velocity. Notice that
ciples that are important and useful in deriving the the rays are straight lines where a medium is homoge-
arrival times and energies of waves that have encoun- neous, and they take arbitrary form where a medium is
tered obstructions: Huygens’ principle, Fermat’s princi- heterogeneous.
ple, and Snell’s law. These principles and laws provide Before we introduce Huygens’ principle, let us sin-
a geometric explanation of wave propagation — as they gle out one of the most important aspects of rays, an
did in classical optics, where they were used first. aspect used throughout this book: rays provide a con-
venient way of schematizing events in seismic data,
because they allow us to track a wavefront. From here
HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE on, this property will be used extensively.
Huygens’ principle states that all points on a wave-
For effective introduction of Huygens’ principle, front can be considered as point sources for generation
clarification of the notion of wavefronts and rays is nec- of secondary wavelets. After a time t0 , the new position
essary. A wavefront represents a set of particles (i.e., of the wavefront is the surface envelope tangent to these
points) that undergo similar motions at a given instant. wavelets. If we apply this principle to the wavefront at
A snapshot of wave propagation at a specific time rep- time t0 , as shown in Figure 3.1a, we can construct the
resents a wavefront. Rays are defined as lines normal to wavefront at time t0 + t. For the sake of simplicity,
the wavefront (i.e., they point in the direction of prop- we display only the wavefront of P-waves in this exam-
agation). Definitions of these two terms are illustrated ple, as similar illustrations for S-waves can be repeated
in Figure 3.1, for a homogeneous acoustic medium and by simply replacing the image of P-waves with that of
63
64 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
S-waves. In Figure 3.1a, we assume a constant P-wave reaches the interface between the half-spaces, part
velocity throughout the medium. The procedure for pre- of its energy returns to the half-space from which it
dicting the wavefront at time t0 +t can be summarized came; this process is called “reflection.” The remaining
as follows: energy enters the second medium; this process is called
“transmission.”
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FERMAT’S PRINCIPLE
For an inhomogeneous medium (such as the one we
will discuss in this chapter), the shape and/or direction
of wavefronts can change with time. Therefore, since
rays are normal to wavefronts, their paths will change
with time.
Fermat’s principle — also known as the principle
1.5 km
In this section, we will examine the raypath where FIGURE 3.2. Several possible paths connect point A to
the wavefront encounters a horizontal boundary. point B. By definition, the raypath is the path normal to
the wavefronts. In this case the straight line between A and
B is optimal raypath. The Fermat principle also allows us
Reflection and Transmission to select the raypath from among the different possibil-
ities. The principle states that in wave propagation, the
Consider a heterogeneous model consisting of two
wavepath between any two fixed points is that path along
infinitely homogeneous and isotropic media separated which traveltime is the least of all possible paths (t0 = 200
by a horizontal surface: This model is known as a “two- ms; t1 = 400 ms; t2 = 600 ms). The jet color scale dis-
half-space model,” in which each homogeneous medi- played here will be used to display snapshots throughout
um represents a half-space. Assume that an explosive this chapter. Reminder: The source signature used in simu-
source, as shown in Figure 3.3, generates a P-wave lation of snapshots presented throughout this book is given
that propagates in the top half-space. When the wave in Figure 2.25c.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 65
2.5 km
a2 + x 2 (d − x)2 + b2
t= 2
+ 2
. (3.6)
VP1 VP2
t
Again we differentiate:
dt x d−x
= √ − = 0. (3.7)
dx V1 a + x
2 2 V2 (d − x)2 + b2
Using the identities
FIGURE 3.4. Some wavefronts of wave propagation through
two homogeneous acoustic half-spaces, as described in x d−x
sin θi = √ and sin θt = ,
Figure 3.3. a +x
2 2 (d − x)2 + b2
(3.8)
A d’ B
we see that
Incident P-wave Reflected P-wave sin θi sin θt sin θi VP1
θi θr
− = 0, and therefore = .
VP1 VP2 sin θt VP2
a θi
(3.9)
VP1 , ρ
1
The resulting relationship,
VP2 , ρ
2
x sin θi VP1 sin θi sin θt
θt
b = or = , (3.10)
Transmitted P-wave sin θt VP2 VP1 VP2
θi
C
d
is commonly referred to as Snell’s law1 . If VP2 is less
than VP1 , the ray of transmitted waves bends toward
FIGURE 3.5. P-wave raypaths of seismic energy in the the normal (i.e., θt ≤ θi ), whereas if VP1 is greater
model composed of two homogeneous acoustic half-spaces. than VP2 (i.e., θt ≥ θi ) it bends away from the normal,
as shown in Figure 3.6. When θt → 90◦ , the wave is
refracted along the interface rather than transmitted into
Using the relationships the second half-space. Waves are no longer transmitted
to the bottom medium from this point, as illustrated
x d − x in Figures 3.3 and 3.4. Snell’s law predicts the critical
sin θi = √ and sin θr = , angle from which such refractions occur:
a2 + x 2 (d − x)2 + a2
(3.4) sin θicp sin 90◦ 1
we see that = = (3.11)
VP1 VP2 V2
sin θi sin θr or
− = 0, and therefore θi = θr . VP1
VP1 VP1
(3.5) θicp = sin−1 . (3.12)
VP2
Thus the path for which the time of travel is shortest is
the one for which the angle of incidence is equal to the 1 Snell’s law was initially obtained empirically. Now it can be proved
angle of reflection. as a consequence of Huygen’s principle or Fermat’s principle.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 67
A B 2.5 km
VP1, ρ
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1 i
VP2, ρ r
2
θt
Transmitted P-wave
Head wave
θi C
✹S
2.5 km
θic
Vp2 > Vp1
t
A B
θi θr
θi
VP1, ρ
1
VP2, ρ
275 ms
2
θt
FIGURE 3.8. Illustration of the head wave (refracted wave).
Transmitted P-wave Notice that the head wave propagates in the incident half-
space with the velocity of the bottom half-space. Properties
Vp2 < Vp1
C
of the top half-space are VP = 1850 m/s and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 ,
and those of the bottom half-space are VP = 4500 m/s and
sin θi VP1
FIGURE 3.6. Snell’s law: = . ρ = 3.0 g/cm3 . Waves were generated by an explosive.
sin θt VP2 The physical quantity displayed here is pressure. (Sym-
bols: i indicates the wave, r indicates the reflected wave,
t indicates the transmitted wave, and s indicates the source
position.)
He
A ad
wa
ve
(ref
rac
Incident P-wave ted
θic θic
wa
ve
)
Note that if θi ≥ θicp , no seismic energy can
θic
penetrate into the bottom half-space; consequently, the
energy is reflected into the top half-space. If VP2 ≤ VP1 ,
there is no critical angle.
2.0 km
m/s, VS = 1600 m/s, and ρ = 2.65
g/cm3 . (b) Properties of the top half-
space are VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0
m/s, and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 ; those of the
bottom half-space are VP = 2000 m/s,
350 ms
VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 . 200 ms
Waves were generated by an explosive.
The physical quantity displayed here
is the stress component τzz . (Symbols:
iP indicates the incident P-wave, rP indi-
cates the reflected P-wave, rS indicates
2.0 km
300 ms 500 ms
2.0 km
400 ms 650 ms
(P- and S-waves) and two transmitted waves (P- and S- refractions occur:
waves), as illustrated in Figure 3.9. Raypaths of these
waves are described in Figure 3.10. By use of Fer- −1 VP1
θicp = sin . (3.15)
mat’s principle, one can verify that Snell’s law also VP2
holds for reflection and transmission of S-waves from
the incident P-wave. The new relationships are In the elastic case, a second critical angle can occur
when φt → 90◦ . Snell’s law, as expressed in equa-
sin θi VP1 tion (3.13), predicts another critical angle from which
= , (3.13) such S-wave refractions occur:
sin φt VS2
−1 VP1
and θics = sin . (3.16)
VS2
sin θi VP1
= . (3.14) Note that if θi ≥ θics , no S-wave energy can penetrate,
sin φr VS1
and consequently the incident energy is reflected back
The angles of the reflected S-wave, φr , and the trans- into the top half-space. Also note that θicp is always
mitted S-wave, φt , are defined in Figure 3.10. We have smaller than θics because VP2 > VS2 . Furthermore, if
seen in the previous section that when θt → 90◦ , Snell’s VS2 ≤ VP1 , the second critical angle, θics , does not
law predicts the critical angle from which P-wave occur.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 69
(a) A B i.e.,
Reflected S-wave −1 VS1
φicp = sin (3.20)
Incident P-wave φr Reflected P-wave VP2
θi θr and
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θi −1 VS1
φics = sin , (3.21)
VP1, VS1, ρ1 VS2
a third critical angle will occur when θr → 90◦ ; i.e.,
VP2, VS2, ρ2
−1 VS1
θt φicr = sin (3.22)
Transmitted P-wave
VP1
φt
Transmitted S-wave C because VP1 is always greater than VS1 . The number of
critical angles as functions of incident wave types and
of velocities is summarized in Table 3.1.
Thus, the generalized form of Snell’s law is
sin θi sin θr sin θt sin φi
= = =
(b)
A B VP1 VP1 VP2 VS1
Reflected S-wave
sin φr sin φt
Incident S-wave
φr
= = = p, (3.23)
Reflected P-wave VS1 VS2
φi θr
where p is the seismic-ray parameter or the horizontal
φi
component of slowness. The vertical component of the
VP1, VS1, ρ1 slowness of the P-wave, for instance, is
VP2, VS2, ρ2 cos θi
ηP = . (3.24)
θt VP1
Transmitted P-wave
φt We will explore these parameters at great length in the
Transmitted S-wave C following section.
As in the case of acoustic half-spaces, described
earlier, refracted waves (also known as head waves)
FIGURE 3.10. Snell’s law between the elastic homogeneous occur after the critical angle. The case of elastic half-
half-spaces for (a) an incident P-wave and (b) an incident spaces, which we have just described, includes several
SV-wave. possibilities for critical angles; therefore, several head
waves are possible at the interface of two half-spaces.
Figure 3.11 shows the raypaths of four possible head
Similarly, an incident S-wave gives rise to reflected
waves for the case of an incident P-wave. These head
and transmitted P-waves, as well as to reflected and
waves also are illustrated in the snapshot plots in
transmitted S-waves with the following relationships:
sin φi VS1
= , (3.17) TABLE 3.1. Critical angles at a boundary between two
sin φt VS2
solids.
sin φi VS1 Shear-wave incidence
= , (3.18)
sin θt VP2 VS1 > VP2 > VS2 1 critical angle
VP2 > VS1 > VS2 2 critical angles
and VP2 > VS2 > VS1 3 critical angles
sin φi VS1
= . (3.19) Compressional-wave incidence
sin θr VP1 VP1 > VP2 > VS2 No critical angle
In addition to the following two critical angles corre- VP2 > VP1 > VS2 1 critical angle
VP2 > VS2 > VP1 2 critical angles
sponding to the cases in which θt → 90◦ and φt → 90◦ ;
70 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(d)
S R
(a) P1 S2 P1 (hS2P1)
S R P1 P2 P1 (hP2P1) S1 S2 S1 (h ′S2S1)
S1 P2 S1 (h ′P2S1)
SI
PI θics θics P1
θicp θicp S1
φics φics
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SI SI
VP1, VS1, ρ1
φicp P1
PI φicp
VP1, VS1, ρ1 VP2, VS2, ρ2
S2
P2 VP2, VS2, ρ2
(e) S R
(b) S1 P1 S1 (h ′P1S1)
S R φics φics
P1 P2 S1 (hP2P1) SI
θicp φicp S1 P2 S1 (h ′P2P1) S1
SI
PI P1 S1
φicp θicp
P1
VP1, VS1, ρ1
P2
VP2, VS2, ρ2
(f) S
P1 P2 S2 (hP2S2)
(c)
θicp
S R PI
P1 S2 S1 (hS2S1)
φics S1 S2 P1 (h ′P2P1)
θics
PI S1
P1 P2
SI φics
θics S2
VP1, VS1, ρ1
θtc
S2
VP2, VS2, ρ2
FIGURE 3.11. The possible refraction (head-wave) paths from the source to the receiver for incident P- and S-waves. The
top half-space has velocities VP1 and VS1 ; the bottom half-space has velocities VP2 and VS2 . Notice that if VP1 > VS2 , the
modes P1 S2 S1 and P1 S2 P1 are not possible.
Figure 3.12. There are five possible head waves with reflection at the air-water interface is almost total; very
an incident P-wave. Actually, five head waves is the little energy is transmitted into the atmosphere because
maximal number for an incident P-wave (see Cagniard, the velocity and density of air are so low in comparison
1962, for the mathematical proof of this number); four with the velocity and density of water. Although a “free”
are in the upper medium, one in the lower medium. surface means contact with a vacuum, the evidence from
This maximum of five head waves is possible only if Figure 3.13a shows clearly that the sea surface can be
VP2 > VS2 > VP1 > VS1 . approximated as a free surface.
We repeat the experiment shown in Figure 3.13b
for another three-layer model consisting of an air-
Snell’s Law: Air-water and solid-solid composition, in which the air-solid interface
Air-solid Interfaces represents the earth’s surface. Figure 3.13b shows snap-
shots of wave propagation through this model, with a
What is a free surface? Let us start by exam- source in the first solid layer. Contrary to the solid-solid
ining wave propagation through a three-layer model interface, the reflection at the air-solid interface is
consisting of air, water and solid. In this model, the air- almost total; very little energy is transmitted into the
water interface represents the sea surface. Figure 3.13a atmosphere because the velocity and density of air are
shows snapshots of wave propagation through this so low in comparison to velocity and density of the solid.
model, with a source in the water. Contrary to the snap- Therefore we can approximate the earth’s surface as a
shots corresponding to the water-solid interface, the free surface.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 71
VP1,VS1
R S (S1)
HP2,P1
HS2,S1 HP2,S1
θ21c φ21c θ
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φ12c HS2,P1
θ12c 11c HP1,S1
θ22c SOURCE
HP2,S2
VP2,VS2
2.5 km
TS (S2)
TP (P2) VP2>VS2>VP1>VS1
2.0 km
top half-space are VP = 360 m/s,
VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 0.012 g/cm3.
Those of the bottom half-space are Solid Solid
VP = 2500 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s,
and ρ = 2.25 g/cm3. (b) Snap-
shots of wave propagation in a 250 ms 250 ms
model made of two homoge-
nous half-spaces sandwiched by Air
a homogeneous acoustic layer, Air
which is fluid, with properties
VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 900 m/s,
and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3. Properties of the Water Solid
2.0 km
Air
Water Air
Solid
2.0 km
Solid
Solid
450 ms 300 ms
(a) (b)
TRAVELTIME EQUATIONS FOR medium, where they propagate from the source posi-
A HORIZONTAL INTERFACE tion to the receiver positions without encountering any
obstructions, a circumstance described in Figure 3.4.
Our objective in this section is to derive the travel- Such events in seismic data are called “direct arrivals.”
times of reflected and refracted waves, as functions of The traveltime between the source and receiver is
receiver positions. x
t= (3.29)
VP1
for P-waves, and
x
Direct Waves t= (3.30)
VS1
Before beginning these derivations, let us again for S-waves, where x indicates the distance between
examine waves spreading throughout a homogeneous source and receiver.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 73
x
Refracted Waves (a)
A D
Consider the general case shown in Figure 3.14a.
Let V1 represent the velocity of either an incident P- Incident P-wave
wave or S-wave (that is, V1 = VP1 for an incident P- θ12c θ´12c
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θ12c
wave; V1 = VS1 for an incident S-wave), and let V2 V´
1
h
V1
represent the velocity either of a refracted P-wave or a VP1, VS1, ρ1
refracted S-wave in the high-velocity half-space. (Note VP2, VS2, ρ2 B C
V2
that V2 also can represent the velocity of the refracted P-
wave in the top half-space, if V1 represents the S-wave
velocity in the top half-space). Let θ12c be the critical (b) x
angle for the incident wave in the top half-space; that
A C
is,
V1
sin θ12c = ; for V2 > V1 . (3.31)
V2 θi θr
θi
Let V1 be the velocity of the upward-traveling wave that h
V1
sin θ12c = ; for V2 > V1 . (3.32)
V2 x
(c)
The traveltime associated with the refracted wave xP xS
in Figure 3.14a is given by A C
h h
t121 = +
V1 cos θ12c V1 cos θ12c
θi θi φr h
x − h tan θ12c − h tan θ12c VP1, VS1, ρ1
+ (3.33)
V2 VP2 , VS2 , ρ2 B
or
FIGURE 3.14. (a) Illustration of symbols used in the deri-
2
h V2 V2 2 x vation of traveltime for a critically refracted ray. (b) Illus-
t121 = −1+ −1+ . tration of symbols used in the derivation of traveltime for
V2 V1 V1 h
P-P reflection. (c) Illustration of symbols used in derivation
(3.34) of traveltime for the P-S reflection. Point A indicates the
source point; point C indicates the receiver point.
Note that equation (3.34) contains all possible refracted
waves. For example, the refracted wave S1 P2 S1 in
Figure 3.11 can be obtained by letting V1 = V1 = VS1 ,
and V2 = VP2 . The case of the maximal number of poss- or
ibilities of refracted waves occurs under the following
2
2 1/2
condition: 2h VP2 − VP1 x
t= + . (3.37)
VP2 > VS2 > VP1 > VS1 . (3.35) VP1 VP2 VP2
Then we have six possible events of refracted waves,
such as S1 P2 S1 , P1 P2 P1 , etc., as described in Figure In this final form, the traveltime equation is quite sim-
3.12b. ple; the equation of refracted arrivals is a straight line
Consider the particular case of P-to-P-to-P refrac- with a slope of 1/VP2 . Since VP2 > VP1 , the slope of
tions (i.e., V1 = V1 = VP1 , and V2 = VP2 ). For this 1/VP2 must be less than the slope of 1/VP1 .
case, equation (3.34) becomes Figure 3.15 shows an example in which direct-wave
arrivals are superimposed on refracted-wave arrivals,
2h cos θic x confirming that refracted-wave arrivals follow a straight
t= + (3.36)
VP1 VP2 line just like direct-wave arrivals.
74 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
1 − (VP1 /VP2 ) 2
121 0.4
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P-P refl.
0.6 or
0.6 0.6 2h
xcrit =
. (3.41)
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
P1P2 P1 0.8
P1P2 S1
1
(VP2 /VP1 )2 − 1
P1S2P1
The critical time corresponding to the critical distance
1.2 1.2
1.2
1.6
P-S refl.
1.8 1.8
1.8
Direct wave Reflected waves (P-P and P-S) Reflected P-P and S-S Waves
Refracted wave (P1 P2 P,
1 P1 P2 S1)
Refracted wave (P1S2 P, PS S)
1 1 2 1
Before proceeding, we will examine two matters Equation (3.42) can be arranged in the same form as
that Figure 3.15 has revealed. First, the straight direct- equation (3.43):
wave times and refracted-wave times intersect at a point. VP2 t 2 x2
At this point, the refracted wave overtakes the direct − = 1. (3.44)
4h2 4h2
wave. The horizontal coordinate of this point, xco , is
referred to as the “crossover distance.” Figure 3.15 shows an example in which we have
At xco , traveltimes of the direct wave and refracted superimposed direct and refracted arrivals to reflected
wave are equal; therefore arrivals. We can that see the traveltime curve of reflected
arrivals is effectively that of a hyperbola.
2
2 1/2
xco 2h VP2 − VP1 xco An important aspect of the traveltime equation in
= + . (3.38) (3.44) is normal moveout, which is used extensively in
VP1 VP2 VP1 VP2
seismic exploration for velocity estimation and imag-
After some rearrangement, we arrive at ing. Normal moveout (NMO) is defined as the differ-
1/2 ence in reflection traveltime from a horizontal reflecting
VP2 + VP1 surface, due to variations in the source-receiver posi-
xco = 2h . (3.39)
VP2 − VP1 tions. It is determined by subtracting the two-way
traveltime at the source (x = 0),
Observe that the crossover distance is always more than
twice the depth h of the interface. Obviously, xco will 2h
t0 = , (3.45)
be large when the depth is large or when the difference VP1
in velocities is small. from the traveltime at the receiver’s distance, x:
The second item is the first point at which refracted √
energy can be received. This distance is referred to as the x 2 + 4h2 x2
tx = or tx2 = 2 + t02 . (3.46)
“critical distance” and is denoted xcrit in Figure 3.15. VP1 VP1
Partition of Energy at an Interface 75
Thus NMO is equal to tx − t0 or, in terms of our Our goal is to estimate the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 , and
traveltime equation, so forth. Our derivations of these coefficients are along
√ the line of that of Tessmer and Behle (1988).
x 2 + 4h2 2h The exact traveltime of the P-S wave reflection is
tNMO = − . (3.47)
given by
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VP1 VP1
The Taylor expansion of equation (3.47) gives AB BC h h
t= + = + . (3.52)
VP1 VS1 VP1 cos θi VS1 cos φr
2
1 x Using Snell’s law, i.e.,
tNMO = t0 1+
2 VP1 t0 sin θi sin φr
4 p= = , (3.53)
1 x VP1 VS1
− + · · · − t0 . (3.48)
8 VP1 t0 expression (3.52) can be written as a function of the ray
parameter, p, as follows:
For small offset-to-depth ratios (i.e., x/(VP1 t0 ) 1), h h
this equation can be truncated to the approximate t=
+
. (3.54)
parabolic form: VP1 1 − p2 VP1
2 VS1 1 − p2 VS1
2
Using the Taylor expansions in (3.55) and (3.56), we Conversion Point Offset
arrive at
For the single-horizontal-interface problem, the
1 3 point where a P-P reflection occurs is the midpoint
x = h (VP1 + VS1 ) p + h VP1 + VS13
p3 between the source and the receiver. As illustrated in
2
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and
For larger values of x/h, Tessmer and Behle (1988) [VP1 /VS1 ]2 + 1
η = ηP = . (3.75)
express equation (3.70) explicitly as [VP1 /VS1 ]2 − 1
x2 1 4 They also provided a solution for this equation; it is
D + h −
4 2
D2 − h2 ηxD + x + 4x 2 h2 = 0,
2 16 shown in Figure 3.16, for several values of the VP1 /VS1
(3.73) ratio (γ = VP1 /VS1 in Figure 3.16).
Conversion point (km) Conversion point (km) FIGURE 3.16. Horizontal dis-
tance of the conversion point
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
of the P-S reflection, as a
0.0 function of h (h is defined in
Figure 3.14c). Asymptote lines
Midpoint Midpoint
were calculated from equation
(3.72).
Depth (km)
1.0 Asymptote Asymptote
for γ=1.75 for γ=1.75
X = 0.5 km X = 1.0 km
γ=1.75 γ=1.75
γ=2.00 γ=2.00
γ=2.25 γ=2.25
γ=2.50 γ=2.50
2.0
Conversion point (km) Conversion point (km)
4.00
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.00
3.00
0.0
Midpoint Midpoint X = 4.0 km
γ=1.75
γ=2.00
γ=2.25
Depth (km)
γ=2.50
Asymptote Asymptote
1.0 for γ=1.75 for γ=1.75
X = 2.0 km
γ=1.75
γ=2.00
γ=2.25
γ=2.50
2.0
78 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Note that for S-P reflection, equation (3.72) for and equation (3.75) for larger values of x/h becomes
small values of x/h becomes
[VS1 /VP1 ]2 + 1
η = ηS = = −ηP , (3.77)
x [VS1 /VP1 ]2 − 1
xS ≈ , (3.76)
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1 + (VP1 /VS1 ) whereas equations (3.73) and (3.74) stay the same.
hi vi
θi
Interface ith
θn-2
θi+1
hn-1 vn-1
θn-1
θn hn vn
θn
H H
z
(continued)
Partition of Energy at an Interface 79
n H
ds
lim hi = dz = H, and H is a constant. dz
n→∞ 0 θ (z)
i=1
(3.81) z
dx
Then upon letting hi = dz and Vi = V (z), the
FIGURE 3.18. A ray in a vertically heterogeneous elas-
parametric equations would become
tic medium. Notice that at a certain depth, the ray will
H
turn back toward the surface.
pV (z)
X=2 dz, (3.82)
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
Variation of Linear Velocity with Depth
H dz The assumption of linear variation of velocity
T =2 . (3.83)
0 V (z) 1 − p2 V 2 (z) with depth is encountered in many studies of
petroleum seismology, because it can be treated
analytically. In many instances it is a good approx-
imation of the variation of velocity over limited
Turning Rays
depths. We will derive the horizontal travel dis-
In the derivations shown above, we have tance, X, and the traveltime, T , for this particular
assumed that a reflecting layer is at depth z = H, velocity model.
and that it returns the ray to the surface. Actually, it Assume that we have the linear velocity
is possible for a ray to return to the surface without variation
hitting a reflecting interface. Figure 3.18 shows that
V (z) = V0 + az, with a ≥ 0. (3.86)
at a certain depth z0 , the ray starts traveling hori-
zontally; eventually it turns back toward the surface. Then, for a reflection at z = H,
The depth z0 corresponds to the point at which
H
2 ap2 (V0 + az)
X=
dz
dz 1 − p2 V 2 (z) ap 0
= 0 = (3.84) 1 − p (V0 + az)
2 2
dX z0 pV (z)
z=H
2 2
or =− 1 − p (V0 + az)
2
1 ap z=0
V (z0 ) = . (3.85)
p 2
= 1 − p2 V02
ap
The turning of rays is important in the illumination
of complex geological structures, such as the flanks
of salt domes. − 1 − p (V0 + aH)
2 2
(3.87)
(continued)
80 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
ap
2 H apdz 1 − p2 (V0
0 + az )2
T=
a
0 p (V0 + az) 1 − p2 (V0 + az)2 1
= 1 − p V0 − 1 − p (V0 + az) ,
2 2 2 2
pVH
ap
2 dy
= ; (3.89)
a pV0 y 1 − y2
(y = p (V0 + az) and VH = V0 + aH) from which we obtain
y=pVH
2
2 1 + 1 − y2 1 − p V0
2 2
V0 2 1
= − log X − + z+ = 2 2.
a y ap a a p
y=pV0
(3.90)
2 VH 1 + 1 − p2 V02
= log
. (3.88)
a V0 1 + 1 − p 2 V 2 Equation (3.90) shows that in a medium where vel-
H ocity increases linearly with depth, the downward-
traveling ray is an arc of a circle, as depicted in
The expression for the horizontal distance, X,
Figure 3.19. The center of this circle is at
traveled by a ray at any depth, z, is readily obtained
from the equation for X:
1 − p V0
2 2
z V0
dX xcD , zc = ,− (3.91)
X(z) =
dz ap a
0 dz
z=0 x
R = 1/ap
H
v(z) = v0 + az
z=H
v1> v0 + az = vH
x(H)
z
(continued)
Partition of Energy at an Interface 81
and the radius of the circle is R: Now the center of the circle is at
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1
R= . (3.92)
ap 1 − p 2V 2
0 V0
xcU , zc = 2X(H) − ,− ,
For the upward-reflected ray we also get an arc ap a
of a circle, since
z (3.94)
dX
X(z) = X(H) +
dz
H dz and the radius of the circle is the same, R = 1/(ap).
0 0
dX dX For this case, the turning depth, z0 , at which the
= X(H) +
dz −
dz rays start returning to the surface without hitting a
H dz z dz
z reflecting interface, is
1 ap2 V0 + az
= 2X(H) −
dz .
ap 0 1 − pV0
1 − p2 (V0 + az ) 2 pV (z0 ) = p (V0 + az) = 1 ⇐⇒ z0 = .
ap
(3.93) (3.95)
(continued)
82 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
where Tn (p) denotes traveltime for the wave reflec- We can determine the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 ,
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ted from the n-th interface. In Box 3.1 we show etc., by noting that
also that the source and receiver distance (offset),
as depicted in Figure 3.17, is given by Tn2 2 = c0 , (3.105)
X =0
H
pV (z) dTn2
X(p) = 2 dz. (3.99) = c1 , (3.106)
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z) dX 2 X 2 =0
From the above expressions [(3.98) and (3.99)], we d 2 Tn2
= c2 , etc. (3.107)
can see that d(X 2 )2 X 2 =0
Tn = Tn (p2 ); X = X(p); X 2 = X 2 (p2 ). (3.100) The simplest way to compute these coefficients
is to note that X 2 = 0 corresponds to p2 = 0 and
Therefore, we can conclude that the traveltime, Tn , that both X 2 and Tn2 are functions of p2 ; i.e.,
can be expressed as a function of X 2 ; i.e.,
2
H dz
Tn = Tn (X ).
2
(3.101) Tn2 =4 , (3.108)
0 V (z) 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
From (3.100) we can also conclude that Tn2 can
be expressed as a function of X 2 ; i.e., H V (z) dz
2
X = 4p
2 2
. (3.109)
Tn2 = Tn2 (X 2 ). (3.102) 0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
Then, we can deduce c0 easily by considering equa-
To derive the rms velocity associated with the
tion (3.108) for the particular case in which p = 0;
reflection from the n-th interface, we need to expand
i.e.,
Tn in equation (3.101) as a series of X 2 in the
following form: H 2
dz
c0 = 4 = Tn2 (0). (3.110)
V (z)
Tn = Tn (X ) =
2
c0 + c1 X 2
+ c2 X 4 + · · · 0
dp2 Vi
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z) 0 i=1 i=1 i=1
(3.120)
H V (z) dz where
+ 4p 2
hi
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z) ti =
. (3.121)
Vi
H V 3 (z) dz By use of these identities, the expression of rms
× ( )3/2 . (3.113) velocity in equation (3.117) can be reduced to
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
expression (3.96); i.e.,
These expressions are simplified further for the par- 'n 2
ticular case in which p2 = 0, the case that we are i=1 Vi ti
Vrms = '
2
n . (3.122)
interested in here; i.e., i=1 ti
H H
dTn2 dz If we keep just the first two terms of equa-
= 4 V (z) dz ,
dp2 p2 =0 0 V (z) 0
tion (3.104), we have
(3.114)
H 2 X2
dX 2 Tn2 (X) ≈ Tn2 (0) + 2
, (3.123)
=4 V (z) dz . (3.115) Vrms
dp2 p2 =0 0
an expression that looks the same as equation
By substituting equations (3.114) and (3.115) into (3.42), which we derived for the straight raypath.
equation (3.111), we arrive at Notice also that equation (3.123) describes a hyper-
bola, like that expressed in equation (3.42). How-
1
c1 = 2
, (3.116) ever, equation (3.123) is not the same as (3.42), in
Vrms at least two aspects, which are described below.
where the definition of Vrms is 1) Equation (3.123) is an approximation, which
H corresponds to truncation of the series in (3.104)
2 to its first two terms; equation (3.42) is the
Vrms =
2
dz V (z), (3.117)
Tn (0) 0 correct solution for a single interface prob-
lem with a constant velocity. Truncation of the
with H series in (3.104) to its first two terms renders
dz
Tn (0) = 2 . (3.118) the traveltime-offset relationship for 1D media
0 V (z) hyperbolic. Truncation errors [i.e., the contribu-
The velocity Vrms is known as the root-mean-square tion of terms of the series (3.104) higher than X 2 ]
velocity, or simply the rms velocity. characterize deviations of the traveltime-offset
Before we go further in our discussion of the relationship from hyperbolic behavior.
series in equation (3.104), let us establish the 2) From definition of traveltime at the zero offset,
equivalence between the expression of rms velocity Tn (0), in equation (3.118), note that
derived in equation (3.117) and the one shown in
H
equation (3.96). For a 1D medium with n layers — Tn (0) = . (3.124)
as depicted in Figure 3.17, in which each layer has Vrms
a constant velocity — we have the identities Therefore, the rms velocity may not allow us to
H
n
n predict Tn (0) if we do not know H and Vrms ,
dz hi but generally we know the correct traveltime at
= = ti , (3.119)
0 V (z)
i=1
Vi
i=1
X = 0 from seismic data.
(continued)
84 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
for 1D media is 2
n
c0 = 2 Ti = Tn2 (0) (3.127)
Tn2 = c0 + c1 X + c2 X + · · · ,
2 4
(3.125) i=1
Thus, to fully describe wave propagation at a deformable solid to applied and internal force fields.
fluid-solid interface, four components of the wavefield Also in Chapter 2, the reader was introduced to elasto-
must be computed or measured: the pressure field just dynamic fields — that is, fields in elastic solids — and
above and the three components of displacement (or salient features of the physical variables were outlined:
particle velocity, the time derivative of displacement) the displacement vector, the stress and strain tensors,
below. For most cases the fluid-solid boundary condi- and the body forces. The term linear elastic solid
tion is assumed to be representative of the seafloor. In refers to a material in which the force-displacement
ocean-bottom seismics, or 4C seismics, four wavefield relationship is linear. In linear elastic solids, P- and
components are thus required to describe wave propa- S-waves occur. In addition, surface waves can occur at
gation fully. In Chapter 9 we will show that when the sea boundaries (layer interfaces).
floor density and velocities are known, the four compo- In fluids, waves are of one type only — acoustic
nents can be decomposed just below the seafloor into or longitudinal or P-waves. Acoustic waves are asso-
upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves. ciated with local motions of particles of the fluid. The
field variables of interest are normally pressure, p, and
particle velocity, v — i.e., the time derivative of the
Vacuum-solid Interface displacement u. The great distinction between elastody-
namic fields in solids and acoustic fields in nonviscous
Finally, consider an interface at depth z, between fluids is that nonviscous fluids cannot sustain shear
a vacuum and an elastic medium. Such an interface is stresses. The state of stress in a fluid is thus described by
often referred to as a free surface. On the surface the
tractions are continuous, since an infinite acceleration τij = −pδij . (3.143)
would be required to maintain a traction discontinuity. In fluids, pressure p is positive in compression, whereas
Inasmuch as a vacuum cannot sustain any stress, we get the opposite convention is used for stresses.
the free-surface boundary condition
Boundary conditions at the interface be-
Tz (z) = 0. (3.142)
tween two fluids. Assume that two fluids with dif-
No restrictions are imposed on the displacement, u. ferent densities and velocities are in contact. Boundary
The free-surface condition (3.142) can be assumed conditions are
to be representative of the surface of the earth, because p(z− ) = p(z+ ), (3.144)
in most cases the elastic constants for air are sev- uz (z− ) = uz (z+ ), (3.145)
eral orders of magnitude less than elastic constants of
where the minus and plus superscripts refer to field val-
rock. Consider wave propagation in a three-layer model
ues just above and just below the interface at depth z.
that consists of air above two different elastic media.
The proposition is assumed that the horizontal com-
The air-solid interface represents the earth’s surface.
ponent of displacement may be discontinuous; i.e., in
Figure 3.13b shows snapshots of wave propagation in
the horizontal plane the fluids may slip relative to each
this model, with a source in the upper solid layer. Con-
other.
trary to the reflections at the solid-solid interface, we
see that the reflection at the air-solid interface is “total”;
no-energy is transmitted into the “atmosphere” because Interface between Vacuum and Fluid
the velocity and density of air are so low in comparison
to velocity and density of the solid. Therefore, we can No pressure can be exerted from the vacuum side of
approximate the earth’s surface as a free surface. an interface between a vacuum and a fluid. Continuity
In 3C (three-component) receiver seismics, the of pressure implies that the surface is pressure-free; i.e.,
three components of the particle velocity (time deriva-
p(z) = 0. (3.146)
tive of displacement) are enough to describe wave
propagation fully. Such an interface is called a free surface.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 87
ZOEPPRITZ’S EQUATIONS FOR FIGURE 3.20. Relation between spherical and plane waves.
A HORIZONTAL INTERFACE
In Figure 3.9 we illustrated by finite-difference
modeling how energy is partitioned at a solid-solid large (i.e., PR OR). We use this approximation here
or fluid-solid interface that separates two ideal media because plane waves simplify the mathematics of our
into reflected and transmitted energy. One important problem.
aspect of reflection and transmission is their dependence One problem associated with the plane-wave
with angle. The angle of incidence of the incoming approximation, however, is that it leads to neglect of the
wave field, together with the physical properties of the effects of geometric spreading associated with spherical
two media, determines the amount of energy that is waves (see Chapter 2 for more details). For this reason,
reflected and transmitted. Our objective in this section normal practice suggests the correction of seismic data
is to derive — as a function of the angle of inci- for effects of geometric spreading, before application
dence — equations that relate reflected and transmitted of Zoeppritz’s equations to the analysis of data.
energy to the physical properties of the two media. The Thus, when a plane wave is incident upon a plane
equations, known as the Zoeppritz equations, are very interface that separates two elastic media, we expect
important in petroleum seismology because they allow the generation of both reflected and transmitted plane
us to predict some physical properties of rock forma- waves. Discontinuity in the elastic parameters across
tions from reflected or transmitted energy measured by the interface results in compressive stresses as well
receivers. as shearing stresses, when the direction of the inci-
To simplify derivations, we will assume that waves dent plane wave is oblique to the interface. Both plane
arriving at the interface can be treated the same as P- and S-waves are therefore reflected and transmitted
plane waves. From the various snapshots shown in away from the interface. Partitioning of energy into P-
Chapter 2 and in previous sections of this chapter, and S-modes is dictated by boundary conditions at the
the fact is clear that wavefronts in an isotropic, elas- interface. As we showed in a previous section, in solid
tic, homogeneous medium are a series of concentric media displacement and stresses must be continuous
spherical surfaces. However, as these waves progress across interfaces. If the continuity conditions were not
outward from the center, the radius increases and even- fulfilled, the laws of kinematics and Newton’s third law
tually becomes very large; therefore, a portion of the would be violated directly.
wavefront, near any particular point, can be approx- Two classical methods for deriving plane-wave
imated by a plane. As illustrated in Figure 3.20, the reflection and transmission coefficients have been
error we introduce by replacing the spherical wavefront quoted frequently in seismology textbooks. Knott
with the plane wavefront is small if OQ and/or PR is (1899) first derived the reflection and transmission
88 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
+ ,
reflection and transmission process for a downward- ω
χT = VP2 TPP exp i (x sin θt + z cos θt ) ,
traveling incident-plane P-wave with amplitude AP ≡ VP2
1. Amplitudes of the displacement of the reflected (3.152)
and transmitted P-waves are then by definition called
“reflection and transmission coefficients,” denoted by
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∂χ ∂ψ
+ , uz = + , (3.156)
ω ∂z ∂x
χI = VP1 exp i (x sin θi + z cos θi ) , (3.149)
VP1
and
2
+ , 1 ∂ χ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
ω τxz = µ 2 + − 2 , (3.157)
χR = VP1 RPP exp i (x sin θr − z cos θr ) , 2 ∂x∂z ∂x 2 ∂z
VP1
(3.150)
∂ 2χ ∂ 2ψ
τzz = λ∇ χ + 2µ
2
+ . (3.158)
∂z2 ∂x∂z
+ ,
ω The boundary conditions require continuity of both
ψR = VS1 RPS exp i (x sin φr − z cos φr ) ,
VS1 components of displacement and both components of
(3.151) stress at the interface. In addition, Snell’s law must hold.
90 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
We have also given the solution for reflection and seismic experiments, reflections from such interfaces
transmission in terms of slownesses, which result in are hardly visible.
more-compact expressions. Readers are referred to Box
3.4 for the algebraic solution. Special case: VS and ρ constant. When S-
From Snell’s law (3.154), the conclusion follows wave velocity and density are both constant (VS = 0,
Downloaded 06/25/14 to 134.153.184.170. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
that if VP1 > VP2 , there can be no critical angle. All fac- ρ = 0), Zoeppritz’s equations are simplified greatly,
tors in the relationships (3.163) are then real. Further, if reducing to
the velocities are in the order VS1 < VS2 < VP1 < VP2 , VP2 cos θi − VP1 cos θt
there can be one critical angle, θicp = sin−1 (VP1 /VP2 ). RPP = ,
VP2 cos θi + VP1 cos θt
In this case the factor cos θt becomes imaginary for cer-
tain values of θi . Finally, if velocities are such that VP1 2VP2 cos θi
TPP = .
VS1 < VP1 < VS2 < VP2 , there can be two critical VP2 VP2 cos θi + VP1 cos θt
angles, θicp and θics = sin−1 (VP1 /VS2 ). In this case, As we will see in Section 6.4, RPP and TPP correspond
the factors cos θt and cos φt both become imaginary.
to the acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients
Complex coefficients indicate that changes in phase are
with ρ1 = ρ2 . The mode-converted coefficients are
taking place. zero.
In the following special cases, we discuss situations In the real world, some boundaries between shales
in which the reflection and transmission coefficients set and gas-bearing sands behave as acoustically reflect-
out above are simplified. ing interfaces. In such situations, the boundaries are
invisible on mode-converted shear-wave data recorded
Special case: µ constant. From the Biot-Gass- in ocean-bottom seismic experiments.
mann theory (Bourbie, 1987) on the effects of pore
fluids on rock velocities, the conclusion follows that Special case: Normal incidence. Let us con-
at fluid-contact interfaces the shear modulus µ is the sider the particular case of normal incidence. Zoep-
same on both sides of the interface. Then we assume pritz’s equations reduce to
that no diagnetic changes have taken place (that is, dif-
ferences in pore fluid do not affect the elastic properties ρ2 VP2 − ρ1 VP1
RPP = , (3.164)
of the rock matrix). Consequently, the contrast in shear ρ2 VP2 + ρ1 VP1
modulus is zero.
For µ = 0 the solution for the reflection and trans- VP1 2ρ2 VP2
mission coefficients is much simpler than in the general TPP = . (3.165)
VP2 ρ2 VP2 + ρ1 VP1
case. For a downward-traveling incident P-wave, the
reflection coefficients simplify to The mode-converted coefficients are zero. This result
follows also from the fact that there are no shearing
-
RPP = − (ρ1 VP1 cos θt − ρ2 VP2 cos θi )(ρ1 VS1 cos φt stresses at normal incidence.
./ Thus, a normally incident P-wave produces only
+ ρ2 VS2 cos φr ) + VS1 VS2 (ρ)2 sin θi sin θt reflected and transmitted P-waves. Relationships in
-
(ρ1 VP1 cos θt + ρ2 VP2 cos θi )(ρ1 VS1 cos φt (3.164) and (3.165) are useful when we want to analyze
. the behavior of P-waves propagated through layer-cake
+ ρ2 VS2 cos φr ) + VS1 VS2 (ρ)2 sin θi sin θt , media at nearly normal incidence.
When the velocity and density contrasts are small,
/- we readily obtain the often-used approximation
RPS = ρρ2 VP2 VS2 sin 2θi (ρ1 VP1 cos θt
+ ρ2 VP2 cos θi )(ρ1 VS1 cos φt + ρ2 VS2 cos φr ) d(ρVP ) 1
. RPP ≈ = d[ln(ρVP )],
2ρVP 2
+ VS1 VS2 (ρ)2 sin θi sin θt .
TPP ≈ 1.
Observe that the P-S reflection coefficient RPS is pro-
portional to the difference in density contrast across Reflection and transmission coefficients
the interface, ρ = ρ1 − ρ2 . Normally, the density for a downward-traveling incident SV-wave.
contrast across fluid-contact boundaries is small. In The diagram of raypaths in Figure 3.21b describes the
mode-converted shear-wave data from ocean-bottom energy partitioning caused by a downward-traveling
92 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
incident plane SV-wave of amplitude AS ≡ 1 striking (1 and 2) for the two half-spaces. In this book no deriva-
the interface with angle φi . In this case the incident SV- tions are given — just the solution of the reflection and
wave and upward-traveling reflected and downward- transmission Zoeppritz problem, in Box 3.4.
traveling transmitted SV- and P-wave potentials
are
Downloaded 06/25/14 to 134.153.184.170. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
+ , Zoeppritz’s Equations:
ω Fluid-solid Interface
ψI = VS1 exp i (x sin φi + z cos φi ) ,
VS1
+ , In light of new seismic-acquisition technology,
ω such as ocean-bottom seismics (OBS), the case of a
ψR = VS1 RSS exp i (x sin φr − z cos φr ) , homogeneous acoustic medium overlying a solid one
VS1
is an important example. Zoeppritz’s equations for the
+ ,
ω fluid-solid interface can be derived in the same way
χR = VP1 RSP exp i (x sin θr − z cos θr ) , as Zoeppritz’s equations for the solid-solid interface,
VP1
but with use of the proper boundary conditions out-
+ ,
ω lined in the previous section for the fluid-solid interface.
ψT = VS2 TSS exp i (x sin φt + z cos φt ) , However, a shortcut is based on our realizing that a fluid
VS2
can be considered as the limiting case of a solid when
+ ,
ω µ → 0 (or VS → 0). Therefore, Zoeppritz’s equa-
χT = VP2 TSP exp i (x sin θt + z cos θt ) . tions for the fluid-solid interface are a special case of
VP2
the solid-solid ones. The reflection and transmission
Again, the boundary conditions require continuity coefficients thus are found from the solid-solid ones
of displacement and vertical traction across the inter- given in Box 3.4 in the limit VS1 → 0. The resulting
face. If we are going to have any solution at all for the expressions for Zoeppritz’s equations for the fluid-solid
reflection and transmission problem, Snell’s law, interface are given in Box 3.5 as a function of slowness.
The coefficients can be rewritten straightforwardly as
sin φi sin φr sin φt sin θr sin θt a function of an angle, by the use of Snell’s law. Here
= = = = = p,
VS1 VS1 VS2 VP1 VP2 the reflection and transmission coefficients are given
for a downward-traveling incident P-wave in the fluid.
must hold. Following the procedure outlined above, we Defining the coefficients
now obtain the matrix system
A1 = cos2 (2φt ) = B2 ,
sin θr cos φi − sin θt cos φt A2 = 4ρ2 VS2 sin2 φt cos φt ,
cos θr − sin φi cos θt sin φt
B = cos 2φt ,
a2 sin 2θr cos 2φi c3 sin 2θt −b3 cos 2φ
t
a1 cos 2φr − sin 2φi −c4 cos 2φt −b3 sin 2φt C = 2ρ1 VS2 sin φt
RSP cos φi leads to
RSS sin φi
×
TSP = − cos 2φi . (3.166) A1 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + A2 cos θi cos θt − ρ1 VP1 cos θt
RPP = ,
TSS − sin 2φi A1 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + A2 cos θi cos θt + ρ1 VP1 cos θt
d2 = 2p2 µ(qS1 − qS2 ) + (ρ1 qS2 + ρ2 qS1 ); The reflection coefficients for upward traveling
incident plane waves in the upper solid are
d3 = p[2µ(qP1 qS2 + p2 ) − ρ];
(U) d2 c1 + d3 c4
RPP =− ;
d4 = p[2µ(qP2 qS1 + p2 ) − ρ]; d1 d2 + d4 d3
(U) VP2 d4 c1 − d1 c4
RPS =− .
c1 = 2p µ(qP1 + qP2 ) − (ρ1 qP2 − ρ2 qP1 );
2 VS2 d1 d2 + d4 d3
c2 = −[2p2 µ(qS1 + qS2 ) − (ρ1 qS2 − ρ2 qS1 )]; (U) VS2 d2 c3 + d3 c2
RSP =− ;
VP2 d1 d2 + d4 d3
c3 = −p[2µ(qP1 qS2 − p2 ) + ρ];
(U) d4 c3 − d1 c2
RSS = − .
c4 = −p[2µ(qP2 qS1 − p ) + ρ].
2
d1 d2 + d4 d3
coefficients for a vacuum-solid interface can be derived vanishes — that is, sin 2θi sin 2φr = a2 cos2 2φr —
in a manner similar to that presented for the solid-solid the incident P-wave reflects to an SV mode only,
interface. Snell’s law and boundary conditions for the with the amplitude a cos 2φr .
vacuum-solid interface given in the previous section 5) For SV-wave angles of incidence φi = 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦ ,
must be invoked. However, reflection coefficients for (U)
then RSP = 0. The incident SV-wave reflects as an
the vacuum-solid interface can be determined from the SV-mode only.
corresponding ones for the fluid-solid interface, given 6) When the numerator of the SS reflection coefficient
in Box 3.5 in the limit ρ1 /ρ2 → 0. Introducing angles is zero — that is, sin 2φi sin 2θr = a2 cos2 2φi —
by use of Snell’s law for an upward-traveling incident the incident SV-wave reflects to a P-mode only.
plane P-wave, Note that for θr to be real-valued, the angle of
sin θi sin θr sin φr incidence, φi , must be less than the critical angle,
= = = p, φc = sin−1 (VS2 /VP2 ).
VP2 VP2 VS2
and an upward-traveling incident plane SV-wave,
sin φi sin φr sin θr
= = = p, Zoeppritz’s Equations:
VS2 VS2 VP2
Fluid-fluid Interface
the Zoeppritz equations for the vacuum-solid interface
become The reflection and transmission coefficients for
a fluid-fluid boundary follow from the ones for the
(U) sin 2θi sin 2φr − a2 cos2 2φr fluid-solid boundary in the limit VS2 → 0. For a
RPP = , (3.167)
sin 2θi sin 2φr + a2 cos2 2φr downward-traveling incident plane wave, they are
This box gives the reflection and transmission (U) A1 ρ2 qP1 − A2 qP1 qP2 − ρ1 qP2
RPP = − ,
coefficients at a fluid-solid interface in terms of hor- A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
izontal and vertical slownesses. The coefficients are
found from those at the solid-solid interface given
in Box 3.4 in the limit VS1 = 0. Introducing (U) 2BC2 (VP2 /VS2 )qP1 qP2
RPS = ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
A1 = (1 − 2p2 VS2
2 2
) = B2 ,
A2 = 4p2 ρ2 VS2
4
qS2 ,
B = 1 − 2p2 VS2
2
, (U) 2BC2 (VS2 /VP2 )qP1 qS2
RSP = − ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
C1 = 2pρ1 VS2
2
,
C2 = 2pρ2 VS2
2
,
(U) A1 ρ2 qP1 − A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
we find RSS = − ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 − ρ1 qP2
RPP = ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
(U) 2Bρ2 (VP2 /VP1 )qP2
TPP = ,
TPP =
2Bρ1 (VP1 /VP2 )qP1
, A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
2C1 (VP1 /VS2 )qP1 qP2 (U) 2C2 (VS2 /VP1 )qP2 qS2
TPS = , TSP = .
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2 A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients In the case of the normal incidence of a P-wave, the
for the Energy of Seismic Waves energy flux into the boundary is given by
and
x ρ2 VS2 cos φt
v = −Aω sin ω t − , (3.177) ETPS = |TPS | (3.188)
VP ρ1 VP1 cos θi
where Aω is the peak amplitude. The energy per unit for an incident P-wave; ERPP and ETPP are the P-P
volume is given by energy reflection and transmission coefficients, respec-
2 tively, whereas ERPS and ETPS are the P-S energy
E 1 2 2 x reflection and transmission coefficients, respectively.
= ρω A sin ω t − .
unit volume 2 VP These coefficients are known as Knott’s energy coeffi-
(3.178) cients (Knott, 1899). Similar derivations for an incident
SV-wave yield the following coefficients (Tooley et al.,
By substituting equation (3.178) into equation (3.174),
1965):
and canceling the ω2 /2 and [sin ω (t − x/VP )]2 factors,
which are common to all terms, we obtain ERSS = |RSS | , (3.189)
ρ2 VP2 2 VP1 cos θr
ρ1 A2I = ρ1 A2R + A . (3.179) ERSP = |RSP | , (3.190)
VP1 T VS1 cos φi
1 0.8
(a) (c)
0.9 E RPP 0.6
RPP
0.8 0.4
Amplitude
0.6 0
Energy
0.5 –0.2
0.4 –0.4
0.3 –0.6
0.2 –0.8
E RPS
0.1 –1
0 –1.2
1 1.2
0.9 1
(d)
(b)
0.8
ETPP
0.8
TPP
0.7 0.6
0.5 0.2
0.4 E TPS 0
0.3 –0.2
0 –0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
FIGURE 3.22. Diagrams (a) and (b) show reflection and transmission coefficients in terms of energy ratios. Diagrams (c)
and (d) show reflection and√transmission coefficients
√ in terms of amplitude ratios. Physical properties are VP2 /VP1 =
2.5, ρ2 /ρ1 = 1.22, VP1 = 3VS1 , and VP2 = 3VS2 .
2) No compressional energy enters the bottom half- 5) The compressional reflection amplitude is very small
space at angles beyond the first critical angle, θic : at about 35◦ , and no converted shear reflection
occurs at 24◦ , 44◦ , or 90◦ .
−1 VP1 6) The reflection and transmission coefficients in terms
θic = sin ≈ 24◦ . (3.194)
VP2 of amplitude ratios (i.e., RPP , RPS , TPP , and TPS )
can be negative, whereas when they are expressed in
3) No shear energy enters the bottom half-space at an terms of energy ratios (i.e., ERPP , ERPS , ETPP , and
angle beyond the second critical angle, here denoted ETPS ), they are invariably positive.
θis :
−1 VP1 Example 2. A second series of reflection and
θis = sin ≈ 44◦ . (3.195)
VS2 transmission coefficients is shown in Figure 3.23 for
a case in which
4) Three angles have almost total P-wave reflection,
the first critical angle (i.e., θ = 24◦ ), the second VP2 ρ2
critical angle (θ = 44◦ ), and the third critical angle = 2, = 0.5. (3.196)
VP1 ρ1
(θ = 90◦ ). Two angles have almost total reflection
as shear: the second critical angle (i.e., θ = 44◦ ) and Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.25, is identical for the two half-
θ = 70◦ . spaces. Note that the P-P reflection can be null at normal
98 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Amplitude
and (d): Reflection and transmis- 0.2
0.6
Energy
sion coefficients in terms of amplitude 0
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0.5
ratios. The physical properties are 0.4
–0.2
RPP
VP2 /VP1 = 2.0, ρ2 /ρ1 = 0.5, ν1 = 0.25 0.3
E RPS
–0.4
0.1 –0.8
0 –1
1 2.5
0.9 (d)
(b)
E TPP 2
0.8
0.7 1.5
Amplitude
0.6
1 TPP
Energy
0.5
0.5
0.4 E TPS TPS
0.3 0
0.2
–0.5
0.1
0 –1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
incidence. As no shear waves are generated at normal These parameters are characteristic of water over a firm
incidence, most of the energy is the transmitted P-wave sea bottom. Notice that no P-wave energy is transmitted
at low-incident angles, as shown in Figure 3.23. Other into the solid for an angle of incidence greater than 60
observations about the curves in Figure 3.23 are that degrees.
(i) at high angles of incidence, most of the energy is
the reflected P-wave, (ii) the transmitted P-wave and Example 5. By substituting equations (3.167) and
the transmitted S-wave disappear at the critical angle, (3.168) in equations (3.185) and (3.186), respectively,
and (iii) away from the critical angle, the energy of we can deduce the P-P and P-S reflection coefficients
reflected S-waves is generally low in comparison to that at the air-solid interface in terms of energy ratios.
of reflected P-waves, so these S-waves are likely to be Figure 3.26a shows calculations of the energy parti-
difficult to identify in seismic-reflection data. tioning, as a function of the angle of incidence for P
waves for various values of Poisson’s ratio. Notice that
Example 3. A third series of reflection and trans- RPS vanishes when θ = 0 and when θ = 90◦ , but in
mission coefficients is shown in Figure 3.24, for a case this case there is no critical angle. Also, recall that at the
in which air-water interface, RPP = −1 and RPS = 0, because
VP2 ρ2
= 0.5, = 0.8. (3.197) the shear velocity, VS1 , is null.
VP1 ρ1 Moreover, by substituting equations (3.170) and
Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.25, is identical for the two-half- (3.169) in equations (3.189) and (3.190), respectively,
spaces. Here the curves are less complicated than those we can deduce the corresponding SP and SS reflection
in Figures 3.22 and 3.23, mainly because no critical in term of energy ratios. These energy ratios are also
angle exists in this case (S-wave velocity and P-wave shown in Figure 3.26b. Clearly, a critical angle exists
velocity in the bottom half-space are less than P-wave so that the P-wave can travel along the free surface.
velocity in the top half-space).
Amplitude
0 and (d): Reflection and transmission
0.6
Energy
0.5
0.4 The physical properties are VP2 /VP1 =
0.3 ERPP ERPS
0.5
0.5, ρ2 /ρ1 = 0.8, ν1 = 0.25 (Poisson’s
0.2 ratio), and ν2 = 0.25.
0.1
0 1
1 1.5
(b)
0.9 ETPP (d) TPP
0.8
0.7
Amplitude 1
0.6
Energy
TPS
0.5
0.4
ETPS 0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
0.6 0.2
0.5 0 coefficients in terms of amplitude ratios.
0.4 –0.2 The physical properties are VP1 = 1.5
0.3 E RPP –0.4 km/s, VS1 = 0 km/s, ρ1 = 1.0 g/cm3 ,
0.2 –0.6 VP2 = 1.7 km/s, VS1 = 0.6 km/s, and
0.1 –0.8
ρ1 = 1.7 g/cm3 .
0 –1
1 1.2
0.9 E TPP 1 (d) TPP
0.8 (b)
0.8
0.7
Amplitude
0.6
0.6
Energy
0.5 0.4
0.4 0.2
0.3
TPS
E TPS 0
0.2
–0.2
0.1
0 –0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
surface waves with displacements only in the vertical convention of Scholte waves, as the term is used in the
plane (waves that are “vertically polarized”) and those field of underwater acoustics.
with displacements only in the horizontal plane (waves Another family of surface waves has polarization in
that are “horizontally polarized”) (Figure 3.27). The the horizontal plane. These waves are known as Love
surface waves we study in this book are vertically polar- waves2 . Love waves are not present at the interface
ized waves. Generally they are classified according to between two half-spaces. However, if a homogeneous
the names of their discoverers: Rayleigh waves at a solid layer bounded above by a free surface is on top
vacuum-solid interface, Stoneley waves at a solid-solid
interface, and Scholte waves at a fluid-solid interface.
In seismology the Scholte wave is generally called a 2 Strictly speaking, Love waves are not surface waves; they are
Stoneley wave, but in this book we adopt the name “guided” or “trapped” waves.
100 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Dilatations
(d)
(b) S-wave Rayleigh wave
Double Amplitude
Wavelength
FIGURE 3.27. Schematic diagrams that show of the sense of particle motions during passage of the two fundamental elas-
tic waves — (a) P-waves and (b) S-waves — as well as surface waves, (c) Love and (d) Rayleigh waves. All the waves
are propagating from left to right, with the surface of initial motion corresponding to the wavefront. Relative velocities of
wave types decrease from (a) through (d).
sources typically are 5 to 10 m below the sea surface. to estimate the seismic-moment tensor of earthquake
When the Scholte wave is measured with sufficient sources, to identify underground nuclear explosions, to
amplitude (e.g., in shallow-water ocean-bottom seis- determine the periods of free oscillations of the earth,
mics or when the source is moved close to the seafloor, and to deduce the structure of the crust and upper man-
to deliberately excite the Scholte wave), its dispersive tle. Inferences about the crust and mantle are derived
characteristics can be used to infer the shear-wave prop- from regional dispersion curves obtained from surface-
erties of the sea bed. This inference has applications in wave recordings. Surface waves excited by earthquakes
low-frequency underwater acoustics, where knowledge or man-made explosions are even being studied to
of sea-bottom shear velocity is required for develop- search for major sedimentary basins in inaccessible
ing models for propagation of waterborne sound. For areas, such as the Arctic shelf.
geotechnical investigations, Scholte waves can be used
to estimate the shear rigidity of seafloor sediments.
Surface waves depend mainly on the shear-wave veloc- Evanescent Plane Waves
ity of the medium to which they are confined. They are
quite insensitive to P-wave velocity and density. There- Up to this point, we have analyzed the propaga-
fore, the velocity of the Scholte wave indirectly is a tion of elastic waves in a homogeneous solid or near an
reliable measurement of the solid’s shear-wave velocity interface, within the framework of homogeneous plane-
over the propagation area of the surface wave. wave theory. A problem we now face is that surface
Surface waves traveling in the inhomogeneous waves are not homogeneous plane-wave solutions of
earth have been important in earthquake seismology for the wave equation. Rayleigh (1894) first proposed that
a long time. For instance, surface waves can be analyzed another type of solution can be written for the elastic
102 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
equation of motion. Rayleigh considered the possibility equation (3.202) is dictated by the physics of the par-
of a wave traveling along the free surface in a manner ticular problem under study. The physical requirement
such that its displacements are confined largely to the of the solution is that the wave must decay exponen-
surface itself. In general, the criterion for surface waves tially as z → ∞. The other solution is nonphysical
to exist is that the displacements decay exponentially and must be discarded. To distinguish this form of
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with distance from the surface. plane wave from traveling homogeneous plane waves,
Now we expand on the discussion of plane waves: as in equations (3.198) and (3.201), form (3.202) is
We have considered homogeneous plane waves of the often called an “inhomogeneous” or “evanescent” plane
form wave.
Observe that when k > kP , then v < VP , and the
exp[ikP (x sin θ + z cos θ ) − iωt]; kP = ω/VP . factor cos θ becomes imaginary. The question one must
(3.198) ask is “How can plane waves of physically unimagin-
able complex angles of incidence be realized to excite
This particular plane wave represents a downward- surface waves?” A plane wave with any real angle of
traveling plane P-wave in the positive x-direction; VP incidence cannot excite any surface wave. The solution
and θ represent the propagation velocity and direction lies in the fact that in the seismic experiment, the source
relative to the x-axis, respectively. The phase (appar- does not excite plane waves, but a wave with some
ent) velocity of the plane wave along the x-direction curved wavefront. Surface waves arise from diffrac-
is v = VP / sin θ. The phase (apparent) velocity of the tion of incoming P- or S-waves at the interface of the
plane wave along the z-direction is VP / cos θ . Note that curved wavefront. In terms of seismic wavelength, a
VP is the physical velocity. The phase velocities related condition necessary for generation of high-amplitude
to the plane wave are mathematical quantities show- surface waves is that the source must be near the
ing how fast the wavefront is moving along a plane. interface, so that the wavefront is strongly curved. A
Introducing the horizontal wavenumber source on the surface certainly will set up strong surface
k = ω/v = kP sin θ , (3.199) waves.
we have
Phase Velocity of Scholte
kP cos θ = kP2 − k 2 , (3.200) and Rayleigh Waves
so that the traveling homogeneous plane wave (3.198) The simplest marine environment admitting inter-
can be rewritten as face waves consists of a homogeneous water-layer
+
, over a homogeneous solid half-space, as depicted in
exp i kP − k z + kx − ωt . (3.201)
2 2 Figure 3.28a. Above the fluid is a vacuum. Let the water-
layer thickness be z1 . In the fluid, density and velocity
are ρ1 and VP1 , respectively. The solid has density and
The homogeneous plane-wave expressions (3.198) and
P- and S-wave velocities ρ2 , VP2 , and VS2 , respectively.
(3.201) are identical, and therefore both are the solution
Observe that this model is sufficient for the analysis
of the scalar-wave equation.
of Scholte and Rayleigh surface waves. The Rayleigh
However, when k > kP , the plane wave takes the
wave is obtained as the special case of the Scholte wave,
form
by letting the water-layer thickness be zero; then the
+
,
model is a vacuum above a solid half-space. We now
exp ±k 1 − (kP /k) |z| + i(kx − ωt) .
2
derive the characteristic equations governing the disper-
(3.202) sion and the particle motion of these interface waves:
Assume that a vertical (x, z)-plane contains the source
By direct substitution into the scalar-wave equation, we and receiver. The surface waves we are considering have
see that the waveform (3.202) is also a solution of the their polarization in the vertical plane, with vanishing
scalar-wave equation. The solution represents a wave displacement in the y-direction. Let the displacement
that is traveling in the positive x-direction with velocity potentials χ and ψ be associated with an inhomoge-
v, but the wave has experienced an exponential increase neous plane wave of mixed P- and SV-modes, traveling
or decrease along the z-axis. The choice of sign in with velocity v along the x-axis. In the fluid, the P-wave
Partition of Energy at an Interface 103
Solid
velocity of the Scholte wave as it applies to the ideal- Consider equation (3.212). Notice that when
ized model of a fluid layer of thickness z1 overlying a (f z1 )/VR 1 — that is, at low frequency or in shallow
homogeneous solid half-space: water, or equivalently, for wavelengths much greater
than fluid thickness — the dispersion relation (3.213) is
2 still valid. Thus in this case the wave will also travel as
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2
v
(v) = 2 − a Rayleigh wave in the solid half-space, uninfluenced
VS2 by the fluid layer.
The Rayleigh wave function (3.213) can be ratio-
2 2
v v nalized to give a final form suitable for a solution for
− 4 1 − 1−
VP2 VS2 VR :
*
2 VR 6 VR 4 VS2 2 VR 2
4 1 − VvP2 −8 +8 3−2
ρ1 v VS2 VS2 VP2 VS2
+ *
ρ2 VS2 2
1− v VS2 2
VP1 − 16 1 − = 0. (3.214)
VP2
2
v
× tanh kz1 1 − = 0. (3.212) For prescribed values of VS2 and VP2 , one solution of
VP1
equation (3.214) for 0 < VR < VS2 can always be
found. If we set VR = 0, the left-hand side of equa-
The dispersion relation shows that under certain condi- tion (3.214) is negative (less than zero), whereas for
tions, a wave can propagate along the interface between VR = VS2 the left-hand side becomes positive. Thus
the fluid and the solid with a velocity that is lower than there must be one real root of equation (3.214) lying
any physical body-wave velocities. Note that expression between VR = 0 and VR = VS2 . As an example, we
(3.212) has many roots. consider the√case of a Poisson solid for which λ = µ
Before we discuss this particular dispersion rela- and VP2 = 3VS2 . Equation (3.214) becomes
tion, let us look at two limiting cases: Rayleigh waves at
the free surface of a solid half-space, and Scholte waves VR 6 VR 4 56 VR 2 32
at the interface between fluid and solid half-spaces. −8 + − = 0.
VS2 VS2 3 VS2 3
0.5
VR/VS
0.920
0.4 wave, uninfluenced by the free surface. As we will
VR/VS
0.910 show shortly, except in the immediate vicinity of the
0.3
0.900
fluid-solid interface, with distance from the interface
0.2 the amplitude of the Scholte wave diminishes on both
VP: P -wave velocity
0.890
sides.
0.1
VS: S -wave velocity
VR: Rayleigh wave velocity 0.880
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Scholte waves: A fluid layer above a solid
Poisson’s ratio half-space. The general dispersion relation for the
Scholte wave, equation (3.212), shows that for a fluid
FIGURE 3.29. Velocity ratios VR /VP , VR /VP , VR /VP versus layer of finite thickness, the trapped wave is dispersive.
Poisson’s ratio, ν. (Adapted from Knopoff, 1952.) Consider VS2 < VP1 . The solution of equation (3.212)
for v provides one real solution: the phase velocity of
the Scholte wave. Its velocity is invariably less than
Scholte waves: A fluid half-space on a solid the shear-wave velocity. The velocity decreases mono-
half-space. In the special case z1 → ∞, the model tonically from the Rayleigh wave velocity at low fre-
is a fluid half-space above a solid half-space. The sur- quency to the Scholte wave velocity at high frequency.
face wave is called a Scholte wave, and from equation Figure 3.30 shows an example of how the Scholte
(3.213) the Scholte function, surface-wave velocity varies relative to the shear-wave
velocity, VS2 , as a function of frequency f and fluid layer
2 2
thickness z1 .
vS
S (vS ) = 2 − The model we have considered for the Scholte wave
VS2
is a fluid layer above a solid half-space. In most situa-
2 2 tions the seafloor can be considered as a water-sediment
vS vS
− 4 1 − 1−
VP2 VS2
2
0.95
1− 0.91
VS2/VP2 = 0.375,
VP1 VSc VS2/VP2 = 0.50.
0.9
VS2
is obtained. The Scholte function has one real root, 0.89
which we denote vS . Note that for this model the Scholte
0.88
velocity does not depend on frequency. Thus the Scholte
0.87
wave traveling along a fluid-solid interface separating
two half-spaces is nondispersive. However, when the 0.86
interface, with a P-wave sediment velocity somewhat is elliptical and retrograde (i.e., at the top of its ellip-
higher than the velocity of sound in water. In soft tical path the particle moves opposite to the direction
marine sediments, such as clay and silt, S-wave veloc- of propagation). Notice that the Scholte wave radiates
ity is much smaller than velocity of sound in water, but a pressure component into the water layer. Therefore,
shows very large gradients close to the seafloor. Then Scholte waves can be measured by hydrophones, and
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the interface wave becomes highly dispersive, although by geophones on the seafloor.
recognizably of the Scholte type. Recall that the seis- Equations (3.219) and (3.220) can be simplified
mic source should be close to the seafloor to excite the for Rayleigh waves by using the Rayleigh func-
Scholte interface wave. tion, R , given in equation (3.212). Rayleigh dis-
placements in the vertical and horizontal directions
become
Surface-wave Particle Motion
κ2 − 2
Consider the model of a fluid layer or half-space Uz (z) =
κ2
above a homogeneous solid half-space at depth z1 .
Where the movement of particles is a consideration, 2
× exp(−kP2 z) + exp(−kS2 z) , (3.221)
to introduce the normalization Uz (z1 ) = 1 is conve- κ2 − 2
nient. For z < z1 displacement in the vertical direction
becomes
, (3.224)
meters of the two media, and on the angle of incidence. X1 −X2 T −X1
For contrasts both in densities and velocities, the only
where
simple case involves normal-incidence reflection coef-
ficients. However, the usefulness of these coefficients is − sin θi cos φi
Y1 = ,
limited, because they describe only P-wave impedance −Z1 cos 2φi −W1 sin 2φi
variations.
− sin θt cos φt
To better understand the relationship between coef- Y2 = (3.225)
−Z2 cos 2φt −W2 sin 2φt
ficients and the physical parameters at a given incidence
angle or horizontal slowness, the inspection of approxi-
mate expressions is instructive, as they were derived by − cos θi − sin φi
X1 = ,
Aki and Richards (1980). − VVP1
S1
W1 sin 2θi W1 cos 2φi
We will assume that the two half-spaces have sim-
ilar properties; i.e., the ratios VP /VP , VS /VS , and − cos θt − sin φt
X2 =
ρ/ρ are all much less than unity (VP , VS , and ρ are − VVP1
S2
W2 sin 2θt +W2 cos 2φt
the mean values for the two half-spaces, and VP , VS , (3.226)
and ρ are the differences). Also, we will assume that
all incidence angles are less than any critical angle and
TPP TSP −RPP −RSP
less than 90 degrees. T= , R= .
For deviation of approximations of Zoeppritz’s TPS TSS RPS RSS
equations, we will use the matrix formulation proposed (3.227)
by Frasier (1970), and Schoenberg and Protazio (1992)
instead of equation (3.163). This matrix formulation is Using
useful for complicated cases in which the assumption of R + Y1−1 Y2 T = I
(3.228)
isotropism is relaxed to include cases where the media R − X1−1 X2 T = −I
are anisotropic. This formulation will be preparation for
Chapter 12. and solving for R and T, we get
−1
T = 2 X1−1 X2 + Y1−1 Y2 (3.229)
Let VP , VS , and ρ be arithmetic averages of veloci- 1 W W 3 VS
RSS ≈− +2 + sin2 φi
ties and densities above and below the interface, defined 2 W W 4 VS
as follows: 1 VS
VP2 + VP1 − sin2 φi tan2 φi , (3.240)
VP = , (3.231) 2 VS
2
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validation of the linearized reflection coefficient RPP , angle. We can see that to near the critical angle, the
we will use the formula linear approximation tracks the exact solution quite
well before it breaks down. For the model without
1 Z 1 VP VS2 µ critical angles, the linear approximations still break
RPP ≈ + −2 2 sin2 θi (3.242)
down, although at a larger angle (≈ 35 degrees). Actu-
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2 Z 2 VP VP µ
ally, the limits of validity that we have observed for
instead of the formula shown in equation (3.237). these two models are quite general. In fact, the lin-
Figure 3.31 shows linearized reflection coefficients earized approximations in equations (3.237) through
computed from equations (3.237) and (3.238) and the (3.238) are valid only for precritical data (i.e., before
exact solution computed directly from the Zoeppritz’s the incident angle reaches the critical region) or up to
equations in (3.223), for two models: one model yields 35 degrees if the first critical angle occurs later than
critical angles, whereas the other yields no critical 35 degrees.
Another interesting aspect of linearized formulae in
equations (3.237) through (3.238) is their linear behav-
0.8
ior with sin2 θi . This behavior is readily visible for
(a) RPP
0.6 RPP in equation (3.237). However, for RPS , expression
0.4 (3.238) must be normalized with sin θi : Replace RPS by
, which is defined as
RPS
0.2
Amplitude
0 RPS
RPS = for θi > 0, (3.243)
–0.2 sin θi
–0.4
–0.6
to see clearly this linear behavior with sin2 θi . Before
carrying our analysis of the linear behavior of the lin-
–0.8 RPS earized formulae further, let us confirm that this behav-
–1 ior is noticeable on the exact formulae. Figure 3.32
shows the exact RPP and RPS as a function of sin2 θ
–1.2 i
for several models. Behavior in the interval between
0.6
sin2 θi = 0 and sin2 θi = 0.3 is linear. Figure 3.33
(b)
0.4
shows the same plots for this interval only; the linear
behavior is even more apparent in this figure. By super-
0.2 imposing the linearized solutions on the exact solution,
RPS
we see also that at a small angle the approximations
Amplitude
Amplitude
0.4
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0 4
Amplitude
0.2
1
–0.1
4 2
0
2
–0.2 5
–0.2 5
–0.4 3 –0.3
–0.6
1: Vp2/ Vp1 =1.32; ρ / ρ1=1.03; γ = 1.68 , γ =1.70 –0.4
3
2 1 2
–0.8 2: Vp2/ Vp1 =0.90; ρ / ρ1=0.87; γ = 1.68 , γ =1.50
2 1 2
3: Vp2/ Vp1 =0.69; ρ / ρ1=0.53; γ = 1.68 , γ =2.07 –0.5
2 1 2
–1
1.4
1.2
4: Vp2/ Vp1 =1.20; ρ / ρ1=0.85; γ = 1.68 , γ =1.67 1.2
′
RPS
2 1 2 3
3 5: Vp2/ Vp1 =0.85; ρ / ρ1=0.77; γ = 1.80 , γ =1.67
1 2 1 2
1
RPS
0.8 0.8
Amplitude
0.6 0.6
Amplitude
0.4
0.4 5
5
0.2
0.2 2
2 0
4
0 4
–0.2
–0.2 1
–0.4
1 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
–0.4 Sin2θ i
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
TABLE 3.2. Elastic parameters for four half-space models: shale-sand (unconsolidated), shale-salt, shale-limestone
(with gas), and limestone-salt.
Statistics for four half-space models
Model 1 2 3 4
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Shale/sand
(unconsolidated) Shale/salt Shale/limestone (gas) Limestone/salt
Rock type Shale Sand Shale Salt Shale Limestone Limestone Salt
VP /VP 0.0343 0.0367 0.1551 0.1818 0.2834 0.2783 −0.1876 −0.1538
VS /VS 0.6554 0.6578 0.1602 0.1867 0.2721 0.2659 −0.1191 −0.0802
ρ/ρ −0.0352 −0.0377 −0.1305 −0.1573 0.0308 0.0368 −0.2176 −0.2553
VP /VS 2.8760 2.8729 1.6482 1.6795 1.7003 1.6962 1.7709 1.7425
Symbols: VP : P-wave velocity; VS : S-wave velocity; ρ: density; APP : RPP intercept; BPP : RPP gradient; APS : RPS intercept;
BPS : RPS gradient. Accuracy of estimated values as they approximate the actual ones is with error no greater than 1%.
VP
Application to AVA Analysis: VP
P-P Reflections Q= ρ VS
. (3.253)
ρ + VS
The term AVA stands for “amplitude variations with The terms ν1 and ν2 denote the Poisson’s ratio of
angle,” and AVO stands for “amplitude variations with incident and transmitting media, respectively.
offset,” where offset is the distance between the source In some instances this equation is simplified in
and the receiver. For all intents and purposes of practi- practice by assuming that
cal application, AVO and AVA are the same. The main
difference between the two is that an offset must be 1
ν= (3.254)
converted into an angle, or vice versa. This conversion 3
will be discussed in Chapter 11.
so that equation (3.250) becomes (Q0 = −1)
The AVA analysis has become a valuable method
for petroleum seismologists because it can provide RPP (θi ) = RPP (0) + [4.5ν − RPP (0)] sin2 θi .
valid and useful information about a reservoir or
help to locate a new one. To facilitate AVA analysis, (3.255)
Shuey (1985) suggested rearranging the approximated [See Castegna and Bakus (1993) for detailed informa-
equation (3.244) in terms of P-wave impedance and tion about this assumption.] Clearly, the intercept is the
Poisson’s-ratio contrasts as follows: reflection at normal incidence, whereas the gradient can
2ν be approximated as the change in Poisson’s ratio.
RPP (θi ) = RPP (0) + RPP (0)Q0 + sin2 θi , Based primarily on correlations between the
1 − ν2
(3.250) changes in Poisson’s ratio and the presence of hydrocar-
where bons in a reservoir, petrophysists have established four
classes of AVA responses. Class I response occurs when
ν1 + ν2 ν1 − ν2
ν= , ν = , (3.251) the acoustic impedance of the upper layer is less than
2 2 that of the lower layer. The normal-incidence P-wave
1 − 2ν reflection coefficient is strongly positive; it shows a
Q0 = Q − 2(1 − Q) , and (3.252) strong decrease of amplitude with angle and possibly
1−ν
112 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
0.2 R
CLASS
Model 3 CLASS III
Z1< Z2
0.1
0.0
Model 2 CLASS IV
0 TO
PR Z1 ~ Z 2
Model 1 ES
ER
–0.10 V OI
–0.1 R
CLASS III CLASS
II CLASS I
Z1< Z2
–0.2 Z1< Z2
Model 4 III IV (a)
–0.20
–0.20 –0.10 0.0 0.10 0.20
–0.3
AVO INTERCEPT (A)
SHALE
SHALE
SHALE
0.6 Approx.
Exact
P–S Reflection coefficient (Rps)
0.4
Model 4
SAND
SAND
SAND
0.2
(b)
0
Model 2 FIGURE 3.35. A and B crossplotting of AVO.
–0.2
Model 1
–0.4
Model 3 III originally were introduced to detect and describe gas
sands. However, some gas sands exhibit AVA responses
–0.6
contrary to that the much-used rule of thumb. Although
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
the normal-incidence P-wave reflection coefficient is
Sin2θ
strongly negative, the reflection coefficient decreases
FIGURE 3.34. Comparison of the exact solution of Zoep- with angle. This is the characteristic of sands with Class
pritz’s equations for the two-half-space models defined in IV response. Class IV sands have been recorded in
Table 3.2. many basins throughout the world, including the Gulf
of Mexico.
In Figure 3.35, the crossplot of the intercept and the
a phase change at large angles. Class II response shows gradient illustrates these four classes of AVO responses.
very little difference in acoustic impedance between the In a stratigraphic setting where shale overlies sand,
upper and lower layers, and in many cases velocities and Class I sands are in quadrant 4 of the A-B plane: A
densities will vary in opposite directions. The normal- is positive, whereas B is negative. Class II sands have
incidence P-wave reflection coefficient is either slightly about the same P-wave impedance as the overlying
positive or slightly negative. In the first case, a phase shale. Such sands may be positioned in quadrants
change occurs at angles of small or moderate size. Class 2, 3, and 4 of the A-B (intercept-gradient) plane.
III response occurs where the acoustic impedance of Class III sands, many of which are bright, have lower
the upper layer is higher than that of the lower layer. P-wave impedance than the overlying shale. They
For Class III anomalies, the normal-incidence P-wave are positioned in quadrant 3. Class IV sands are in
reflection coefficient is strongly negative. The reflection quadrant 2.
coefficient becomes more negative with angle. Classical In addition to APP and BPP , numerous combina-
bright spots show Class III behavior. For shale-over-gas tions of APP and BPP are used in AVO analysis, such
sand reflections, a simple, often-used “rule of thumb” as APP + BPP , APP − BPP , and APP × BPP . Correlation
is that the reflection coefficient becomes more negative of these combinations to petrophysical parameters or
with increasing angle. Responses of Classes I through lithology is still an unsolved problem. Efforts are
Partition of Energy at an Interface 113
1) No other reflector within the earth has a reflec- 6) Similar (but positive) measurements of RC can
tion coefficient (RC) like that of the free sur- occur at the tops of sills (plutonic rock); most of
face. (RC: P-P reflection coefficient at normal the contribution is due to contrast in velocity.
incidence.) 7) The low density of salt can produce unusual
2) In places where basement rocks are exposed effects. Reflection coefficients of some inter-
on the seafloor, the RC of the seafloor can faces between soft shale and salt are weakly
be as much as +0.8. This situation, typified positive, whereas reflection coefficients of some
by offshore eastern Canada, makes seismic contacts between hard shale and salt are weakly
data processing very difficult (the “hard-bottom negative. Of course, the RC can be zero; veloc-
problem”); much of the outgoing seismic energy ity increases across the interface, but density
is trapped in the water. decreases.
3) In places where sediment is actively deposited 8) The RC at the top of a porous, gas-saturated sand
on the seafloor, RC of the seafloor typically is negative in almost all instances; the reflection
is +0.3 and in large part is due to contrast in strength of a given seal, or cap rock, is a coarse
density. measure of its porosity.
4) Most strong reflections indicate a marked con- 9) The RC of a gas-water contact is invariably
trast of rock type. Accordingly, the RC of the positive.
interface between marine shale and hard tight 10) The RC of an oil-water contact is positive, but
limestone can be as much as +0.3. However, very small.
at most localities, few such reflectors are in the
geologic column. Many of these conclusions are concerned with
5) One particularly anomalous rock is coal: The unusual situations, but the numbers should not
RC of some shale-coal interfaces is −0.5, due obscure the fundamental fact that most reflection
largely to the contrast in density between shale coefficients in the earth are small; most are less
and coal. than 0.1.
under way to explain or establish these correlations approximation, and especially not when one considers
satisfactorily (Castagna and Backus, 1993; De Nico- in addition to R .
RPS PP
las and others, 1993; Djikpéssé and Tarantola, 1999; Equations (3.247) to (3.250) form a system of
Ikelle et al., 1992; and other sources). four independent equations with four unknown elastic
parameters (VP /VP , VS /VS , ρ/ρ, and VP /VS ). By
solving the system of equations (3.247) through (3.250),
these parameters can be estimated from a given set of
Application to AVA Analysis: AVA intercepts and gradients of P-P and P-S reflections
P-P and P-S Reflections (APP , APS , BPP , and BPS ) [See Carcuz and Ikelle (2003)
for derivations.] Furthermore, from the definition of
The general claim is made that seismic amplitude average and contrast velocities, it is straightforward to
carries information only about the contrast of elastic show that
parameters of the two rock formations, but not the
actual values of the rock formations. In other words, VP1 VP 2 − VP /VP
from seismic amplitude we can recover the changes = (3.256)
VS1 VS 2 − VS /VS
in acoustic impedance and Poisson’s ratio across the
reflecting interface but not the actual values of Poisson’s and
ratio of the rock located on either side of the interface. VP2 VP 2 + VP /VP
This claim is not absolutely true even for small-angle = , (3.257)
VS2 VS 2 + VS /VS
114 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
we can determine the relevant quantities: this problem lies in updip and downdip shooting, but
more particularly in the use of intercept times instead
ED = x cos α, FB = zd tan θic , and of slopes. According to equations (3.263) and (3.264),
GD = (zd − x sin α) tan θic . (3.261) these intercept times are
This gives us the basic traveltime equation: 2zd cos θic 2zu cos θic
tid = and tiu = . (3.265)
zd VP1 VP1
td =
VP1 cos θic
We can use them to deduce zd and zu .
x cos α − zd tan θic − (zd − x sin α) tan θic
+ Now, turn to the problem of determining the trav-
VP2 eltimes of refracted converted waves. We will treat all
zd − x sin α possible refracted waves in a general way, as we did in
+ . (3.262)
VP1 cos θic the case of a horizontal interface.
Raypaths for the general refracted wave are shown
We can reduce this equation to a simpler form by using
in Figure 3.37. Let us start with derivations of travel-
the following trigonometric identities:
times for the case depicted in Figure 3.37. This case
sin (θic − α) = sin θic cos α − cos θic sin α, and allows us to illustrate the computation of traveltime for
downdip shooting, as the previous computations were
sin (θic + α) = sin θic cos α + cos θic sin α.
carried out mainly for updip shooting. In Figure 3.37,
Finally, we arrive at V1d is the velocity of the ray as it propagates down from
the source (in the +z direction) in the top layer, V2 is
2zd cos θic x the velocity of the refracted wave (generally, one of the
td = + sin (θic − α) . (3.263)
VP1 VP1 velocities in the half-space), and V1u is the velocity of the
Our next step is to move the source to the updip ray traveling upward in the top layer (in the −z direc-
part of the interface to shoot downdip. As one might tion), to the receiver. Two critical angles are possible in
expect, we arrive at an equation that looks similar to this case; they are given by
equation (3.263):
2zu cos θic x −1 V1d −1 V1u
tu = + sin (θic + α) . (3.264)
d
θ12 = sin , u
θ12 = sin . (3.266)
VP1 VP1 V2 V2
Vp1, Vs1 u
θ12
Z d tan
Vp2, Vs2
z
116 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Downdip Updip
zu zd A C
t121 (x) = + u u ✷
V1d cos θ12
d V1 cos θ12 90-α VP1
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u
cos θ12 d
cos θ12 x u
t121 (x) = zd u + d
+ u sin θ12 −α , to the dipping interface; if we imagine extending the
V1 V1 V1
line EQ an equal distance on the opposite side of the
(3.270)
interface, we would be given the line EQ, which is also
where zu is the distance from the source to the lower of length z. The image point is at Q. If we draw a line
interface in the updip case. from Q to C, which is the geophone position, we have
In each case, the traveltime equation is a linear a particularly useful geometric construct. Because tri-
equation angles AEB and EQB are congruent, AB is equal to QB.
( u in ) the offset, x, with a slope equal to
Therefore, the path QBC is equal in length to the actual
sin θ12 + α /V1u and with an intercept equal to
path traversed by the reflected wave, ABC.
The traveltime equation is
d
cos θ12 u
cos θ12
t121 (0) = zu + . (3.271)
V1d V1u √
QC 4z2 + x 2 − 4zx sin α
t = t(x) = = (3.272)
VP1 VP1
Traveltime Equation for Reflected Waves
or
Figure 3.38 illustrates a reflection on a dipping
interface. To maintain the conventions used for deriva-
x 2 − 4zx sin α
tion of refraction equations, the dip angle is taken to t = t0 1 + , (3.273)
be positive where the slope is upward and toward the 4z2
right. The directions and the symbol employed in the
following derivations are described in Figure 3.38. with
A useful trick for derivation of reflected traveltime
equations is based on the concept of image point. With 2z
t0 = t(0) = . (3.274)
reference to Figure 3.38: The line AE is perpendicular VP1
Partition of Energy at an Interface 117
Expanding (3.274) leads to and α = 20◦ . The traveltime curve for the horizontal
interface is symmetrical with respect to x = 0. If we
+
x 2 − 4zx sin α refer to the minimum time on this hyperbola as tmin and
t = t0 1+ the x-position (at which traveltime is at a minimum) as
8z2
xmin , then clearly
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2 2
x − 4zx sin α
− + · · · . (3.275)
32z2 tmin = t(0) and xmin = 0. (3.277)
2z sin α
0.8 t NMO tmin = . (3.280)
VP1
α α
dip of strata in the subsurface. Other φ S φ
θ φ
symbols: zu is the distance from the Zd φ
θ α
source to the dipping bed, normal to the
φ
dipping bed. zd is the distance from the Z u tan
zu zd with
tSP = + , (3.284) VS1
VS1 cos φ VP1 cos θ p0 = VP1 p, . γ1 = (3.290)
VP1
where Again, we see that both expressions reduce to those
zd = zu + x sin α (3.285) found for the horizontal layer where the dip angle, α, is
zero.
and as before, zu is the distance from the source to the Equivalent expressions for the S-P converted wave
lower surface (along the perpendicular to that surface), are
whereas zd is the distance from the receiving point to the 0
0
lower surface and x is the source-receiver separation.
x p0 1 − p0 + (γ1 p0 )
2 1 − γ12 p20
To obtain an explicit relationship between the trav- = 0
(3.291)
eltime tPS (or tSP ) and the source-separation distance, zu cos α − p sin α 1 − p2
0 0
x, is not possible. We limit ourselves to parametric
equations between these two quantities by using the and
ray parameter,
zu 1 1 + x/zu sin α
sin θ sin φ tSP =
+
.
p= = . (3.286) VP1 γ 1 − γ 2 p2
VP1 VS1 1 1 0 1 − p 2
0
Therefore, we have
0
0
DIFFRACTIONS
x p0 1 − p20 + (γ1 p0 ) 1 − γ12 p20
= 0
(3.288) The subsurface is composed of more than reflec-
zu cos α − γ12 p0 sin α 1 − γ12 p20 tors; it also includes faults, simple and complex folds,
Partition of Energy at an Interface 119
pinchouts, unconformities, and so on. In many in- limitation can be caused by a fault, a pinchout, an
stances, the laws of reflection and refraction are inad- unconformity, or some other local discontinuity in the
equate because the energy is diffracted, rather than rock.
reflected or refracted. Our objective in this section is Let us now consider propagation of waves in
to introduce the notion of diffraction and to derive 2D media. Figure 3.42a shows a wave pattern pro-
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traveltime equations corresponding to diffractions. duced at the termination of a reflector. The original
down-traveling wavefront is shown as wavefront i, radi-
ating from the source point. The reflected front is shown
An Illustration of Diffractions as r. Near the termination of the discontinuous stratum,
the reflected front abruptly changes to a wavefront of
As an example, consider a plane wave of infinite greater curvature. This wavefront, denoted by d, radi-
extent traveling in homogeneous material. Three typical ates from the top corner of the terminated stratum;
secondary wavelets are shown in Figure 3.41a. Arrows the wavefront is a diffraction. In turn, this diffrac-
represent the amplitude and direction of particle veloc- tion changes to a wavefront of still greater curvature,
ity resulting from the wavelets. These vectors cancel which is a diffraction from the low corner of the broken
each other in all directions except the direction of prop- stratum.
agation. Consequently, the envelope of the secondary Figure 3.42b is an identical model but with the
wavelets remains a plane wave. However, if for some source placed just above the termination of the reflector.
reason the wavefront is limited, this mutual cancellation Again, the incident, reflected, and diffracted wavefronts
is incomplete; the resulting envelope of the secondary are visible.
wavelets is not a plane, because it has a diffraction tail. Figure 3.43 shows the wavefront pattern for a model
Figure 3.41b shows a plane wave that is finite in of faulted bedrock. Reflections from each side of the
extent and terminated by a barrier. Secondary wavelets fault, r1 and r2 , end abruptly and become diffrac-
are drawn, and vectors indicating the amplitude and tions. Again, limitation of the reflected wavefronts and
direction of particle velocity are shown. The wavelet the resulting lack of wavelet cancellation cause the
on the far right is not completely canceled; conse- diffraction.
quently, the envelope of wavelets shows a diffraction
tail. In general, the phenomenon of diffraction owes
its appearance to limitation of the wavefront. This Traveltime Equation for Refracted Waves
Figure 3.44 illustrates raypaths for forward tra-
verses and reverse traverses over a vertical step and
(a) the resultant traveltime curves. The area of interest is a
region surrounding the vertical step. At significant dis-
tances from the step in either direction we essentially
are dealing with two half-spaces. First, we concentrate
on the forward traverse. Early arrivals consist of direct
and head waves in a classic pattern, producing a two-
Plane wavefront segment traveltime curve. The last raypath to follow
(b) the normal state of affairs is QF. The position of F
on the surface is controlled by both z1 and the critical
angle; however, it is extremely unlikely that a receiver
would be located at this exact spot. In Figure 3.44, the
last receiver to record head-wave energy from the shal-
lower portion of the interface would be immediately to
the right of F.
Wavefront at a corner
Some wave energy follows the path BC (Figure
3.44), encounters the bottom of the step, produces
FIGURE 3.41. (a) Plane wavefront and (b) wavefront at a diffractions, and travels along CD. Then energy
corner. traveling along the deeper portion of the interface
120 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
2.0 km
background medium are
VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0.0
m/s; and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 . t
Properties of the reflec-
tor are VP = 3000 m/s,
VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ =
250 ms 250 ms
3.0 g/cm3 .
2.0 km
350 ms 350 ms
i i
r
2.0 km
d r
d
t
450 ms 550 ms
generates waves following such paths as CG and DN, intercept time of ti2 , whereas DN has an intercept time
which will return at the critical angle. Once again, on of ti1 .
the surface the position of G is controlled by the crit- If we compare QF and CG, (Figure 3.44) we see
ical angle and z1 + h. At some point to the left of G, that the difference in intercept ti2 −ti1 is due to the extra
this energy arrives first. These arrival times plot along distance, CE, traveled by CG at VP1 . CE is related to
a straight line with a slope of 1/VP2 . Note that this line the critical angle and the height of step h:
must be displaced later in time because raypaths such
as DN are longer than ones such as QF, which has an RD = h cos θic . (3.293)
Partition of Energy at an Interface 121
350 ms t
550 ms
2.0 km
400 ms
650 ms
i
d
r2
r
2.0 km
r1
t
450 ms t
Hence the intercept time difference can be computed Traveltime Equation for Reflected Waves
and z determined by the following:
Traveltimes of reflected waves computed for a
h cos θic single interface obviously are valid for the two sets
ti2 − ti1 = (3.294)
VP1 of reflections involved in the diffraction problem. In
or fact, the traveltimes tt for diffractions consist of two
(ti2 − ti1 ) VP2 VP1 components: 1) the traveltime td of a diffracted wave
h= . (3.295)
2 − V 2 1/2
VP2 from the edge of the step to a given horizontal distance,
P1
122 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
N GF A Xg Xs
✷ A
Z1 + h θic
θic
Z1
✷
Q
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E B Z1
VP1
Z2
D C
VP2
VP1
✷
VP2
D1
i R1
Source
R3
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0.9 R1 D1 R2
0.9
D1 R1
R3
2500 m
R2
Time (s)
1.3 R2 D1
1.3
1.7 R3 D4 D3 D2
Edge 1.7
800 ms 1100 ms
i R1 R3
D1
0.9 0.9
R2
R3
D1
2500 m
R1 R2
Time (s)
R2
1.3 R3 1.3
D1
1.7 D4 D3 1.7
Edge D2
800 ms 1100 ms
FIGURE 3.46. Diffraction and reflection patterns over a vertical step fault such as that depicted in Figure 3.45. (Note that the
downthrown block is to the right.) In (a) the source is directly over the step. In (b) the source is displaced 200 m from the
diffracting edge (z1 = 500 m and z2 = 750 m in accordance with annotations in Figure 3.45). (c) Two snapshots of wave
propagation recorded in Figure 3.46a. (d) Two snapshots of wave propagation recorded in Figure 3.46b. Properties of the top
medium are VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 . Properties of the bottom medium are VP = 2000 m/s,
VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 . Symbols: R1: reflection from the interface at z1 (see Figure 3.45); D1: first diffraction
from the top corner; R2: reflection from the interface at z2 ; R3: reflection from the interface at z2 followed by a reflection
from the step (vertical interface). For description of the other events see Problem 11.21.
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING the refracted wave. The subsurface model used to
generate the traveltime curves is an acoustic two-
1) We consider two half-spaces, as described in half-space medium.
Figure 3.47. Elastic properties of the upper half-
space are known; those of the lower half-space 3) Figure 3.49 represents the P-P reflection coeffi-
are not. The critical angle of P-P reflection is 30 cient versus the incident angle. The model of the
degrees (Figure 3.47a), and that of the P-S reflec- subsurface used here is two half-spaces.
tion is 60 degrees (Figure 3.47b). The P-P reflec- a) Estimate the critical angle.
tion coefficient at normal incidence is 0.2. Cal- b) If the P-wave velocity of the upper half-
culate the density, P-wave velocity, and S-wave space is 2300 m/s, what is the P-wave
velocity of the lower half-space. velocity of the lower half-space?
c) Estimate the P-P transmission coefficient
2) Identify the seismic events in Figure 3.48 and and the P-S transmission coefficient at the
the corresponding slopes for the direct wave and normal incidence.
124 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
a) 0.4
R PP
0.2
0
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Amplitude
–0.2
– 0.4
b)
–0.6
–0.8
–1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle (degrees)
If the layer is assumed to have a constant velocity, (a) S-wave S-wave P-wave
half-spaces
P-wave
17) Now assume that the velocity variation in the crust S-wave
is given by (b)
1.0
V0 ; 0 ≤ z ≤ H2 , 0.8
1 2
Energy
(3.308) 0.6
0.4
3.5 km/s; z > 2H2 .
0.2
Energy
1, shown in Problem 11.15. 0.6
0.4
18) Calculate the exact NMO correction, t, for the 0.2
models in Problems 11.16 and 11.17, and com- 0.0
pare the results of these calculations with the exact 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
NMO correction for the assumed (linearly vary- Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
Vn (x− ) = Vn (x+ ), (3.309) 22) Figure 3.53b is a series of graphs showing the par-
titioning of energy corresponding two half-space
where x− and x+ denote locations in the fluid and model as depicted in Figure 3.53a. The incident
the elastic medium at the interface, respectively. wave is S-wave and it is located in the upper-half
Notice that when the fluid/solid interface is hori- space. Note that VP2 > VP1 .
zontal and flat, then Vn is the vertical component a) Associate each of the diagrams in Figure
of the particle velocity Vz . So for a horizontal flat 3.53b to a reflection or transmission coef-
interface, the following relation is true: ficient (RSP , RSS , TSP , and TSS ).
b) Estimate the Poisson’s ratio of each
Vz (z− ) = Vz (z+ ), (3.310) half-space.
Note that the upper half-space is characterized by
where z− and z+ denote depths in the fluid and VP1 , VS1 , and ρ1 , whereas the bottom half-space
the elastic medium at the interface, respectively. is characterized by VP2 , VS2 , and ρ2 .
4
THE FOURIER REPRESENTATION
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OF SEISMIC SIGNALS
Petroleum seismology has undergone a dramatic The changes might be due to noise, for instance. For
change in the past four decades, due in significant mea- such changes, wavelet representations — which have
sure to the increasing use of digital signal-processing recently entered the arena of seismic signal representa-
tools. Chief among these tools is the concept of the tion — are more appropriate. For this reason, in this
Fourier representation of seismic signals. Although no chapter we will also discuss the concept of wavelet
information contained in seismic signals is lost or added representation.
when we pass from the time domain to the Fourier rep- We will begin the chapter by recalling the definition
resentation, this representation provides a framework of signals and systems, as this terminology will be used
for determination or reconstruction of some obscure or repeatedly, here and in subsequent chapters.
hidden aspects of seismic data.
In this chapter our first goal is to introduce the
Fourier series and Fourier transforms, which are the
two basic tools of the Fourier representation generally SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
used in petroleum seismology.
Seismic signals are generally very complex. In most Signals
instances, they cannot be represented by an analytical
mathematical expression; therefore we cannot handle A signal is defined as any physical quantity that
the Fourier transform analytically in most cases. We varies with time, space, or any other independent vari-
need a computer to perform the Fourier transforms able. A seismic trace is an example of a one-variable
(actually, computers are needed in the entire processing signal, S(x0 , t) (where x0 is a fixed point and t is the
of seismic data). Consequently, the signals, which are variable), and a shot gather is an example of a two-
continuous1 by nature, must be digitized; that means variable signal, S(x, t), where x and t are variables, (see
they are converted into discrete signals by taking “sam- Figure 2.2b).
ples” of the continuous signals at discrete instants in Sometimes we will qualify a signal as being ran-
time. Our second goal in this chapter is to describe dom, when it describes an unwanted behavior (random
ways of making the signals discrete, without distorting signals are also known as stochastic signals). How-
them. ever, when the signal describes a perfectly predictable
To gain more insight into the usefulness of the behavior, we will qualify it as a deterministic signal
Fourier representation, we will discuss its applica- and, for short, as a signal. Notice that many perfectly
tion in some basic operations routinely encountered predictable signals are sometimes treated as random sig-
in petroleum seismology, such as convolution between nals, because we may not be interested in their detailed
signals. behavior.
As with most things in life, the Fourier represen- Signals can be classified further as being continuous
tation has its limitations, which we will describe. In or discrete. Continuous signals — say, in time — are
particular, we will show that the Fourier representation defined for every value of time, and they take on values
does not clearly represent signals with sudden changes. in the continuous interval (a, b), where a can be −∞
and b can be ∞. Discrete-time signals are defined only
at certain specific values of time.
In addition to signals being represented as functions
1 A seismic signal is a measurement of ground motion, which by nature
of time, they can also be represented as functions of
is continuous. Actually, most signals encountered in science and engineering
are continuous: the signals are functions of a continuous variable, such as frequency by use of the Fourier transform; this topic is
time or space, and usually take values in a continuous range. discussed in this chapter.
127
128 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
of noise on desired signals is a system. In this case, the be regarded as a nonpassive system, because in the event
filtering program performs some operations on seismic of an earthquake, it can generate seismic data without
signals (i.e., seismic data). The program has the effect an external input signal. In petroleum seismology, we
of reducing the interferences of noise on the desired treat the earth as a passive seismic system because we
signals (we say that we have “processed” the data). In a assume that it generates a ground motion (i.e., an out-
more general sense, software realizations of operations put signal) only if there is an input signal. Actually, all
on a signal are examples of systems. Hence, soft- systems discussed in this book are considered as being
ware programs that compose seismic data-processing passive. Notice that in petroleum seismology, cultural
packages constitute an ensemble of systems. noise, wind noise, and microseismicity generally are
The definition of a system is not limited to software considered to be negligible.
programs or to physical devices; systems are far broader A system is time-invariant if shifting the input sig-
than that. For instance, the earth can be treated as a sys- nal by a certain time increment produces an output that
tem because it responds to a source by producing ground is shifted by the same time, without changing the output
motions that are recorded as seismic signals (seismic signal in any other way. For example, if the source time
data). Here the “source” represents the means by which function (which is the input signal in this case) used
seismic data are generated. The weight-drop source to generate seismic data is shifted by 100 ms, then the
introduced in Chapter 2 is an example of a source. seismic data are also shifted 100 ms — if the earth (“the
system,” in this case) is assumed to be elastic and the task. In this section, we will answer this question based
recording system time-invariant. However, if the seis- on the cosine wave signal, which is the simplest set
mic data are shifted by any other amount, and if the earth of real periodic functions, yet it is very important in
is assumed to be elastic, then the recording system is Fourier representation.
considered to be variable with time. The cosine-wave signal can be described mathe-
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(a) (b)
T1 =1/f1
A1
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t1 A1 f
f1
Amplitude spectrum
0
φ1
f
f1
Phase spectrum
t=0
FIGURE 4.2. (a) Cosine wave and (b) its spectrum (φ1 = 2π t1 ).
delayed with respect to the reference signal. Figure 4.2 we can write the cosine wave in this form:
illustrates this point for different values of φ.
By writing phase φ in the following form, these u(t) = a cos(2π ft) + b sin(2π ft), (4.14)
advances and delays can be expressed in time instead where
of angles: a = A cos φ, b = A sin φ. (4.15)
φ = 2πft0 (4.9)
Conversely,
(for example, when φ = π/2, t0 = T /4). b
If we substitute expression (4.9) in equation (4.4), A= a 2 + b2 , sin φ = √ ,
the cosine wave takes the following form: a + b2
2
a
u(t) = A cos[2πf (t − t0 )] cos φ = √ . (4.16)
a 2 + b2
= A cos(2πft − φ). (4.10) Cosine waves in the form of equation (4.14) will be used
extensively in the next section.
Notice that because
−π ≤ φ ≤ π, (4.11)
1
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10 20 f
Amplitude spectrum
+
– 800
0 50 100 150 200
Time (ms) Phase spectrum
f
10 100
Amplitude spectrum
f
10 100
Phase spectrum
–100 –50 0 50 100
Time (ms)
periodic narrow pulse shown on the top trace. The series, in which each cosine wave has its own frequency,
effect of successively adding cosine waves is shown amplitude, and phase. In this section our objective
in Figure 4.5, in which the nth signal is the sum of is to demonstrate that this observation is correct; any
the first n cosine waves. As cosine waves are added, periodic signal can be decomposed as a sum of cosine
the pulse becomes larger and narrower. Furthermore, waves. This sum is known as the Fourier series.
as the number of cosine waves continues to increase
toward infinity, the resultant signal approaches a series
of impulses having infinite height and zero width. In this Basis Representation for Signals
figure the amplitude of the nth trace has been reduced
by the factor 1/n, for the clarity of this display. Our derivation of the Fourier series here utilizes the
The amplitude spectrum of the pulse consists of notion of basis representation for signals. So we start
a series of lines of equal amplitude at frequencies by recalling this notion.
of 10, 20, . . . , 100 Hz. This series of lines is plotted As shown in Box 4.2, the notion of orthonormal
in Figure 4.4. The phase spectrum is zero for each basis representation is not limited to the Cartesian repre-
frequency. sentation. It can also be used for spaces made of signals,
Results shown in Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 suggest as long as an appropriate scalar product can be defined.
that a periodic time signal can be reconstructed Let us consider a space of square integrable signals on
by adding individual cosine waves in the form of a the interval [a, b], which we will denote X . We can
132 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
The fact is well known that if {i, j, k} is the is said to be orthonormal on the interval [a, b] if
orthonormal basis of a vector space, any vector x in
b
this space can be represented uniquely as a linear
combination of i, j, k: en (t), em (t) = en (t)em (t)dt = 0
a
(n = m; n, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .) (4.20)
x = x, ii + x, jj + x, kk, (4.17)
and
where ., . denote a scalar product, as defined in b
Chapter 2. en (t), en (t) = e2n (t)dt = 1
Actually, this description is not limited to the a
Cartesian vector space; it is also valid for spaces (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .). (4.21)
of signals as long as we can define a scalar product
in the given space. For a space of square integrable Condition (4.20) says that every pair of two dif-
signals in the interval [a, b], we can define the scalar ferent signals of the system (4.19) is orthogonal,
product as whereas condition (4.21) says that each signal is
normalized.
Now that we have defined the orthonormal
b
basis of the space of signals, any given square
φ(t), ψ(t) = φ(t)ψ(t)dt, (4.18)
a integrable signal in the interval [a, b], say, u(t),
can be expressed uniquely as a linear combina-
where φ(t) and ψ(t) are two square integrable tion of signals constituting the orthonormal basis,
signals in the interval [a, b]. as follows:
Let us introduce the concept of the orthonor- ∞
mal basis in this space of signals. A system of real u(t) = u(t), en (t)en (t). (4.22)
signals, n=0
or
∞ ∞
a0 2πnt 2π nt
u(t) = + an cos + bn sin ,
2 T T
1 1
(4.29)
where
2 +T /2
a0 = 2u(t), e0 (t) = u(t)dt, (4.30)
T −T /2
2 +T /2 2πnt
–100 –50 0 50 100 an = u(t), e2n (t) = u(t) cos dt,
Time (ms) T −T /2 T
(4.31)
FIGURE 4.5. The effect of successively adding the cosine and
wave, as shown in Figure 4.4.
2 +T /2 2πnt
bn = u(t), e2n−1 (t) = u(t) sin dt,
T −T /2 T
u1 (t) and u2 (t) of the space U , as follows: (4.32)
T T /2
where T is the basic period of the periodic time func-
u1 (t), u2 (t) = u1 (t)u2 (t)dt = u1 (t)u2 (t)dt.
0 −T /2 tion u. The reciprocal of T is called the fundamental
frequency, f1 = 1/T . The sum given by equation (4.29)
(4.26) is called a Fourier series. It is composed of
The next step is to construct an orthonormal basis of (1) DC component, a0 /2;
periodic functions with a periodic T , which can be used (2) series of cosine terms with frequencies f1 , 2f1 , . . . ;
to represent any signal of U . and
The whole idea of basis representation is to find a (3) series of sine terms with frequencies f1 , 2f1 , . . . .
set of simpler signals that can be used to reconstruct
the complex ones. Cosine and sine signals of period Using the identity (4.13), the Fourier series alter-
T probably are the simpler signals of space U . Fortu- natively can be reorganized as a sum of cosine waves,
nately, the following set of cosine and sine signals of in which each cosine wave has a frequency fn = n/T ,
period T , an amplitude An , and a phase shift φn , as follows:
∞
2 1 2πt 2πt 4πt
B= √ , sin , cos , sin , u(t) = A0 + An cos(ωn t − φn ), (4.33)
T 2 T T T n=1
4πt 2nπt 2nπt
cos , . . . , sin , cos ,... where ωn = 2π fn = 2π n/T . The amplitude of each
T T T cosine wave, An , is given by
= {eo (t), e1 (t), e2 (t), e3 (t),
a0
e4 (t), . . . , e2n−1 (t), e2n (t), . . .}, (4.27) A0 = , An = an2 + bn2 . (4.34)
2
constitutes an orthonormal basis in U . Based on the The phase shift of each cosine, φn , is defined by
definition of scalar product in expression (4.26), it
is easy to see that the elements of B verify both the bn
φn = arctan (4.35)
orthogonality and normalization conditions defined in an
134 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
+T /2
or 2
an = [ue (t) + uo (t)] cos ωn tdt, (4.42)
bn an T −T /2
sin φn = , cos φn = . (4.36)
an2 + bn2 an2 + bn2 2 +T /2
bn = [ue (t) + uo (t)] sin ωn tdt. (4.43)
T −T /2
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bn 0, an positive
odd functions, u(t) = ue (t) + uo (t), where ue (t) is the φn = arctan = . (4.48)
even function and uo (t) is the odd function: an π , an negative
ue (t) = 21 [u(t) + u(−t)]; On the other hand, when u(t) is an odd function,
a0 = 0 and an = 0. In this special case, the amplitude
uo (t) = 21 [u(t) − u(−t)]. (4.40) and phase coefficients become
We will use this property to derive the Fourier series of
even and odd functions. An = an + bn = bn2 = |bn |
2 2 (4.49)
Substituting the relation u(t) = ue (t) + uo (t) into
equations (4.37) through (4.39) gives and
bn bn positive
2 +T /2 φn = arctan =
π/2,
. (4.50)
a0 = [ue (t) + uo (t)]dt, (4.41) an −π/2, bn negative
T −T /2
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 135
Example 1: The Fourier Series Within these limits the sawtooth increases linearly with
of Sawtooth Waves a slope equal to 2, and passes through the origin. Hence,
u(t) = 2t is substituted into these equations, along with
Let us consider a sawtooth waveform of the type T = 1. Calculation of a0 is shown:
shown in Figure 4.6. Clearly, this sawtooth waveform
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T /2 1/2
is a periodic signal, with a period of 1 second (i.e., 2
T = 1 sec). Our objective is to calculate the Fourier a0 = u(t)dt = 2tdt = 0. (4.51)
T −T /2 −1/2
series of the sawtooth waveform.
Calculation of the Fourier series involves deter- Because the sawtooth waveform is an odd function, we
mination of the cosine and sine coefficients an and could have concluded that a0 = 0 without evaluating
bn , respectively, and the DC value, a0 , in the infinite the integral based on the derivations in the preceding
series, given by equation (4.29). The coefficients are subsection.
computed using equations (4.37) through (4.39). First, The an coefficients are evaluated as follows:
u(t) must be specified within the limits of integration.
2 T /2 2π n
an = u(t) cos t dt
T −T /2 T
u(t) 1/2
=2 2t cos(2πnt)dt. (4.52)
−1/2
+1
The integral is equal to the area under the product
curve 2t cos(2πnt) between the above limits. Figure 4.7
t shows that the net area under the product curve is
zero; hence a1 = 0. Similar graphs of the product
–1 curves 2t cos(2πnt) would show that the net area under
1 sec
the curves is zero for any n; hence an = 0 where
t=0 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . This result is expected because the
sawtooth is an odd function.
FIGURE 4.6. A sawtooth wave. The bn coefficients are calculated using equation
(4.39), which becomes
1/2
+1 +1 bn = 8 t sin(2π nt)dt (4.53)
−1/2
–1 –1
FIGURE 4.7. Calculation of a1 and b1 for
a1 b1 a sawtooth wave.
136 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
This equation can be integrated by parts: special case, the amplitude and phase spectra are given
by
x sin xdx = sin x − x cos x. (4.55)
An = |bn | (4.60)
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To get equation (4.54) into its proper form, let x = bn π/2, bn positive
2πnt. Then t = x/2πn, dt = dx/2πn, and the upper φn = arctan = . (4.61)
an −π/2, bn negative
limit t = +1/2 becomes x = πn. Then equation (4.54)
becomes The sum of the cosine wave of the sawtooth wave is
+π n shown in Figure 4.8. Each successive trace contains one
x dx
bn = 8 sin x more term than the trace below. As the number of terms
0 2πn (2πn) increases, the resultant signal approaches the sawtooth
+π n
2 waveform more closely. It is interesting to see the effect
= x sin xdx that changes in the phase spectrum have on the resultant
(πn)2 0
waveform. In Figure 4.9b, each frequency component
2
= (sin x − x cos x)|+πn
0 has been shifted in phase by 180 degrees. This shift
(πn)2 inverts each sine component in equation (4.59), and
2 as a consequence, the resultant signal is inverted. In
= (sin πn − πn cos nπ). (4.56)
(πn)2 Figure 4.9a, each frequency component has been shifted
in phase by 90 degrees. The resultant signal bears no
Thus resemblance to a sawtooth; in fact, it has become an
2 2
, n odd even function. This result is to be expected, because
bn = − cos nπ = π n 2 . (4.57) upon being shifted 90 degrees, each of the sine terms in
(πn) − πn , n even
equation (4.61) becomes a cosine term.
As the a0 and an coefficients are equal to zero, the
Fourier series representation of the repeating sawtooth
is given by a sine series, Example 2: The Fourier Series
∞
of Square Waves
2πn
u(t) = bn sin t. (4.58)
T Let us consider a square waveform, as shown in
n=1
Figure 4.10. We can see that this square waveform is an
By substituting the computed values of bn into equation even periodic signal, with a period of 2 seconds (i.e.,
(4.57) and by setting T = 1, we obtain T = 2). Our objective is to calculate the Fourier series
of the square waveform.
2 1
u(t) = sin 2πt − sin 4πt
π 2
1
+ sin 6πt − · · · .
3
(4.59)
f
FIGURE 4.8. The effect of successively
– π/2
adding the terms of a Fourier series of 0 500 1000 1500
sawtooth waves. Time (ms) Phase spectrum
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 137
T 0
0, an positive
φn = . (4.68)
Before calculating the an and bn coefficients, look at π , an negative
graphs of the functions u(t) cos πnt and u(t) sin πnt
for n = 1, where u(t) is the square wave shown in Since T = 2, the fundamental frequency and the fre-
Figure 4.10. We can see that the net area for u(t) sin π nt quency spacing are equal to 1/2 Hz. The amplitude
is zero. Similar construction for any other values of n and phase spectra of this square signal are shown in
(the higher frequencies) would show that the net area of Figure 4.11.
each product function u(t) sin πnt is zero; hence bn = 0 Figure 4.11 also shows summations of cosine waves
for all values of n. This result can be anticipated because according to equation (4.66). Each successive trace con-
the square wave is an even function. tains one more cosine term than the trace below. As the
For the product function u(t) cos πt, the net area is number of terms increases, the signal of the sum more
equal to twice the area between t = 0 and t = +T /2. closely approaches the square wave.
138 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
–1 4 –1
+1 +1
3
cos(πt) sin(πt)
–1 –1
1 1
1
u(t) u(t)
0
1 2 3 f
Amplitude spectrum
–π
0 500 1000 1500
Time (ms) Phase spectrum
The Fourier Transform of we obtain the inverse Fourier transform, which allows
Periodic Functions us to predict a periodic function when its amplitude and
phase spectrum are known; i.e.,
Let us consider a periodic function u(t) of a period
∞
T . Its Fourier series representation is 1 2π nt
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Trace 1
1s
T=2s t (a) T = 2 s
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Trace 2
t
T = 20 s
f
1 2 3 4
Trace 3
T→ ∞ t
(b) T = 20 s
between frequencies by a factor of 10. Also, the ampli-
tudes at the frequencies that are common in the two
cases, namely,
1 3 5 f
f = 0, , 1, , 2, , . . . , 1 2 3 4
2 2 2
are reduced by a factor of 10 when the period of the
square wave is increased by the same factor of 10. The
Fourier representation of Traces 1 and 2 is shown in
Figure 4.13. Therefore, as the basic period increases, (c) T → ∞
the spectrum contains more and more frequencies with
less and less amplitude. However, at the frequencies
common to the two cases, the amplitude per fundamen-
tal frequency (or amplitude × period) remains constant,
independent of the period. As the period approaches
f
infinity (i.e., the transient case), both the amplitude
and the fundamental frequency approach zero, but the 1 2 3 4
amplitude per fundamental frequency remains constant.
FIGURE 4.13. Cosine spectra for square waves shown in
Then the spectrum becomes a continuous function of
Figure 4.12: (a) corresponds to Trace 1, (b) corresponds to
frequency rather than a set of coefficients located at Trace 2, and (c) corresponds to Trace 3.
the specific frequencies. The coefficient an (i.e., cosine
spectra) of the Fourier series in the three cases is shown
in Figure 4.13. The discrete spectra of the periodic func- in both equations (4.80) and (4.81). Because ω1 =
tions are plots of amplitude per fundamental frequency, 2π/T , as T increases to infinity, ω1 becomes infinite-
and the continuous spectrum is the limiting case as the simally small, a condition that is denoted by replacing
fundamental frequency approaches zero. ω1 with ω. The factor 1/T becomes ω/2π. With
As we have seen in this example, the periodicity these algebraic manipulations and changes in notation,
constraint imposed on the Fourier series representation equations (4.80) and (4.81) take on the following forms:
can be removed by taking the limits of statement (4.79)
+∞
as the period T is increased to infinity. 1
Some modifications to equations (4.80) and (4.81) u(t) = U (n) exp{inωt}ω (4.82)
2π n=−∞
are required, so that these results can be well defined
after the limit is taken. It is convenient to remove the 1/T +T /2
factor in front of the integral by multiplying expression
U (n) = u(t) exp{−inωt}dt. (4.83)
(4.81) through by T and then replacing TU(n) by U (n) −T /2
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 141
+∞
The final step in obtaining the Fourier transform of a 1
u(t) = U(ω) exp{iωt}dω. (4.85)
nonperiodic function is to take the limit of both expres- 2π −∞
sions (4.82) and (4.83) as T → ∞. In the limit, the Note that there is no universal agreement on the defi-
infinite summation in equation (4.83) becomes an inte- nition of the Fourier integral transform. Often, authors
gral, ω becomes dω, nω becomes ω, U (n) becomes
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Example 1: The Fourier Transform Substituting u(t) into the basic transform equation
of the Exponential Function (4.84), we obtain
+∞
In this example we calculate the Fourier transform U(ω) = exp(−at) exp(−iωt)dt
0
of the exponential function defined by +∞
= exp{−(a + iω)t}dt
0
t≥0
+∞
u(t) =
exp{−at} 1
0 t<0
. (4.95) = exp{−(a + iω)t}
−(a + iω) 0
142 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
tinuous signal discrete, the Nyquist frequency is de- its discrete values, xn = xc (nt). In fact, xc (t) is
fined as follows: given by the following formula:
1
fN = , +∞
2t sin[2π fN (t − nt)]
xc (t) = t xn .
or π n=−∞
π(t − nt)
ωN = .
t
The Nyquist frequency is the highest frequency The other reason why the Nyquist frequency is so
that the signal can represent unambiguously. important involves the sampling of continuous sig-
So the Nyquist frequency is important for two nals that are not bandwidth-limited to less than the
reasons. The first reason is that if a continuous sig- Nyquist frequency. In this case, all the power spec-
nal xc (t), made discrete at an interval t, happens trum that lies outside frequency range | f | > fN is
to be bandwidth-limited to frequencies smaller in moved into the range | f | < fN . This phenomenon
magnitude than fN — i.e., if X( f ) = 0 [X( f ) is is called aliasing. In the coming sections, these two
the Fourier transform of x(t)] for all | f | > fN — reasons are discussed and illustrated in more detail.
A, |t| ≤ T2
β(ω) −ω u(t) = (4.101)
φ(ω) = arctan = arctan . (4.100) 0, otherwise,
α(ω) a
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 143
A ωT ωT
= exp i − exp −i
iω 2 2
2A ωT
= sin ,
ω 2
2A 2πf T sin πf T t
= sin = AT 1/(2f0) 1/f0 3/(2f0 ) 2/f0
2πf 2 πf T
= AT sinc f T ,
= α( f ) + iβ( f ), (4.102)
(b)
A
where
The rectangular pulse and its sinc spectrum are FIGURE 4.15. Sinc time function and its spectrum: (a) sinc
shown in Figure 4.14. At f = 0, α( f ) = AT , which time function and (b) rectangular spectrum.
shows that the DC spectral value is equal to the net
area of the time function. Notice that α( f ) is an even
function of frequency, but the phase spectrum is null. transform (4.85). The results of the calculation show
Consider now a time function whose Fourier trans- that the corresponding time function is a sinc function,
form is unity between ±fo and zero outside [i.e., its real u(t) = 2fo sinc 2fo t. (4.104)
part, α( f ), is given in Figure 4.15; its imaginary part,
β( f ), is zero everywhere]. The time function having Its value at t = 0 is 2fo , which is equal to the net area
this transform can be calculated from the inverse Fourier of the rectangular spectrum (see Figure 4.15).
The transform relationship shown above, in which
a rectangular function in one domain transforms into a
(a)
sinc function in the other domain, is an example of the
A reciprocity that exists when the time function is a real,
even function. The phase spectrum is zero, β( f ) = 0.
T t
properties are valid for both the forward and inverse The Multidimensional Fourier Transform
Fourier transforms, the following properties of the
Fourier transform are valid: The Fourier transform extension from the one-
dimensional Fourier transform to a multivariable signal
1) Linearity (superposition): is straightforward. For instance, the two-dimensional
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w(t) = u(t − τ ) ⇐⇒ W (ω) = exp(−iωτ )U(ω). where kx and ω are the spatial and temporal frequencies
associated with x and t, respectively. Properties of the
4) Differentiation: two-dimensional Fourier transform are essentially the
same as those of the one-dimensional Fourier transform.
du(t)
w(t) = ⇐⇒ W (ω) = iωU(ω).
dt
and to analyze the properties of the discrete form of the sample interval, 1/t, which is called the sampling
Fourier transform. rate. To avoid confusion, we will use only the term sam-
ple interval to indicate t, throughout the remainder of
this book.
Discrete Signal Uniform sampling establishes a relationship bet-
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From these relations we observe that the fundamental it is common practice to use the largest sample inter-
difference between the continuous-time and discrete- val allowed by the sampling theorem. For instance, a
time signals is in the range of values of the frequency 1- or a 4-ms sample interval is adequate for seismic
variable fc . Uniform sampling of a continuous-time sig- signals. However, we commonly select 4 ms, so as to
nal implies a mapping of the infinite frequency range reduce the number of samples and therefore our storage
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sampled values generated by cos(πn/2), there is some 8-ms sample interval, because 62.5 Hz is smaller than
ambiguity about whether these sampled values corre- 156.25 Hz.
spond to x1 (t) or x2 (t), as illustrated in Figure 4.17. To understand the effect of aliasing better, it is use-
Since x2 (t) yields exactly the same values as x1 (t) when ful to study the amplitude spectrum of the signal, in
the two are sampled with t = 8 ms, we say that the addition to the time-domain picture. For example, con-
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frequency f2 = 156.25 Hz is an alias of the frequency sider the continuous signal, as shown in Figure 4.18a,
f1 = 31.25 Hz at t = 8 ms. with its amplitude spectrum. The spectrum is zero for
Based on the sampling theorem, the signal x1 (t), | f | ≥ fmax . Now, if the sample interval t is selected
which has a maximum frequency at 31.25 Hz, will such that
be sampled adequately with the 8-ms sample inter- 1
t < , (4.127)
val because the highest frequency associated with this 2fmax
sample interval is 62.5 Hz, well above 31.5 Hz. How- the amplitude spectrum of the discrete-time signal will
ever, the signal x2 (t), which has a maximum fre- appear as shown in Figure 4.18b. In this case there is no
quency at 156.25 Hz, will not be sampled well with an aliasing, and therefore the spectrum of the discrete-time
signal is identical to the spectrum of the analog signal
within the fundamental frequency range | f | ≤ 2t 1
.
On the other hand, if the sample interval t is
selected such that
1
t > , (4.128)
2fmax
the amplitude spectrum of the discrete-time signal will
appear as shown in Figure 4.18c. Thus the spectrum
of the discrete-time signal contains aliased frequency
components of the continuous signal spectrum. The
result is that the aliasing prevents us from recovering
the original signal xc (t) from the samples.
So aliasing occurs when the sample interval is too
FIGURE 4.17. Illustration of aliasing. large. The effect can be described by a multiple folding
(c)
n F
148 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
-fmax fmax
F
0
of the frequency variable f for the continuous signal. at 2 ms — during the seismic acquisition, to avoid
The shifted portions are added to the corresponding distorting the desired spectrum with noise that may
spectrum of the discrete-time signal within the funda- contain frequencies higher than 125 Hz. Then, at the
mental frequency range, as illustrated in Figure 4.19. In start of data processing, we can filter the recorded sig-
practice, an antialiasing filter is usually employed prior nal for noise containing frequencies higher than 125 Hz,
to sampling. This ensures that frequency components of before resampling the data at 4 ms.
the signal above f ≥ fmax are sufficiently attenuated, so
that if they are aliased, they cause negligible distortion
of the desired signal. Reconstruction of the Continuous
According to the sampling theorem and the recon- Signal from its Discrete Samples
struction formula in equation (4.119), recovery of xc (t)
from its samples, x(n), requires an infinite number of Our objective here is to prove that the interpolation
samples. However, in practice we use a finite number formula (4.119) allows us to reconstruct the original
of samples of the signal and deal with finite-duration continuous signal xc (t) from the samples x(n).
signals. Consequently, we are concerned only with Figure 4.15 clearly shows that the frequency re-
reconstruction of a finite-duration signal from a finite sponse function H( f ) of the interpolating filter is given
number of samples. by
In exploration seismology, the sample interval com-
monly used in processing data is 4 ms. This sample t, −fmax ≤ f ≤ fmax
H( f ) = . (4.131)
interval causes frequencies greater than 0, all other f
1 From results in equation (4.104), the impulse h(t) of
= 125 Hz (4.129)
2(0.004) this filter is given by
to be aliased. An original frequency of 200 Hz present
in the original signal (which may be noise) before dis- h(t) = 2fmax tsinc(2πfmax t),
cretization will appear in the discrete version folded at − ∞ < t < ∞, (4.132)
[125 − (200 − 125)]Hz = 50 Hz. (4.130) and the output y(t) of the interpolation filter is given by
∞
The common solution to this problem is to record xc (t) = h(t) ∗ x(t) = x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ , (4.133)
data at a sampling interval smaller than 4 ms — say, −∞
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 149
where or
∞
x(t) = x(nt)δ(t − nt). 1
N−1
(4.134) 2π kn
n=−∞ X(k) = x(n) exp −i . (4.141)
N N
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n=0
Inserting equation (4.134) into equation (4.133) gives
∞ ∞ Equation (4.141) is a discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
xc (t) = x(nt)δ(τ − nt)h(t − τ )dτ It allows us to go from the discrete periodic signal to the
−∞ n=−∞ corresponding phase and amplitude spectrum. Notice
(4.135) that the derivation leading to equation (4.141) involves
From the shifting property of the impulse, equation a discrete approximation to an integral. Therefore, the
(4.135) reduces to DFT is an approximation, the accuracy of which may
be expected to improve as N becomes very large and
∞
the sample interval t becomes correspondingly small.
xc (t) = x(nt)h(t − nt). (4.136) As we did for the continuous signals, we can also
n=−∞
define an inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) as
Finally, inserting equation (4.132) into equation (4.136) follows:
gives
N−1
∞ 2πkm
fmax x(m) = X(k) exp i . (4.142)
xc (t) = x(nt)sinc (t − nt) . (4.137) N
n=−∞
π k=0
The interpolation formula (4.137) forms the basis of the To see how we arrive at this result, let us substitute
sampling theorem. Notice that this formula for recov- equation (4.142) in equation (4.141); i.e.,
ering xc (t) from its samples x(n) requires an infinite
number of samples. However, in petroleum seismology
N−1
2π km
we use a finite number of samples of the signal and deal X(k) exp i
with finite-duration signals. Consequently, we are con- N
k=0
cerned only with reconstructing a finite-duration signal
1
N−1 N−1
from a finite number of samples. 2πk(n − m)
= x(n) exp −i
N N
k=0 n=0
N−1
1
N−1
The Discrete Fourier Transform 2π k(n − m)
= x(n) exp −i .
N N
n=0 k=0
Let us consider a periodic function x(t) with a
(4.143)
period T . Its Fourier transform is given by
1 T 2πkt Using the identity
X(k) = x(t) exp −i dt. (4.138)
T 0 T
N−1
If we assume that the signal x(t) is also discrete, i.e., 2π k(n − m) N if m = n
exp −i = ,
N 0 otherwise
N−1 k=0
x(t) = x(nt)δ(t − nt), (4.139) (4.144)
n=0 we arrive at
where t is the sample interval and N is the num-
N−1
1
N−1
ber of discrete equidistant values of t contained in one 2π k(n − m)
x(n) exp −i = x(m).
period T = Nt, then the integral in expression (4.138) N
n=0 k=0
N
becomes a sum, as follows: (4.145)
1
N−1
2πknt
X(k) = x(n) exp −i t (4.140) So, equation (4.142) allows us to reconstruct x(m) from
Nt Nt
n=0 the coefficients of the Fourier series.
150 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
1
N−1
2πkn
X(k) = x(n) exp −i ,
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N
n=0
N *
k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1, (4.146)
*
and the inverse DFT (IDFT) is given by
N−1 k
2πkn
x(n) = X(k) exp +i , N/4 N/2 3N/4 N
N
k=0
n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1. (4.147) FIGURE 4.20. Conjugate symmetry of the Fourier transform
of a real-time signal. Note that here, ∗ denotes a complex
Note that other definitions of DFT and IDFT use N −1/2 conjugate. (Adapted from Hatton et al., 1986.)
in both equations (4.146) and (4.147).
sample N is also real. Finally, by use of equations
(4.148) and (4.150), this result can be proved:
Some Properties of the Discrete X ∗ (N/2) = X(N/2). (4.153)
Fourier Transform
Hence sample N/2 also is real. In general, equa-
1) Periodicity: By definition, the DFT is periodic, with tions (4.148) and (4.150) give X ∗ (k) = X(N − k).
a period N. Setting k = N + l in equation (4.146) Figure 4.20 summarizes these symmetries. Sam-
leads directly to ple N/2 corresponds to the so-called Nyquist fre-
quency, which is important in the discretization of
X(N + l) = X(l). (4.148)
continuous-time series, as discussed earlier.
2) Discrete real-time signal: Many signals in petroleum 3) No description of the DFT would be complete with-
seismology are real. Hence taking the complex con- out some mention of the fast Fourier transform, or
jugate of equation (4.146) gives FFT, as it is universally abbreviated. As its name
would suggest, the FFT is simply an elegant way of
1 performing DFTs efficiently. The existence of this
N−1
∗ 2πkn
X (k) = x(n) exp i algorithm makes the DFT a practical tool, as without
N N
n=0 it even very powerful computers would not be fast
enough to perform DFTs on large discrete-time sig-
1
N−1
2π(−k)n
= x(n) exp −i nals — such as the ones encountered in petroleum
N N seismology. For a discussion of the FFT algorithm,
n=0
= X(−k), (4.149) we refer the readers to a large number of books that
contain as much or as little as the reader could wish
from which one can deduce that to know on the subject (e.g., Bracewell, 1978, and
Brigham, 1974).
X ∗ (k) = X(−k). (4.150)
in the context of petroleum seismology), the impulse are written symbolically as follows:
response (e.g., the earth response to the delta-function
source signature), and the output (e.g., seismic data). δ(t) → h(t), (4.154)
Our objective in this section is to introduce the convo-
lution relation and to discuss some of its applications
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Shot Receiver
✸ Sea surface
A h(t – τ)
A δ(t – τ)
zw
τ τ
Sea bottom
Sea bottom
face and receivers are at the seafloor. Again, note that
equation (4.159) is limited to zero offset.
R
(b) Example 3. Let us consider the third example
R3
. . . as the ghost response. Seismic ghosts are generated
4 t at both the source side and the receiver side, due
t=0 2 –R
–R to the sea surface. They are sometimes called “sec-
ondary reflections.” When the energy source is released,
FIGURE 4.23. Response at the surface from an impulse at
we are interested mainly in the initial downgoing sig-
the surface: (a) raypath, (b) impulse response. Notice rss (t)
in (b) is limited to zero offset (source-and-receiver distance nal. However, energy from the source is also traveling
is zero). upward to the sea surface, where it is reflected down-
ward. This downward-going signal is called the “source
rss (t) can be defined as follows: ghost.” When the source is close to the sea surface,
the source ghost joins with the initial downgoing wave,
and changes the effective wave shape. Correspondingly,
rss (t) = Rδ(t − Tw ) − R2 δ(t − 2Tw ) + R3 δ(t − 3Tw ) when a receiver measures an upgoing wave from the
− · · · − (−1)n Rn δ(t − nTw ) + · · · , (4.158) subsurface, this upgoing wave will travel to the sea sur-
face where it is reflected downward; it is picked up on
where Tw is two-way traveltime in the water layer; the receiver as a receiver ghost signal. When the receiver
only waves traveling vertically are considered (i.e., is close to the sea surface, the receiver ghost signal will
Tw = 2zw /Vw where zw is the water layer of thick- change the effective wave shape of the upgoing wave.
ness and Vw is the velocity of water). Notice that the As illustrated in Figure 4.25, we can see that for
impulse response, rss (t), is simply a superimposition of a zero-offset experiment, the impulse response of the
the reflections.
Convolution Theorem
source-ghost distortion is
If the impulse response h(t) of a system is known —
h(t) = δ(t) + R0 δ(t − τ ), (4.160) that is, the response of the system to a delta function
input — the output of the system is the convolution of
where τ is the two-way traveltime from the source to the input i(t) by its impulse response. The convolution
the sea surface. It is a combination of two impulses, the is given by
initial downgoing signal and a second impulse (ghost +∞
impulse) of amplitude +R0 , where R0 is the effec- o(t) = i(t) ∗ h(t) = i(τ )h(t − τ )dτ . (4.163)
−∞
tive reflection coefficient at the sea surface. Recall
that R0 = −1 for a free surface. The initial downgo- The physical significance of each term in equation
ing impulse is a unit impulse at t = 0, designated (4.163) is as follows:
δ(t). The ghost impulse in this simple case is delayed,
1) τ is the time at which the impulse is applied.
inverted, and modified in amplitude with respect to the
2) i(τ )dτ is the strength of the impulse.
direct impulse and is given by +R0 δ(t−τ ). The impulse
3) t is the time at which the output is computed.
response of the source-ghost distortion filter h(t) is then
4) h(t − τ ) is the amplitude of the impulse response at
the sum of these two impulses, δ(t) and +R0 δ(t − τ ).
the time t − τ after the impulse is applied.
For a zero-offset experiment, the impulse response
of the receiver-ghost distortion is identical to that of Equation (4.163) is generally called the convolution
the source ghost. In this case, τ is the two-way travel- theorem.
time from the receiver to the sea surface. Notice that Convolution satisfies the commutative law,
the receiver-ghost distortion filter depends on the phys- +∞ +∞
ical quantity measured. If a geophone that measures the o(t) = i(τ )h(t − τ )dτ = i(t − τ )h(τ )dτ
vertical component of the particle velocity is employed, −∞ −∞
an impulse arriving at the receiver from below pro- (4.164)
duces an initial output that we may define as positive. or
When this pulse is reflected at the free surface, then o(t) = i(t) ∗ h(t) = h(t) ∗ i(t). (4.165)
boundary conditions show that the reflected pulse is also It also satisfies the associative law,
positive. If pressure receivers are employed, an initial
upgoing compressional signal will produce an output p(t) = i(t) ∗ [o(t) ∗ h(t)]
that we define as positive, and the reflected signal will = [i(t) ∗ o(t)] ∗ h(t), (4.166)
have negative polarity. Thus the impulse of the receiver-
ghost distortion corresponding to the particle velocity and the distributive law,
receiver is
p(t) = i(t) ∗ [o(t) + h(t)]
hv (t) = δ(t) + δ(t − τ ), (4.161) = [i(t) ∗ o(t)] + [i(t) ∗ h(t)]. (4.167)
154 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Because convolution satisfies both commutative and Equation (4.176) indicates that the ghosted trace is pro-
associative laws, a sequence of convolutions can be per- duced by the additional filtering action of the ghost
formed in any order without changing the output. distortion operator h(t). We can consider the ghost as
Let us consider three examples of convolution: an additional time-domain filter in the reflection path
(Figure 4.26). Figure 4.26a shows the non-ghosting
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Example 1. Suppose the input and impulse res- case. Here the source signature w(t) is generated, and
ponse are given by it alone enters the downgoing path; for this case h(t) =
δ(t). In Figure 4.26b, the source signature w(t) is gen-
A exp(−at) if t ≥ 0 erated at the shot, and after passing through the filter
h(t) = (4.168)
0 t<0 h(t), w(t) and +Ro w(t − τ ) enter the primary-reflection
path.
B exp(−bt) if t ≥ 0 Ideally, the simplest way to reduce the ghosts’ effect
i(t) = . (4.169) would be to shoot either at the surface or at a shal-
0 t<0
low depth, so that the direct source pulse and the ghost
The output is evaluated by means of the convolution would overlap. Figure 4.27 illustrates the net downgo-
integral, as follows: ing waveform for both a large and a small delay. When
+∞ τ is large, two separate pulses enter the primary path.
o(t) = B exp(−bτ )A exp[−a(t − τ )]dτ Consequently each reflector in the subsurface gives rise
0 to two events. If τ is small, the initial downgoing pulse
(4.170)
or is followed so closely by the ghost pulse that overlap
occurs, and for visual purposes, each reflector in the
+∞
subsurface gives rise to only one event. In the latter
o(t) = AB exp(−at) exp[(a − b)τ ]dτ .
0 case, ghosting effectively can be treated as a part of the
(4.171) seismic source signature.
Notice that ghosting can be analyzed further by
Using the well-known relation taking the Fourier transform of h(t); i.e.,
1
exp(kx)dx = exp(kx) (4.172)
k H(ω) = 1 + R0 exp{−iωτ }. (4.178)
1
o(t) = AB exp(−at) [exp(a − b)t − 1], If R0 = −1, the amplitude spectrum is given by
a−b
(4.173)
ωτ
the result is
|H(ω)| = 2
sin
. (4.179)
2
a−b [exp(−bt) − exp(−at)] if t ≥ 0
AB
o(t) = .
0 t<0
(4.174)
ing effect (see Chapter 2), a seismic trace can be ap- h(t)=δ(t)
1
0
(a)
proximated as the following form: 1
h(t)=δ(t)-|R0| δ(t-τ)
1
N−1
on = ik hn−k . (4.180)
k=0
Smoothness
Convolution is generally a smoothing operation.
(c) Experience shows that the output of a linear system is
smoother than either the input or the impulse response.
Let us illustrate the smoothing character of the convo-
lution by considering the repeated convolution of the
Heaviside function, H(t):
FIGURE 4.27. Comparison of large and small τ : (a) large
delay, (b) noticeable delay, and (c) very small delay. on (t) = H(t) ∗ H(t) ∗ · · · ∗ H(t) . (4.181)
n
or
u(t) = e(t) ∗ r(t), (4.187)
where all effects associated with the source, sensor, and
recording systems are included in e(t):
{
characterize some of the classical frequency filters used
Resolved Unresolved
in petroleum seismology.
Decreasing image separability In most cases, the filtering process in frequency
is simply the product of the filter response (i.e., the
FIGURE 4.31. When two events are clearly distinguishable, Fourier transform of its impulse response) and the
the events are considered to be resolvable. However, if the Fourier transform of the signal. The product of two sig-
events are close enough to one another, their respective
nals in frequency is a convolution in the time domain,
seismic responses may interfere; this makes the two events
according to the convolution theorem (4.163), discussed
appear as one event. In this case the events are said to be
unresolvable. earlier. Therefore we can describe the filtering process
as follows:
High-frequency
(c) component
FILTERING
A seismic trace can be broken into sine-wave com-
Time
ponents, each at a different frequency. This makes it
possible to discriminate against undesirable frequen- FIGURE 4.32. Frequency components of the cartoon signal:
cies in the trace. Figure 4.32 shows the low- and (a) a complete signal with high- and low-frequency compo-
high-frequency components that make up a cartoon nents, (b) the low-frequency component of the signal, and
waveform. In this example, only two components are (c) the high-frequency component of the signal.
158 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
A
–3 db
Basic Terminology of Filtering
1) Decibels: The decibel, or db, unit of scale is a log-
arithmic measure of amplitude ratios. Suppose that f
f1
two numbers, X and Y , are of different magnitudes
but in the same units, and both are greater than 0. In (c)
F
this case the decibel is defined as
0 db
Y
n db = 20 log10 . (4.191) –3 db
X A
above f2 . Note that a band-pass filter can be con- Its inverse has a complex spectrum:
structed as the product of a suitable low-pass and
1 1
high-pass filter. H −1 (ω) ≡ = exp[−iφ(ω)]. (4.193)
5) Notch filter: This is a rather specialized filter; typ- H(ω) |H(ω)|
ically, its spectrum looks like that shown in Fig-
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where u(t) is the OBS data and s(t) is the source HM(f)
signature. By substituting equation (4.159) into equa- 4
R = 0.5
tion (4.194), we rewrite (4.194) in this form:
u(t) = s(t) ∗ rP (t) ∗ rM (t), (4.195) 3
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where
1
rP (t) = −Rδ t − Tw (4.196) 2
2
∞ R = –0.25
rM (t) = (−1) R δ(t − nTw ),
n n
(4.197) 1
n=0
and where rP (t) is the impulse response of the primary
and rM (t) is the impulse response of multiples. Our 0
f
objective is to recover the primary, which is p(t) =
HM(f)
s(t) ∗ rP (t). To achieve this objective, it is useful to first
analyze the impulse response of multiples, i.e., rM (t). 4 R = –0.5
Let us start by deriving its Fourier transform, which we
denote as HM (ω) (Backus, 1959):
3
+∞ ∞
HM (ω) = (−1)n Rn δ(t − nTw ) exp(−iωt)dt
−∞ n=0
2
∞
R = –0.25
= n n
(−1) R exp(−inωTw ). (4.198)
n=0 1
From equation (4.199), the power spectrum equation of FIGURE 4.34. The amplitude spectrum of a reverberation
HM (ω) is filter.
1
|HM (ω)|2 = , (4.200)
1 + R2 + 2R cos ωTw
Figure 4.35 is a plot of three resonant frequencies as a
and the phase spectrum is function of zw and Tw for R > 0. If R < 0, then |H(ω)|2
has a maximum when cos(ωTw ) = 1, or
−1 R sin(ωTw )
φM (ω) = tan . (4.201)
1 + R cos(ωTw ) 2nVw
fn = . (4.204)
The amplitude spectrum |HM (ω)| is displayed in 4zw
Figure 4.34. Since |H(ω)|2 has a maximum for R > 0
whenever cos(ωTw ) = −1, that means whenever Equations (4.203) and (4.204) show that as depth
2n − 1 of water increases, resonances become very closely
fn = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (4.202) spaced. In shallow water, resonance frequencies are
2Tw
widely spaced, and a recording filter can be used that
The resonant frequencies of the amplitude spectrum in is intermediate to the resonances. However, in deep
terms of the depth, zw , and velocity, Vw , of the water water these frequencies are close together, and to select
are given by a bandwidth that is free of reverberations is impossible.
(2n − 1)Vw Let us now turn to the problem of reconstructing
fn = . (4.203)
4zw p(t) = s(t) ∗ rP (t). We start by taking the Fourier
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 161
(a)
t=0
A LIMITATION OF THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE FOURIER
TRANSFORM ANALYSIS
Mixed phase
(b)
In the previous section, we derived the Fourier
t=0 transform for periodic and even nonperiodic time sig-
nals. Unfortunately, there is a class of signals — namely
nonstationary signals — for which the Fourier trans-
form analysis is not an effective representation. Our
goal in this section is to point out why Fourier analy-
Maximum phase sis is not an effective representation of nonstationary
(c)
signals, and to introduce the windowed Fourier trans-
t=0 form, wavelet transform, and Wigner-Ville transform
as alternative ways of representing nonstationary sig-
nals. We begin by recalling the concept of nonstationary
signals.
–1.5
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Time (s) (a)
4
500 (b)
250
0
0
0 25 50 75 100
12
Frequency (Hz) (b)
FIGURE 4.37. A cosine signal with (a) two impulses (in the
time domain) and (b) its amplitude spectrum.
6
Fourier transform are shown in Figure 4.37. From 0
to 600 ms, the signal is a standard stationary signal
that corresponds to the sum of two cosine waves; at
600 ms there is a sharp peak in amplitude, followed by
a drop. After the sharp peak in amplitude, the signal
returns to stationary behavior of two cosine waves until
0
1200 ms, where another sharp peak in amplitude occurs;
0 25 50 75 100
then the signal returns to a standard stationary signal.
Frequency (Hz)
As in the analogy of restaurant noise, used to intro-
duce nonstationary signals, the cosine waves represent FIGURE 4.38. (a) The amplitude spectrum of the two
the classical restaurant background noise of music and impulses and (b) the amplitude spectrum of the signal in
conversations, whereas the impulses represent the acci- equation (4.210). Notice that the amplitude spectrum in (b)
dental dropping of a plate on the floor. So, the signal in is truncated, to show the small-scale features, which are
equation (4.210) is effectively nonstationary. readily visible in Figure 4.37b.
164 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
The plot of this signal is shown in Figure 4.39, along FIGURE 4.39. (a) A quadratic chirp signal (in the time
with its amplitude spectrum. The Fourier transform sug- domain) and (b) its amplitude spectrum.
gests that the quadratic chirp signal has most of its
energy at zero frequency; but in actuality it does not.
If we divide this signal into small time intervals, we
can recognize that the frequencies of cosine waves vary another produces a sudden change in the signal, making
from one time window to another. Actually, frequen- the signal nonstationary. So with an appropriate selec-
cies of this signal have quadratic growth with time. tion of the speed of these radio-station changes, we
Therefore, the quadratic chirp signal is a nonstationary could produce frequency changes with time, such that
signal — because in a stationary signal, the frequency the resulting signal would behave as a quadratic chirp
content is relatively uniform with time. So to represent signal.
the quadratic chirp signal properly, we must represent
it simultaneously in frequency and time. Example: A signal with a shutdown period.
The signal in equation (4.212) and the issue of Consider a third example of a nonstationary signal:
studying with the radio on make an analogy that points
out the nonstationary behavior of the quadratic chirp
signal: Even the students who can study with the radio
cos (2π f0 t) 0 ≤ t < t1
on find it difficult to concentrate or to carry on a decent
conversation in an environment where radio stations are u2 (t) = 0 t1 ≤ t < t2 . (4.213)
constantly changing. Each move from one station to cos (2πf1 t) t2 ≤ t ≤ t3
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 165
100 100
(a) (d)
8-point window 64 point window
64-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
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50 50 f1
25 25 f0
0 0
100 100
(b) (e)
16-point window 128-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 Frequency (Hz) f1
50
25 f0 25 f0
0 0
100 100
(c) (f)
32-point window 256-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
25 f0 25 f0
0 0
0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 4.42. The magnitude of the windowed Fourier transform of the signal shown in Figure 4.37a, using (a) a Gaussian
window of width 16 ms, (b) a Gaussian window of width 32 ms, (c) a Gaussian window of width 64 ms, (d) a Gaussian
window of width 128 ms, (e) a Gaussian window of width 256 ms, and (f) a Gaussian window of width 512 ms. The jet
colorscale introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value)].
(i.e., g(t) = exp −ax 2 for a convenient value a > 0) 1) In Figure 4.42a, we see that two impulses were de-
for computations of the WFT in these figures — actu- tected, with a good localization in time. The two
ally for all WFT figures in this chapter. The following cosine waves have also been detected, but localiza-
observations can be made from these figures: tion of their frequencies is not accurate.
168 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
2) In Figure 4.42(b), localization of the two cosine fre- Nevertheless, we must take into consideration the fact
quencies has been improved, but they are still not that the signal we have used is very simple: it contains
clearly distinguishable. only two separable and distinguishable frequencies of
3) Figures 4.42(c) and 4.42(d) show localization of the the cosine waves and the two impulses.
two impulses in time and a good localization of Now consider the quadratic chirp signal, which is
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the cosine wave frequencies. Notice that if the two very difficult to analyze by using the windowed Fourier
impulses were close together, we would not be able transform: Figure 4.44 shows WFT representations of
to distinguish them, because a small time spread is this signal for four window widths [16 ms (i.e., 8 sam-
still visible around the locations of these impulses. ples), 32 ms (16 samples), 64 ms (32 samples), 128 ms
4) Figures 4.42(e) and 4.42(f), show that as the window (64 samples)]. Again we have used the Gaussian win-
g(t) gets wider, the WFT representation converges dow for the signal g(t) in
the computations of the WFTs
toward the classical Fourier transform representa- (i.e., g(t) = exp −ax 2 for a convenient value a > 0).
tion. First of all, contrary to the picture of standard Fourier
representation in Figure 4.39b, we can see that energy of
So the key conclusions we can draw from the ex- the quadratic chirp signal, u1 (t), is spread well beyond
amples are two: (1) time-frequency representations of f = 0 Hz. However, we do not see frequencies corre-
the signal in equation (4.210) using WFT allow us to lated along a parabola as expected, but we do see strong
detect both cosine waves and impulses simultaneously; concentration of amplitude in time windows. Notice
(2) however, precise and simultaneous identification that the partioning of energy of WTF with time sug-
of cosine waves and impulses is not possible in time gests clearly that variation of window width with time
and frequency. This second conclusion results from will be very suitable for representation of this signal.
the uncertainty principle, described in Box 4.5. So the Notice also that as the window width increases, the
uncertainty principle is an important limitation of WFT energy of WTF reduces to near f = 0; i.e., the WFT rep-
representation. This fact must be kept in mind when this resentation starts converging toward a standard Fourier
representation is being used. representation.
Note that similar conclusions can be drawn from Based on the experience of this example and many
Figure 4.43, which shows WFT of the cosine-wave others not described here, we have drawn the follow-
signal with a shut-down period. Also, in contrast to ing conclusions: If a signal has important frequency
the Fourier representations in Figures 4.37b and 4.40b, information outside the scale, we will have problems in
we notice that the WFT representation of the signal the WFT analysis. Namely:
with a shut-down period in equation (4.213) is very
different from that of the signal with impulses in equa-
tion (4.210). This observation confirms the importance
of frequency-time representations of nonstationary sig- 1) If the information that we are trying to represent is
nals. Observe this also: By gradually increasing the smaller than the width of the window, we may have a
window width in WFT computations, Figures 4.42 and problem similar to the one we faced with the Fourier
4.43 show that the WFT representation of the signal with transform: the information will be detected, but the
impulses in equation (4.210) converges to the standard transform will not localize it.
Fourier representation faster than the WFT representa- 2) If the information that we are trying to represent is
tion of the signal with a shut-down period in equation larger than the width of the window, it will not be
(4.213) — and that is why the signal with a shut- detected properly.
down period is generally considered as being highly
nonstationary.
Example: A quadratic chirp signal. The ex- The example above makes explicit the second limi-
ample above shows that by adjusting the size of the tation of the windowed Fourier transform: It uses a fixed
window adequately, we can obtain satisfactory results window size (the first limitation being the uncertainty
in the analysis of the signal by using the windowed principle pointed out in the previous example, and so
Fourier transform — or the results at least are much clearly visible in Figure 4.44). In the next subsection
better than those of the analysis described in the previ- we will introduce the wavelet transform, in an attempt
ous subsection wherein the Fourier transform was used. to remedy this second limitation.
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 169
100 100
(a) (d)
16-point window 128-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
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Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
f0 f0
25 25
0 0
100 100
(b) (e)
32-point window 256-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
f0 f0
25 25
0 0
100 100
(c) (f)
64-point window 512-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
f0 f0
25 25
0 0
0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 4.43. The magnitude of the windowed Fourier transform of the signal in Figure 4.40a, using (a) a Gaussian window
of width 32 ms, (b) a Gaussian window of width 64 ms, (c) a Gaussian window of width 128 ms, (d) a Gaussian window
of width 256 ms. (e) a Gaussian window of width 512 ms, and (f) a Gaussian window of width 1024 ms. The jet colorscale
introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value)].
The Wavelet Transform in some instances the WFT representation is not good
enough for some signals, due to this constant scale
The windowed Fourier transform introduces a scale limitation. We can solve this problem by using the
(the width of the window) and analyzes the signal from windowed Fourier transform, with varied width of the
the point of view of this scale. As we discussed above, window (as illustrated in Figure 4.45). In other words,
170 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
60 60
(a) (c)
8-point window 32-point window
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Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
30 30
0 0
60 60
(b) 16-point window
(d) 64-point window
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
30 30
0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 4.44. Magnitude of the windowed Fourier transform of the signal shown in Figure 4.39a, using (a) a Gaussian win-
dow of width 16 ms, (b) a Gaussian window of width 32 ms, (c) a Gaussian window of width 64 ms, and (d) a Gaussian
window of width 128 ms. The jet colorscale introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue (minimum value) to
red (maximum value)].
Frequency
In terms of frequencies, we can state that for small s, Proof that the transform Ũ(ω, t) is inversible and that
the spectrum of ψs has high frequencies; as s increases, its inverse is given by (4.224) was demonstrated by
the spectrum of ψs decreases. This fact is illustrated in Mallat (1999). Note that computations in this chapter
Figure 4.46. are carried out for p = 1/2.
By analogy to our procedure with the windowed Now we will connect definitions of the wavelet-
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Fourier transform of a function, we will localize each transform representation introduced above to the time-
function ψs in time. To do so, for each t we define the frequency analysis. First, let us remark that the wavelet
function in equations (4.229) and (4.224) can be either a real
or a complex function. Like a windowed Fourier trans-
1 τ −t
ψs,t (τ ) = ψs (τ − t) = p ψ . (4.220) form, a wavelet transform can be represented in a time-
|s| s frequency domain. Such representation requires using a
Note that if ψ is a square integrable function (i.e., a complex wavelet ψ, instead of a real wavelet. By using
function with finite energy), then ψs,t is also a square a complex wavelet ψ, we can separate the result of
integrable function, and the wavelet transform into amplitude and phase spectra
in a way similar to a Fourier transform and windowed
+∞
Fourier transform. Actually, as our interest is simply
ψs,t 2 = |s|1−2p ψ2 = 2
ψs,t (τ )dτ . (4.221) to make the width of the window of the WFT variable,
−∞
such a complex wavelet can be constructed with a fre-
If we take p = 1/2, we have quency modulation of a real and symmetric window of
WFT in the following form:
ψs,t 2 = ψ2 . (4.222)
ψ(t) = g(t) exp (iω0 t) , (4.226)
Now we can define a wavelet transform in a fashion
similar to the way in which we defined the windowed
Fourier transform — using functions from the family where g(t) is a real and symmetric window similar
ψs,t as modulating functions; i.e., to the ones shown in Table 4.1 [notice the simi-
larity between ψ(t) in equation (4.226) and gω,t in
+∞ equation (4.215)]. Observe that the Fourier transform
Û(s, t) = u(τ )ψs,t (τ )dτ . (4.223) of ψ(t) is
−∞
(ω) = G(ω − ω0 ), (4.227)
This transform is known as a wavelet transform.
The inverse wavelet transform is and that its central frequency is ω0 , (ω0 ) = G(0).
In petroleum seismology, we generally use the Gabor
1 +∞ +∞ 2p−3
u(τ ) = |s| Û(s, t)ψs,t (τ )dsdt, wavelet for time-frequency representation, which cor-
C −∞ −∞ responds to the Gaussian window in equation (4.227);
(4.224) i.e.,
with 2
1 −t
+∞ g(t) = 2 exp . (4.228)
|ψ̂(τ )|2 σ 2π 2σ 2
C= dτ < ∞. (4.225)
−∞ |τ |
Figure 4.47 illustrates the wavelet transform of the
quadratic chirp signal shown in Figure 4.39a. We know
(a) (b) (t) (c) that the windowed Fourier transform is not adequate for
detecting the various frequencies contained in the signal
t t t shown in Figure 4.39a, because variation in frequencies
with time is rapid. In Figure 4.47, we see that rapid vari-
ation of frequencies with time is represented adequately
s = 1/2 s=1 s=2
now; frequencies are correlated along a parabola, as one
would expect.
FIGURE 4.46. Scales of a function: (a) s = 1/2, (b) s = 1, The wavelet transform did not solve one limita-
(c) s = 2. tion of WFT: this limitation related to the uncertainty
172 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
1.5 3
1 2
0.5 1
–0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (sec)
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 173
15 m Source VP=1.53 km/s Water source FIGURE 4.49. Acquisition geometry and
medium parameters used to generate the data
αs[dB/λs] 25 m Direct arrivals VS [m/s]
shown in Figure 4.48. Attenuation effect —
0.1 0.3 0.5 150 250 350
0.0 to be discussed in Chapter 12 — also was
Interface waves
taken into account when generating the data in
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2.5
Figure 4.48. The attenuation here is described
Marine sediments by αS . (Adapted from Kritski et al., 2002.)
Depth (m)
VP=1.770 km/s
density=1870 kg/m3
αp = 0.1 dB/λp
10
VP~2.7km/s Substrate
Sedimentary rock 2
40
used in the calculation of Kritski, Vincent, and Yuen the various interferences, identification of these three
(2002): events with the standard Fourier representation would
be quite difficult.
1 +∞ τ −t Note that Herrmann (1998) described interesting
Û(t, ω) = u(τ )ψ dτ , (4.229)
f −∞ f applications of wavelet transform to seismic data.
with
1 1 2
ψ(t) = 4 exp (i2πf0 t) exp − t , (4.230)
π 2
Quadratic (Nonlinear) Time-Frequency
where again Û(t, ω) is the wavelet transform of u(t), Transforms
and ψ(t) is the complex modulation function of the
wavelet transform. Representation of signals in the time-frequency
As discussed in the earlier part of this section, domain by a windowed Fourier transform or wavelet
a signal is stationary if its wavelet transform repre- transform is limited by the uncertainty principle. For
sentation is almost time-invariant (the same statement cases in which we desire time-frequency locations more
holds for windowed Fourier transform); otherwise it precise than those permitted by the uncertainty prin-
is nonstationary. From results of the wavelet trans- ciple, one alternative approach is to use the so-called
form in Figure 4.50 we observe that the data are not quadratic time-frequency transforms, instead of a win-
time-invariant; therefore they are nonstationary, and dowed Fourier transform or wavelet transforms. The
are well suited for time-frequency analysis instead of classical example of quadratic time-frequency trans-
frequency-alone or time-alone analysis. We also notice forms is the Winger-Ville transform (Mallat, 1999):
how well the amplitude spectrum of the wavelet trans-
form of these data enables us to identify three dominant
events of these data; this identification is not obvious on +∞ τ τ
the time domain. One way to imagine representation of
Wu (t, ω) = u t+ u t− exp{−iτ ω}dτ ,
these data in the standard Fourier domain is to sum the −∞ 2 2
result in Figure 4.50 with respect to time. Because of (4.231)
174 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
FIGURE 4.50. Amplitude spec- Wavelet modulus. trace 5 Wavelet modulus. Signal 4
40 40
trum of the wavelet transform
35 Surface wave 35
of synthetic data shown in
First shear mode 30
Figure 4.48 (traces 5, 4, 3 and 2; 30
Time (sec)
Time (sec)
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15 15
10 10
5 5
Second shear mode
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Wavelet modulus. Signal 3 Wavelet modulus. Signal 2
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
Time (sec)
Time (sec)
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
+∞
1 1
u(t) = Wu t, ω exp{+itω}dω. 50 f1
u(0) −∞ 2
(4.232) (f0 + f1)/2
f0
25
So the inverse Winger-Ville transform can recover only
the signal u(t) up to a constant u(0). (f1 - f0)/2
Let us examine some examples of Winger-Ville 0
transforms. We will turn to the three examples used 0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6
Time (s)
within this section. Figure 4.51 shows the results of
the Winger-Ville transform of the signal with a shut- FIGURE 4.51. The Wigner-Ville transform of the cosine
down period, shown as equation (4.213). Observe that signal with a shutdown period (see Figure 4.40a). The jet
unlike the windowed Fourier and wavelet transforms, colorscale introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging
the Winger-Ville transform does not spread time and from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value)].
frequency beyond t = 600 ms and t = 1200 ms, or
beyond f0 = 25 Hz and f1 = 50 Hz. In other words,
the Winger-Ville transform is not affected by the uncer-
tainty principle. However, Figure 4.51 illustrates that f = (f0 + f1 )/2 and along the line f = (f1 − f0 )/2.
besides the expected peaks at f = f0 and f = f1 , nonzero These lines of unexpected energy in the Winger-Ville
values of the Winger-Ville transform are along the line transforms, which are apparent in Figure 4.51, are
known as the “cross-terms.” This cross-term effect is
quite dominant when the signal is the sum of N cosine
3 Results of quadratic time-frequency transforms are known as “distri-
waves. In this case, there are 21 N(N + 1) terms that
butions,” because somehow they describe the energy or intensity of a signal
in the time domain and the frequency domain simultaneously. However, they show as cross-term effects. In regions where zero values
are not distributions in a probabilistic sense. would be expected, the presence of nonzero values of
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 175
the Winger-Ville transform is the main difficulty with Williams’s kernel shown in Table 4.2. Observe that
the Winger-Ville transform. for small values of σ , the cross-terms are reduced
Cohen (1989) introduced a general class of quad- significantly.
ratic time-frequency transforms that can be used to In summary, the quadratic time-frequency trans-
reduce the importance of the cross-terms. This class form is still an active area of research in mathematics
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of quadratic time-frequency transforms can be written and signal processing. The outcome of the research
as follows: could be helpful in the study of nonstationary signals,
in petroleum seismology.
1
Wu (t, f ) = exp {−i(θt + ωτ − θx)} ψ(θ, τ )
4π 2
τ τ
×u x + u x− dxdτ dθ.
2 2 Time (s)
0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6
Variables and functions in this equation were defined in (a) 100
Frequency (Hz)
of the time-frequency distribution. The distribution
Wu (t, f ) is generally known as “Cohen’s class.” It can
50
be interpreted as a two-dimensional Fourier transform, f1
as follows:
f0 (f0+ f1)/2
25
1
Wu (t, f ) = Au (θ , τ )ψ(θ , τ )
2π (f1–f0)/2
× exp {−i(ωτ + θ t)} dτ dθ, (4.233) 0
(b) 100
where
τ τ 75
Au (θ, τ ) = exp {iθ x} u x + u x− dx
Frequency (Hz)
2 2
50 f1
is known as the “ambiguity function.” Note that the
Wigner-Ville distribution is a special case of equa-
f0
tion (4.233) for ψ(θ , τ ) = 1. Other well-known 25
distributions are the Rihaczek, Page, and Choi distri-
butions. Their mathematical expressions are given in
0
Table 4.2.
(c) 100
Figure 4.52 illustrates the quadratic time-frequency
transform of the Cohen’s class for the Choi and
75
Frequency (Hz)
quence of the Fourier transform is that a narrow form Ĝ cannot both be very small. Another related
signal in time has a broad spectrum, and a nar- property of the Fourier transform is that if either of
row spectrum yields a broad time signal. In signal the functions g or Ĝ vanishes outside some finite
processing, the common observation is known as interval, then the other must trail on to infinity. In
“the uncertainty principle.” If we use the following other words, they can both vanish outside any finite
quantities, interval.
+∞ Note that in the definitions (4.234) and (4.235),
1
T2 = t 2 [g(t)]2 dt (4.234) we assume that g is differentiable and
g2 −∞
and lim tg2 (t) = 0 . (4.238)
|t|→∞
+∞
1
2 = ω2 |Ĝ(ω)|2 dω, (4.235)
Ĝ2 −∞ Like most physicists, petroleum seismologists are
first introduced to the uncertainty principle in
to measure the concepts of narrow and broad sig-
studies of quantum mechanics, by the following
nals and spectra, the uncertainty principle states
statement: to determine simultaneously the posi-
that
tion and the momentum of a particle is impossible.
4πT ≥ 1, (4.236)
Moreover, the better the position is known, the
or poorer the momentum is known (and vice versa).
1/2 1/2 The principle is sometimes referred to as the
+∞ +∞
“Heisenberg uncertainty principle,” which is stated
t 2 [g(t)]2 dt ω2 |Ĝ(ω)|2 dω
−∞ −∞ exactly as
+∞ 1
1 xpx ≥ ,
≥ [g(t)]2 dt. (4.237) 2
(4.239)
4π −∞
|g(t)|² |G(
ˆ )|² where x is the uncertainty in position, px is
the uncertainty in momentum, and is Planck’s
constant. Although the mathematical expressions
in equations (4.236) and (4.239) have numer-
ous similarities and the analogy between the two
Time Frequency principles is clear, the physical concepts behind
|g(t)|² |G(
ˆ )|² these two expressions are different. In quantum
mechanics, the uncertainty principle emerges in
a probabilistic context, in which the notion of
uncertainty is well defined. In signal processing,
the uncertainty principle is simply an expression
Time Frequency of the fact that both T and cannot be made
FIGURE 4.53. Illustration of the uncertainty relation arbitrarily small. For more discussion of the uncer-
for time and frequency analysis. A broad signal in tainty principle in signal processing and its relation
time gives a narrow frequency spectrum and vice to quantum mechanics, readers are referred to
versa. Cohen (1995).
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 177
f (t) = 5.0[H(t − t1 ) − H(t − t2 )]. (4.240) which is represented in Figure 4.57 for various
combinations of A1 , A2 , and A3 , and for a fixed
2) Figures 4.54a and 4.54b show amplitude spectra value of t0 .
corresponding to zero-phase functions. a) Estimate the frequencies contained in this
a) Find the analytic expressions of these func- signal.
tions. b) Draw the phase spectrum of this signal.
b) Plot these functions as a function of time for c) Figure 4.57 shows this signal for specific values
f1 = 10Hz and f2 = 20Hz. of amplitudes A1 , A2 , A3 , for four cases. Asso-
ciate each of these cases with its corresponding
3) Figure 4.55 shows time functions that describe plot in Figure 4.57, without performing any
widely used seismic source signatures. Are these calculation.
zero-phase signals?
Amplitudes Figures
4) a) Figure 4.56a describes the amplitude and phase A1 = 1.0, A2 = 1.0, A3 = 0.0
spectra in the frequency domain of a signal. Deter- A1 = 1.0, A2 = 1.0, A3 = 1.0
mine the mathematical expression of this signal in
the time domain. A1 = 1.0, A2 = 0.0, A3 = 1.0
b) Figure 4.56b describes the amplitude and A1 = 0.0, A2 = 1.0, A3 = 1.0
phase spectra in the frequency domain of a signal.
Determine the mathematical expression of this 6) Consider a source signature w(t) and a seismic
waveform in the time domain. trace p(t), which is given by
p(t) = w(t) + βw(t − τ ), (4.242)
(a) where β and τ are constants. Let P(ω) and W (ω) be
the Fourier transform of p(t) and w(t), respectively.
a) Show that
+1 |P(ω)| = |H(ω)| |W (ω)| ,
where
|H(ω)| = (1 + β cos ωτ )2 + (β sin ωτ )2 .
f
–f2 f2 b) Determine the phase spectrum of p(t) for the
case in which the source signature w(t) is zero
(b) phase.
0.8
0.5
0.6
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0.4
0.0
0.2
0.0 –0.5
–2.0 –1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 –2.0 –1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
2 2
1 1
f 2f Frequency f 2f Frequency
Phase Phase
π/2 π/2
0 0
f 2f Frequency f 2f Frequency
– π /2 –π /2
y(t) = sin (3πf1 t) + sin (8πf1 t) , f1 = 2 Hz; 9) This problem explains the Gibbs phenomenon.
(4.244) Consider the following periodic function:
–1
–2 dGN (t) sin(N + 1/2)t
–3 = . (4.252)
dt sin(t/2)
3
2
1 10) Consider the case when the digital representation
0 of the source signature is w = {2, 1, 0} and the
–1 earth’s impulse response is h = {1, −1/2, 0, 0, 1,
–2
0, 0, −1, 0}; compute the seismic p = h ∗ w.
–3
3 11) Use the model in Figure 4.25: A shot is fired at a
2 depth of 8 meters in water, in which the velocity is
1 1600 m/s. Find the first frequency other than DC
at which the “ghost” spectrum is zero.
0
–1
12) Consider the following signal:
–2
α 1/4
–3 t2 βt 2
3 u(t) = exp −α + i + iω0 t ,
π 2 2
2
(4.253)
1
one term depends on a, and the other one 15) We consider two signals which differ in amplitude
depends on 1/a. by a factor of 4 (if Ax and Ay are the amplitudes of
these two signals, Ax = 4Ay ). Express the relative
This exercise illustrates again the fundamental
difference of these two signals in decibels.
difficulties with the WTF: with one window we
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BY STATISTICAL AVERAGES
Weekday-morning television programming begins Uncertainties in seismic signals can be caused by
with meteorological reports on the day’s weather with erroneous measurements of physical quantities (e.g.,
statements such as: “There is a 60% chance of rain.” faulty sensors), but even “perfect” measurements,
Obviously, meteorologists are not the only scientists contain information that our mathematical models
using the word chance. For example, a petroleum seis- cannot account for. Therefore, we often use statistical
mologist may ask: “What is the chance that there are averages to analyze and characterize both deterministic
commercial accumulations of hydrocarbons in Lake and stochastic2 signals. In this chapter, we introduce
Victoria (East Africa)?” or “What is the chance that the statistical averages that one is likely to encounter in
misinterpretation of a multiple1 as a reflection from the petroleum seismology studies, namely, the first-order
top of the hydrocarbon reservoir will lead to drilling a through fourth-order cumulants and moments and their
dry hole?” spectral representation in the Fourier domain.
Scientists, including petroleum seismologists, in- By including third- and fourth-order moments and
voke the word chance when describing the outcome cumulants, we are going slightly beyond most classical
of their experiments because the mathematical mod- seismic studies, which have directly or indirectly used
els we use to describe phenomena that occur naturally only the first- and second-order moments and cumulants
or that include interactions with nature cannot take of seismic signals, even if the higher-order (greater than
into account all the complexities of these phenomena. second-order) moments and/or cumulants are nonnull.
Moreover, our understanding of these phenomena is Systems that use only the first two orders of moments
generally incomplete. Eugen Merzbacher (1961), in his or cumulants are characterized as either Gaussian or
well-known textbook on quantum mechanics, probably second-order statistics (SOS). Similarly, signals for
gives the best modern answer to this question: which higher-order cumulants are null are characterized
as Gaussian. More specifically, only minimum-phase
The probability doctrine of quantum mechan-
signals and linear systems are Gaussian. Unfortunately,
ics asserts that the indetermination . . . is a property
modern petroleum seismology depends heavily on non-
inherent in nature and not merely a profession of
linear systems and/or nonminimum phase signals —
our temporary ignorance from which we expect
i.e., non-Gaussian systems and signals. The techniques
to be relieved by a future better and more com-
based on SOS can recover only limited information
plete theory. The conventional interpretation thus
about non-Gaussian signals; information related to
denies the possibility of an ideal theory which
deviations from Gaussianity is not extracted. Tech-
would encompass the present quantum mechanics
niques based on higher-order statistics (HOS) allow
but would be free of its supposed defects, the most
us to properly process systems and signals that are
notorious “imperfection” of quantum mechanics
non-Gaussian. Therefore, we have included statistical
being the abandonment of strict classical determi-
averages of stochastic and deterministic signals in this
nation.
chapter: the third- and fourth-order statistics.
This statement also applies to petroleum seismo- Most signals representing seismic data are station-
logy. Regardless of improvement in our mathematical ary; i.e., they do not contain sudden variations, or if
models, they will always be incomplete. There will they do, these variations must exist at all times. For that
always be an element of uncertainty in the outcomes reason, we limit our derivations here to stationary sig-
of our experiments and systems. nals. The few cases in which seismic signals may be
1 Multiples are events in seismic signals caused by reverberations of 2 As defined in Chapter 3, a signal is characterized as stochastic when it
seismic energy, for instance, in the water column. Multiples often signifi- describes an unpredictable behavior. However, when it describes a perfectly
cantly resemble events related to reflections deep in the subsurface. predictable behavior, we qualify it as a deterministic signal.
181
182 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
FIGURE 5.3. The first four moments and cumulants of the Gaussian, uniform, exponential, and Rayleigh probability density
functions.
nished by various averages or by expectations of the V1 , V2 , . . . , VJ occurring n1 , n2 , . . . , nJ times, respec-
random variable raised to some power. The broad tively (with n1 + n2 + · · · + nJ = N). The average
term used to describe this broad class of averages is velocity that we now denote V (a) can be computed as
“moments.” follows:
Let X be a random variable whose kth moment we
J
nk J
define as follows: V (a) = Vk = Vk Qk
∞ N
k=1 k=1
mk = E[X k ] = x k p(x)dx, (5.15)
−∞ where Qk = nk /N. The quantity Qk generally is known
where mk is the kth order moment with k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . as the relative frequency of Vk . By comparing V (a) with
and the symbol E stands for expectation. The first five m1 , we can see that the first moment of a random vari-
moments are defined in Table 5.1. able can be defined as the average of the random variable
Let us connect the ordinary rules of averages to in which the relative frequency Qk is replaced by the
the statistical moment introduced in equation (5.15), probability density function p(xk ).
in particular to the first moment, m1 , in the case of a
discrete random variable. In this case, m1 is given by Central moments. Central moments are anoth-
er common way to summarize certain properties of a
N
random variable by few numbers. They are defined as
m1 = xk p(xk ), follows:
k=1
∞
assuming a discrete random variable with N admissible µk = E[(X − η) ] =
k
(x − η)k p(x)dx,
values. −∞
The average of, say, velocity V (a) from a set of if X is continuous; (5.16)
N velocity measurements, {V1 , V2 , . . . , VN }, can be
obtained by computing their sum and then dividing the and using equation (5.9), we obtain
sum by N; i.e.,
µk = E[(X − η)k ] = (xi − η)k p(xi ),
1
N
i
V (a) = Vk .
N if X is discrete, (5.17)
k=1
However, the velocities Vk may not be all different. Sup- where µk is the kth central moment with k = 0, 1,
pose that there are actually only J distinct velocities, 2, 3, . . . and η = m1 = E(X). Note that µ0 = 1,
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 185
0 m0 =1 µ0 =1 c0 =0 c0 =0
1 m1 = E(X) µ1 =0 c1 = m1 c1 =0
2 m2 = E(X 2 ) µ2 = m2 − m12 c2 = m2 − m12 c2 = m2
3 m3 = E(X 3 ) µ3 = m3 − 3m1 m2 + 2m13 c3 = m3 − 3m2 m1 + 2m13 c3 = m3
4 m4 = E(X 4 ) µ4 = m4 − 4m1 m3 + 6m2 m12 − 3m14 c4 = m4 − 4m3 m1 − 3m22 + 12m2 m12 − 6m14 c4 = m4 − 3m22
The quantity m1 is the mean, µ2 is the variance, c3 is the skewness, and c4 is the kurtosis.
just as m0 , µ1 = 0. The first-order through fourth- defined in Figure 5.3. The Gaussian pdf is also defined
order moments are defined in Table 5.1. The classical in equation (5.5). Using these definitions, one can show
terminology associated with central moments, such as that
variance, is defined in this table.
The central moments can be determined directly 1 × 3 × 5 × · · · × (n − 1)σ n n even
mn =
from the moments in equation (5.15). From 0 n odd
k (5.22)
k
E[(X − η)k ] = E (−1)l ηl X k−l , (5.18) for the random variable with a Gaussian pdf, and
l
l=0
we have, by using the linearity of the expectation 1 × 3 × 5 × · · · × nα n π2 n odd
mn =
operator, 2k k!α 2k n = 2k, even
k
(5.23)
k
µk = (−1)l ηl mk−l , for the random variable with a Rayleigh pdf.
l
l=0
Look at the moments of two random variables cor- 3 Note that the function exp[iωx] has a valid Taylor series expansion
responding to Gaussian and Rayleigh pdfs, which are for −∞ < x < +∞.
186 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Any moment can be computed by differentiation of the Gaussian random variables are nonnull, as are those
characteristic function; i.e., of the Rayleigh random variable [see equations (5.22)
and (5.23)].
n
−n d (ω)
mn = i . (5.26)
dω ω=0
n
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Notice that equation (5.32) is a generalization of equa- 2) Shift invariance: The first cumulant is shift-equi-
tion (5.24). Notice also that the first five moments de- variant, whereas the others cumulants are shift in-
fined in Table 5.1 also can be derived from the definition variant. Suppose that X is a random variable with
of joint moments in equation (5.31); for example, (X)
nth- order cumulant cn . For any constant a, the nth-
order cumulant of the random variable Y = X + a
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m3 = Mom[X, X, X] = E X 3 . (5.33) (X) (Y )
can be obtained from cn : c1 = c1 + a, and
(X)
independent, observing X tells us nothing about Y . At the linear correlation between the two random variables
the other extreme, if, say, Y = aX + b, observing the X and Y . The quantity called the correlation coefficient
value of X immediately tells us the value of Y . However, offers us such a measure.
in many situations in petroleum seismology, two ran- We introduce the correlation coefficient through
dom variables are neither completely independent nor second-order joint central moments. Based on equa-
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linearly dependent. For instance, the crossplot of poros- tions (5.16), (5.17), and (5.31), the ijth joint central
ity and shear modulus for gas-saturated, pure-quartz moment of X and Y is defined as follows:
sandstones, as illustrated in Chapter 2, suggests that j
µij = E (X − X) (Y −
i
the porosity and shear modulus are neither completely Y) , (5.41)
independent nor perfectly linearly dependent. Another
example in Figure 5.4 of square time (t 2 ) versus offset where X = E[X] and Y = E[Y ]. The order of
square (x 2 ) relationship shows an even less clear linear the moment is i + j. The following are second-order
trend, although the theory predicts a linear relationship moments:
between t 2 and x 2 . Given this state of affairs, it is nec- 2
µ02 = σY2 = E (Y − Y)
essary to quantify how much can be said about one
2
random variable by observing another, in addition to µ20 = σX2 = E (X − X) (5.42)
determining the coefficients a and b, which characterize
µ11 = E (X − X)(Y − Y ) = Cov[X, Y ].
µ11
E (X − X) − (Y −
Y) = 0 (5.44)
µ20
N
N 2
µ11
(xk −
X) − (yl −
Y) p(xk , yl ) = 0
µ20
k=1 l=1
(5.45)
FIGURE 5.5. (a) An observation of square time versus offset square in a scatter diagram. The experimental points in this
diagram have been used to estimate the best linear relationships between the square time and the offset square in the least-
squares sense (l2 norm) and in the least-absolute-values sense (l1 norm). (b) Gaussian pdf in equation (5.57) for various
values of the pair (a, b). The experimental values shown in (a) were used in these computations. (c) The exponential pdf in
equation (5.67) for various values of the pair (a, b). The experimental values shown in (a) were used in these computations.
(d) An observation of the square time versus the offset square in a scatter diagram similar to the diagram in Figures 5.4 and
5.5a. Note that in Figures 5.4 and 5.5a, all the experimental points are inliers, whereas here we have several outliers. Because
of these outliers, the best linear relationship between the square time and offset square in the least-squares sense (l2 norm)
differs from the relationship between the square time and offset square in the least-absolute-values sense (l1 norm). The lin-
ear relationship based on the l2 norm is erroneous, whereas the one based on the l1 norm is still quite close to the actual linear
relationship. (e) The Gaussian pdf in equation (5.57) for various values of the pair (a, b). The experimental values in (d) were
used in these computations. (f) The exponential pdf in equation (5.67) for various values of the pair (a, b). The experimental
values in (d) were used in these computations.
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 191
we obviously would like to estimate the pair (a, b) for respectively, because our estimates are themselves ran-
which p(y; a, b) is maximal by solving the following dom variables. Note that equations (5.64) and (5.65)
two equations: yield the same linear trend obtained in equation (5.54)
by minimizing F2 (a, b). In other words, by selecting
∂p(y; a, b) ∂ ln[p(y; a, b)]
= p(y; a, b) = 0 (5.58) the pair (a, b), which minimizes F2 (a, b), we implicitly
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XY − aX2 − b
X = 0, (5.64) with l ≥ 0, then the optimal values of a and b can be
obtained by minimizing
Y − a
X − b = 0. (5.65) Fl (a, b) = E |Y − (aX + b)|l . (5.69)
Note again that when passing from equations (5.62) When l = 2, in most cases, we no longer can arrive at
and (5.63) to equations (5.64) and (5.65), respectively, an analytic solution by minimizing equation (5.69); we
we have replaced xi and yi (the values the random have to use a numerical algorithm (see Tarantola, 1987)
variables take on) with random variables X and Y , to search for the optimal solution.
192 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
of a large number of random variables tends toward . . . , pXn (x), respectively, such that
the Gaussian pdf. Under what conditions is this
true? E[Xk ] = 0, E Xk2 = σk2 ,
The central limit theorem4 says that the normal-
ized sum of a large number of mutually independent and let
random variables X1 , . . . , Xn , with zero means and
finite variances σ12 , . . . , σn2 , tends to the Gaussian sn2 = σ12 + · · · + σn2 .
probability distribution function, provided that the
If, for a given 0 <
< 1, and for n that is suffici-
individual variances σk2 , k = 1, . . . , n are small
n 2 ently large so that the σk2 satisfies
compared to i=1 σi . The constraints on the
variances are known as the Lindeberg conditions. σk2 <
sn2 , k = 1, . . . , n,
The mathematical statement of the central
limit theorem is: Let X1 , . . . , Xn be n mutually then the pdf of the normalized sum,
X1 + · · · + Xn
4 First proved by Abraham De Moivre in 1733 for the special Zn = ,
case of Bernoulli random variables. A more general proof was fur- σn
nished by J. W. Lindeberg, 1922, in Mathematicsche Zeitschrift, v. 15,
211–225. converges to the standard Gaussian pdf.
CMP-gather data sets with and without non-Gaussian is Gaussian [i.e., for each time, t,
(t, xi ) is a Gaussian
noise. The effect of linear and nonlinear AVA on CMP random variable] and A = 0.1. The time is obviously
gathers also is analyzed. denoted t, and xi = sin2 θi where θi is the incident angle,
We start with the CMP in Figure 5.7a, representing as defined in Figure 5.6. Each source-receiver pair is
data after the NMO correction. It contains 500 traces associated with a value xi . We define xi in terms of the
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(i.e., N = 500), although only 10 are shown, for the angle instead of the source-and-receiver distance (off-
sake of clarity of the illustration. If s(t) is the source set) to facilitate the inclusion of the AVA effect in our
signature, the data in Figure 5.7a can be described as later examples. We compute the mean, variance, skew-
ness, and kurtosis for each time step using all 500
u(t, xi ) = A[s(t) +
(t, xi )], (5.70) available values of xi . The results in Figure 5.7b show
where A is a constant representing the reflection coef- how clearly the mean is defined, hence the attractive-
ficient at normal incidence and
(t, xi ) is the additive ness of using it in defining the location of the scattering
noise. For the data set in Figure 5.7a, the additive noise point. In fact, taking the mean of the CMP gather at
each time step is equivalent to a classical operation in
seismic imaging known as stack. However, the other
a) Data with Gaussian noise
three cumulants (the variance, skewness, and kurtosis)
are not directly used in current imaging. Figure 5.7c, d,
0.4
and e shows these three cumulants. For the data set in
0.3
Figure 5.7a, the plots confirm that these three cumu-
sin 2 θ
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
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sin 2 θ
sin 2 θ
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
b) Mean (b) Mean
0.4
0.2
0.0 0.0
-0.2
-0.4
c) Variance (x 0.1) (c) Variance (x 0.01)
0.3
0.8
0.2
0.1 0.4
0.0 0.0
d) Skewness (x 0.01) (d) Skewness (x 0.001)
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.0
-0.2
0.0
e) Kurtosis (x 0.01) (e) Kurtosis (x 0.001)
0.4 0.2
0.0
0.2
-0.2
0.0
FIGURE 5.8. (a) A CMP gather after NMO correction. It FIGURE 5.9. The same as Figure 5.7, with uniformly dis-
contains 500 traces, but only 10 are shown, for the sake tributed added noise. The reason the skewness is almost
of clarity. For time step t, we have added to the data non- null, despite the addition of non-Gaussian noise, is that the
Gaussian noise, specifically, exponential distribution with a uniform distribution is symmetrical.
0.1 mean. We computed (b) the mean, (c) the variance, (d)
the skewness, and (e) the kurtosis for each time step, using
all 500 traces. Note the significant increase in the values of with
skewness and kurtosis compared to the case of Gaussian
noise in Figure 5.7. R(xi ) = A + Bxi , (5.72)
sin 2 θ
0.2
A is very small, leading to very small mean values, the
large variance values will indicate the presence of the
0.1 scattering point, which is another reason to produce
the other cumulants in addition to the mean.
0.0
Let us now consider the case of the nonlinear AVA
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 effect by using
Time (s)
b) Mean
0.4
R(xi ) = A + Bxi + Cxi2 (5.73)
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
c) Variance (x 0.1)
in equation (5.71). Again A, B, and C are the AVA
0.6 parameters characteristics of the reflection coefficient,
0.3
as described in Chapter 3. The CMP gather correspond-
0.0
ing to this case, in which A = 0.1, B = 0.4, and
C = 0.2, was computed with a Gaussian additive noise,
d) Skewness (x 0.01)
0.0
as in Figure 5.10a. We do not display the CMP gather
-0.1
with the nonlinear AVA here because it is quite simi-
-0.2
lar to Figure 5.10a. However, we use this CMP gather
to produce the values of the mean, variance, skewness,
e) Kurtosis (x 0.01)
and kurtosis, which are represented by red curves in
0.0
Figure 5.10b, c, d, and e, respectively. So we obtain
-0.2
the cumulants in blue curves in Figure 5.10 by using
-0.4
data computed from equations (5.71) and (5.73) with
FIGURE 5.10. (a) A CMP gather after NMO correction. It C = 0, whereas the cumulants in red curves were ob-
contains 500 traces, but only 10 are shown, for the sake of tained by using data computed from the same equation
clarity. For time step t, we have added to the data Gaus- with C = 0.2. Notice that skewness and kurtosis have
sian noise with a zero mean. The linear AVA effects in increased significantly, despite the additive noise being
equation (5.72) also were included in computation of the Gaussian. These increases show that the nonlinear AVA
CMP gather. We computed the mean, variance, skewness, has rendered non-Gaussian the data used to produce the
and kurtosis for each time step, using all 500 traces. These cumulants in red curves.
quantities are shown in blue curves in (b), (c), (d), and (e). In other words, we can simulate non-Gaussian data
Notice that the skewness and kurtosis are almost null in from equation (5.71) in two ways: (1) by selecting non-
both cases, which confirms that the data remain Gaussian, Gaussian additive noise and/or (2) by using a nonlinear
despite the introduction of linear AVA effects. We also have
AVA. Another conclusion we can draw from the large
computed the mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis for
values of skewness and kurtosis in red curves is that
the case in which the data contained the nonlinear AVA
effect in equation (5.73). These quantities are shown in red these two cumulants can be used to detect and charac-
curves in (b), (c), (d), and (e). Notice that the skewness and terize nonlinearities in our AVA responses. Because the
kurtosis have increased significantly, which shows that the values of the variance also have increased, the equations
nonlinear AVA has rendered non-Gaussian the data used to for estimating C also may involve the variance.
produce the cumulants in red curves. In summary, we have confirmed through the exam-
ples in Figures 5.7 through 5.10 that the mean and
variance allow us to capture the linear AVA effect and
the introduction of linear AVA effects. In addition, the Gaussianity of the random variables, whereas the skew-
mean remains well defined and relatively unchanged. ness and kurtosis allow us to capture the nonlinearities
However, notice how the variance has increased sig- of AVA effects and the non-Gaussianity of the random
nificantly in the second experiment; the linear AVA variables.
196 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
1 c1 = m1 = E[X(k)] c1 = 0
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Combining equations (5.79) and (5.80) and the formulas nals from symmetrically distributed non-Gaussian
in Table 5.1, we obtain the moment and cumulant rela- signals.
tionships for n = 1, 2, 3, and 4, described in Table 5.2. 4) As we see in Table 5.3, cumulants contain sev-
Let us now summarize some of the key proper- eral symmetries. For instance, we can divide the
ties of moments and cumulants (Shiryaev, 1960, 1963; third-order cumulants into six symmetrical sectors,
Brillinger, 1965; Brillinger and Rosenblatt, 1967; Nik- I through VI, as illustrated in Figure 5.11a. The
ias and Petropulu, 1993). knowledge of third-order cumulants in any of the
six sectors allows us to reconstruct the entire third-
1) The first-order moment m1(X) is known as the mean, order cumulant sequence. These sectors include their
and the second-order moment m2(X) (τ ) is known as boundaries so that, for example, sector I is an infi-
the autocorrelation function. Note that if a stationary nite wedge bounded by the lines τ1 = 0 and τ1 =
stochastic signal has a zero mean, the second- and τ2 ; τ1 , τ2 ≥ 0. This information can be useful in
third-order cumulants are identical to the second- reducing the computation time and data storage for
and third-order moments, respectively. However, to operations involving third-order cumulant functions.
generate the fourth-order cumulant, we need knowl- 5) Selected slices or combinations of slices, or spe-
edge of the fourth-order and second-order moments cific points of the third- and fourth-order cumulant
(see Table 5.2). functions, can be used separately to identify certain
2) If {X(k)} is a Gaussian stationary stochastic sig- properties of the stochastic signals, as we see in later
(X)
nal, then cn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) = 0 for n > 2; all sections. For example, by taking τ1 = τ2 = τ3 = 0
the information about Gaussian stationary stochastic in Table 5.2 and assuming that {X(k)} is a zero-mean
signals is contained in their first- and second-order (X)
stationary stochastic signal [i.e., m1 = 0], we ob-
cumulants. tain the variance, the skewness, and the kurtosis,
3) If {X(k)} is non-Gaussian and symmetrically dis- which are defined as
tributed, then c3(X) (τ1 , τ2 ) = 0. In other words,
(X)
we cannot characterize a signal as Gaussian if our γ2 = E[X 2 (k)] = c2 (0) (variance)
only information about its higher-order (i.e., n ≥ 3) (X)
γ3 = E[X (k)] = c3 (0, 0) (skewness)
3
cumulant functions is that the third-order cumulant
(X)
function is null. We need to compute the fourth-order γ4 = E[X 4 (k)] − 3γ22 = c4 (0, 0, 0) (kurtosis).
cumulant function to differentiate Gaussian sig- (5.81)
198 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(a) τ2 (b) ω1 ω2
=
τ2
–ω
=
ω2
τ1
2
=
ω 1
II
III
I
–π π ω1
τ1
IV VI ω =
1
–2 ω
V
2
–2ω
1
=ω
2
FIGURE 5.11. (a) Symmetry regions of the third-order moments. We divide the third-order cumulants into six symmet-
rical sectors, I through VI. The knowledge of third-order cumulants in any of the six sectors allows us to reconstruct
the entire third-order cumulant sequence. (b) Symmetry regions of the bispectrum. Knowing the bispectrum in the
shaded triangular region is enough for a complete description of the bispectrum based on the symmetries described
in Table 5.3. We assume in this bispectrum plot that t = 1, as we have throughout this section. To interpret this plot
for other sampling intervals, we simply change π in this plot to π/t.
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 199
Normalized kurtosis is defined as γ4 /γ22 . The skew- Brillinger and Rosenblatt, 1967; Nikias and Petropulu,
ness is a measure of the asymmetry of the distri- 1993).
bution, and the kurtosis is a measure of the spread 1) Polyspectra are periodic functions with period 2π ;
of the distribution relative to normal (Gaussian) i.e.,
distribution.
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ω2 2) Third-order cross-cumulants:
π/3
(Z)
[Z(k + τ2 ) − m1 ] , (5.92)
π/2 OT
(X) (Y )
where m1 = E[X(k)], m1 = E[Y (k)], and
IT
m1(Z) = E[Z(k)]. For zero-mean stochastic signals,
ω1
we have
π/2 π
cX,Y ,Z (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), Z(k + τ2 )]
FIGURE 5.12. The bispectrum domain. The bispectrum = E[X(k)Y (k + τ1 )Z(k + τ2 )].
is defined in the triangular region denoted IT (inner tri-
(5.93)
angle) if the signal is stationary [i.e., it is null outside the
IT region: C3(X) (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0.]. If the signal is nonstationary,
Additional cross-cumulants are, for example,
the bispectrum is nonnull in the triangular region denoted
OT (outer triangle). The total domain occupied by IT and
OT is known as the principal domain of the bispectrum. We cX,Y ,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), Y (k + τ2 )],
assume in this plot that t = 1, as we have throughout this (5.94)
section. To interpret this plot for other sampling intervals,
we simply change π in this plot to π/t.
cX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), X(k + τ2 )].
(X)
(5.95)
γ4 = c4 (0, 0, 0)
π So the nth-order cross-cumulant of stationary sto-
1 (X)
= C (ω1 , ω2 , ω2 )dω1 dω2 dω3 . chastic signals {Xi (k)}, with i = 1, 2, . . . , n, is de-
(2π)3 −π 4
(5.88) fined as
7) The polyspectra of a non-Gaussian stationary white- cX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
noise signal are given by = Cum[X1 (k), X2 (k + τ1 ), . . . , Xn (k + τn−1 )].
Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = γn(X) . (5.89) (5.96)
They are flat spectra for all frequencies. Note that if the stochastic signals {Xi (k)} are the
same, then their cross-cumulant becomes the nth-
order ordinary cumulant function in equation (5.80).
Note also that two stationary stochastic signals, say,
Cross-cumulants and their Spectra {X(k)} and {y(k)}, are statistically independent if
their cross-cumulant is null. Hence, if {Z(k)} =
Cross-cumulants. Suppose we are given station-
{X(k)} + {Y (k)}, then
ary real stochastic signals {X(k)}, {Y (k)}, and {Z(k)}.
Their cross-cumulants may be defined as follows:
cn(Z) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
1) Second-order cross-cumulants:
= cn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) + cn(Y ) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ).
cX,Y (τ1 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 )]. (5.90) (5.97)
Thus, if the stochastic signals are zero mean, then In other words, the cumulant of the sum of two
independent stationary stochastic signals equals the
cX,Y (τ1 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 )] sum of their individual cumulants. This additive re-
= E[X(k)Y (k + τ1 )]. (5.91) lationship does not hold for moments.
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 201
Cross-cumulant spectra. Cross-cumulant spec- Consider the following two stochastic signals:
tra are defined as the multidimensional Fourier trans-
forms of the corresponding cross-cumulants, i.e., Y (k) = A(λ1 ) cos(λ1 k + φ1 ) + A(λ2 ) cos(λ2 k + φ2 )
+ A(λ3 ) cos(λ3 k + φ3 ) (5.101)
CX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 )
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+∞
+∞
and
= ··· cX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
τ1 =−∞ τn−1 =−∞ Z(k) = A(λ1 ) cos(λ1 k + φ1 ) + A(λ2 ) cos(λ2 k + φ2 )
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 + · · · + ωn−1 τn−1 )], (5.98) + A(λ3 ) cos(λ3 k + φ1 + φ2 ), (5.102)
which is the nth-order cross-cumulant spectrum of where A(λi ) are independent random coefficients, φi are
stochastic signals {Xi (k)}, with i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. independent random phases distributed over [−π , π ],
The summability of the cross-cumulant sequence is and λi are frequencies with i = 1, 2, 3. The frequency
assumed. For example, combining equations (5.92) λ3 is related to λ1 and λ2 as follows: λ3 = λ1 + λ2 . The
and (5.98), we get a cross-bispectrum of {X(k)} and difference between {Y (k)} and {Z(k)} is that in {Y (k)},
{Y (k)}, i.e., the three random phases of the three cosine waves
are independent random-phase variables, whereas in
+∞
+∞
{Z(k)}, the phase of the third cosine wave is related
CX,Y ,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) = cX,Y ,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) to those of the first two cosine waves [i.e., in {Z(k)},
τ1 =−∞ τ2 =−∞
φ3 = φ1 + φ2 ]. Moreover, the relationship between
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 )]. (5.99) the phase of the third cosine wave of {Z(k)} and those
of the first two cosine waves has the same form as the
On the other hand, combining equations (5.90) and relationship between the frequency of the third cosine
(5.98), we obtain wave (λ3 = λ1 + λ2 ) and the frequencies of the first
+∞
two cosine waves. This is the heart of the phenomenon
CX,Y (ω) = cX,Y (τ ) exp[−iωτ ], (5.100) of phase coupling, which we are about to introduce.
τ =−∞ Using a well-known formula of trigonometry,
which is the cross-spectrum (second order) between 1
{X(k)} and {Y (k)}. cos α cos β = [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)], (5.103)
2
the definition of cumulant functions in Table 5.2, and
with λ3 = λ1 + λ2 , we show that
Examples of Calculations of Cumulants,
Cross-cumulants, Polyspectra, E[Y (k)] = E[Z(k)] = 0, (5.104)
and Cross-cumulant Spectra
Example 1: Quadratic phase coupling.5 Our 1 2
c2(Y ) (τ1 ) = c2(Z) (τ1 ) = [A (λ1 ) cos(λ1 τ1 )
goal in this example is to analyze outputs of nonlinear 2
systems for the case in which the input consists of cosine + A2 (λ2 ) cos(λ2 τ1 ) + A2 (λ3 ) cos(λ3 τ1 )], (5.105)
waves (see Chapter 4 for the definition and analysis
of cosine waves). In particular, we will show that the
(Y )
power spectrum of the output of a nonlinear system c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = 0, (5.106)
can include frequencies that are not contained in the
input signal. The phenomenon behind these apparent and
new frequencies in output signals of nonlinear systems
1
is known as phase coupling. We start by introducing c3(Z) (τ1 , τ2 ) = A(λ1 )A(λ2 )A(λ3 )[cos(λ2 τ1
this phenomenon, and then we describe examples of 4
nonlinear systems that can cause phase coupling. + λ1 τ2 ) + cos(λ1 τ1 + λ2 τ2 ) + cos(λ2 τ1 − λ3 τ2 )
+ cos(λ2 τ2 − λ3 τ1 ) + cos(λ1 τ1 − λ3 τ2 )
5 Phase coupling also is known as frequency mixing. + cos(λ1 τ2 − λ3 τ1 )]. (5.107)
202 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(Y )
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0, (5.109) interactions between frequencies, which gives rise to
phase coupling. This weakness of the power spectrum
and can be generalized to the outputs of all linear time-
invariant systems when the inputs consist of cosine
(Z)
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0. (5.110) waves. Consider a linear time-invariant system with an
{ω1 =λ1 ,ω2 =λ2 }
input
We see that {Y (k)} and {Z(k)} have identical power
3
spectra consisting of impulses at λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 (see X(k) = A(λi ) cos(λi k + φi ), (5.111)
Figure 5.13). However, their bispectra are different. So
i=1
if all the phases of the cosine waves are independent, as
is the case with {Y (k)}, the bispectrum is null, whereas where A(λi ) are independent random coefficients and
if there is a linear relationship between the phases of φi are independent random phases distributed over
cosine waves (e.g., φ3 = φ1 + φ2 ) similar to the rela- [−π , π]. The output of the linear time-invariant system
tionship between the frequencies of cosine waves (e.g., can be written as
λ3 = λ1 +λ2 ), as is the case with {Z(k)}, the bispectrum
3
is nonnull, as depicted in Figure 5.13. The phenomenon Y (k) = B(λi ) cos(λi k + θi ), (5.112)
which gives rise to phase relationships of the same form i=1
as the frequency relationships is known as phase cou-
in which the phases θi are also independent random
pling (Kim and Powers, 1978; Nikias and Raghuveer,
phases distributed over [−π , π ]. Hence, the output sig-
1987; Nikias and Petropulu, 1993). The signal {Z(k)}
nal {Y (k)} of the linear time-invariant system remains a
has a phase coupling at λ3 = λ1 + λ2 , whereas the
superposition of statistically uncorrelated cosine waves,
signal {Y (k)} has no phase coupling.
just as does the input signal. No cosine wave with a new
As illustrated in Figure 5.13, we can detect the
frequency has been created by {X(k)} passing through
phase coupling in {Z(k)} by computing its bispectrum.
the linear system. Therefore, cumulant functions of
orders higher than 2 of {Y (k)} are null. In other words,
a linear system cannot cause an interaction between fre-
(a) C2(X)(ω) (Y) quencies. Thus, it cannot produce a phase coupling of
C2 (ω)
cosine waves. However, a nonlinear system can cause
phase coupling, which is why the phenomenon of phase
coupling can be used to detect nonlinear systems.
Now we pass the same input signal {X(k)} through a
quadratic (nonlinear) system such that the output signal
ω ω is, for instance, Z(k) = X(k) + βX 2 (k). In terms of
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ1 λ2 λ3
cosine waves, this output can be written in the following
form:
(b) C(X)(ω , ω ) ω2 (Y)
C3 (ω1, ω2) ω2
3 1 2
3
Z(k) = A(λi ) cos(λi k + φi )
i=1
Zero
λ2 λ2
3
3
interaction is located at the frequency λ1 + λ2 (with consideration. According to Kim and Powers (1978),
phase φ1 + φ2 ). Other locations of quadratic interac- bZZZ at (λ1 , λ2 ) frequency pairs is close to unity if a
tions include λ1 + λ3 (with phase φ1 + φ3 ), λ2 + λ3 quadratic interaction has occurred. When the value of
(with phase φ2 + φ3 ), and λ1 − λ2 (with phase φ1 − φ2 ), bZZZ is close to zero, no quadratic interaction has taken
etc. Note that the power spectrum of {Z(k)} will now place.
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include 12 impulses, thus confirming why the power As we discussed in Chapter 2, the model of the
spectrum methods usually overestimate the number of earth can sometimes be considered nonlinear. One
frequencies, treating the colored noise as the additional of the sources of this nonlinear behavior is that the
cosine wave signals. The use of higher-order statistics stress-strain relationship can be nonlinear. For the 1D
(HOS) resolves this problem without ambiguity. model, the uniaxial nonlinear stress-strain relation can
If we pass the same input signal {X(k)} through be written as
a cubic (nonlinear) system such that the output is, for
instance, Z(k) = X(k) + βX 2 (k) + ηX 3 (k), we can 9Kµ
dσ = [1 + βdε] dε (5.116)
rewrite {Z(k)} in the following form: 3K + µ
3 where σ is the strain, ε is the stress, K is the bulk mod-
Z(k) = A(λi ) cos(λi k + φi ) ulus, µ is the Lamé parameter, and β is a higher-order
i=1 nonlinear modulus. Notice that the nonlinear stress-
3
3 strain relationship of equation (5.116) has the same
+ C(λi )C(λj ) cos[(λi + λj )k + φi + φj ] quadratic form as the nonlinear system discussed in
i=1 j=1 this example. Therefore, the detection of nonlinearities
based on quadratic phase coupling has some relevancy
3
3
3
for petroleum seismology.
+ D(λi )D(λj )D(λl ) cos[(λi + λj + λl )k
i=1 j=1 l=1
Example 2: Non-Gaussian signal applied to
+ φi + φj + φl ]. (5.114) a linear system. Let {X(k)} be a zero mean non-
Gaussian stationary signal with all the polyspectra up
The signal {Z(k)} now contains cubic frequency inter- (X)
actions, through its third term of {Z(k)}, in addition to order n [i.e., Cn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )]. In this example,
to quadratic frequency interactions. So the cubic phase we analyze the response of a linear time-invariant
coupling gives rise to phase relationships (e.g., φ4 = system to {X(k)}. In particular, we show that the
φ1 + φ2 + φ3 ) of the same form as the relationship response of a linear time-invariant system to {X(k)} is
among three frequencies (e.g., λ4 = λ1 + λ2 + λ3 ). The non-Gaussian.
tool for analyzing the cubic phase coupling is obviously Let {h(k)} be the impulse response of a linear sys-
the trispectrum. tem and let {Y (k)} be the output of this system, such
The numerical detection and quantification of quad- that
ratic phase coupling can be performed through the +∞
statistical average of the bispectrum. For a given fre- Y (k) = h(τ )X(τ − k) (time domain),
quency pair (λ1 , λ2 ), if λ1 + λ2 and/or λ1 − λ2 are τ =−∞
generated by some nonlinear interaction, then phase (5.117)
coherency exists and the bispectrum is nonnull. Other-
wise, the bispectrum will be null. More specifically, we with
can use the amplitude-squared bicoherence,
2 +π
(Z) 1
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) h(τ ) = H(ω) exp{iωτ }dω. (5.118)
2π −π
|bZZZ (ω1 , ω2 )| = (Z)
2
(Z) (Z)
,
C2 (ω1 )C2 (ω1 )C2 (ω1 + ω2 )
(5.115) H(ω) is the frequency-response function of h(τ ). Many
problems in petroleum seismology are described by
for the numerical detection and quantification of quad- equation (5.117), including the modeling of zero-
ratic phases. The symbol |.| in this formula corresponds offset data under the assumption that the earth is one-
to taking the amplitude spectrum of the quantity under dimensional.
204 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Brillinger and Rosenblatt (1967) showed that the information about the phase spectrum of the impulse
nth-order cumulant spectra of the input X(k) and output response of the linear time-invariant system. So we
Y (k) are related by need to analyze the polyspectra of higher-order statistics
(n > 2) to obtain information about the phase spec-
Cn(Y ) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = H(ω1 )H(ω2 ) . . . H(ωn−1 ) trum of the impulse response of the linear time-invariant
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TABLE 5.4. Definition of moments and moment spectra for the output of a linear system.
Non-Gaussian white noise
n Abitrary non-Gaussian input and properties
(Y ) (X) (Y ) (X)
2 C2 (ω) = |H(ω)|2 C2 (ω) C2 (ω) = γ2 |H(ω)|2
(Power spectrum)
C (ω1 , ω2 ) = H(ω1 )H(ω2 )H ∗ (ω1 + ω2 )C3 (ω1 + ω2 ) C (ω1 , ω2 ) = γ3 H(ω1 )H(ω2 )H ∗ (ω1 + ω2 )
(Y ) (X) (Y ) (X)
3
3 3
(Y ) (Y ) (X)
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = |H(ω1 )||H(ω2 )||H(ω1 + ω2 )| C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = γ3 |H(ω1 )||H(ω2 )||H(ω1 + ω2 )|
(X)
× C3 (ω1 , ω2 )
(Y ) (X) (Y )
3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) − φh (ω1 + ω2 ) + 3 (ω1 , ω2 ) 3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) − φh (ω1 + ω2 )
(X)
(Y ) (Y ) γ3
(Bispectrum) C3 (ω1 , 0) = C2 (ω1 )H(0) (X)
γ2
In one case, the input is an arbitrary non-Gaussian signal, and in the other, the input is a non-Gaussian white-noise signal (with
(X) (X) (X) (X) 2
E[X(k)] = 0, γ2 = E[X 2 (k)], γ3 = E[X 3 (k)], and γ4 = E[X 4 (k)] − 3 γ2 ).
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 205
By substituting equations (5.120) and (5.121) into Example 3: Gaussian signal applied to a
equation (5.119), the amplitude and phase spectra of nonlinear Volterra system. Our objective in this
the nth-order cumulant spectrum of the output signal example is to analyze the response of a nonlinear sys-
can be expressed as tem, known as the Volterra system, to a stochastic
Gaussian input signal. If {X(k)} is a stationary signal
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(Y ) passing through this system, then the output signal can
Cn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = |H(ω1 )| |H(ω2 )| . . . |H(ωn−1 )| be described as
× |H(ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 )| Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) Y (k) = h1 (τ1 )X(k − τ1 )
(5.122) τ1
+ h2 (τ1 , τ2 )X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 )
and τ1 τ2
(Y )
n (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) + h3 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 )X(k − τ1 )
τ1 τ2 τ3
= φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) + · · · + φh (ωn−1 )
× X(k − τ2 )X(k − τ3 ) + · · · , (5.127)
− φh (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ) + (X)
n (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ).
(5.123) in which h1 (τ1 ), h2 (τ1 , τ2 ), and h3 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ), and so
on, are known as the Volterra kernels, and equation
(Y ) (X)
Note that if n = 2, then 2 (ω1 ) = 2 (ω1 ). This (5.127) is known as the Volterra series. So a nonlinear
observation confirms that when n = 2, the output car- system that can be represented by a Volterra series is
ries no information about the phase of the linear system. completely characterized by its Volterra kernels, just as
However, the output cumulant spectra of orders greater a linear system is completely represented by its impulse
than 2 (n > 2) effectively carry phase information about response. When the Volterra series is truncated to its first
the linear system, as we see in equation (5.123). Table term, it reduces to the linear system we discussed in the
5.4 shows the specific expressions of the amplitude and previous example. When the Volterra series is truncated
phase spectra of the polyspectra of the output signal of to its linear and quadratic terms, it becomes a nonlinear
the linear system for the cases when n = 2, 3, and 4. system, which is generally known as the second-order
We now look at the particular case in which the input Volterra model. When the Volterra series is truncated
signal {X(k)} passing through the linear time-invariant to its cubic term, it is known as the third-order Volterra
system is a non-Gaussian white-noise signal, i.e., model, and so on.
Just as for the linear system, the Volterra systems
Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = γn(X) ., (5.124) can be used to simulate seismic data, but this time the
earth is considered to be a nonlinear system. For such
(X) simulations, we generally will limit the Volterra series
where γn is constant for a given order n. From equa-
tion (5.119) we can deduce the polyspectrum of the to its quadratic term, i.e.,
output signal:
Y (k) = h1 (τ1 )X(k − τ1 )
τ1
Cn(Y ) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = γn(X) H(ω1 )H(ω2 ) . . . H(ωn−1 )
∗ + h2 (τ1 , τ2 )X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 ).
× H (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ). (5.125)
τ1 τ2
For completeness, we also compute the autocorrela- The autocorrelation function of {Y (k)} is
tion function as an intermediate step before computing
(Y )
the third-order cumulant function. We limit our deriva- m2 (τ ) = E[Y (k)Y (k + τ )]
tions to the case in which the input signal is a zero-mean
= h1 (n1 )E[X(k − n1 )Y (k + τ )]
white Gaussian signal. For the computation of the
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n1
third-order cumulant function, we further limit our
derivations to the particular case in which the Volterra + h2 (n1 , n2 )E[X(k − n1 )
kernel h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is diagonal [i.e., h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is null if n1 n2
τ1 = τ2 ], because we need only one particular form × X(k − n2 )Y (k + τ )]. (5.134)
of the Volterra system to prove that its output can be
non-Gaussian. Thus, we avoid some unnecessarily long This equation involves joint moments of two, three, and
algebra involved in computing the third-order cumu- even four Gaussian stochastic signals. As we discussed
lant function when an arbitrary form of h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is in the section on random variables, the joint moments
considered. of an odd number of zero-mean Gaussian random vari-
Let us start by rewriting equation (5.128) in the ables are identical to zero, irrespective of their mutual
following form: correlations. We also gave the formula for the joint
moment of four zero-mean Gaussian random variables
Y (k) = Y1 (k) + Y2 (k), (5.129) in equation (5.40). By using equations (5.39) and (5.40),
we obtain the following autocorrelation function:
where
(Y ) (X)
Y1 (k) = h1 (τ1 )X(k − τ1 ) (5.130) m2 (τ ) = γ2 h1 (n1 )h1 (n1 + τ )
n1
τ1
(X) 2
and + 2 γ2 h2 (n1 , n2 )
n1 n2
Y2 (k) = h2 (τ1 , τ2 )X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 ). × h2 (n1 + τ , n2 + τ ), (5.135)
τ1 τ2
(5.131) (X)
where γ2 is the variance of the white-noise Gaus-
The mean value of the output is given by sian input. Note that the autocorrelation in equation
(5.135) is not sufficient to solve the problem of recon-
(Y ) (Y ) structing the linear and quadratic kernels because the
c1 = m1 = E[Y (k)] = E[Y1 (k)] + E[Y2 (k)].
(5.132) number of unknowns in these equations is greater
(Y )
than the number of samples of m2 (τ ). For exam-
Because we have assumed that {X(k)} is a zero-mean ple, if the number of equations is L and if we assume
Gaussian stationary signal, E{Y1 (k)} = 0. Equation that the quadratic Volterra kernel is symmetrical, then
(5.132) becomes the number of unknowns is L(L + 3)/2 + 1. There-
(Y ) (Y ) fore, additional information is needed to reconstruct the
c1 = m1 = E[Y2 (k)] quadratic Volterra kernel. The higher-order cumulants
= h2 (τ1 , τ2 )E[X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 )] provide this information.
τ1 τ2 Derivations similar to the ones we just performed
(X)
for the mean and for the autocorrelation function lead to
= h2 (τ1 , τ2 )c2 (τ1 − τ2 )., (5.133) the following expressions of the third-order cumulant:
τ1 τ2
(Y ) (X) 2
(X) c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = 2 γ2 h1 (n1 )h1 (n1 + τ1 )
where c2 (τ ) is the autocorrelation of {X(k)}. We see n1
that the assumption that the input signal is zero phase
does not imply that the output of a nonlinear system is × h2 (n1 + τ2 , n1 + τ2 )
zero mean. Note that if the
quadratic kernel is symmet- + 2 γ2
(X) 2
h1 (n1 )h1 (n1 + τ2 )
rical and if the condition τ1 h2 (τ1 , τ1 ) = 0 holds, then
n1
the mean of the output signal of the quadratic Volterra
system becomes null. × h2 (n1 + τ1 , n1 + τ1 )
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 207
(X) 2 four zero-mean Gaussian random variables in equation
+ 2 γ2 h1 (n1 + τ1 )h1 (n1 + τ2 )
n1 (5.40). By using equations (5.39) and (5.40), equation
(5.137) reduces to
× h2 (n1 , n1 )
+∞
(X) 3
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where H2 (ω1 , ω2 ) is the Fourier transform h2 (n, m) with is expected to be constant at all frequencies if the non-
respect to τ1 and τ2 . This equation clearly shows that we Gaussian output signal is the output of a linear system.
can reconstruct the frequency response of the quadratic For example, if white non-Gaussian noise is input to a
Volterra kernel from the cross-bispectrum of the input linear system, the amplitude spectrum of the normalized
and output: bispectrum of the output must be constant; i.e.,
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(X)
CX,X,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) γ3
H2 (ω1 , ω2 ) = . (5.144) |bYYY (ω1 , ω2 )| =
(5.145)
2CX,X (ω1 )CX,X (ω2 ) (X) 3/2
γ2
This result is another proof that the higher-order (n > 2)
statistics allow us to detect and characterize nonlinear is constant at all frequencies. Equation (5.145) can be
systems. obtained easily by combining equation (5.115) and the
Figure 5.14 summarizes the results obtained in expression of the bispectrum given in Table 5.4 for a
examples 1, 2, and 3 by describing scenarios for which linear system whose input is non-Gaussian white noise.
the outputs of a given system can be non-Gaussian. Note If |bYYY | varies with frequencies, then {Y (k)} is very
that a non-Gaussian output can be caused by either a likely to be the output of a nonlinear system. For cases
nonlinear system or non-Gaussian input. Because both in which the bispectrum is not available or is simply
the system and the input signal generally are not known null, we use the amplitude spectrum of the normal-
in petroleum seismology, it is important to be able to ized trispectrum to perform a similar test. The ampli-
differentiate the non-Gaussian output caused by a non- tude spectrum of the normalized trispectrum is given by
linear system that may be the result of non-Gaussian
noise in the input signal. Hinich (1982) proposed to |bYYYY (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )|2
use the amplitude spectrum of the normalized bispec- 2
(Y )
trum (also known as the third-order coherency index) C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )
of the output signal |bYYY | defined in equation (5.115). = (Y ) (Y ) (Y ) (Y )
.
C2 (ω1 )C2 (ω2 )C2 (ω3 )C2 (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
The amplitude spectrum of the normalized bispectrum
(5.146)
DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS
Linear system
Guassian input Guassian output
In the previous section, we described a stochas-
tic signal as a set of random variables {X(t1 ), X(t2 ),
X(t3 ), . . .} in which each random variable, say, X(tn ),
is described by its possible values {x1 (tn ), x2 (tn ),
Non-Guassian input
Linear system
Non-Guassian output
x3 (tn ), . . .} and the associated probabilities {p[x1 (tn )],
p[x2 (tn )], p[x3 (tn )], . . .}. In this section, we are inter-
ested in the particular class of signals for which X(tn )
has only one possible outcome (one possible value), and
the probability associated with this outcome is 1. This
Nonlinear system
Guassian input Non-Guassian output class of signals is said to be deterministic (i.e., the value
of a signal is known at every instant of time), in contrast
to stochastic signals, whose value is not known exactly
at each instant of time. Examples of deterministic sig-
nals include seismic data whose values are considered
Nonlinear system
Non-Guassian input Non-Guassian output to be zero outside the recording duration interval.
The definitions and properties of moments, cumu-
FIGURE 5.14. The output of a linear system can be either lants, and cumulant spectra of stochastic signals were
Gaussian or non-Gaussian, depending on the input signal. discussed in the previous section. In this section, we
However, the output of a nonlinear system is always non- introduce the definitions and properties of moments and
Gaussian. moment spectra of deterministic signals. Our discussion
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 209
will be brief because these definitions are almost iden- cross-moment mX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ), the nth-
tical to those of stochastic signals given in the previous order cross-moment spectrum is defined as
section. The key differences between the definitions of
moments and moment spectra of deterministic signals MX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 )
and those of stochastic signals are that (1) the notion of
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+∞
+∞
expectation is no longer needed; i.e., E[X(k)] is now = ... mX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
replaced by X(k), and (2) polyspectra can be computed τ1 =−∞ τn−1 =−∞
directly from the Fourier transform of the signals rather
than as a Fourier transform of moments and cumulants, exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 + · · · + ωn−1 τn−1 )], (5.149)
as we did in the previous section. where |ωi | ≤ π for i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, and |ω1 +
Now that the notion of expectation is no longer ω2 + · · · + ωn−1 | ≤ π. The moment spectra of energy
needed, we limit our discussion in this section to mo- signals are continuous in frequencies ω1 ,…, ωn−1 . If
ments only because there is no clear advantage to using {X̂i (ω)} corresponds to the Fourier transform of the ith
cumulants for the analysis in deterministic signals. In deterministic signal, an alternative way of defining the
addition, we take advantage of the remark made in nth-order cross-moment spectrum is
the previous section — that moments and their spec-
tra are particular cases of cross-moments and their MX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )
spectra — to start our discussion of the definitions of
cross-moments and their spectra and then deduce those = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂3 (ω2 ) . . . X̂n (ωn−1 )X̂1∗ (ω1 +· · ·+ωn−1 ).
of moments and their spectra. (5.150)
As we indicated previously, the reference we use We obtained equation (5.150) by substituting equation
for our definitions of moments of deterministic signals (5.147) for equation (5.149). Thus, the nth-order cross-
is Nikias and Petropulu (1993). moment spectrum can be obtained directly from the
Fourier transform, X̂(ω), of the deterministic signal. So
we start the process of computing cross-moments (or
Moments, Cross-moments, moments) by computing the cross-moment spectrum
and their Spectra (or moment spectrum) and deduce the cross-monent
(or moments) as the inverse Fourier transform of the
Suppose we have n deterministic signals, i.e., cross-moment spectrum (or moment spectrum). Note
{Xi (k)}, i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Their nth-order cross-moments that such an approach is not possible with stochastic
are defined as signals; in that case, we have to use equation (5.149).
We also can deduce the nth-order moment spectrum
mX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) of a deterministic signal {X(k)} as a particular case of
+∞ either equation (5.149) or equation (5.150), in which
= X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 ) . . . Xn (k + τn−1 ). (5.147) all the n deterministic signals are identical. From equa-
k=−∞
tion (5.150), we can show that the nth-order moment
spectrum of a deterministic signal {X(k)} is
The nth-order moment of a deterministic signal {X(k)}
can be deduced as a particular case of equation (5.147) Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = MX,X, ...,X (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )
in which all the n deterministic signals are identical. So = X̂(ω1 )X̂(ω2 ) . . . X̂(ωn−1 )
the nth-order moment of a deterministic signal {X(k)} is
× X̂ ∗ (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ).
mn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) (5.151)
= mX,X,...,X (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) We often work with the amplitude and phase spectra of
+∞
the nth-order moment spectrum rather than with its real
= X(k)X(k + τ1 ) . . . X(k + τn−1 ). (5.148) and imaginary parts. Then,
k=−∞
Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = |Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )|
We now turn to the definitions of moment and
cross-moment spectra. Given the deterministic sig- × exp i(X) n (ω 1 , . . . , ωn−1 ,
)
nals {Xi (k)} with i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n and their nth-order (5.152)
210 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
TABLE 5.5. Definition of moments and moment spectra for deterministic signals.
n Moments Moment spectra
+∞
1 m1 = X(k)
k=−∞
+∞
2 m2 (τ1 ) = X(k)X(k + τ1 ) M2 (ω1 ) = X̂(ω1 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 ) ← Energy spectrum
k=−∞
2
|M2 (ω1 )| = X̂(ω1 ) ← Amplitude spectrum
2 (ω1 ) = 0 for all ω1 ← Phase spectrum
+∞
3 m3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = X(k)X(k + τ1 )X(k + τ2 ) M3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = X̂(ω1 )X̂(ω2 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 + ω2 )
k=−∞
|M3 (ω1 , ω2 )| = X̂(ω1 ) X̂(ω2 ) X̂(ω1 + ω2 )
3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = φ(ω1 ) + φ(ω2 ) − φ(ω1 + ω2 )
+∞
4 m4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = X(k)X(k + τ1 )X(k + τ2 )X(k + τ3 ) M4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = X̂(ω1 )X̂(ω2 )X̂(ω3 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
k=−∞
|M4 (ω1 , ω2 )| = X̂(ω1 ) X̂(ω2 ) X̂(ω3 ) X̂(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = φ(ω1 ) + φ(ω2 ) + φ(ω3 ) − φ(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
TABLE 5.6. Definition of cross-moments and cross-moment spectra for deterministic signals.
n Cross-moments Cross-moment spectra
+∞
2 mX1 ,X2 (τ1 ) = X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 ) MX1 ,X2 (ω1 ) = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂1∗ (ω1 )
k=−∞
(Crosscorrelation) (Cross-spectrum)
+∞
3 mX1 ,X2 ,X3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 )X3 (k + τ2 ) MX1 ,X2 ,X3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂3 (ω2 )X̂1∗ (ω1 + ω2 )
k=−∞
+∞
4 mX1 ,X2 ,X3 ,X4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 ) MX1 ,X2 ,X3 ,X4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂3 (ω2 )X̂4 (ω3 )
k=−∞
× X3 (k + τ2 )X4 (k + τ3 ) × X̂1∗ (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 211
(a)
(e)
1.0
1.0 1
X(k)
X(k)
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0.5 0.8
0.6
0.0
V(k) and W(k)
0.4
–0.5
0.2
(b) Z(k)
00 001 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
2
1.0 1
V(k) Samples
(f)
0.5 1.51.5
1.4
|X(ω)| = |V(ω)| = |W(ω)| = |Z(ω)|
1.3
0.0
1.2
1.1
–0.5
1.01
0.9
(c)
0.8
1.0 0.7
W(k) 0.6
0.5 0.50.50
0
10 20 30
π/2
40 50 60 70 80 90
π100
Angular frequency (ω)
0.0
(g)
–0.5 0.0
1.0
Z(k)
0.5 –4.0
W(k)
0.0 Z(k)
–6.0
0
0
10 20 30
π/2
40 50 60 70 80 90
π
100
–0.5
Angular frequency (ω)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Samples
FIGURE 5.15. Four examples of deterministic signals with the same amplitude spectrum and different phase spectra: (a) is
a minimum-phase signal because its energy is maximally front-loaded, (b) is a mixed-phase signal because its energy is
concentrated predominantly in the middle, (c) is also a mixed-phase signal, and (d) is a maximum-phase signal because its
energy is end-loaded. (e) Energy concentrations of the four signals just introduced. Energy concentrations describe the rate
of energy buildup. The fastest rate occurs when the signal is minimum phase, and the slowest rate occurs when the signal is
maximum phase. (f) Amplitude spectra of the deterministic signals. (g) Phase spectra of the deterministic signals.
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 213
and their Fourier transforms can be expressed as of Z(k) having the slowest growth rate. So we have the
following relationships among concentration energies
X̂(ω) = 1 − 21 exp(−iω) of X(k), V (k), W (k), and Z(k):
× 1 + 21 exp(−iω) (minimum phase), (Z) (V ) (W )
PC (L) ≤ PC (L) = PC (L) ≤ PC (L).
(X)
(5.172)
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Suppose we have two deterministic signals, The similarities between the computation of the
{X(k)} and {Y (k)}. The convolution of these two crosscorrelation and that of the convolution are ap-
signals is defined as parent. Note that the convolution of {X(k)} and
+∞ {Y (−k)} yields the crosscorrelation mX,Y (k);
Z(k) = X(i)Y (k − i) that is,
i=−∞
mX,Y (k) = X(k) ∗ Y (−k). (5.178)
= X(k) ∗ Y (k), (5.175)
whereas the crosscorrelation between these two In the special case where Y (k) = X(k), we have
signals is defined as the autocorrelation of {X(k)}, which is defined as
+∞
mX,Y (k) = X(i)Y (i − k) (5.176) mX,X (k) = X(k) ∗ X(−k) (5.179)
i=−∞
or, equivalently, as
or, equivalently, as
+∞
+∞
mX,Y (k) = X(i + k)Y (i). (5.177) mX,X (k) = X(i + k)X(i). (5.180)
i=−∞ i=−∞
In practice, this property of the autocorrelation earth’s surface. The autocorrelation of the ghosted trace
functions is often exploited when correcting for ghosts ug (t) may be expressed as
and the attenuation of multiples (see Yilmaz, 1987, for
more details). Note also that autocorrelation functions mug ,ug (τ ) = ug (t) ∗ ug (−t), (5.183)
generally are displayed only for positive lag because
they are symmetrical with respect to zero lag. based on the relationship of the autocorrelation and au-
toconvolution described in Box 5.1.
The ghosted seismogram ug (t) of equation (5.181)
can be rewritten as
A Mathematical Derivation of
the Autocorrelation Function ug (t) = u(t) ∗ h(t), (5.184)
As discussed in Chapter 4, the simple source- with
ghosted seismic trace can be described mathematically
as follows: u(t) = w(t) ∗ r(t). (5.185)
ug (t) = w(t) ∗ h(t) ∗ r(t), (5.181) Equation (5.183) can now be expanded in terms of
u(t) and h(t):
with
h(t) = δ(t) + R0 δ(t − τ ), (5.182) mug ,ug (τ ) = u(t) ∗ h(t) ∗ u(−t) ∗ h(−t). (5.186)
where w(t) is the source signature, h(t) is the ghost Since the order of convolution is immaterial,
distortion impulse response, r(t) is the reflectivity func-
tion, R0 is the effective surface reflection coefficient, mug ,ug (τ ) = u(t) ∗ u(−t) ∗ h(t) ∗ h(−t)
and τ is the two-way traveltime from the source to the = mu,u (τ ) ∗ mh,h (τ ). (5.187)
216 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
APPLICATION OF
CROSSCORRELATION AND
BICOHERENCE CORRELATION
TO MOVEOUT CORRECTION
As we saw in the previous section, autocorrelation
is useful in detecting periodicities within a given time
signal such as a seismic trace. As multiples and ghosts
produce sets of reflections that are delayed with respect
to the primary reflections, autocorrelation can be used
to detect ghosts, as discussed in the previous section,
and multiples, as described in Yilmaz, 1987.
Crosscorrelation indicates the degree of similar-
ity between two signals. One naturally expects a good
correlation between two signals if a relationship exists
between the functions, whereas no correlation is ex-
pected if such a relationship does not exist.
Figure 5.19 shows an example of crosscorrelation
between two discrete seismic traces. The maximum
FIGURE 5.18. Ghost identification by autocorrelation:
(a) the filter h(t), (b) autocorrelation of h(t), (c) auto-
correlation of the ghost-free trace, and (d) autocorrelation
of the trace containing simple ghosts.
value of the crosscorrelation mX,Y (n) occurs when propagation through random media. A two-dimensional
n = 2. The shift associated with maximum amplitude model of the earth is used. It consists of large- and
indicates the time shift between the two traces. A similar small-scale inhomogeneities. The large-scale inhomo-
result can be obtained using third-order statistics such geneities represent the mean properties of the earth
as the bicoherence correlation defined in Box 5.3. The that are overlain by random variations character-
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crosscorrelation procedure described in this example is ized by an ellipsoidal autocorrelation function. Finite-
useful in correcting for the time shift between seismic difference modeling techniques with an explosive
traces (seismic records) so that reflection events can source were employed to simulate seismic wave propa-
line up. This alignment of seismic events is known as gation through this model. The wavefield was recorded
moveout correction. with 91 receivers uniformly distributed along a quar-
ter of a circle centered at the explosive source. An
important and interesting issue for study in this sim-
ulation is the anisotropic behavior caused by random
Data Set variations — in other words, the dependence of relative
Figure 5.20 shows one of the synthetic data sets arrival times as a function of source-receiver directions.
computed by Ikelle et al. (1993) in their study of wave Accurate time picking from such data sets is an essential
prerequisite of this study.
Three signal characteristics that introduce com-
plications in picking arrival times in the data set in
Figure 5.20 are as follows:
Moveout Correction
Figure 5.21 shows the cross- and bicoherence cor-
relations between adjacent traces of the data in Fig-
ure 5.20. The increase in resolution of the delay peaks
in bicoherence correlation is phenomenal; the crosscor-
relation has suffered from the narrow-band source sig-
nature. The incremental delays between adjacent traces
are then combined and accumulated. The resulting rel-
ative delays are shown in Figure 5.22. These predicted
moveouts from crosscorrelation and bicoherence cor-
relation are overlain individually on the original data
in Figure 5.23. Unlike the bicoherence ratio approach,
FIGURE 5.20. Seismograms corresponding to wave propa- the predicted moveout computed via crosscorrelation
gation through a 2D random medium. clearly fails to follow the trajectory of the first arrivals.
218 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
The crosscorrelation has suffered not only from into several components:
the narrow-band source signature, but from the cor-
ruption of correlated coda as well. On the other hand, MX,Y (ω) = F ∗ (ω)H(ω) MS,S (ω)
the combination of inherent signal prewhitening and media source
Gaussian noise annulation capability in the bicoher-
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ence correlation (see next subsection for a discussion × e−iωτ0 + MN1 ,N2 (ω) . (5.196)
of these properties of the bicoherence correlation) has delay noise
produced high-resolution correlation peaks that track
the first-arrival times. The term e−iωτ0 , with a unit amplitude and a linear
Notice that, similar to crosscorrelation, tests based phase relationship (slope −τ0 ), corresponds to a delta
on coherence correlation (see Yung and Ikelle, 1997) function at τ0 [i.e., δ(t − τ0 )] in the time domain. This
have failed to suppress the correlated coda effects and ideal delay contribution is nevertheless colored by the
result in erroneous time-delay estimates. propagation media [F ∗ (ω)H(ω)], the source signature
In conclusion, bicoherence correlation in the third- [MS,S (ω)], and the correlated noises [MN1 ,N2 (ω)].
order domain allows us to pick arrival times in a seismic
data set affected by pulse-broadening effects and a con- Second-order statistics: Coherence corre-
siderable correlated coda. Unlike crosscorrelation, it lation. In order to suppress the effects caused by the
has succeeded in tracking the moveout of the first transmission media and the source signal, the cross-
arrivals. spectrum is normalized by the individual autospectra,
which results in the complex coherence function:
To analyze in more detail the differences between Combining equations (5.195), (5.196), and (5.197),
second- and third-order cumulants highlighted in the (ω) can be expressed as
MX,Y
previous subsection, we consider the problem of esti-
mating time delay between measurements X(t) and G(ω)
MX,Y (ω) = R(ω) e−iωτ0
Y (t) from two spatially distributed receivers. These two |G(ω)|
measurements can be formulated mathematically as S/N ratio delay
media
X(t) = F(t) ∗ S(t) + N1 (t), MN1 ,N2 (ω)
+ , (5.198)
Y (t) = H(t) ∗ S(t − τ0 ) + N2 (t), (5.195) MX,X (ω)MY ,Y (ω)
noise
where ∗ denotes time convolution. In the arrival-time-
picking application, X(t) and Y (t) are the receiver where
signals, S(t) is the source wavelet, and F(t) and H(t)
represent the impulse-response functions of the random H(ω)
G(ω) = (5.199)
medium. N1 (t) and N2 (t) are corrupting noise assumed F(ω)
to be uncorrelated with the signal S(t), although the two
noise sources may be mutually correlated. and R(ω) is a combined measure of the signal-to-noise
The objective is to estimate the delay τ0 with limited ratios RX (ω) [in X(t)] and RY (ω) [in Y (t)]
knowledge of both the signal, S(t), and the propagation
media, F(t) and H(t), and in the presence of corrupting, 1
R(ω) = . (5.200)
possibly correlated, noises.
1+ 1
RX (ω) 1+ 1
RY (ω)
Second-order statistics: Crosscorrelation.
Again, the time delay τ0 can be determined through As in the cross-spectrum, the complex coherence func-
the crosscorrelation function, mX,Y (τ ), or the cross- tion embodies the delay information, e−iωτ0 . A coher-
spectrum, MX,Y (ω). Based on the model described in ence correlation can be obtained by taking the inverse
(ω).
Fourier transform of MX,Y
equation (5.195), the cross-spectrum can be partitioned
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 221
The coherence-correlation approach has two attrac- The bispectral correlation is obtained by sum-
tive properties missing in crosscorrelation: ming βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) along ω2 and taking the one-
•
dimensional inverse Fourier transform.
The amplitude effects of the propagation media are
normalized.
Third-order techniques: Bicoherence cor-
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βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = G(ω1 ) e−iω1 τ0 , (5.203) The signal S(t) is an exponentially distributed ran-
dom signal with a bandwidth between 0.1ωN and
media delay
0.2ωN . Function H(t) is a realization of a low-passed
which completely eliminates the correlation of the finite-impulse response filter with a cutoff frequency at
Gaussian noise but is still colored by the medium 0.15ωN . The functions N1 (t) and N2 (t) are low-passed
transfer function. Gaussian random noise with a bandwidth of 0.35ωN .
222 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Time Delays
FIGURE 5.24. Crosscorrelation, coherence correlation,
bispectral correlation, and bicoherence correlation One useful way to gain insight into the difference
between two measurements [X(t) and Y (t)] corrupted between crosscorrelation and crossbicorrelation is to
by Gaussian noises: (a) measurement X(t), (b) mea- analyze the time delay between signals. Consider the
surement Y (t), (c) crosscorrelation, (d) coherence cor- two signals, X(t) and Y (t), shown in Figure 5.25. These
relation, (e) bispectral correlation, and (f) bicoherence two signals represent seismic responses obtained by
correlation. finite-difference modeling from a simple 1D model
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 223
(a)
than are the corresponding peaks in the crosscorrelation we extract the correlation between the source signature
and crossbicorrelation plots, respectively. Therefore, and each of the two events constituting the data with-
the normalized cumulants can yield a better estimation out interference by selecting slices along axis τ2 , as
of time delay than the cumulants themselves. illustrated in Figure 5.33.
Notice that these normalized cumulants do not An interesting result is that one can avoid inter-
remove erroneous correlations. Thus, the erroneous cor- fering signals by using an appropriate slice of the
relation highlighted in the crosscorrelation plot is also crossbicorrelation. To further validate the accuracy of
present in the coherence correlation with even more this result, we compute the response of each reflec-
strength. Although still small, this erroneous correla- tor separately. The crossbicorrelations of each of the
tion is more apparent in the bispectral-correlation map two data sets with the source signature allow us to esti-
than in the cross-bispectral map. This erroneous cor- mate the crossbicorrelation slices along axis τ2 in the
relation can be eliminated totally from the bispectral absence of interference. We have overlain the slices
correlation map by summing βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) over one extracted from the crossbicorrelation of the data without
of the frequency variables, say, ω2 , before applying the interference from those slices extracted from the cross-
inverse Fourier transform, as described by Yung and bicorrelation of data with interference. As we see in
Ikelle (1997). Figure 5.33, the slices along axis τ2 are almost identical
in both cases. This result confirms that we can avoid
interference by selecting the slice along axis τ2 .
Seismic Resolution
We consider a Ricker-wavelet source signature
convolved by two reflector models, as illustrated in
Figure 5.31. This Ricker wavelet is band-limited be-
SL2
tween 10 and 60 Hz. The interference of the two events
that constitute the data resulting from this simple convo-
lution model depends on the time interval, t, between
the two reflectors. We discuss how the usage of the
slices of the crossbicorrelation of the source signature
100
SL1
and the data allows us to extract an event corresponding
SL1
to each reflector while avoiding the interfering event.
Time delay, τ2 (ms)
50
SL2
SL2
100
100
100
50
Time delay, τ2(ms)
50
50
SL1
SL1
0
SL2 0 SL2
0
–50
?50
–50
–100
?100
–100
–100
?100
–50
?50
00 50
50
100
100
SL2
in the form known as the Volterra series. When the
Volterra series is limited to its first term, the relation-
-50
attenuation, for time-delay estimation, for improving The Method of Least Squares
the temporal resolution of seismic data through com-
pression of the source signature (Hatton et al., 1986), The method-of-least-squares technique is extremely
and so on. Our objective in this section is to derive these common throughout seismology, as we discussed ear-
equations. lier in the section titled “Random Variables.” Its first
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When the Volterra series in equation (5.127) is principle is based on the following problem: Suppose a
limited to its second term, the relationship between filter h is required which, when convolved with a given
the output and input includes the quadratic Volterra input x, produces a desired output d.
kernel. This quadratic term renders the relationship In practice, for a discrete signal, there is generally
between the output signal and the input signal non- no such filter, and the question must be refined to ask
linear. Hence, introduction of the quadratic term can what filter comes closest in some sense to producing
be used to take into account, for example, some of the desired effect.
the nonlinearities between the stress and strain in our The least-squares solution to our problem may be
modeling and inversion of seismic data. So our second stated as that filter that minimizes
objective in this section is to describe a generalization Ly
of the Wiener-Hopf equations to the quadratic Volterra I= (dk − yk )2 , (5.215)
model. k=0
i.e., the sum of squared differences of desired and actual
outputs. This least-squared minimization criterion also
Convolution as a Matrix Equation is known as minimizing by using the l2 norm. Note that
as discussed in the section on random variables, there is
As we saw in Chapter 4, the discrete linear convo- an infinite number of other ways of minimizing the error
lution of two discrete signals, say, h and x, is defined by in some sense. For example, we could choose a filter
Lh which minimizes the sum of the absolute differences in
yk = hj xk−j (5.211) amplitude:
j=0 Ly
I= |dk − yk |. (5.216)
k = 0, . . . , Ly , (Ly = Lh + Lx ). (5.212) k=0
Here, Lh is the length of the filter h, Lx is the length of The criterion in equation (5.216) is known as the l1
the input x, and Ly is the length of the actual output y. norm. For our derivation here, we consider only the
We demonstrate that equation (5.211) can be problem of minimizing equation (5.215), which also
written as a matrix, thus allowing the power of matrix can be written as
algebra to be applied to the understanding of this 2
Ly
Lh
fundamental equation. The appropriate form is I= dk − hi xk−i . (5.217)
y0 x0 0 ... 0 k=0 i=0
. x 1 x0 0 . . . . h0
Now we expand equation (5.217) as follows:
. x2 x1 x0 . . . . . 2
.
. = x3 x2 x1 . . . . Ly Ly
Lh Ly
Lh
. .
. . . . . . . . I= dk2 − 2 dk hi xk−i + hixk−i .
.
. . . . ... . k=0 k=0 i=0 k=0 i=0
hLh
yLy 0 0 0 xLx (5.218)
(5.213) Employing the standard technique of taking the partial
Equation (5.213) also can be written as derivative of I with respect to hi for all i and setting this
derivative to be equal to 0, gives
Y = XH, (5.214)
Ly Ly
∂I Lh
where Y is the column vector [y0 , . . . ..yLy ]T , X is the = −2 dk xk−j + 2 hi xk−i xk−j = 0.
∂hj
matrix shown in the equation (5.213), and H is the k=0 k=0 i=0
column vector [h0 , . . . ..hLh ]. (5.219)
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 229
Interchanging the orders of summation and rewriting where hij is the quadratic Volterra kernel, also known
finally yields as the quadratic Volterra filter.
Despite the fact that equation (5.222) is a nonlinear
Lh Ly
Ly
equation, we still can write it in a matrix form, just as we
xk−i xk−j = did in the linear case. If we take, for example, Lh = 1
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hi dk xk−j (5.220)
i=0 k=0 k=0 and Lx = 3, equation (5.222) can be written as follows:
for j = 0, . . . , Lh .
This equation is known as the discrete Wiener-Hopf y0 x0 0 x02 0 0 h0
equation, after the pioneering work of the mathemati- y1 x1 x0 x12 x0 x1 x02 h1
cian Norbert Wiener. The first term on the left-hand y2 = x2 x1 x22 x1 x2 x12
h00 .
side of this equation is the filter coefficients, which y3 x3 x2 x32 x2 x3 x22 2h01
are unknown; the second term is the autocorrelation y4 0 x3 0 0 x32 h11
of the input, which is known; and the right-hand side (5.224)
is the crosscorrelation of the input with the desired out-
put, which also is known. Although we did not assume
that these signals were Gaussian, we observe that the We have assumed that the quadratic Volterra filter is
least-squares solution in equation (5.220) uses only the symmetrical (i.e., hij = hji ), as is classically the case
second moments of these signals, namely, the autocor- in practice. Hence, the optimal Volterra filter (made of
relation and crosscorrelation functions. This surprising hi and hij ), in the least-squares sense, can be obtained
result is actually quite general; by using the least- −1
by computing (XT X) XT Y. The drawback of this
squares optimization criterion, we implicitly invoke the method is that the length of the Volterra filter must be
Gaussian hypothesis. very small compared to the length of the data (i.e., Lh
Note that the solution in equation (5.220) also can must be very small compared to Lx ); otherwise, we can
be written in matrix form as end up with more unknowns than equations. For exam-
* + * +−1 ple, if we increase Lh in equation (5.224) from 1 to 2,
XT X H = XT D, or H = XT X XT D. the result is six equations and nine unknowns, i.e.,
(5.221)
abused concept, not only in petroleum seismology correlation of traces u(t, k) and u(t, l) as a function
but in other disciplines as well. It is an attempt of lag, τ , as
to compare the “size” of a signal embedded in
noise with the size of that noise. The problem is ruk ,ul (τ ) = E [u(t, k)u(t + τ , l)] . (5.231)
that there is no unique definition of signal-to-noise
Then, using equations (5.228), (5.229), and (5.230),
ratio. Here are the two definitions generally cited in
we arrive at
petroleum-seismology literature (e.g., Hatton et al.,
1986): ruk ,ul (τ ) = a(k)a(l)E[w(t − τk )w(t − τl + τ )]
rms of the signal = a(k)a(l)rw,w [τ − (τl − τk )] , (5.232)
R= (5.226)
rms of the noise
where rw,w (τ ) is the autocorrelation function of the
and time-reflection signal, w, at τ .
average absolute amplitude of the signal Similarly, from equation (5.228), the autocor-
R= . relation of trace u(t, k) is
average absolute amplitude of the noise
(5.227) ruk ,uk (τ ) = E[u(t, k)u(t + τ , k)]
These two ratios can differ markedly, depending on = a2 (k)rw,w (τ ) + rnk ,nk (τ ), (5.233)
the spectrum and distribution of the noise.
The practical problem with the definitions in where rnk ,nk (τ ) is the autocorrelation of the noise
equations (5.226) and (5.227) is that they assume, at lag τ .
for their computation, that signal and noise can be The continuous-time normalized crosscorrela-
tion (coherence correlation) may be defined using
separated, whereas the seismic trace contains a sig-
equations (5.232) and (5.233) as
nal plus noise. Fortunately, we can show that under
reasonable assumptions, signal-to-noise ratios can
γuk ,ul (τ )
be related to correlation functions.
Assume that there are at least M seismic traces ruk ,ul (τ )
=
that contain the same source signature, perhaps ruk ,uk (0)rul ,ul (0)
with some relative time shifts and different realiza- a(k)a(l)rw,w [τ − (τl − τk )]
= , .
tions of additive noise. The general composite trace, [a2 (k)rw,w (0) + rnk ,nk (0)][a2 (l)rw,w (0) + rnl ,nl (0)]
time-reflection signal plus noise, can be written (5.234)
u(t, k) = a(k)w(t − τk ) + n(t, k), k = 1, . . . , M,
(5.228) As we already have noted, the autocorrelation has
its maximum value when the lag is zero; hence,
where w(t) is the (noise-free) time-reflection sig- γuk ,ul is a maximum for τ = τl − τk , and the
nal, τk is the time shift on trace k, a(k) is the weight maximum value is given by
of the time-reflection signal on trace k, and n(t, k)
[γuk ,ul ]M
is the additive noise on trace k.
For the case in which the noise is zero mean and a(k)a(l)rw,w (0)
= , .
uncorrelated with the signal, we have the following [a (k)rw,w (0) + rnk ,nk (0)][a2 (l)rw,w (0) + rnl ,nl (0)]
2
properties: (5.235)
E[n(t, k)n(t + τ , l)] = 0, k = l (5.229) This is the desired result, but there remains the
question of how it can be used. Recall that our
E[a(k)w(t)n(t + τ , l)] = 0. all k and l (5.230) objective is to relate the crosscorrelation to a signal-
(continued)
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 231
(5.238)
correlation is no more than the sum of squared then
magnitudes, it follows that 0 ≤ γuk ,ul ≤ 1, (5.239)
rms of signal
[R]k = as before.
rms of noise
- As it stands, equation (5.237) gives one equa-
rww (0) tion and two unknowns, the two signal-to-noise
= a(k) (5.236)
rnk ,nk (0) ratios. One solution is that
for trace k. Combining equations (5.235) and [R] = [R]k = [R]l ; (5.240)
(5.236) gives that is, if the signal-to-noise ratios on traces k and
1 l are assumed to be identical, then
γuk ,ul M = - . (5.237) -
[γuk ,ul ]M
1+ 12 1+ 12 [R] = . (5.241)
[R]k [R]l 1 − γuk ,ul M
6) Suppose that mX,Y (τ ) is the crosscorrelation at lag (a) Determine the impulse response of the filter
τ between two signals X(t) and Y (t), and show that
h0
h= (5.252)
mY ,X (τ ) = mX,Y (−τ ). (5.248) h1
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7) Determine (analytically) and plot, for −4 < τ < 4, using the least-squares minimization criterion.
the autocorrelation of (b) Compute the autocorrelation of x.
(c) Compute the crosscorrelation of x and s.
cos(πt); −1.5 ≤ t ≤ 1.5
X(t) = (5.249) (d) Determine h using equation (5.220) and com-
0; |t| > 1.5 . pare it to the result in (a).
8) Determine the autocorrelation functions of 11) Repeat Problem 10 using
(a) X(t) = sin(2πt); −∞ < t < ∞,
−1/2
(b) X(t) = cos(2πt); −∞ < t < ∞, x= (5.253)
1
(c) X(t) = sin(2πt + θ ); −∞ < t < ∞ (θ is con-
stant). as input.
9) Show that, if a time signal is periodic with a period 12) The predictive deconvolution is a special solution of
T , then its autocorrelation is also periodic with the the problem addressed in the section on the Wiener-
same period T . Hopf equation. Given the input signal x(t), we want
to predict its values at some future time (t + α),
10) If the input to a linear filter is where α is the prediction lag.
Rewrite equation (5.220) for an input signal
1
x= (5.250)
−1/2 x0
x1
and the desired output is
x=
x2 ,
(5.254)
1 x3
x4
s = 0 , (5.251)
0 with α = 2.
6
THE CONCEPTS OF RECIPROCITY
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233
234 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
∂x3 ∂z
g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x , t; x, t ). (6.10)
integral in (6.12), numerically if necessary, to deter- τ = 0. Therefore, g(1D) is simply the sum of the signals
mine the pressure field. The convolution operator (∗) is from all the 3D point sources constituting the plane
defined as source:
t ∞ ∞
dt b1 (t − t )b2 (t ). (6.13) (Z, τ ) =
(1D)
b1 (t) ∗ b2 (t) = g dxdyg(3D) (R, τ ), (6.20)
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−∞ −∞ −∞
For a monopole point source of volume injection at xs , where Z = |z − z |. The 1D Green’s function becomes
represented by V
g(1D) (Z, τ ) = θ(τ − Z/V ). (6.21)
∂ 2i
v (x, t)
2
s(x, t) = ρ = δ(x − xs )a(t), (6.14)
∂t 2 Observe that all Green’s functions, regardless of dimen-
sion, are causal. For a given distance away from the
where a(t) is the source signature, the pressure is simply
impulsive point source, the 3D signal rises abruptly
the acoustic Green’s function convolved with the source
from zero to infinity at τ = R/V . Likewise, the 2D sig-
signature:
nal rises abruptly from zero to infinity at τ = P/V . The
p(x, t) = a(t) ∗ g(x, t; xs , 0). (6.15) 1D signal rises abruptly from zero to a finite amplitude
at τ = Z/V . One difference between the 3D Green’s
Hence, g(x, t; xs , 0) is the pressure when a(t) = δ(t). function and the 2D and 1D Green’s functions is note-
worthy. Whereas the 3D wave disturbance at time τ
Analytic solutions for a homogeneous me- is confined to a spherical shell of radius V τ — there is
dium. In a homogeneous unbounded medium, g obvi- no signal behind τ — this is not so in 2D and 1D. In
ously depends on x and x only through R = |R| = 2D, an indefinitely continued decaying signal follows
|x − x |. In 3D, the causal Green’s function becomes the initial disturbance. Eventually, when τ P/V ,
the amplitude is approximated by 1/(2πτ ). In 1D, the
1
g(3D) (R, τ ) = δ(τ − R/V ). (6.16) signal remains forever unchanged after τ = Z/V .
4πR
We can obtain the 2D Green’s function g(2D) from the
3D function by regarding g(2D) as the signal in three Elastic Medium
dimensions from an infinitely long line source along the
y-axis, exploding instantaneously at τ = 0. Therefore, As described in Chapter 2, the wave equation for
g(2D) is simply the sum of the signals from all the 3D the displacement field is
point sources constituting the line source:
∞ ρ(x)∂t2 ui (x, t) − ∂j cijkl (x)∂k ul (x, t) = Fi (x, t), (6.22)
g (2D)
(P, τ ) = dyg(3D) (R, τ ), (6.17) with source term
−∞
Fi = fi + ∂j Iij , (6.23)
where P = (x − x )2 + (z − z )2 . We find
1 θ (τ − P/V ) where ui = ui (x, t) is the ith component of the dis-
g(2D) (P, τ ) =
, (6.18) placement, ρ = ρ(x) is the volume density of mass,
2π τ 2 − P2 /V 2 fi = fi (x, t) is the ith component volume density of
where θ(x) is the step function (sometimes called the external force, Iij = Iij (x, t) represents the source stress
Heaviside function): tensor, and cijkl = cijkl (x) represents the stiffness tensor.
We assume zero initial conditions for the displacement.
0 if x < 0 The elastodynamic Green’s function, being a tensor,
θ(x) = . (6.19) defines the impulse response of the solid medium. For
1 if x ≥ 0
a unit impulse at t = t in direction n at x , the elasto-
dynamic Green’s function is defined by
The 1D Green’s function g(1D) can be obtained from
the 3D Green’s function by regarding g(1D) as the signal
ρ(x)∂t2 Gin (x, t; x , t ) − ∂j ijn (x, t; x , t )
in three dimensions from an infinitely extended plane
source in the (xy) plane, exploding instantaneously at = δin δ(x − x )δ(t − t ), (6.24)
236 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
The elastodynamic Green’s function must have the Fi = fi = δim δ(x − xs )a(t); Iij = 0, (6.31)
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same general properties we enumerated for the acous- where a(t) is the source signature, the displacement is
tic Green’s function. The elastodynamic Green’s tensor simply the elastodynamic Green’s function convolved
satisfies the causality condition with the source signature
Gin (x, t; x , t ) = 0 for t < t, (6.26) un (x, t) = a(t) ∗ Gnm (x, t; xs , 0). (6.32)
is invariant with respect to time translation For a delta-function source signature, a(t) = δ(t), Gnm
(x, t; xs , 0) is the displacement at (x, t) in the n-direction
Gin (x, t; x , t ) = Gin (x, t + τ ; x , t + τ ), (6.27) for the point-force source in direction m.
media. We show that the solution for the wavefield (6.18), and (6.21). In 3D, the calculation is elementary:
(pressure or displacement) can be expressed in terms ∞
δ(t − R/V )
of the Green’s functions. Finally, we give analytic solu- g (3D)
(R, ω) = dt exp[iωt]
tions for Green’s functions for the special case of homo- −∞ 4πR
geneous media.
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exp[ikR]
= . (6.44)
4πR
In 2D, one obtains
Acoustic Medium ∞
θ(τ − P/V )
g (2D)
(P, ω) = dτ exp(iωτ )
.
By Fourier transforming the constant-density wave −∞ 2π τ 2 − P2 /V 2
equation (6.2) for the pressure field, we obtain the
Helmholtz equation Letting τ = Px/V , we obtain
∞
1 exp[ixkP]
∇ 2 + k 2 p(x, ω) = −s(x, ω), (6.37) g (2D)
(P, ω) = dx √
2π 1 x2 − 1
with source term i (1)
= H0 (kP), (6.45)
4
s = −ω2 ρiv − ∇ · f, (6.38) where the x-integral is one of the standard representa-
tions of the zero-order Hankel function of the first kind,
where k 2 = ω2 /V 2 . Likewise, by Fourier transforming (1)
H0 , with asymptotic
equation (6.5) for the acoustic Green’s function, we
obtain 2i
H0(1) (x → 0) ∼log x,
π
∇ 2 + k 2 g(x, ω; x ) = −δ(x − x ). (6.39)
(1) 2
H0 (x → ∞) ∼ exp[i(x − π/4)]. (6.46)
The acoustic Green’s function obeys reciprocity: πx
In 1D, the Green’s function follows from
g(x, ω; x ) = g(x , ω; x). (6.40)
V ∞
g (1D)
(Z, ω) = dt exp[iωt]. (6.47)
Solving for pressure. The acoustic Green’s func- 2 Z/V
tion is designed to solve equation (6.37) with a given
source: As the integral fails to converge at its upper limit, we
use the standard trick of multiplying under the integral
p(x, ω) = d 3 x g(x, ω; x )s(x , ω). (6.41) the exponential function by exp[−ηt] and then taking
the limit η → 0+ at the end of the calculation. Thus
∞
For a monopole point source of volume injection at xs , V
represented by g (1D)
(Z, ω) = lim dt exp[i(ω + iη)t]
2 η→0 Z/V
s(x, ω) = −ω2 ρiv (x, ω) = a(ω)δ(x − xs ), (6.42) exp[ikZ]
=− . (6.48)
2ik
where a(ω) is the source signature, the pressure is
simply the acoustic Green’s function multiplied by the
source signature Elastic Medium
p(x, ω) = a(ω)g(x, ω; xs ). (6.43) By Fourier transforming equation (6.22) for the
displacement field, we obtain
Analytic solutions for a homogeneous me-
dium. Consider a homogeneous unbounded medium. ω2 ρ(x)ui (x, ω) + ∂j cijkl (x)∂k ul (x, ω) = −Fi (x, ω),
The quickest way to the acoustic Green’s functions in (6.49)
any number of dimensions is obtained by Fourier trans-
forming Green’s function solution equations (6.16), with source term Fi = fi + ∂j Iij .
238 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Likewise, by Fourier transforming equation (6.24) interchange of its arguments, as well as obeying the
for the elastodynamic Green’s function, we obtain more general law of reciprocity.
(6.50)
Reciprocity is an important property of wavefields.
where In its most elementary form, the acoustic reciprocity
principle states that the acoustic pressure field remains
ijn (x, ω; x ) = cijkl (x)∂k Gln (x, ω; x ). (6.51) the same when its source and receiver positions are
interchanged. In its general form, the acoustic principle
The elastodynamic Green’s function obeys the reci- of reciprocity interrelates the field or wave quantities
procity relationship that characterize two admissible “states” that could
occur in the same domain in space. One of these states
Gin (x, ω; x ) = Gni (x , ω; x). (6.52) can be the physical (actual) acoustic experiment. The
other can typically be either another physical state or a
computational state (e.g., a wavefield propagator) or
Solving for displacement. The elastodynamic
a desired (hypothetical) state (e.g., representing a
Green’s function is designed to solve equation (6.49)
multiple-free seismic experiment).
with a given source:
The general form of the acoustic reciprocity prin-
ciple, also known as Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem,
un (x, ω) = d 3 x Gni (x, ω; x )Fi (x , ω). (6.53) thus gives the relationship between two independent
acoustic states defined in the same domain, or volume
D in space enclosed by a surface ∂D. The relationship
For a source of point force in direction m at xs , between the wavefields of the two states is governed by
represented by possible differences in medium parameters, in source
distributions, and in external boundary conditions on
Fi = fi = δim δ(x − xs )a(ω), (6.54) ∂D. In this section, we first derive the acoustic reci-
procity theorem. Then we discuss special forms of
where a(ω) is the source signature, the displacement is the reciprocity theorem, in particular the Kirchhoff-
the elastodynamic Green’s function multiplied by the Helmholtz integral representation and the Lippmann-
source signature: Schwinger equation. As a simple application of the
acoustic reciprocity theorem, we show how a scheme
un (x, ω) = a(ω)Gnm (x, ω; xs ). (6.55) for estimating the marine-source radiation pattern can
be derived.
Analytic solution for a homogeneous me-
dium. In a homogeneous medium, the elastodynamic
Green’s function for displacement becomes
General Theory
We introduce the basic acoustic equations that
1
Gin (x, ω; x ) = δin gS (x, ω; x )
describe wave motion in an inhomogeneous medium.
µ The material parameters, wavefields, and sources are
1 defined by the following symbols:
− 2 ∂i ∂n [gP (x, ω; x )
ω ρ
κ = κ(x) compressibility (reciprocal of bulk
− gS (x, ω; x )], (6.56) modulus)
σ = σ (x) specific volume (reciprocal of
where gP and gS are the scalar Green’s functions for an density)
unbounded space for P- and S-waves, respectively. v = v(x, ω) particle velocity
Remember that this is a special case. The Green’s p = p(x, ω) acoustic pressure
function of a homogeneous medium is symmetric with f = f(x, ω) volume density of external force
respect to the interchange of its subscripts and to the iv = iv (x, ω) volume density of volume injection
The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions 239
The equation of motion states that This theorem gives the relationship between the wave-
field variables characterizing the two states that could
σ ∇p = iωv + σ f, (6.59) occur in the same domain or volume D. Each of the
states may be associated with its own medium parame-
and the constitutive relationship is
ters and distribution of sources. On the right-hand side
iωκp = ∇ · v + iωiv . (6.60) of equation (6.63), the first two terms represent the
action of possible sources in D in the two states. These
The acoustic pressure field satisfies the wave equation two terms vanish if no sources are present in D. The last
four terms under the volume integral represent possible
(∇ · σ ∇ + ω2 κ)p = −s, (6.61) differences in acoustic properties of the media present
with source distribution in the two states. If the media are identical, these terms
vanish. On the left-hand side of equation (6.63), the
s = −ω2 iv − ∇ · σ f. (6.62) surface integral takes into account possible differences
in external boundary conditions.
Consider a domain or volume D enclosed by sur-
face ∂D with an outward-pointing normal vector n. In
this volume, two nonidentical acoustic wavefields are
denoted by the wavefields for “state A” and “state B,”
respectively. For the moment, we do not specify bound- Special Cases of Acoustic Reciprocity
ary conditions for the wavefields. By introducing the for Identical Media
vector [pA σ B ∇pB − pB σ A ∇pA ], applying Gauss’s the-
orem to its divergence ∇ · [pA σ B ∇pB − pB σ A ∇pA ], The best-known formulation of the reciprocity
and using the wave equation (6.46), one readily obtains theorem is obtained (1) when the surface integral in
Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem: equation (6.63) is zero, (2) when the medium parame-
ters for state A and state B are identical in volume D,
and (3) when the sources are chosen as monopole point
dS n · pA σ B ∇pB − pB σ A ∇pA sources at locations xA and xB . The surface integral can
∂D
be equal to zero for several reasons. First, if the fields
= dV pA sB − pB sA + ω2 (κ A − κ B )pA pB die off rapidly enough as the surface recedes to infinity,
D then the Sommerfeld radiation condition ensures that
the surface integral will vanish. Second, the boundary
−(σ A − σ B )(∇pA ) · (∇pB ) . (6.63)
conditions may specify that either the pressure field or
240 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
its normal derivative vanishes at every point on the sur- In state B, as above, let
face. This is the case when ∂D is a free boundary with
vanishing pressure in both states or a rigid boundary κ B = κ(x),
with a vanishing normal derivative of pressure in both σ B = σ (x),
states. In state A, let
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In addition to pressure recordings, some pro- directly measure the vertical gradient of pressure
posed seismic-data-processing schemes, such as de- along with the pressure field itself. An alterna-
ghosting, up/down separation, free-surface mul- tive technique is to record the pressure field data
tiple attenuation, and estimation of the marine on hydrophones in dual streamers at two different
source radiation pattern, require information about depth levels. To avoid complex towing of a dual
the vertical component of particle velocity, or vertical streamer, one may tow dual sources at dif-
equivalently, the vertical pressure gradient.2 These ferent depths in front of the seismic streamer. The
additional data are recorded routinely in ocean- reciprocity principle (6.68) suggests that the verti-
bottom-seismic (OBS) surveys that deploy hydro- cal component of particle velocity can be obtained
phones on the seafloor to record the pressure field as a pressure recording from a source of vertical
and geophones to record the particle velocity field. force. As suggested by Moldoveanu (2000), one
However, in towed-streamer data acquisition, the practical implementation of a vertical force in the
additional data are not readily available. How, then, water column is achieved by separate firing of
can we obtain the required vertical pressure gra- sources towed at different depths. Figure 6.1 illus-
dient? Obviously, the best solution, if feasible, is trates hypothetical experiments (source of vertical
to develop technology to record this data compo- force or vertically oriented geophone) and their
nent. Preferred is a recording technique that would possible practical realizations.
2 Deghosting, up/down separation, and free-surface multiple attenuation are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10.
q✷
(a) x x x x
fz p wz
z z z z
Source Receiver Receiver Source
Experiment Reciprocal experiment
(b)
q✷ x x p x ✷ x
fz ≈ -q ✷
p wz ≈ q
-p
z z z z
Source Receiver Receiver Source
Experiment Reciprocal experiment
Using the equation of motion (6.59) to introduce the This formula represents the physical acoustic pres-
vertical component of particle velocity, with identical sure at any point xA in the physical medium in terms of
source signatures aA (ω) = aB (ω) for the point forces a closed surface integral and a volume integral over the
at locations xB and xA , we obtain same physical field and its derivative.
Equation (6.70) can be simplified further when the
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v3(3) (xA , ω; xB ) = v3(3) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.69) source s is outside ∂D and when the reference medium
is identical or very close to the physical medium inside
Thus, for vertical point forces, vertical components of and on ∂D. In this case the parameters (δκ, δσ ) can be
particle velocities are unchanged when the source and ignored, and we obtain the expression
receiver are interchanged.
p(xA , ω) ≈ dS σ (x) n · [g(x, ω; xA )∇p(x, ω)
∂D
Representation Theorem
− p(x, ω)∇g(x, ω; xA )]. (6.71)
When one of the wavefields is chosen as the acous-
tic Green’s function (impulse response) of a reference
Equation (6.71) shows that when there is no source in D,
medium [κ0 (x), σ0 (x)] and the other wavefield repre-
and when the medium is well known, then the pressure
sents the physical wavefield in the physical medium
field at any point xA in D is represented by the pressure
[κ(x), σ (x)] under consideration, the reciprocity theo-
itself and its gradient on ∂D.
rem is commonly referred to as the acoustic Kirchhoff-
The Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral representation
Helmholtz integral representation. In Rayleigh’s reci-
(6.71) is widely used in various petroleum seismology
procity theorem (6.63), we make substitutions for
problems, including that of multiple attenuation and of
state A,
imaging, as we see in Chapters 10 and 11.
κ A = κ0 (x),
σ A = σ0 (x),
sA = −δ(x − xA ), and Lippmann-Schwinger Equation
pA = g(x, ω; xA ). The Lippmann-Schwinger equation is a special
case of the Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral representa-
For state B, tion (6.70) in the presence of homogeneous boundary
conditions or the Sommerfeld radiation condition on
κ B = κ(x) = κ0 (x) + δκ(x),
∂D, leading to vanishing of the surface integral. Fur-
σ B = σ (x) = σ0 (x) + δσ (x), thermore, one assumes that the physical source is a
monopole point source with source signature a at xB .
sB = s(x, ω), and For state B, sB = a(ω)δ(x − xB ) and pB = p(x, ω; xB ).
pB = p(x, ω). Using the reciprocity relationship of equation
(6.65) for the acoustic Green’s function, we obtain the
Assuming that xA is in D, we obtain the acoustic Lippmann-Schwinger equation:
Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral representation:
p(xA , ω; xB ) = a(ω)g(xA , ω; xB )
p(xA , ω) = dS n · [g(x, ω; xA )σ (x)∇p(x, ω)
∂D
+ dV [ω2 δκ(x)g(x, ω; xA )p(x, ω; xB )
− p(x, ω)σ0 (x)∇g(x, ω; xA )] D
− δσ (x)∇g(x, ω; xA ) · ∇p(x, ω; xB )]. (6.72)
+ dVg(x, ω; xA )s(x, t)
D
In the last term of the volume integral, using the
+ dV [ω2 δκ(x)g(x, ω; xA )p(x, ω) identity b(∇g) · (∇p) = ∇ · (bg∇p) − g∇ · (b∇p),
D
where b = δσ , together with Gauss’s theorem and the
− δσ (x)∇g(x, ω; xA ) · ∇p(x, ω)]. (6.70) assumption that δσ equals zero at spatial infinity, the
The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions 243
p(xA , ω; xB ) = a(ω)g(xA , ω; xB )
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Hence, Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem yields The principle of elastodynamic reciprocity holds
for the very general case of an inhomogeneous
anisotropic viscoelastic solid. In a volume D enclosed
dV (x)s(x, ω)g0 (x, ω; x0 ) by a surface ∂D, however, reciprocity takes a simple
V
form if the wavefields involved satisfy on the sur-
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∂p(xr , ω)
= dS(xr , yr ) g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) face homogeneous boundary conditions or the radiation
∂Dr ∂zr condition (Pao and Varatharajulu, 1976). In the case
∂g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) in which wavefields do not obey such conditions, the
− p(xr , ω) . (6.76) boundary conditions explicitly enter the reciprocity
∂zr
relationship.
Recall that g0 describes wave propagation in the water In this section, we derive the elastodynamic reci-
layer half-space. Therefore, the volume integral on the procity theorem, also referred to as Betti’s reciprocity
left side of equation (6.76) must represent the incident theorem.3 The theorem gives an integral equation rela-
wavefield (direct wave and its associated ghost) from the tionship between two independent wavefields defined
physical source to x0 . The incident wavefield denoted in the volume D enclosed by the surface ∂D. The rela-
by p(inc) is the linear combination of the contribution tionship is governed by possible differences in medium
from all elementary sources s(x, ω)dx. Thus, evaluation parameters, source distributions, and external bound-
of the integral ary conditions on ∂D. Finally, we discuss special forms
of Betti’s reciprocity theorem. The acoustic Kirchhoff-
Helmholtz integral representation and the Lippmann-
∂p(xr , ω)
p (inc)
(x0 , ω) = dS g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) Schwinger equation are not extended here to the
∂Dr ∂zr
elastodynamic case but can be derived by following a
∂g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) procedure similar to that used in the previous section.
− p(xr , ω) (6.77)
∂zr
[e.g., a wavefield propagator (Green’s function)], or as Betti-Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem, although most of the results pre-
sented in this section, as well as in many other textbooks, have been derived
another physical state (e.g., representing a time-lapse
by Knopoff and Gangi (Gangi, 1970; Knopoff and Gangi, 1959) for inho-
seismic experiment), or a desired, hypothetical state mogeneous elastic media and by deHoop (1966, 1995) for inhomogeneous
(e.g., representing a multiple-free seismic experiment). linearly anelastic media.
The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions 245
(6.89) is and
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δp(x, ω; xs )
δp(x, ω; xs ) = p(x, ω; xs ) − p0 (x, ω; xs ). (6.93)
= dx g(x, ω; x )L(x , ω)p(x , ω; xs ) δp is the part of the wavefield caused by deviation
D
of the actual medium from the reference medium.
It is generated by the passive source, L p.
= dVg(x, ω; x )W (x , ω)p(x , ω; xs ),
D The field δp is generally known as the scattered
(6.91) wavefield.
Note that equation (6.91), which we just
where the scattering potential, W , is
derived using the perturbation theory, is identical to
the one in equation (6.73), derived earlier by using
W = W (x, ω) = ω2 δκ(x) + ∇ · δσ (x)∇, (6.92) the reciprocity theorem.
motion states that parameters and its own distribution of sources. On the
right-hand side of equation (6.96), the first four terms
∂j τij + iωρvi = −fi , (6.94) represent the action of possible sources in D in the two
states. These four terms vanish if no sources are present
and the constitutive relationship is
in D. The last four terms under the volume integral rep-
−iωτij = cijkl ∂l vk + iωIij . (6.95) resent possible differences in the elastic properties of
the medium present in the two states. If the media are
Consider a domain or volume D enclosed by the identical, these terms vanish. On the left-hand side of
surface ∂D with an outward-pointing normal vector n. equation (6.63), the surface integral takes into account
In this volume, we define two nonidentical elastic wave- possible differences in external boundary conditions.
fields denoted by the wavefields for “state A” and “state Volume D to which the reciprocity theorem applies
B,” respectively. For the moment, the boundary condi- may be bounded or unbounded. An unbounded volume
tions for the wavefields are not specified. By introducing can be treated as a limiting case in which the boundary
the vector τijA viB − τijB viA and applying Gauss’s theorem surface ∂D of volume D recedes to infinity.
to its divergence ∂j (τijA viB − τijB viA ), one readily obtains
Special Cases of Elastic Reciprocity
dSni τijA vjB − τijB vjA
∂D for Identical Unbounded Media
= dV fiB viA − fiA viB + IijB ∂j viA − IijA ∂j viB Referring to Betti’s theorem (6.96), let volume D
D be unbounded so that surface ∂D becomes a sphere
A B A
− (iω)−1 cijkl − cijkl
B
∂l vk ∂j vi with infinite radius. The radiation condition then states
A that the surface integral over ∂D vanishes. Furthermore,
− iω ρ − ρ B viA viB , (6.96) assume that state A and state B have identical medium
where the symmetry relationship cijkl = cklij has been parameters. Betti’s theorem then reduces to
used. Equation (6.96) is generally known as the elasto-
dynamic reciprocity theorem, or Betti’s theorem. The dV fiB viA − fiA viB + IijB ∂j viA − IijA ∂j viB = 0.
D
reciprocity theorem gives the relationship between the (6.97)
wavefield variables that characterize the two states that
could occur in the same domain or volume D. Each When we introduce sources of strain distribution (i.e.,
of the states may be associated with its own medium hij = sijkl Ikl ) instead of stress distribution (i.e., Iij ),
The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions 247
At the same time that we develop reciprocity rela- forces. Assume that the sources of the two states are
tionships, we will verify them by running numerical point forces. In state A, let
experiments based on the model and source-receiver
configuration shown in Figure 6.3. The source (receiver fiA = aA (ω)δ(x − xA )δin ,
in the reciprocal experiment) is located at position IijA = 0, and
xA = (1.4 km, 0.1 km), whereas the receiver (source (A)
in the reciprocal experiment) is located at position vi = vi(n) (x, ω; xA ).
xB = (0.7 km, 1.0 km). The numerical results with
In state B, let
(a) (c)
1.0 1.0
Normalized particle velocity
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)
(b)
(d)
1.0 1.0
Normalized particle velocity
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
FIGURE 6.4. Reciprocity of particle velocity for single-body forces, vm(n) (xB , ω; xA ) = vn(m) (xA , ω; xB ): (a) m = 1, n = 1;
(b) m = 3, n = 1; (c) m = 1, n = 3; (d) m = 3, n = 3. The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the source at xA and
the receiver at xB . The circles correspond to the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the receiver at xA .
a body force directed along one of the coordinate axes. In state B, the source and fields are specified as
We now assume that the sources of the two states are
fiB = 0,
sources of stress acting in directions k and l and direc-
tions m and n (similar to Arntsen and Carcione, 2001 IijB = −ω−2 aB (ω)δ(x − xB )δim δjn ,
and Carcione, 2001). In state A, the source and fields
are specified as viB = vi(mn) (x, ω; xB ).
Inserting the above parameters of states A and B
fiA = 0, into Betti’s theorem (6.100) yields
Identical source signatures, aA = aB , give 2001, and to Carcione, 2001). In state A, we define the
following:
(A)
∂l vk(mn) (xA , ω; xB ) = ∂n(B) vm(kl) (xB , ω; xA ).
(6.102) fiA = 0,
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Equation (6.102) shows that, because of a stress dis- hijA = −ω−2 aA (ω)δ(x − xA )δik δjl , and
tribution source with components mn at location xB ,
the kl-strain component at position xA equals the τijA = τij(kl) (x, ω; xA ).
mn-strain component at position xB because of a stress
distribution-source with components kl at location xA . In state B, we define the following:
In the case where k = l and m = n, the stress source
has moment. In the case where k = l and m = n, fiB = 0,
the stress source has no moment. The source then
constitutes a dilatational source for P-waves. The hijB = −ω−2 aB (ω)δ(x − xB )δim δjn , and
reciprocity relationship for this source type is τijB = τij(mn) (x, ω; xB ).
(A) (B)
∂i vi(jj) (xA , ω; xB ) = ∂i vi(jj) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.103)
Inserting the above parameters of states A and B into
Here, the equal subscripts in parentheses (jj) on the Betti’s theorem (6.98) yields
field variables denote that the fields are generated from
a P-wave source. For a dilatational point source (explo-
aB (ω)τmn(kl) (xB , ω; xA ) = aA (ω)τkl(mn) (xA , ω; xB ).
sion), dilatation is thus unchanged when the source and
(6.104)
receiver are interchanged. The reciprocity relationship
of equation (6.103) is numerically verified in Figure 6.5.
Identical source signatures, aA = aB , give
Reciprocity of stress for strain-point sourc-
es. Now we assume the sources of the two states τkl(mn) (xA , ω; xB ) = τmn(kl) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.105)
are sources of strain acting in directions k and l and
directions m and n (similar to Arntsen and Carcione, Equation (6.105) shows that, because of a strain distri-
bution source with components mn at location xB , the
kl-stress component at position xA equals the mn-stress
1.0
component at position xB because of a strain distri-
bution source with components kl at location xA . The
Normalized strain (exx + ezz )
(a) (b)
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 6.6. Reciprocity of stress for strain-point sources. (a) τ13(13) (xA , ω; xB ) = τ13(13) (xB , ω; xA ); (b) for a P-wave source,
τii(jj) (xA , ω; xB ) = τii(jj) (xB , ω; xA ). The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the source at xA and the receiver at xB .
The circles correspond to the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the receiver at xA .
(b)
(a)
1.0
1.0
Normalized stress (τxx+ τzz )
Normalized stress (τxx+ τzz )
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
FIGURE 6.7. Reciprocity for P-wave source and force in direction m: τii(m) (xA , ω; xB ) = −iωvm(ii) (xB , ω; xA ). (a) m = 1;
(b) m = 3. The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the source at xA and receiver in xB . The circles correspond to
the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the receiver at xA .
Identical source signatures, aA = aB , now give Media,” in which the acoustic reciprocity theorem is
discussed.
iωvm(ii) (xA , ω; xB ) = −τii(m) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.107) In Figure 6.8, equation (6.108) is numerically ver-
ified for m = 3. The model geometry is the same as in
Equation (6.107) states that, because of a P-wave point
Figure 6.3, but the uppermost layer is fluid. Both source
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where nk = nk (x) is the k-component of the local c) Deduce from Problem 5(a) the reciprocity the-
unit along the normal to the water/solid interface, orem for the case in which the source of the
denoted A. experiment associated with State A is assumed to
be a fluid volume-source density of force, and the
a) Deduce a simple form of the boundary condi-
source of the experiment associated with State B
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Collecting seismic data is like attending a soccer as well as its relative cost. We also analyze the key
game. Your view of the game depends not only on the features of seismic data resulting from each of these
lighting system but also your position in the stadium. acquisition geometries.
A journalist, for instance, might prefer a position in the
stands with a good view of the entire soccer field to ana-
lyze and report on all moves and tactics. A photographer
might prefer a place on the touchline where he/she can SEISMIC ACQUISITION IN
immortalize the goals, even at the expense of not seeing WATER AND IN SOLIDS
the rest of the game. Each of these special positions in
the stadium will cost more than a standard seat. The concepts of homogeneity, heterogeneity, acous-
To continue the analogy to soccer games, the view ticity, and elasticity control the types of waves we can
of the subsurface by means of seismic data is deter- generate and the physical quantities we can record.
mined by the system of sources we use to illuminate Therefore, their implications for seismic acquisitions
the surface and by the type of sensors we use to cap- are profound. For instance, seismic experiments are
ture ground motion. The places we can put our sources divided primarily into land and marine acquisitions:
and sensors are limited — at or near the surface of the in marine cases, the acquisition is conducted in water,
earth, inside the water column, at the seafloor, or inside which can be treated as acoustic and homogeneous,
a borehole. Our choices, not only for the best possible whereas in land cases, the acquisition is conducted in
illumination but also locations of sources and sensors, heterogeneous elastic media (see Figure 7.1).
determine the cost. Our objective in this chapter is to The differences between various acquisition scenar-
describe current and emerging distributions of source ios presented here are between generating and recording
and receivers (i.e., seismic-acquisition geometries) in waves in a homogeneous fluid and in a heterogeneous,
seismic experiments. Our descriptions include advan- elastic medium (solid). The fluid is generally consid-
tages and disadvantages of each acquisition geometry, ered homogeneous, with a relatively flat air-water inter-
face. It supports only P-waves, and only
pressure variations are recorded, although
particle velocity can be deduced from
pressure measurements, as we shall see.
The solid is generally considered a hetero-
geneous, elastic medium with a nonflat
air-solid interface at the earth’s surface,
or a nonflat water-solid interface at the
seafloor. It supports P- and S-waves, and
the three components of particle velocity
can be recorded.
There are several configurations of
source and receiver distributions in ma-
rine acquisition. Those commonly used
for petroleum exploration and produc-
tion are (1) towed-streamer experiments,
255
256 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
in which sources and receivers are distributed hor- Cases such as continental margins (mud) that can-
izontally in the water column near the sea surface; not be defined clearly as marine or land are called
(2) ocean-bottom-seismic (OBS) experiments, in which transition zones (Figure 7.1). We also discuss how
the sources are in the water column and the receivers seismic experiments are conducted in these cases.
are at the seafloor; (3) vertical-cable experiments, in
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which the sources are in the water near the sea surface
as in towed-streamer and OBS experiments except that
receivers are distributed in the water in a vertical array; MARINE TOWED-STREAMER
and (4) walkaway VSP (vertical seismic profile) exper- SEISMICS
iments, in which the sources are in the water as in OBS
experiments but with the receivers inside a borehole. Acquisition Geometry
We describe these acquisition geometries in detail in
this chapter. Figure 7.2 illustrates a towed-streamer acquisition;
On land, the commonly used source and receiver a ship maneuvers across potential petroleum reservoirs
distributions are (1) surface-seismic experiments, in and tows a set of cables that contain receivers to record
which sources and receiver are at the surface of the signals generated by seismic sources. These cables,
earth or only a few meters (less than 10 m) below generally called streamers, are towed at depths of 5 to
the earth’s surface; (2) vertical-cable experiments, in 10 m below the sea surface. A typical streamer is 5,000-
which the source is at or near the surface of the to 10,000-m long and carries several hundred sensors,
earth and the receivers are distributed inside boreholes known as hydrophones, that record pressure changes. In
that are generally less than 500 m deep; and (3) VSP conventional acquisition, each seismic receiver is com-
experiments, in which the source is at the earth’s sur- posed of 12 to 24 hydrophones (see Figure 7.3) that
face and the receivers are inside a borehole, or vice are summed before or after recording, depending on
versa. The borehole in this case is generally as deep processing objectives (which we discuss in Chapter 8).
as the targeted petroleum reservoir. Again, we describe The spacing between receivers (i.e., the center of a
these acquisition geometries in detail in this chapter. group of hydrophones) is generally 12.5 m.
x
Streamers
Subsurface coverage
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 257
Typical acquisition vessels can tow 12 to 16 stream- of the fluid medium. Because pressure is nondirec-
ers spaced 50 to 100 m apart. One of the major chal- tional, a hydrophone’s output is independent of wave
lenges with towed streamers is maintaining constant direction (assuming that the patterns of hydrophones
streamer spacing.1 Currents, tides, and other forces are isotropic).
can cause streamers to feather, or drift laterally, from 2) Towed-streamer acquisition is a roll-along experi-
programmed positions: In extreme cases, they become ment; i.e., after each shot, the lines of receivers
tangled and must be reeled back to the vessel and are moved to another appropriate location, and the
untangled manually, resulting in loss of time (see Evans, source is fired again.
1997, for a detailed discussion of these technological 3) The configuration of sources and receivers is called
challenges and solutions). off-end spread, meaning that all the receivers are
Several types of sources can be used in towed- on one side of the shotpoint.3 A major problem
streamer acquisition. The most common uses an array with this configuration is the large spacing between
of air guns that operates as an exploding source.2 streamers in the y-direction, assuming that the
Like receivers, the typical seismic source is an array streamer direction is the x-axis. We discuss this
composed of subarrays, each containing as many as six problem in Chapter 8.
air guns about 3 m apart (see Figure 7.3). The air-gun
In some special cases, two or more boats can be used
arrays are towed at depths of 5 to 10 m but are usually
to collect towed-streamer data. Figure 7.4 describes a
located at a shallower depth than streamers.
towed-streamer experiment in which three boats are
Towed-streamer acquisitions are often performed
used to collect long-offset (as long as 20-km) data in a
as a series of parallel shooting lines, called inline
split-spread configuration; i.e., receivers on either side
sections or rows. Lines perpendicular to these lines are
of the shotpoint. Long offsets are needed to increase
called crossline sections or columns. Crosslines can be
angular coverage for deep targets such as subbasalt rock
generated from inline data.
formations, as discussed in Chapter 1.
The main characteristics of towed-streamer acqui-
sition are:
Seismic Data
1) Sources and receivers are in water; therefore,
the sources generate only P-waves, and the physical We now analyze the different patterns contained
quantity recorded is pressure, i.e., the acceleration in towed-streamer seismic data, beginning with data
corresponding to a simple model made of two layers
and a half-space (Figure 7.5). Our analysis of the data
1 Present seismic-data processing requires that data be uniformly corresponding to this model is based on snapshots of
sampled in space; therefore, distance between streamers must be constant.
2 The effect of seismic operations on marine mammals is a subject of
vigorous debate. Some feel that these operations are harmful, whereas others 3 The assumption that seismic sources are point sources is realistic
argue that potential effects of seismic operations on the marine mammal in petroleum seismology studies, despite our use of arrays, because they
population are negligible. For the status of this debate, see Dragoset (2000). generally act on very small volumes.
258 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
1500 m
d and sgd
1500 m
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sgp1
1500 m
1500 m
350 ms 850 ms 350 ms 850
50 ms
rgp1
p1 and sgp1
1500 m
1500 m
p2
p1
1500 m
p2 and sgp2
FIGURE 7.6. Snapshots of wave propagation in a model FIGURE 7.7. Snapshots of wave propagation in a model
made of two homogeneous layers and a half-space. Prop- made of two homogeneous layers and a half-space. Prop-
erties of this model are given in Figure 7.5. Impedance erties of this model are given in Figure 7.5, and the nomen-
contrasts are particularly large in this example because clature is explained in Figure 7.6. Source and receivers are
we wanted to show internal multiples as well as primaries, located very near the sea surface (zs = 5 m, zr = 10 m),
free-surface multiples, and ghosts. The nomenclature is as as compared to the case in Figure 7.6 (zs = 225 m,
follows: d = direct wave; sgd = source ghost of the direct zr = 275 m).
wave; p = primary; sgp = source ghost of the primary;
rgp = receiver ghost of the primary.
2) Primaries: These are seismic events that reflect or Because of interferences between primaries and
diffract only once in the subsurface before being other events contained in the seismic data, the prob-
recorded. As we see by following the path of the lem of removing multiples is one of the most chal-
primary p1 in the snapshots in Figure 7.6, it has lenging steps in seismic-data processing, as we see in
reflected only once from the source to the receivers. Chapter 10.
For the model in Figure 7.5, we have only two 3) Source ghosts: Seismic energy not only travels
primaries, p1 and p2, because this model con- downward in the subsurface but, unfortunately, up-
tains only two reflectors other than the sea surface ward to the free surface (i.e., the air-water interface).
(i.e., free surface). The two primaries are identi- This up-traveling energy is reflected downward at
fied in the seismic data shown in Figures 7.8 and the free surface, generating a new seismic event.
7.9. These primaries interfere with the source and This event, whose first bounce is at the free surface,
receiver ghost events shown in Figure 7.9. Present is called a source ghost because it follows the ini-
seismic-imaging schemes assume that data contain tial downgoing signal into the reflection paths (see
primaries only; direct, ghost, and multiple events Figure 7.6). A source ghost is associated with each
must be removed from the data before imaging. seismic event, as illustrated in Figure 7.8, with one
260 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
0.5 p1 0.5
0.5
sgp1
Time (s)
1.0 1.0 p1
Time (s)
1.0
rsgp1
rgp1
p2
1.5 1.5
sgp2
p2
1.5 psp
rsgp2 mi
m1 rgp2
2.0 2.0
m1
2.0
Source
Receiver
d sgd
p1 sgp1 rgp1 rsgp1 m1
P P
exception: direct waves. No source ghost is asso- because they are indistinguishable from events asso-
ciated with direct waves if the shotpoint is located ciated with them.
below the receiver point. However, as in towed- 4) Receiver ghosts: These are events whose last
streamer experiments, the source is usually located bounce is at the free surface. Figures 7.6 and 7.8
above the streamer of receivers, so towed-streamer show examples of receiver ghosts. When the source
data will then contain the source ghost of a direct is located above the receiver, as in most towed-
wave, as we see in Figure 7.8. In this figure, we streamer experiments, there is no receiver ghost for
also identify the source ghost of primaries. Source direct waves. Otherwise, each event in seismic data
ghosts, say, of primaries, are almost indistinguish- has its receiver ghost. Again, the receiver ghosts, say,
able from the primaries themselves (see Figures 7.7 of primaries, are almost indistinguishable from the
and 7.9) when the sources are very close to the primaries because zr is quite small (see Figures 7.8
free surface (zs = 5 m), as they are in most marine and 7.9). In practice, receiver ghosts are treated as
experiments. In practice, source ghosts generally part of an effective-source signature that takes into
are treated as a component of the source signature account the effect of the ghosts.
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 261
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
FIGURE 7.10. Examples of events in
towed-streamer data. These events can
be grouped into direct waves, primaries,
internal multiples, free-surface multiples,
receiver ghosts, source ghosts and a com-
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3
P1 Time (s)
M20 4
5
P2
P3
6
5) Free-surface multiples: Every discontinuity en- simplicity of the model used in this example). How-
countered by a progressing wave gives rise to ever, the diagram of raypaths of events contained
reflected and transmitted waves. Seismic data thus in these data allows to us to picture the free-surface
contain contributions from waves that have not only multiples (see Figure 7.10). These multiple events
traveled the direct primary path shot from reflector also are identified in the seismic data in Figures 7.8
to receiver, but also from those traveling all possible and 7.9. They all have at least one bounce at the
paths, including free-surface multiples that involve free surface, except for the ghost events, whose
one or several bounces at the air-water, free-surface first and/or last bounce is at the free surface. Free-
interface. The snapshots in Figures 7.6 and 7.7 con- surface multiples generally are distinguished by
tain no free-surface multiples, because they arrive the number of bounces at the free surface. Thus,
late (after 1 s). Snapshots become very complex free-surface multiples that include only one bounce
as a result of simultaneous occurrences of several at the free surface are called first-order multiples.
reflections and transmissions (despite the relative Free-surface multiples that bounce twice at the free
262 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
grouped in a source array to produce a single shot. meters, wavefields, and sources are defined by the
However, we have not yet fully addressed one following:
fundamental question. What is the relationship
κ = κ(x) compressibility (reciprocal of bulk
between the response of a source array and the
modulus)
response of each single source constituting the
σ = σ (x) specific volume (reciprocal of
array? This question is important, because if we
density)
know the response of elements forming the array,
v = v(x, ω) particle velocity
such a relationship allows us to predict the seis-
p = p(x, ω) acoustic pressure
mic response of the source array. The superposition
f = f(x, ω) volume density of external force
principle answers this question.
iv = iv (x, ω) volume density of volume
The superposition principle states that, in a injection
linear system, the response to a number of sig-
nal inputs applied simultaneously is the same as The equation of motion is
the sum of the responses to the signals applied
separately (one at a time). In seismic acquisition, σ ∇p = iωv + σ f, (7.1)
input signals are the source signatures from sources
and the constitutive relationship is
that need not be identical. The linear system is
constructed from the constitutive stress-strain rela- iωκp = ∇ · v + iωiv . (7.2)
tionship (Hooke’s law) and the equations of wave
motion that govern wave propagation; the response Let {pA , vA } be the field generated by the given
can be either snapshots or seismic data representing source distributions {ivA , f A } in accordance with
stress, particle velocity, particle acceleration, etc. equations 7.1 and 7.2. Similarly, let {pB , vB } be the
The only time the superposition principle does not field generated by the given source distributions
apply in seismic acquisition and processing is when {ivB , f B } in the same medium, also in accordance
the stress-strain relationship is nonlinear. The wave with equations 7.1 and 7.2. Then {αpA +βpB , αvA +
equation is linear by definition. Fortunately, lin- βvB } is the field that would be generated by the
ear stress-strain relationships are good enough for source distributions {αivA + βivB , αf A + βf B }, where
modeling most phenomena encountered in seismic α and β are arbitrary constants. Again, this result is
data, including anisotropy and attenuation, because known as the superposition principle. The proof of
we are dealing mostly with small deformations in this principle is straightforward from equations 7.1
petroleum seismology. and 7.2. This generalization applied to other cases,
The only important phenomenon in seismic such as solid or water-solid configurations, is also
exploration and production that cannot be mod- straightforward.
eled properly by a linear stress-strain relationship The marine-source array can be treated as a
is deformation near the shotpoint during formation set of localized point sources, each characterized
of the initial shot pulse, because deformation in by an effective (or notional) monopole wavefield.
the vicinity of the shotpoint can be relatively large. This representation, introduced by Ziolkowski et al.
However, this phenomenon is of no great conse- (1982), takes into account the interaction effects
quence over most of the travel path, thus permitting between oscillating bubbles in the airgun array.
us to use the superposition principle in most cases. The effective-source method generates a set of
To describe the superposition principle mathe- monopole signatures for each bubble. The wave-
matically, recall the basic acoustic equations intro- field at any chosen point is computed by superpos-
duced in Chapter 2, which describe wave motion ing these monopole effective (notional) sources.
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 263
surface are called second-order multiples. Each free- pressure wavefield can be written as
surface multiple has its receiver and source ghosts.
6) Internal multiples: These are seismic events with p = p(xs , xr , t), (7.3)
a bounce between two interfaces but not at the
free surface (see Figure 7.9). Compared to pri- where t is the signal’s traveltime from the source to
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maries, the amplitudes of internal multiples usually the receiver location. Therefore, the shot gathers are
are quite small and often barely visible in seismic the (t, xr ) cross sections of the pressure wavefield.
data. However, one type of internal multiple that can Each cross section corresponds to a limited experiment
be relevant is the seafloor-related internal multiple with one shot and all receivers available. Similarly, we
such as the one in Figure 7.9. Furthermore, only the introduce the (t, xs ) cross section, known as a common-
first of the seafloor-related internal multiples that receiver gather; the pressure wavefield in this cross
bounce once at the seafloor may be noticeable in section corresponds to an experiment with all shots
towed-streamer data. Salt and basalt also are known recorded at a single receiver. Pressure wavefield p is
to produce strong internal multiples. a scalar function because pressure is a nondirectional
quantity. In the towed-streamer experiment, the receiver
Figure 7.11 shows simulated towed-streamer data
corresponding to the Pluto 1.5 model (see Figure 1.7 in
Chapter 1) constructed by the SMAART JV group. The (a)
model and the data are much more complicated than
in the previous example (Figure 7.9). We indicate the
direct wave, some of the primaries, and the free-surface
multiples included in these data. In practice, we can-
not identify all primaries and multiples contained in the
seismic data; computer codes are necessary to trans- (b)
late the seismic data to the model of the subsurface.
This task is known as seismic imaging, and the field of
reconstructing models from given data is broadly known
as inverse problem theory. Seismic imaging is just one
application of this theory (see Chapter 11).
(c)
Shot and Receiver Gathers
As described earlier, the towed-streamer experi-
ment consists of setting off a bang (the source) in the
water, letting the wavefield bounce through the subsur-
face, and recording the time required for the wavefield
to bounce back to the sea surface (at the receiver).
Then the source location is moved a specified distance, (d)
and the process is repeated.4 Many receivers are used
to record returning signals for each source location;
each receiver recording is called a trace, and the group
of traces corresponding to the same seismic source is
known as a shot gather. So a shot gather is a side-by-side
display of seismic traces that have the same shotpoint
coordinates. The data in Figures 7.8, 7.9, and 7.11 are Source positions
displayed in common-shot gathers. Receiver positions
If we denote the source position by xs = (xs , ys , zs )
and the receiver position by xr = (xr , yr , zr ), the FIGURE 7.12. Common collections of seismic traces:
(a) common-shot gather, (b) common-receiver gather,
(c) common midpoint gather, and (d) common-offset
4 Seismic boats generally move at 5 knots, about 20 s per 50 m. gather.
264 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
M20
Time (s)
4
and source depths, zr and zs , are assumed to be constant In other words, a common-receiver gather at xA is
during the survey. equal to the common-shot gather at the same point,
Figure 7.12b illustrates the concept of receiver gath- xA . In practice, the requirement that zs = zr is fre-
ers, and Figure 7.13 shows a common-receiver gather quently ignored for towed-streamer data because the
from the Pluto 1.5D model. As we see in Figure 7.13, distance zr − zs is generally very small (less than
common-receiver gathers and shot gathers are quite 5 m; less than λ/5 for 60-Hz data, with λ being the
similar in an experiment in which source and receiver wavelength) (see Figures 7.14 and 7.15).
positions can be interchanged based on the reciprocity
theorem, as in the towed-streamer experiment (see Common-midpoint and
Chapter 6 and the next paragraph). However, receiver Common-offset Gathers
gathers in towed-streamer data can be split-spread (i.e.,
receivers on both sides of the shotpoint) even when shot Although seismic data are naturally recorded in
gathers are not split-spread, because shot locations can shot gathers, sometimes they are reorganized in other
be on both sides of the receiver location. domains in which processing may be physically more
The reciprocity theorem (see Chapter 6) is an asser- intuitive or important features reveal themselves more
tion about a single experiment carried out twice with an clearly. Common-midpoint (CMP) gathers constitute
exchange of source and receiver positions; i.e., an example of such a domain.
We can also describe the pressure wavefield in terms
p(t, xs = xA , xr = xB ) = p(t, xs = xB , xr = xA ). of the midpoint vector, xm = (xm , ym , zm ), and the half-
(7.4) offset vector, xh = (xh , yh , zh ); i.e., p = p(t, xm , xh ), in
which xm and xh are defined by a linear coordinate
For reciprocity to be valid for the ensemble of all shots transformation; i.e.,
and receivers along the seismic line, depths zs and zr xs + xr
must be equal. An important consequence of the reci- xm = (7.6)
procity theorem is that, when zs = zr , the wavefield 2
generated by a source at xA for receivers along x equals and
xs − xr
the wavefield recorded at xA for (individual) sources xh = . (7.7)
along x; i.e., 2
To understand this change better, we limit our discus-
p(t, xs = xA , x) = p(t, x, xr = xA ) for all x. (7.5) sion to the collection of multiple-coverage data gathered
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 265
∆z
750 m VP = 1.5 km/s, VS = 0 km/s, ρ = 1 g/cc
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250 m
Shot location
ρ = 2.25 g/cc
Exp2: source receiver
(b) Exp1
Exp2
Exp1-Exp2
∆z = 0 m
(c) Exp1
Raw data
Exp2
Zero offset
Exp1-Exp2
Copied data using reciprocity
0.05 s ∆z = 25 m
for a single seismic line. We assume that the data are
FIGURE 7.14. Illustration of the applicability of the reci-
gathered along a straight line with constant depth zs for
procity theorem in a towed-streamer experiment in which
the source and receiver depths are constant. (a) Illustration the sources and constant depth zr for the receivers. A
of two similar experiments, in which the coordinates of point on this seismic line is selected as the origin, so
source and receiver along the horizontal axis in one exper- that ys = yr = 0. Hence, we need only consider the
iment are exchanged in the second experiment (drawing is subspace (t, xs , xr ) in which the wavefield is a function
not to scale). (b) Comparison of data corresponding to the of only three variables:
two experiments in (a) for z = 0 m (z = zr − zs ,
where zs and zr are source and receiver depths, respec- p = p(t, xs , xr ),
tively). (c) Comparison of data corresponding to the two
experiments in (a) for z = 5 m. (d) Comparison of data (i.e., ys = yr = 0, zs = const, zr = const), (7.8)
corresponding to the two experiments in (a) for z = 25 m.
The direct wave and its ghost are identical in the two
or
experiments, irrespective of the value of z, because their p = p(t, xm , xh ), (7.9)
wavepaths are not affected by lateral heterogeneity of the with
corner diffraction. Also, the traces for the case in which
z = 5 m are very similar when comparing arrivals of var-
xs + xr xs − xr
xm = , xh = , (7.10)
ious events and shapes of the waveforms. However, even 2 2
one sample shift is enough to produce large differences and
between the two experiments. Because arrivals of various
xs = xm + xh , xr = xm − xh . (7.11)
events and shapes of the waveforms are almost identi-
cal, we generally assume that reciprocity is valid in such The CMP gather is the (t, xh ) cross section. Figure 7.12c
a small z. shows the experiment corresponding to a CMP gather.
266 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
FIGURE 7.17. CMP gather extracted from Offset CMP position Offset
the Pluto 1.5D data set. 8200 m 4100 m
0
CMP location
3
Time (s)
7
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 267
1.0
2.0
Time (s)
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
1.0
2.0
Time (s)
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
The model of the earth in this acquisition and in the expanding wavefront. In the absence of any varia-
subsequent seismic-imaging process is assumed to be tion of the geologic structure from the vertical plane
invariant along the crosslines. This, of course, is not of the 2D acquisition line, only reflections return-
generally true. Because of the structural features of ing from within the vertical plane would be recorded.
the sea bottom or other reflectors below the sea bot- However, if there were a structural feature, such as
tom, reflected events from outside the vertical plane scattering points outside the acquisition plane, out-of-
will be recorded in the 2D data. When the source is plane reflections from these scattering points would
detonated, seismic energy propagates outward in an also be recorded (see Figure 7.20b). The presence of
268 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(a)
Source Single streamer with
hydrophones
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Principle of
2D acquisition
P = pressure waves
S = shear waves
Survey lines often
kilometers apart
Seismic
section
P = pressure waves
S = shear waves
reflections from out of the plane is an inherent prob- rough weather, the level of swell noise is the principal
lem with 2D seismic data, because it usually is difficult factor determining the acceptability of marine seismic
to distinguish within-the-plane reflections from out-of- data.
plane reflections. Ignoring these reflections in imaging Figure 7.21a shows a shot gather from the Atlantic
schemes results in inaccurate representations of the Ocean, west of the Shetland Islands. The gather was
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1 1
2 2
3 3
Time (s)
Time (s)
4 4
5 5
6 6
Break-out
7
noise
7
FIGURE 7.21. Illustration of swell noise in towed-streamer data: (a) raw data and (b) image after a high-pass filter at
20 Hz. (Adapted from Christie et al., 2001.)
270 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
of the seismic signal. Advanced methods for reducing where τ is the two-way traveltime from the source
swell noise are being developed and are discussed in to the receiver. Since the overall system response of
Chapter 8. dual-seismic processing (simultaneous use of pressure
and particle velocity in seismic processing) is the prod-
uct of the individual amplitude spectra, ghosts can be
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1.5 km
5m
5m
FIGURE 7.23. Examples of acoustic monopole and dipole radiations in water (VP = 1.5 km/s, ρ = 1.0 g/cc). The quantity
displayed is acoustic pressure. Note the similarity between the radiation pattern of the dipole responses and that of vertical
and horizontal components of the particle velocity in Figure 2.27.
(a) Constant velocity (b) Increasing velocity most common methods petroleum seismologists
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Source Source
have devised to compensate for energy decays:
data.
10 4) Q-compensation: Defined as a loss of fre-
quency components in a seismic signal with
increasing travel distance. As stated before, as
Ambient noise
a seismic wave travels through the subsur-
1
face, it progressively loses frequency content,
Observed decay from all causes becoming lower in frequency. Q-compensation
is an attempt to recover and restore these lost
0.1 high-frequency components. Q-compensation,
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 or the inverse Q filter, can provide a good
Time (s)
solution to the problem, but it is difficult to deter-
FIGURE 7.25. Attenuating effects in seismic data. The mine Q with any precision, as we discuss in
majority of attenuation is caused by geometric spread- Chapter 12.
ing of the wavefront. (Adapted from O’Doherty and
Anstey, 1971.) Some of these processes should be used only for
purposes of display. AGC and trace balancing are
related to other sources is not negligible. In any especially dangerous to AVO analysis and should
event, these decays must be compensated so that be avoided if possible. Any process that affects
deep events in seismic data can be clearly visible, the trace-to-trace amplitudes of a section can either
especially for display purposes. Following are the create or destroy AVO effects.
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 273
OCEAN-BOTTOM SEISMICS the second vessel records, the third vessel retrieves and
moves sensor cables and sets up the next receiver lines
Acquisition Geometry: 4C-OBS Data ahead of the source vessel. This three-vessel configura-
tion allows the source boat to run a nearly continuous
The towed-streamer experiment records P-waves operation. Another solution to reduce the cost of acqui-
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directly, but not S-waves, although the wavepath below sition is to operate with one seismic vessel, which both
the seafloor may include some S-wave paths. S-waves deploys the receiver and shoots seismic waves. For
are not recorded directly, because the receivers are every cable deployed, data are recorded into record-
in seawater, and water, as with all nonviscous fluids, ing buoys. When the sensors are not in cables, but in
supports only P-waves, not S-waves. ocean-bottom, node-type systems with sensors housed
In a marine four-component (4C) ocean-bottom in units inserted into the seafloor by remotely operated
seismic (OBS) experiment, also known as a marine 4C vehicles, recording must take place locally.
experiment, the receivers are located at the seafloor. A major requirement in 4C-OBS experiments is
Every receiver station is a four-component sensing sys- that geophones be precisely coupled to the seafloor in
tem: three components of the particle velocity field order to record both high-quality P-waves and S-waves.
are recorded from a three-component geophone, and Because shear waves do not travel through water, geo-
the pressure field is recorded from a hydrophone. One phones must be in direct contact with the seabed to
geophone component is oriented vertically and two capture the motion of the seabed but not the change of
are oriented horizontally, perpendicular to each other. pressure in seawater. This process is called coupling.
While the sensing system is stationary on the seabed and Another important requirement of OBS surveys is
usually is wired to a recording vessel, a source vessel so-called vector fidelity, defined as that property of a
towing a marine-source array shoots on a predetermined three-component geophone sensor system wherein a
grid on the sea surface. One possible acquisition geom- given particle-motion impulse applied parallel to one
etry is illustrated in Figure 7.26. It consists of two of the sensor components registers only on that com-
vessels — one recording vessel and one shooting vessel ponent. Moreover, the same impulse applied parallel
towing one or more energy sources. to the other components gives the same response, so
OBS surveys are not limited to two-vessel oper- that the various components can be combined accord-
ations. To speed up the data-acquisition process and ing to the rules of vector algebra. Three-component
thus reduce costs, three-vessel operations also are com- geophone recordings obeying vector fidelity are thus
mon. While the source boat traverses the survey area and in agreement with the true earth motion generated by
seismic waves at the seafloor. At a minimum, vector information about the structure of the seafloor, and a sig-
fidelity is constituted as follows: (1) leakage of energy nificant number of reverberations in the water column
from one geophone component to another orthogonal are categorized as receiver ghosts (see Figure 7.27).
component is not substantial, (2) azimuthal bias in The definitions of direct waves and receiver ghosts
the recording of horizontal-component geophone data introduced earlier (see Figure 7.27) are critical for
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is not significant, (3) noise events that originate from understanding the difference between OBS data and
sources that are not geophysical (for example, mechan- towed-streamer data. We elaborate on these definitions.
ical resonance) are inconsequential, and (4) bandwidth,
transfer functions, and coupling of all three components
Direct waves. As in the streamer experiment, the
to the seafloor are substantially identical. Vector fidelity
direct wave in OBS experiments (pressure recordings)
depends upon the type of sensors, housing, coupling
is the wave that propagates in the water column, from
with the seafloor, and method of sensor deployment;
the source position to the receiver, without hitting any
it is required for all processing methods based on the
reflector. However, when the recorded OBS wavefield
elastic-wave theory.
is a pressure field, a sea-bottom reflection arrives at
almost the same time as the direct wave. This situation
Ocean-bottom Seismic Data is illustrated in Figure 7.28, with a slight exaggeration,
by putting the receiver well inside the water column.
Although seismic events in OBS data can be cast These two events are sometimes treated as a single
into direct waves, primaries, ghosts, and multiples, just event and called a direct wave. In this definition of a
as with towed-streamer data, their wave-propagation direct wave, the effect of the sea-bottom reflection adds
paths are quite different, in particular those of direct another virtual source to the actual source. So, if we
waves and receiver ghosts. In the towed-streamer exper- interpret the source signature as corresponding to that
iment in which sources and receivers are located in the effective source, this definition of a direct wave is valid.
water, the direct wave describes the wave propagation The pressure data and the normal (to the seafloor)
in the water only. It carries no information about the component of the particle velocity data contain direct
subsurface; therefore, it is generally muted from the waves (since the normal component of the particle
data. The effect of receiver ghosts is also negligible in velocity is continuous, we consider the normal com-
towed-streamer data; it is generally treated as part of ponent of the particle velocity as recorded above the
an effective-source signature, because the receivers are seafloor) whereas the tranverse (to the seafloor) com-
very close to the sea surface, except in the case of bad ponents contain no direct waves because they are null
weather — in which case the receiver depth can be 10 m above the seafloor. (See Chapter 3 for a more detailed
or more to avoid ocean swell. In an OBS experiment, discussion of boundary conditions at the water-solid
the problem is quite different; the direct wave carries interface.)
Direct wave
P P P P
Water
P P S S
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(a) (b)
P P
Source
Receiver P P P S
(c) (d)
FIGURE 7.28. The direct wave and the first sea-bottom
reflection in the OBS pressure field (hydrophone data). The
receiver is well inside the water column to clearly distin-
guish the two events, which, in actuality, interfere at all
P P
offsets.
S P S S
P -wave
S -wave
PP reflection PS reflection
Offset (km) Offset (km) Offset (km)
1.5 0.75 0 1.5 0.75 0 1.5 0.75 0
0
0.5
Time (s)
1.0
1.5
(a) Data (b) Divergence (c) Curl
FIGURE 7.30. (Top) Separation of seismic data into PP data (also called P-wave data) and PS data (also called
S-wave data). (a) Vertical component of the particle velocity, (b) PP data obtained through the divergence of the
particle velocity, and (c) PS data obtained through the curl of the particle velocity.
data by computing the divergence and curl of the par- (CMP) halfway between the source and receiver (see
ticle velocity. Figure 7.30b shows the divergence of Figure 7.31). The difference in reflection points must
the particle velocity, which is treated as the PP data. be taken into account when processing the data. For
We see that these PP data are essentially dominated by an NMO (normal moveout) correction, we derived
PP reflections. Similarly, the curl of the particle veloc- the equation corresponding to each of these cases in
ity in Figure 7.30c, which corresponds to PS data, is Chapter 3.
dominated by PS reflections. Other converted events
are not totally negligible, as we see in Figure 7.30c; PZ data. In most cases, the seabed can be approx-
therefore, care must be taken during processing to avoid imated as an acoustic/elastic interface.5 In the context
misinterpreting the events that are not PS events. of wave-propagation theory, to fully describe the elastic
A PS reflection in a 1D medium is asymmetrical wavefield at an acoustic/elastic interface, the pressure
at the point of reflection, generally called the com-
mon conversion point (CCP). This behavior of PS is
contrary to that of a PP reflection, which is symmetri- 5 Note that in tracts where mud is abundant in sediments, the seabed
cal at the point of reflection at the common midpoint is not a perfect acoustic/elastic interface.
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 277
Hydrophone
lithology and pore saturants may be difficult. Since
Cable connector P- and S-waves are affected differently by variations
in rock properties and pore fluids, marine multicompo-
nent seismic emerges as a key tool for exploration and
for reservoir evaluation.
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P-raypaths. Figure 7.33a shows a conventional P-wave between the wells, which are 3 km apart. Targets of
image section over the Alpha structure. In the flank interest are reflections between 3 s and 3.5 s in the Top
areas, quality of the seismic data is considered to be Ekofisk chalk interval and possible Jurassic prospects
very good; however, the reflectors seen in the section below 3.7 s in the middle part of the section.
are truncated abruptly between the positions of wells Because shear waves are much less affected by flu-
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1/9-1 and 1/9-3R, which are on the flanks of the Alpha ids than are compressional waves, it was expected that
structure. Disruption of the reflector is so severe that no 4C technology would “see through” the distorting gas
stratigraphic or structural interpretation can be made chimney and produce a reliable image of the target,
Top reservoir
(a) 3 km (b) 3 km
1/ 9 – 1 1/ 9 – 3R
Seabed
Gas
? Target
FIGURE 7.33. (a) On the conventional P-wave section, the Tommeliten Alpha structure is obscured by gas escaping
through shale (a gas chimney). Consequently, over a horizontal distance of 3 km between well 1/9-1 (left vertical line)
and well 1/9-3R (right vertical line) the top of the structure cannot be mapped. (b) The PS-data considerably reduce
the area of uncertain structural interpretation, especially in the deeper part of the section (top Ekofisk Formation and
top Lower Cretaceous Formation). (c) Illustration of the principle of undershooting gas areas by PS-waves. The target
(reservoir) is in the dome, with a gas cloud in the red-striped white area. The yellow triangle on the seabed represents
the 4C sensor. Where downgoing P-waves (green arrows) travel outside the gas-affected area, good quality PS-waves
(red arrows) are generated, traveling upward to the sensor. The gas area has little effect on S-waves, because they are
largely unaffected by gas. Where downgoing P-waves travel inside the gas-affected area, they are attenuated severely,
and no significant PS-waves are generated from the target. Thus, to obtain high-quality PS images of reservoirs below
sediments or rocks charged with gas, we must ensure that the offsets (source-receiver distances) are large enough for
P-waves to travel downward outside the gas area. (Courtesy of Statoil ASA.)
280 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
varied significantly.
The processed PS-wave time section is displayed
in Figure 7.33b. The section shows a good image
of the Alpha structure, with minimal distortion from
the gas chimney. The basic principle is illustrated in
Figure 7.33c: the long-offset PS-converted wave under-
shoots the gas chimney; the downgoing P-wave mode
propagates outside the gas, whereas the reflected
S-wave mode travels upward almost unaffected by the
gas. However, some loss of amplitude and interference
by scattering were introduced by small-scale faulting
in strata above the reservoir. The reservoir is between
5.5 s and 6 s on the PS-wave section, and the pattern
of faulting can be partly traced across the crest of the
dome. The Tommeliten Alpha structure is interpreted
as a faulted dome (Figure 7.33b).
The field study demonstrated the viability of 4C
technology to image below shallow gas. Today, in areas
where imaging based on conventional seismic data is
limited by gas-bearing rock, the use of shear waves to
map reservoirs is effective.
Alba. The PS data shown in Figure 7.34b provided are most likely related to lithology or to fluid effects.
a clear, high-quality image of the reservoir body. By The ability to distinguish between the effects of rock
comparing OBS data with streamer data, reservoir and the effects of fluid properties is a significant, predic-
fluid changes after four years of production and water tive contribution to decreasing the risk in exploration.
injection have been imaged directly. Chevron’s study In marine exploration, one of the first applications
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has improved the reservoir characterization of Alba, of joint interpretation of P- and S-wave data was to
allowing better placement of development wells; fur- verify the P-wave bright-spot amplitude anomaly (in
thermore, it documented the usefulness of PS-converted the P-wave section in Figure 7.35a) as a direct indica-
data to image low P-wave impedance-contrast reser- tion of gas saturation. In a reservoir that varies laterally
voirs that show evidence of large PS-wave impedance from water saturated to gas saturated, the bright spot
contrast. represents a strong increase in P-wave reflectivity, as
Although reservoirs with low P-wave reflectivity a result of a significant decrease in P-wave velocity in
caused by the small contrast in P-wave impedance are the presence of gas. Because S-wave velocities are not
imaged well by PS waves, because of the large con- very sensitive to differences in water saturation and gas
trast in S-wave impedance, large-angle stacks of con- saturation, there should be no S-wave bright spot asso-
ventional P-wave towed-streamer data can potentially ciated with gas saturation. This is indeed observed on
provide a satisfactory image. P-wave AVO predicts the S-wave section in Figure 7.35b, which indicates that
that shale-sandstone interfaces with small P-wave but the reservoir is gas saturated. Had the S-wave amplitude
high S-wave impedance contrast should have signifi- anomaly coincided with the P-wave amplitude anomaly,
cant P-wave reflectivity for large angles of incidence. the bright spot would not have been interpreted as being
Therefore, before deciding on 4C-OBS acquisition for associated with gas saturation.
imaging low P-wave impedance-contrast reservoirs, the The second example is a flat spot on the P-wave
petroleum seismologist should evaluate whether towed- section displayed in Figure 7.36a. The flat spot has the
streamer AVO sections can solve the problem. In some appearance of a direct hydrocarbon indicator. Should
cases, the reservoir may be an obstructed area with lim- we drill the prospect or not? Looking at the correspond-
ited access for towed-streamer operations, in which case ing PS section in Figure 7.36b, the most likely answer
4C-OBS definitely is the best solution. is “no.” The flat spot is also present on the PS data,
a fact strongly suggesting that the event is related to
Quantification of amplitude anomalies. Ma- lithology.7 In this case, the combined use of P-wave
rine 4C seismic is gaining acceptance in the petroleum
exploration and production industry as a tool that can
reduce risk by providing information about subsurface twice the seismic tuning thickness and are relatively soft. In exploring for
hydrocarbons, this phenomenon is frequently used as a direct hydrocarbon
rocks and distributions of pore fluids. This 4C seismic indicator (DHI), in conjunction with seismic amplitudes and AVO tech-
technology can solve many seismic and geologic prob- niques. Flat-spot recognition has been particularly successful in the North
lems that cannot be solved reliably by use of P-wave Sea, where it has been applied to both exploration and reservoir monitoring
(e.g., the Gannet-C field). However, at some localities, seismic reflections
data information alone. caused by other phenomena, such as remnant multiples and lithology vari-
When one interprets P-wave data from towed- ations, have been misinterpreted as fluid contacts simply because they look
streamer surveys, as is common industry practice, flat seismically and show up in the downdip location. These errors have led
to the drilling of unsuccessful prospects.
it is extremely difficult to distinguish whether P-wave 7 The geologic model for the area where the data were acquired sug-
amplitude anomalies, such as “bright spots” and “flat gests that the flat-spot reflector fits an opal-A (biogenic silica) to opal-CT
spots” (discordant events), are attributable to hydrocar- (porcellanite) transition. For an opal-A to opal-CT reflector to develop,
bons or to lithology. P-waves are influenced not only by biogenic silica necessarily is deposited as part of the sediment. When the
biogenic silica is buried, opal-A is transformed to opal-CT and then to micro-
rock types but also by fluids, making it difficult to dis- crystalline quartz. The transformation is temperature-controlled, implying
criminate between these effects. Unlike their P-wave that the transition tends to form along an isotherm. The transformation is
counterparts, S-waves are relatively insensitive to a presumed to produce a less porous, denser, and more rigid rock; therefore,
seismic reflectors caused by opal transformations can be mapped as seis-
rock’s fluid content. Therefore, by including S-wave mically “hard” reflectors that crosscut strata. In some instances, it may be
information from ocean-bottom seismic surveys, it is difficult to distinguish such a crosscutting reflector from a hydrocarbon-
possible to know whether bright spots and flat spots6 related flat spot. Several dry wells have been drilled where reflectors caused
by opal transformations were mistaken for flat spots within a prospect. How-
ever, in this particular area, information derived from the 4C data is consistent
with the geologic model of a flat spot caused by variation in lithology. See
6 Seismic flat spots are caused by the interface between two types of Jones and Segnit, 1971, and Hein et al., 1978, for more information about
fluids in a reservoir. They are recognizable where reservoirs are more than opal-A to opal-CT transition.
282 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Time
(bright spot) on the P-wave
section may have been caused
either by hydrocarbons or
by rock effects (lithology).
Absence of the bright spot
from the PS section indicates Bright spot
strongly that the bright spot
is evidence of hydrocarbons (b) PS data
alone. (Courtesy of Statoil
ASA.)
Time
No bright spot
structural information. In this example, the fact that the (the difference between overburden and pore-fluid pres-
BSR is not detected on the PS-wave section suggests sure). However, where an overpressured zone having
that gas hydrates in the sediments above BSR have not anomalously high pore-fluid pressure is encountered
stiffened the sediment framework. By contrast, if the in the deeper section, anomalies in the VP /VS ratio
hydrate had formed at grain contacts, it could have acted can be measured. Overpressure implies a decrease in
as a cementing agent. The sediment framework would differential pressure, which tends to decrease both
then have become stiffer, resulting in increased P-wave P- and S-wave velocities but increase the VP /VS ratio.
and S-wave velocities above the BSR. PS-wave data in Hence, from VP /VS analysis of pressure and shear-wave
this particular situation could potentially show the BSR sections, overpressure zones can be identified.
and give more detailed information about stiffness of
the sediment and gas-hydrate concentration. Anisotropy: Fractured reservoirs. Oriented
fractures and/or directional, horizontal stress fields can
Quantitative VP /VS velocity ratio. The VP /VS create azimuthal anisotropy in the subsurface. Predict-
velocity ratio (or Poisson’s ratio) is recognized as a key ing the directions of oriented fractures and fracture
indicator of hydrocarbons in clastic formations. The density and possibly obtaining quantitative information
VP /VS ratio, which varies principally in response to about the state of stress underground (stress orienta-
differences in lithology, porosity, pore fluid, and stress tion and relative magnitude) can be critical for under-
state, can be estimated by prestack P-wave AVO anal- standing how fluids and gas flow through a reservoir,
ysis. However, the record of hydrocarbon detection by for determining drilling locations, and for optimizing
AVO analysis is mixed, and AVO analysis is used cur- reservoir productivity.
rently with great care. The VP /VS ratio can also be Two simple, effective models that describe azi-
estimated from poststack P- and PS-wave reflectivi- muthal anisotropy8 are transverse isotropy with a hor-
ties. A key question is whether VP /VS can be found izontal axis of symmetry (HTI), and orthorhombic
with higher accuracy and reliability using 4C data. The- anisotropy. HTI can be caused by a system of parallel,
ory predicts that VP /VS can be estimated quantitatively penny-shaped, vertical cracks encased by an isotropic
from pressure and shear records. However, several case matrix. Orthorhombic anisotropy, which is believed to
studies emphasizing the quantitative aspects of measur- be a more realistic model of fractured reservoirs, may
ing elastic subsurface parameters are needed before this result from a combination of thin, “horizontal” layering
question can be answered fully. and vertically aligned cracks.
Azimuthal anisotropy commonly is subtle and quite
difficult to recover from P-wave data. However, shear
Overpressured zones. Except near the surface
(typically the first kilometer), VP , VS , and VP /VS are
largely insensitive to changes in differential pressure 8 Anisotropic models and types are reviewed in Chapter 12.
284 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
waves are more sensitive to azimuthal anisotropy. land, where source positions can at least be marked
Therefore, by estimating azimuthal anisotropy from an- and receivers permanently implanted and revisited for
alysis of mode-converted shear waves, fracture param- monitoring surveys.
eters and/or unequal stress fields can be predicted. Two To date, most marine monitoring studies have
methods have been proposed to extract this informa- been based on seismic pressure recordings. Attempts
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tion from marine multicomponent data: (1) study of to map fluid-distribution changes are predominantly
shear-wave splitting for near-vertical propagation and from differences in P-wave impedance between sur-
(2) study of variations in reflection amplitude as a veys. Theoretically, the combination of pressure and
function of offsets and azimuths. Both methods have shear-wave data should provide better reservoir char-
the potential to determine the fracture orientation and acterization and monitoring of hydrocarbon-bearing
density of vertical fractures. The second method is reservoirs during production. Many future time-lapse
of particular recent interest, as it is also sensitive to surveys are expected to be based on multicomponent
the fluid content of the fracture system. To discover technology. Two concrete benefits from 4D-4C analysis
whether the fracture network is fluid- or gas-filled may are:
be possible by amplitude analysis.
1) Bypassed reservoir zones can be detected more reli-
Reservoir monitoring (4D). Seismic surveys ably by time-differencing the VP /VS ratio obtained
acquired at different stages in the life of a reservoir from correlation of P- and PS-wave data.
can provide time-lapse snapshots of fluid distribution 2) Bulk-rock property changes caused by variations
over production time. This technique, called 4D seis- in fluid and changes in effective stress potentially
mic reservoir monitoring, is helping the exploration and can be separated by time-differencing two elastic
production industry delineate bypassed oil and gas and parameters calibrated at wells in a multidisciplinary
design programs to optimize recovery and extend the approach (e.g., VP /VS velocity ratio and P-wave
lives of some petroleum fields. impedance, or S-wave and P-wave impedances).
As a reservoir is exploited, pore fluid undergoes The advantage of using multicomponent data is that
changes in temperature, pressure, and composition. For the two elastic parameters can be estimated directly
example, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes, such from poststack P- and PS-data.
as steam injection, increase temperatures. Production
of any fluid typically lowers fluid pressure, increasing Imaging of complex structures by multiazi-
the effective pressure of overburden on the reservoir. muth, true 3D surveys. In many geologically com-
Gas injection and water flooding change mainly the plex areas, towed-streamer seismic surveys may not
fluid composition and pressure. These changes in fluids be the best geophysical solution for delivering optimal
alter the seismic velocities and densities of rock, which reservoir imaging. Independent of the use of multicom-
can combine to affect traveltimes and amplitude seismic ponent sensors, seabed seismic-data recording offers
responses. the generic advantage of flexibility in the use of acqui-
When changes are great enough, a seismic moni- sition geometry. As virtually any pattern of shots and
tor survey acquired after months or years of production receivers is possible, data acquisition can be optimized
will show attributes different from those of an earlier to provide the most revealing subsurface image, in
surveys, perhaps a survey dated even before produc- particular, the ability to undershoot platforms.
tion began. (Seismic surveys acquired before beginning A stationary acquisition system, such as an OBS
production are generally called baseline surveys.) The experiment, thus permits true 3D acquisition, meaning
key to 4D seismic monitoring is that changes in elastic that complete offset and azimuth distributions will be
properties must be large enough to be detected in the present in the data. Although they provide coverage of
computation of differences between a baseline survey a 3D volume, towed 3D surveys do so with a series
and subsequent monitor surveys. of essentially 2D traverses, as the source is inline with
Another key factor in 4D seismic surveys is that the receiver cable. We illustrate this important differ-
survey parameters in the baseline and monitor surveys ence by quantifying the relative coverage of an OBS
must be as similar as possible. These parameters include survey and a towed-streamer survey for a single scat-
receiver positions, source positions, source signatures, tering point in a homogeneous medium, as depicted in
any directivity or coupling effects, etc. In the past, Figure 7.38. For the OBS survey, we used 101 hori-
this requirement has limited most 4D experiments to zontal lines with a 25-m interval between lines; each
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 285
Source these angles at every degree for all source and receiver
pairs in both surveys. Figure 7.39 shows the plot of
φ Receiver the number of occurrences as a function of dip and
azimuthal angles for both surveys. For each pair of
dip and azimuthal angles, we can determine the best
coverage between the two surveys, based on the high-
y est number of occurrences. The OBS survey provides a
θ continuous and dense coverage as a function of θ and φ,
whereas the towed-streamer coverage lacks continuity
x Scatterer and even symmetry as a result of the off-end spread of
the source-receiver configuration and the large spacing
FIGURE 7.38. Definitions of dip θ and azimuthal φ angles.
between crossline shots. OBS coverage is superior to
towed-streamer coverage for almost all θ and φ pairs.
Another advantage of OBS dense azimuthal cov-
erage is in anisotropic characterization of rock forma-
line had 101 receivers spaced 25 m apart. The inline tions. By acquiring P- and S-waves propagated in all
and crossline spacing between shots was also 25 m, so azimuths, anisotropic elastic parameters (i.e., elastic-
that source and receiver locations coincided. For the parameter variations with direction) can be deter-
towed-streamer data, we used 12 streamers with 50-m mined. For instance, the anisotropic behavior of S-wave
spacing between them for each shot location. The inline velocity can be especially pronounced, depending on
Angular coverage ()
Azimuth (
) Azimuth (
)
FIGURE 7.39. Relative coverage between OBS and towed-streamer data for an image point located at the cen-
ter of the survey area. The towed-streamer data consist of 12 streamers spaced every 50 m, with each streamer
containing 101 receivers spaced every 25 m. For OBS, we have used 101 static streamers with each streamer
containing 101 receivers spaced every 25 m. Source points were the same for the two surveys. A total of 6400
shots in a 2500-m by 2500-m area were used in this analysis. The color scale here goes from blue to red. Blue
corresponds to zero occurrences of a given pair of dip and azimuthal angles, and red corresponds to 40,000
occurrences of a pair of dip and azimuthal angles during the whole survey.
286 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Time-lapse seismic expertise has also been put velocity) and gas-bearing (lower-velocity) sand-
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the type of anisotropy symmetry (see Chapter 12). It can (a) Blasting system
be used to help discriminate rock types, detect source
rocks, and identify principal directions of fractures.
For example, shales commonly are highly anisotropic,
displaying transverse isotropy wherein vertical veloc-
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EXPLOSIVES VIBRATORS
may be weak. For example, if we use the drop-weight
source depicted in Chapter 2 (essentially a vertical
force), we generate strong P-waves and weak S-waves.
Similarly, if we use the horizontal source illustrated
in Chapter 2, we generate strong S-waves and weak
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Up Sweep Down
The transmitted signal is extracted from the returned 20
20
0
signal. The remainder of the returned signal is the (a) 18
12
frequencies. The vibrator truck is driven to the shot-
Time (s)
point, or vibrator point in this case, where the base 10
10 10
plate is lowered to the ground. After vibration of the 8
e ar
base plate is completed and the vibrator-point record- 6 Lin )
1/2
ing is finished, the base plate is lifted and the vibrator (ν=
4 ar
ne
truck is driven to the next vibrator point. These steps nli
2 No
complete a single vibrator-point cycle, equivalent to 00 20
an explosive shotpoint. The base plate of a vibrator is 00 10 20 30 4050
50 60 70 80 90 100
100
Frequency (Hz)
driven by a continuous, variable-frequency, sinusoidal-
like signal. At any particular time, the signal has an
(b)
instantaneous frequency that lies within the seismic
bandwidth. The driving signal is called a “sweep,”
because of the way in which the variable frequency
sweeps through the seismic bandwidth. When the fre-
quency range is swept from low to high frequencies,
it is called an “upsweep.” A “downsweep” is a sweep (c)
from high to low frequencies.
Sweep also can be characterized as linear or nonlin-
ear. The mathematical expression of a nonlinear sweep, Time
denoted s(t), is given by
FIGURE 7.43. Examples of linear and nonlinear sweeps:
s(t) = A sin φ(t) = sin 2πg(t)t, (7.17) (a) the relationship between sweep frequency and time,
(b) linear sweep as a function of time, and (c) nonlinear
with sweep with ν = 1/2. The start frequency, end frequency,
1 dφ(t) and duration are identical for the linear and nonlinear
g(t) = , (7.18) sweeps.
2π dt
ν
f 2 − f1 t
φ(t) = 2π f1 + t, ν = −1, thus increasing the chances of improving vertical reso-
ν+1 T lution. The practical implementation of the nonlinear
(7.19) sweep is conducted as follows: the vibrator sweeps
slowly through the frequencies that should be strength-
where f1 is the start frequency, f2 is the end frequency,
ened and quickly through those of sufficient strength.
A is amplitude, and T is duration. The particular case
For instance, in Figure 7.43, in the nonlinear sweep,
in which ν = 1 is the linear sweep; equation (7.17)
most time is spent at the higher frequencies; it reaches
becomes
70 Hz in about 10 s; the remaining 10 s are spent in
t sweeping from 70 to 100 Hz.
s(t) = A sin 2π f1 + ( f2 − f1 ) t. (7.20) We now determine the real source signatures asso-
2T
ciated with the sweeps shown in Figure 7.43. In very
The key difference between linear and nonlinear sweeps loose terms, the sweep is a sum of delayed cosine waves,
is in their rate of frequency change. Figure 7.43 shows such as those we introduced in the Fourier series, in
that linear sweeps have a constant rate of change, Chapter 4. If these cosine waves are brought back into
whereas in nonlinear sweeps, the rate of change is not phase before summation, we can reconstruct the signal
constant. The basic idea behind nonlinear sweeps is to represented by the sweep. The resulting time signals of
provide petroleum seismologists some control of rel- such a summation are zero-phase and are more compact
ative strengths of frequencies contained in the sweep, than the sweeps. This process of phase corrections,
290 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(b)
(c)
(d)
complete sweep signal at a given time delay. Prior to energy that bounces back, is the same for marine and
correlation, the signal detected at the surface does not land experiments. However, the appearance of land-
readily indicate event arrival times. Two or more sweeps seismic data is generally very different from that of
may be summed to build up the energy level and atten- marine-seismic data. Figure 7.46 shows a simulated
uate random noise. The summed signal is then cross shot generated by the source in the low-velocity zone (a
correlated with the sweep signal. If a reflection event simulation of the vibroseis case), and Figure 7.47 shows
is present, a zero-phase source signature, w(t), is pro- a simulated shot generated by a buried explosive source
duced at a point in the correlated trace corresponding below the low-velocity zone. The model used to gen-
to the arrival time of that event. erate these data is shown in Figure 7.48. (Figures 7.46
and 7.47 also contain vertical-cable data, which we will
discuss later in “Potential Impact of Land VC.”) Com-
Land Data pared to marine data, we notice significant differences:
chief among them is the dispersive horizontal propa-
The basic principle of setting off a bang, waves gating energy. It is generally more difficult to identify
propagating through the subsurface and recording of the reflected energy in land data than in marine data because
292 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Time
FIGURE 7.48. Earth model showing onshore vertical cables
and surface receiver arrays. Ground roll Ground roll
Airwave Receiver FIGURE 7.50. Shot record showing extreme ground roll that
obscures reflection events. (Adapted from Evans, 1997.)
Ground roll
Source
Ground roll. A significant amount of generated
Refraction
seismic energy is trapped in the LVL as surface waves
Reflections
that travel horizontally along the earth’s boundary.
These surface waves,9 known as “ground roll,” spread
out from a disturbance like ripples when a stone is
dropped into a pond. Figure 7.50 shows a shot gather
of real land data. Just as in the simulated data shown
in Figure 7.46, surface waves appear as coherent
events that completely cover the desired reflected data.
Ground-roll alignments are straight, as are direct waves,
but they have much lower apparent velocities (Anstey,
1986). The theory of wave propagation on the free
surface of a semi-infinite, elastic, homogeneous solid,
developed by Lord Rayleigh in 1885 and described
in Chapter 3, shows that ground roll propagates with
velocity, VR = 0.92 VS , where VS is the shear velocity.
A ground roll usually builds up and decays slowly,
FIGURE 7.49. Illustration of an airwave, ground roll,
and its energy is high enough to obscure a significant
refraction, and reflections.
number of reflections.
of the heterogeneous LVL that overlies the sedimentary An interesting observation to make by comparing
rocks on land; in marine data, the overlying layer is Figures 7.46 and 7.47 is that when the source is located
water, which is a homogeneous acoustic medium. below the LVL, ground-roll energy is small compared
In Figure 7.49, we identify the main seismic events to the case in which the source is located in the LVL or
that dominate land data — air waves, the ground, direct at the surface. This is an advantage of a buried explosive
P- and S-waves, and reflected and refracted events. Def- source (below the LVL) over a vibroseis source, which
initions of reflected, refracted, and direct waves were is located at the surface. However, the need to drill
discussed in detail in the section on towed-streamer data holes to reduce ground roll when using explosives is a
or are self-explanatory (see Figure 7.49). Ground roll disadvantage, as the drilling of shot holes is very time-
(the surface wave) is discussed below. consuming.
In land data, the interface between air and the
weathering layer is not flat in some terrains. The effects 9 As described in Chapter 3, surface waves are of two types: Love
of nonflatness of this interface on seismic data are and Rayleigh waves. In petroleum seismology, we are interested only in
known as statics, which we describe later in more detail. Rayleigh waves.
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 293
50 m
X = 750 m
+
2400 ms t
Another observation we can make from the data in As an example of the calculation, the phase and
Figures 7.46, 7.47, and 7.50 is the dispersive nature group velocities are computed for the period marked
of the ground roll, which covers an envelope cone (+) in Figure 7.51. The arrival time of this period is
instead of a straight line, as shown in Figure 7.50. This 2400 ms, and the trace distance x is 750 m. Its group
is because the LVL generally is not a homogeneous velocity is then
solid, as depicted in Figure 7.48. For instance, in a
layered medium, ground-roll velocity varies with fre- x 750 m
quency (or, alternatively, with its wavelength). Such U= = = 313 m/s. (7.26)
t 2.4 s
wave propagation is said to be dispersive. In a disper-
sive medium, two measurements of velocity are used The traces on either side can be used to compute the
to describe wave propagation: phase velocity, V , and phase velocity. These traces are separated by x =
group velocity, U. Phase velocity, commonly called 50 m, and the moveout time of this cycle is t =
moveout velocity, is defined by V (λ) = dx/dt, where .145 ms. The phase velocity is
λ is the wavelength. Group velocity is distance divided
by arrival time, defined by U(λ) = x/t. These two x 50 m
velocities are measurable directly from the records. V= = = 345 m/s. (7.27)
t 0.145 s
Consider a particular period T of the surface-wave
train. Its phase velocity is determined by dividing the The period here is T = 150 ms. Therefore, its wave-
trace spacing by the moveout time, length is
λ = VT = 51.8 m. (7.28)
x
V= . (7.23)
t A more accurate method of determining the dispersion
curves uses Fourier analysis to measure phase velocity
Its group velocity is determined by dividing the trace
versus frequency (we discuss this relationship in detail
distance by the arrival time,
in Chapter 8). Then, using the relationship V = f λ, the
x V (λ) curve is determined. U(λ) is then calculated using
U= . (7.24)
t
dV
Its apparent wavelength is the product of its apparent U =V −λ . (7.29)
dλ
period and its phase velocity,
The phenomenon of dispersion can be used for
λ = VT . (7.25) petroleum exploration purposes by considering the
source-receiver separation to be large compared to the
This calculation is repeated for each period of the depth at which the velocity is determined. The tech-
surface-wave train. The resulting curves of V versus nique uses surface waves and a point source in space
λ and U versus λ describe the dispersive characteristics and time (i.e., a concentrated impulse, such as an explo-
of the medium. sion), which gives a signal at the receiver that is spread
294 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
1500 m
V= 1.5 km/s, V= 1.5 km/s,
ρ=1.5 g/cc ρ=1.5 g/cc
350 ms 350 ms
1500 m
FIGURE 7.52. Illustration of the basic method of the dis-
persion seismology technique; the source-receiver separa-
tion is large compared to the depth at which the velocity is
determined. The schematic of this figure is based on Love 550 ms 550 ms
waves.
1500 m
out (or dispersed) in time. The dispersion of Love waves
(“trapped” waves) has long been used in earthquake 750 ms 750 ms
seismology because P- and S-waves can take many
1500 m
paths from the source to the receiver, as illustrated in
Figure 7.52. This technique has been used to determine
the velocity distribution of the upper 600 km (or so)
of the earth (see Ben Menahem and Singh, 1981 for
more details). It is a relatively sensitive method in that (a) (b)
it can distinguish between velocity structures beneath
continents and oceans. As described in Box 7.4, this FIGURE 7.53. Comparison of (a) snapshots of wave prop-
technique is also applicable to petroleum seismology agation in a model with a nonflat air/LVL interface with
because the same principles are applicable to ground (b) snapshots corresponding to a model with a flat air/LVL
roll or surface waves generated by explosions. interface.
1.5 1 .5
2.0 2 .0
(a) (b )
With vaster areas of subsea land being reclaimed by sives (dynamite), and vibroseis — and two types of
dikes, transition zones are being expanded artificially. receivers: geophones and hydrophones. Several com-
Therefore, scientific progress in the acquisition and binations of source and receiver are possible: in some
processing of transition-zone data can be beneficial in areas, particle velocity is recorded from the pressure
the long run. source; in others, from the dynamite source. One of the
Typically, transition-zone experiments use three daunting tasks in seismic processing is calibration of
classical seismic sources — airguns, land-buried explo- these different measurements with different statics and
Thus, the seafloor sediment’s shear velocity and should be close to the seafloor. In underwater acous-
attenuation can be determined indirectly through tic experiments that aim at exciting strong Scholte
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the measured propagation characteristics of the waves for seafloor characterization, the sources
Scholte wave. commonly are explosive charges detonated near the
In Figure 7.55, part of a common-receiver seafloor. In the Tommeliten SUMIC experiment,
gather shows the dispersive Scholte wave recorded the source was an airgun array towed at 6-m depth,
in the 1993 SUMIC experiment over the Tom- implying that the airgun source was approximately
meliten field offshore Norway, where the water is 64 m above the seafloor. This source-depth loca-
approximately 70 m deep. The top 30-m sediment tion did not prevent the excitation of Scholte waves
column is typically soft in the upper part, with a with observable energy. However, other OBS sur-
shear-wave velocity of approximately 200 m/s and veys have shown that when the source is located
a strong gradient of 5 m/s/m. The Scholte wave, more than approximately 100 m above the seafloor,
with dominant energy in the frequency range of Scholte waves are not generated with energy suffi-
1–7.5 Hz, has apparent velocities that range from cient for detection. This fact is consistent with the
350 to 650 m/s. observation that the Scholte-wave amplitude dimin-
Recall from the brief discussion in Chapter 3 ishes exponentially with distance of the source from
that to properly excite the Scholte wave, the source the seafloor (Cagniard, 1962).
different LVLs. Most efforts to date have been limited BOREHOLE SEISMICS
to phase calibration. More progress on amplitude cal-
ibration or an even more general approach to imaging VSP Acquisition Geometries
that integrates different sources and receiver types is and Borehole Seismic Data
expected in coming years.
Figures 7.57 and 7.58 summarize the challenges of Borehole seismic surveys, also known as vertical
mixed-terrain acquisition. Figure 7.57 shows a map of seismic profiles (VSPs), are acquired with the source on
a transition-zone survey near the port of Rotterdam (in the surface and receivers at known depths in the bore-
the Netherlands). This survey was conducted by Shell hole. Energy from the source arrives at the receivers
and ExxonMobil. Figure 7.58 is a schematic illustration directly, as the first arrival, and also after reflection
of personnel and seismic equipment involved in this from interfaces below the receiver. The key difference
survey. between borehole seismics and surface seismics, such
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 297
LEGEND
Urban
Farm land
Greenhous es
Wildlife res erve
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FIGURE 7.58. Seismic equip- Personnel Vehicles and vessels Seismic equipment
ment, personnel, vehicles,
and vessels needed to con-
duct a transition-zone survey.
(Adapted from Petersen et al.,
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1992.)
X Receiver depths
Time
Z 3 1
2
4 6
5 5
3
4
FIGURE 7.59. Illustration of zero-offset VSP experiments; in this experiment, the source is directly above the receivers.
For clarity of raypaths in this picture, we show the source at some distance from the borehole. (a) Examples of raypath
downgoing events, (b) zero-offset VSP seismograms, and (c) examples of upgoing events.
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 299
geophones) can also be used for up/down separation. techniques. The walkaway VSP departs from these con-
We provide examples in Chapter 9. figurations (see Figure 7.60b). In its simplest form,
a receiver array of five to seven geophones collects
Offset VSP. In offset VSP, a single surface source data from multiple surface source locations along a
is positioned at a substantial distance from the well (see line that extends from the well. Each line typically has
Figure 7.60a). This distance is called an offset; it is hundreds of source positions. Reflections from each
designed to shift the reflection points away from the horizon below the geophone offer umbrella-shaped cov-
well so that the subsurface coverage can be extended, erage of the formation alongside and beneath the well.
thus enabling the offset VSP to detect heterogeneities These data may be processed to create an image; most
away from the well. such images have higher resolution than that available
from surface-seismic surveys.
Walkaway VSP. The check shot and two VSP tech- Figure 7.61 shows three examples of walkaway
niques described above are multireceiver, single-source VSP shot gathers corresponding to the model in Fig-
300 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
FIGURE 7.62. Receiver gathers correspond- 2.0 Shot position 0.5 2.0 Shot position 0.5
0.0 0.0
Time (s)
experiment in Figure 7.60b, with a receiver
located at 1250 m deep inside the borehole.
Arrows indicate some of the reflections 1.0
1.5
Drill
bit
ure 7.60. Figure 7.62 shows two walkaway VSP receiver offset, as is also true for upgoing events. Note also
gathers for the same model. To facilitate inspection of that receiver gathers in Figure 7.62 look like standard
the different events contained in walkaway VSP shot surface seismic data.
gathers, we have used 30 receivers, quite a large num-
ber compared to the number in standard walkaway Walkabove VSP. Somewhere between the single-
VSP experiments, which generally include only seven source and walkaway VSP is the VSP in deviated and
receivers. In contrast to zero-offset VSP data, it is easy horizontal wells, often called a walkabove VSP. In this
to detect the effect of large heterogeneities distant from technique, a source may be positioned directly over the
the well in walkaway VSP data, especially when data receiver to map a deeper reflector and a deviated well
are organized in receiver gathers. Also, data in walk- onto a seismic section. Walkabove VSPs are used to
away VSP shot gathers resemble those of the zero-offset help locate lateral anomalies of elastic parameters that
VSP in Figure 7.59, in the sense that we can quite easily are not clearly visible in images obtained from surface
differentiate between downgoing and upgoing events. seismic data. Another use is to improve seismic resolu-
However, as the shot moves substantially away from tion below the deviated portion of a well. Figure 7.63a
the borehole, the quasiparallelism between downgoing shows an example of a walkabove VSP experiment. As
events in zero-offset data is no longer valid because with any VSP survey, there is usually a desire to perform
of heterogeneities away from the well and toward the an up/down separation. Unlike vertical wells and like
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 301
surface-seismic data, there is no apparent time differ- employs a large number of receivers (more than 200),
ence across the array between the downgoing and the whose prime role is to deliver images comparable to
reflected upgoing waves. In this case, the strategy for those of conventional walkaway VSPs. Haldorsen et al.
dual-field recording using hydrophones and geophones (1995) describe a way to convert seismic-while-drilling
is essential for up/down separation. data recorded with a continuous noisy source in cases
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350 ms 450 ms
550 ms 650 ms
measure a phenomenon known as shear-wave splitting, complexity away from the borehole. These walkaway
which is associated with anisotropy caused by stress or profiles are essentially along one direction and, for this
vertically aligned fracture systems. Shear waves travel reason, are usually characterized as two-dimensional
faster when particle motion is polarized in the plane of (2D). Moreover, the imaging of these profiles is gener-
the fractures than when it is perpendicular to the fracture ally confined to the vertical plane containing the line of
plane. Thus, shear-wave VSPs can be used to determine sources and the borehole.
expected orientation of induced and natural fractures Because of the proximity of the receivers to the
and stress directions and as a qualitative indication of target, these 2D images usually have higher reso-
fracture density. (See Chapter 12 for more details.) lution than their surface seismic counterparts; how-
ever, 2D walkaways, by definition, do not describe
3D VSPs the full volume of the reservoir. Fortunately, the
acquisition principle can be extended to cover 3D
VSP imaging surveys, such as walkaways, have media by repeated profiling in parallel lines — by col-
been used for a number of years to image structural lecting a series of 2D walkaway surveys similar to
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 303
1.2 Receiver depth (km) 0.5 1.2 Receiver depth (km) 0.5 Two shear-wave
0.5
0.5
polarizations
Shot at 350 m Shot at 650 m Shear-wave VSP
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Time (s)
Time (s)
Fractured layer
1.2
rig time: production or other measurements must stop
FIGURE 7.65. Two shot gathers of salt-proximity VSP while conducting 3D VSP experiments. A 3D VSP of
experiments. The geologic model used in these experiments 41 lines of 200 shots currently takes about 40 hours;
for generating the shot gathers is described in Figure 7.64. it is difficult to convince an oil producer or driller to
The receiver depths in both gathers vary from 500 to shut down production or stop drilling for that length
1200 m deep. The shot point is identical for the two of time.
gathers. For the shot gather denoted “shot at 350 m,” the
distance d from point A of the salt dome to the borehole
is 350 m. For the shot gather denoted “shot at 650 m,” the
distance d is 650 m. Arrows indicate first breaks. Through-tubing VSPs
Another emerging application of borehole seismics
is the through-tubing survey. Traditionally, borehole
those collected in marine towed-streamer seismic-data seismic surveys are acquired in exploration wells when
acquisition. they are drilled. However, in older fields, borehole seis-
As depicted in Figure 7.68, three-dimensional mic information is often needed to aid the reservoir
VSPs allow high-resolution imaging to augment surface engineer in areas where no new wells are planned,
3D surveys and make it possible to obtain images or to plan a new well. During workover or while the
beneath obstacles on the surface, such as drilling plat- well is still in production, slim seismic receivers can
forms and near-surface obstructions such as shallow gas be deployed by a simple masted logging truck to
zones. In addition, because acquisition conditions and acquire borehole seismic data through production tub-
processing steps of VSP surveys are accurately repro- ing and inside casing. This reduces acquisition costs
ducible, 3D VSPs open the possibility of time-lapse, or and makes surveys in several wells possible during the
4D, seismic surveying. one mobilization.
An example of a 3D walkaway VSP (3D-WVSP) In this way, a full range of borehole surveys can be
survey and data is illustrated in Figure 7.69, which carried out, and the data can be used to tie log and pro-
shows the distribution of shotpoints for a 3D-WVSP duction information to new 3D surface-seismic surveys
survey over the Ekofisk field in the North Sea. This being run in older producing fields.
distribution is typical. Figure 7.70 shows the imag-
ing results of the data obtained from this survey.
These results are overlain on towed-streamer data to Tube Waves
show how the 3D-WVSP can improve resolution in
the area of towed-streamer data in which resolution Waves traveling in a fluid-filled borehole or on the
might be poor — in this instance, because of shallow walls of a borehole in the direction of the axis are called
gas zones. hydraulic or tube waves. Tube waves, being localized to
304 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(c)
the borehole, radiate very little energy into the forma- In uncased boreholes, the Stoneley wave velocity, VSt , is
tion (at least for some medium-parameter ranges). This determined by the elastic constants of the drilling fluid
implies that tube waves have high amplitudes; there- and rock surrounding the borehole. It is given, in the
fore, they are considered a major source of noise in low-frequency limit, by the formula (Galperin, 1985)
VSP data.
The most important wave mode localized to the 1
VSt = Vf , (7.30)
borehole is the interface Stoneley wave. This wave 1 + Kf /µ
mode is slightly dispersive, but for seismic frequencies,
the low-frequency approximation applies. Its velocity is where µ = ρVS2 is the shear modulus of the rock
invariably smaller than the velocity of the drilling fluid. comprising the borehole walls with density ρ, VS is
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 305
Shotpoint
shear-wave velocity, Vf is the velocity of the fluid ) y (km)
x (km8.0
or mud filling the borehole, and Kf = ρf Vf2 is the 6.0
8.0 7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
bulk modulus of the mud with density ρf . In the low- 2.0
4.0 4.5
4.0
Depth (km)
attenuated because it radiates energy as formation shear
waves when VSt > VS ; that is, when the Stoneley wave
velocity is higher than that of the formation shear veloc-
Depth (km)
ity. Equation (7.30) indicates that, by measuring the
Stoneley velocity, the shear formation modulus or shear 8.0
y (km) 7.8 7.0 6.0
8.0x (km)
6.5
velocity can be estimated. Furthermore, the Stoneley 6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5 2.0
4.0
4.0
velocity in the low-frequency approximation is quite
sensitive to formation permeability. Thus, in principle, 1.600 2.100 2.600 3.100 3.600
3000.0
Kf D
Vtube = Vf 1+ , (7.31)
Ed
with
2000.0 Platform
North (m)
µc (3λc + 2µc )
E= , (7.32)
λc + µc
VSP
FIGURE 7.70. The Ekofisk field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea produces from high-porosity chalk
reservoir layers at depths of about 10,000 ft (3400 m). The thickest and most porous chalk is at the crest of the
field, but the reservoir structure in this area is not mappable on surface seismic data because of strong lateral
and vertical velocity variations in the overburden section, which cause ray bending and severe attenuation of
seismic-reflection energy from the reservoir (diagram a). 3D VSP data acquired over the Ekofisk crestal area
has greatly improved the imaging of reservoir layers (diagram b). VSP data are used to define the structure of
the crest of the field, with a reservoir horizon and fault maps. (Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Co.)
deployed in the water column, as illustrated in Fig- pressure at a depth of 600 m is 860 psi, compared to 28
ure 7.72. In areas congested by platforms or other psi at the normal operating depth of 10 m for a streamer,
obstacles, VC seismics is emerging as an alternative so a receiver cable designed specifically for deep ocean
technology to surface seismics because it operates with depths is required, as well as special hydrophones cal-
small boats and not cumbersome towed streamers. ibrated for high pressure. Another major challenge is
Another advantage of VC technology is data of better keeping the cable vertical, because ocean currents can
quality, because the receivers are in a quiet environment, cause significant tilt of the cable. The cable is kept verti-
as compared to the near-surface environment (which cal by anchoring it at the sea bottom and to buoys at the
can be affected by ocean swell) in which measurements sea surface. Most current VC data-processing schemes
such as towed-streamer data are made. can tolerate only as much as a 5◦ tilt.
VC-cable acquisition had its genesis in walkaway VC acquisition is designed for deep-water explo-
VSP, with the important difference that it constitutes a ration and production. The experiment suggests that
VSP without borehole tube waves or expensive standby water depth must be about 500 m or more for this tech-
rig time; it was proposed first by Krail (1994). More- nology to be effective.
over, VC acquisition is aimed at imaging a large area,
as do towed-streamer and OBS acquisition, not merely
the vicinity of the cable. Data. Figures 7.73 and 7.74 show examples of a
Although the principle of VC acquisition is sim- VC shot gather and receiver gathers of synthetic and real
ple, its implementation is not: it requires a completely data. As expected, the shot gathers look like standard
different type of ocean engineering effort than marine VSP data, and the receiver gathers look like standard
towed-streamer acquisitions. For example, hydrostatic surface-seismic data. Most of the events are linear,
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 307
Horizontal scale 1:11000 measured depth Vertical scale 10 cm/s FIGURE 7.71. Hydrophone recording in a zero-
offset VSP experiment run offshore Norway
in 2001 in a partially cased borehole. The
dominant, strong-amplitude energy on the
hydrophone section is the tube wave prop-
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1.0
Time (s)
with opposite gradients. Just as in VSP data, down- Potential Impact of Land VC
going events have positive gradients, whereas upgoing
wavefield events have negative gradients. This differ- For the most part, current applications of VC sur-
ence in the sign of the gradient between upgoing and veys have been limited to offshore exploration, with
downgoing waves can be used for up/down separation, encouraging results. However, as first pointed out by
as we see in Chapters 8 and 9. Ikelle and Wilson (1999), land seismics may be the ulti-
One of the major differences between VC data and mate beneficiary of this technology. Land VC surveys
surface-seismic data, in particular towed-streamer data, allow us to overcome significant drawbacks in current
is the nature and use of receiver ghosts. In surface- land-data processing, such as statics, ground-roll atten-
seismic data, the effect of receiver ghosts is negligible; uation, and coupling. We present synthetic examples
308 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Buoyancy
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sphere
Hydrophones
α=1500 m/s, β=0.0 m/s, ρ=1.0 g/cc α=1800 m/s, β=1000 m/s, ρ=2.1 g/cc
α=2100 m/s, β=1100 m/s, ρ=2.4 g/cc α=2500 m/s, β=1300 m/s, ρ=2.7 g/cc
FIGURE 7.72. (a) Illustration of vertical-cable (VC) acquisition. A VC array is kept under tension by an anchor, and the
buoys float near the surface; thus, the array remains vertical throughout a survey. Unlike conventional surveys, the shoot-
ing boat does not carry horizontal cables. (Adapted from Krail, 1994.) (b) Example of primaries, receiver ghosts, and
free-surface multiples in VC data.
FIGURE 7.73. The full wave- 500 Depth (m) 125 130 Shotpoint 1
field (downgoing and upgoing 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
(a) (b)
that confirm that statics and ground roll are not pro- To analyze the applicability of VC surveys fully, we
cessing dilemmas in VC data. The quality of VC data have also investigated the problem of spacing between
from receivers below the low-velocity zone is equal to cables and sampling within cables. The problem of VC
that of marine data. Even when the source is buried sampling is that of finding the spacing between cables
below the low-velocity zone, the quality of VC data is that allows us to image at least as well as surface seis-
superior to that of surface seismics. mics — under the assumption, although unrealistic, that
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 309
(b) Shotpoints
(a) 0
VC1 VC2 VC3 VC4
0
Number of shots = 797
Inline shot spacing = 50 m
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Time (s)
Depth (m)
400
Down
Time (s)
Up
9 1.0
FIGURE 7.74. Real VC data: (a) characteristics of the acquisition geometry; (b) example of receiver gathers; (c) and
(d) examples of shot gathers. The display in (d) has been limited to a 1-s window to point out clearly the downgoing
and upgoing events.
surface data do not contain ground-roll or static prob- surface survey). The added pressure data can aid in
lems. For a cable length of 500 m spaced every 500 m, up/down separation. Also, the orientation and coupling
we found that we could achieve imaging resolution of each receiver are guaranteed when positioned on a
equal or superior to surface seismics. fixed vertical cable.
Vertical-cable data in Figure 7.47 appear very sim-
VC data. The acquisition style of vertical cables ilar to VSP data, with strong downgoing events and
overcomes many of the problems associated with sur- weaker upgoing events. Also, PS-converted waves are
face seismics. The very nature of land seismics implies more important in VC data because of larger incidence
the ability to use a three-component source and record angles than those achieved in surface seismic. But more
multicomponent data. By coupling the cable onto the importantly, data quality, compared to that of surface
walls of fluid-filled boreholes, we gain the opportunity data, is significantly improved. High-amplitude ground
to record four-component data versus three-component roll is limited to the receivers, which are located in the
surface data (in other words, VC can be characterized as low-velocity zone. High amplitudes can be attributed
a 12-component survey versus a current nine-component to large impedance contrasts at the surface and at the
310 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
X
Water
Reflected h
rays
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Incident ray Z
θ' max
Receiver
θmax
Scattering point
400 700
Number of occurences
Number of occurences
300 500
250 Equivalent VC coverage
400
Equivalent VC coverage
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200
300 Surface VC coverage
150
100 200
FIGURE 7.77. Angular coverage for an image point at a FIGURE 7.78. Angular coverage for an image point at a
depth of 2000 m and simulating 100 shots spaced every depth of 2000 m and simulating 100 shots spaced every
25 m. The blank curve (surface) shows surface coverage for 25 m. The black curve (surface) shows coverage for 100
100 receivers spaced every 25 m. Receiver spacing along receivers spaced every 25 m. Cable spacing was constant
the vertical cable was constant (19 receivers spaced every (six cables spaced at 500 m intervals), and spacing within
26 m), and spacing of cables varied. The green curve (poor) cables varied. The green curve (poor) corresponds to 10
corresponds to three cables spaced at 833 m, the red curve receivers spaced every 50 m, the red curve (equivalent) cor-
(equivalent) corresponds to six cables spaced every 500 m, responds to 19 receivers spaced every 26 m, and the blue
and the blue curve (superior) corresponds to eight cables curve (superior) corresponds to 40 receivers spaced every
spaced every 357 m. 12.5 m.
0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0
1.5 1.5
Time (s)
2.0 2.0
2.5 2.5
3.0 3.0
3.5 3.5
6) Figure 1.4 (Chapter 1) shows synthetic seismograms FIGURE 7.80. Examples of seismic events in sea-bottom
and snapshots corresponding to wave propagation cable data.
through a faulted model.
(b) Identify (1) the direct wave, (2) reflections of
(a) Which physical quantity is displayed in this primaries, (3) ghost reflections, (4) PS reflec-
figure? tions, (5) free-surface multiples, and (6) PP
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 313
B
1
0. 4
.5 0.5
0.5
500 m
V P2 0. 5
C Interface 2 2 0. 6
Receivers
Time (s)
3
.0 1.0
1.0 4
Time (s)
0. 7
5
V P3
0. 8
1000 m
6
0. 9
.5 1.5
1.5
9 7 1. 0
D Interface 3
V P4 1. 1
8
2.0 1. 2
FIGURE 7.81. (a) Model of the subsurface and acquisition geometry; (b) the corresponding walkaway VSP data; (c) a
schematic version of key events of the walkaway VSP data.
diffractions in both surface and borehole 12) Explain why the RC of an oil-water contact is always
synthetic seismograms. positive but very small.
7) Consider the following acquisition configurations:
13) Suppose that water in the model in Figure 7.10 is at
100 m. Rank the multiples in this figure as a function
(a) 25-m receiver group spacing, 25-m shot pull- of their zero-offset arrival time.
up
(b) 12.5-m receiver group spacing, 50-m shot 14) Factors affecting changes in rock properties that
pull-up result in events observed in seismic data include the
What is the CMP spacing in each case? following:
8) Sources used in seismic surveys include hammer (a) rock type — chemical composition of the rock
blow, shotgun, and vibroseis. Which of these three (b) rock condition — fracturing, porosity, depth,
sources can be used (a) in marine environments and and overpressuring
(b) on land? (c) saturant — gas and oil
9) (a) At a transition from soft rock to hard rock, is Which of these factors are likely to be detected from
the reflection coefficient (RC) positive or negative? 4C-OBS data and to be missed by towed-streamer
(b) Describe an example of a transition from soft data?
rock to hard rock.
15) As a seismic pulse propagates outward from the
10) In marine seismic surveys, which reflector has the shotpoint, the original energy decreases with propa-
largest RC at normal incidence? gation time. This decrease in energy depends on the
physical properties of rocks encountered during the
11) Explain why the RC of a gas-water contact is always propagation of the pulse. Some of this decrease in
positive. energy is a result of geometric spreading. Can we
314 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
As we discussed in previous chapters, in petroleum described in Figure 7.3, so that the distributions of
seismology we do not have direct access to snapshots of sources and receivers in space satisfy the sampling cri-
wave propagation in the earth; our seismic data are lim- teria; then the outputs of these arrays are resampled
ited to seismograms recorded by sensors deployed at or before or after recording them. The current resam-
near the surface of the earth, in the water column in the pling approach is basically a hardwired summation of
sea, at the sea bottom, or inside a borehole. Therefore, outputs of the sensors of arrays, before recording the
making sure that sensors used in seismic experiments outputs. An emerging new approach to this resam-
are distributed adequately to capture the main character- pling process introduces a filtering step of outputs from
istics of wave propagation, namely ground motion and the sensors of arrays, to improve this process. This
pressure changes, is a problem of prime importance. approach, which is also known as single-sensor sam-
Ground motion and pressure changes are contin- pling, generally requires recording all the outputs of the
uous by nature; that is, the signals representing these sensors of arrays. We will discuss these two resampling
phenomena are continuous functions of time and space approaches and their impact on seismic data quality.
(we also call these signals “wavefields”). Unfortunately, Before we discuss these resampling processes, we
these seismic signals are so complex that we cannot will introduce the notions of plane waves, wavenum-
represent them by analytical mathematical expressions. bers, and apparent velocity, which are central to
We need a computer to process them. Consequently, deriving spatial sampling criteria.
our continuous signals must be converted into discrete
signals by taking “samples” of continuous signals at
discrete time intervals and specific points in space. In PLANE WAVES AND THE
Chapter 4, we described criteria for sampling seismic 2D FOURIER TRANSFORM
signals with respect to time. Our objective in this chap-
ter is to discuss the sampling criteria of these signals In Chapter 4, we introduced the concept of Fourier
with respect to space and to show that the sampling representation for temporal signals, u(t), as sums of
criteria are actually the same for both time and space “cosine waves,” as follows:
variables. ∞
There are many ways to sample a continuous signal. u(t) = A0 + An cos(ωn t − φn ) (8.1)
The most commonly used method is uniform sampling. n=1
In the case of a spatial variable, uniform sampling
consists of selecting values of a continuous signal at (see Chapter 4 for the definitions of An , ωn , and φn ). In
specific points in space. These specific points need not this section our objective is to show that this concept can
be equidistant, but in practice, they are taken at equally be extended to multidimensional signals, in particular
spaced distances for convenience in computation. If we to 2D signals with time and space variables, such as shot
assume that these points are equidistant, then the criteria gathers in seismic data. However, instead of summing
for selecting the spacing between these points, without cosine waves, we will have to sum “plane waves,” as
losing any information contained in continuous signals, follows:
∞
∞
are exactly the same as those described in Chapter 4 for ωn
temporal signals. u(x, t) = Anm cos ωn t − x , (8.2)
Vm
Unfortunately, in most cases, the spacings between n=0 m=0
points imposed by the criteria of spatially uniform sam- where u(x, t) is a 2D signal. The parameters Anm , Vm
pling are so small that seismic experiments based on will be described in detail later in this section.
these criteria are not economically viable in terms of A two-dimensional (2D) Fourier representation of
data storage and processing. The common approach is signals with one temporal variable and one spatial vari-
to use arrays of sources and receivers, like the example able focuses on the notions of frequency, apparent
315
316 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Plane wavefront
Va = V
with the notions of apparent velocity and wavenumber.
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Apparent Velocity
When we are on the ground looking at an airplane n
flying in the sky, our perception of the airplane’s speed
is usually very different from its actual speed. However,
when a car is passing in front of us, our perception of
the car’s speed is very close to its actual speed. More-
over, we may have a harder time distinguishing between Va = V /cos
two cars passing in front of us than we do of two air-
planes flying in the sky at a faster speed. In other words,
the capability of our eyes to record information about
moving objects depends not only on the actual speed of
nt
fro
the object but also on our position with respect to the
ve
object. The combination of these two factors produces
wa
an apparent speed of the object that may not be its actual
ne
n
Pla
speed, depending on our position.
Receivers recording seismic events have similar
perception problems. For instance, when a plane wave-
front with a velocity V is propagating perpendicular to
the receiver line, as depicted in Figure 8.1, receivers will
see the wavefront with its actual velocity, V . However, Receiver
if the wavefront is tilted by an angle θ, as depicted in
FIGURE 8.1. An illustration of the concept of apparent
Figure 8.1, receivers will record the wavefront not with
velocity: Va is the apparent velocity, and V is the actual
the actual velocity V but with an apparent velocity:
velocity of the wavefront.
V
Va = , (8.3)
cos θ
where Va is the apparent velocity. Thus, the appar- In other words, the apparent velocity of the same seis-
ent velocity of a given seismic event is the speed at mic event can vary from one cross section to another,
which the event travels along the receiver positions. in contrast to the actual velocity, which does not vary
Therefore, the apparent velocity, rather than the actual among cross sections.
velocity of the wavefront, controls our ability to record Let us look at two examples: a direct-wave event
seismic events. and a dipping-reflection event. In the context of towed-
If we denote the traveltime of a seismic event by streamer data, the direct wave travels horizontally along
t(xs , xr ), as a function of receiver position xr and of the receiver line, despite its dipping shape in seismic
shot position xs , the apparent velocity of this event is data in an x-t plot (see Figure 7.8). In a medium with
defined as constant velocity V , the traveltimes of direct waves are
given by
dt(xs , xr ) −1
Va =
(s)
. (8.4)
dxr |xs − xr |
t(xs , xr ) = . (8.6)
Similar definitions can be given for all the cross sec- V
tions introduced in Chapter 7. For instance, in receiver
gathers, the definition (8.4) becomes Using equations (8.4) and (8.5), the apparent velocity
of a direct wave in the shot gathers is
dt(xs , xr ) −1
Va =
(r)
. (8.5)
dxs Va(s) = ±V , (8.7)
Wavefield Sampling 317
and the apparent velocity of a direct wave in the receiver TABLE 8.1. Dependence of apparent velocity on source and
gathers is receiver locations, with dip variation. The actual velocity is
3.0 km/s. Symbols used in this table are identical to those used
Va(r) = ±V . (8.8) in equations (8.9), (8.10), and (8.11).
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(s) (r)
xs xr t α Va Va
We can see that, contrary to the actual velocity, which (m) (m) (ms) (deg.) (m/s) (m/s)
is always positive, the apparent velocity can be nega-
500.0 500.0 86.3 15 11591 11591
tive or positive. Actually, the apparent velocity can take 500.0 500.0 166.7 30 6000 6000
any value between −∞ and +∞. Notice that for direct 500.0 500.0 235.7 45 4242 4242
waves, the apparent velocity is the same in the shot 1000.0 500.0 166.67 0 3000 −3000
gathers and in the receiver gathers. 1000.0 500.0 206.5 15 3278 −5078
1000.0 500.0 288.6 30 3464 8.51E + 10
Let us now consider a dipping reflector with 1000.0 500.0 372.7 45 3354 6708
dip angle α, overlain by a constant-velocity acoustic 1500.0 500.0 333.3 0 3000 −3000
medium. The origin of the coordinate is put at the 1500.0 500.0 365.3 15 3081 −4114
1500.0 500.0 440.9 30 3174 −15874
intersection of the dipping plane and a dip line at the 1500.0 500.0 527.0 45 3162 9486
surface (Figure 8.2). The traveltime expression follows
immediately from the cosine rule:
xs2 + xr2 − 2xr xs cos 2α
t(xs , xr ) = . (8.9)
V2 examples of apparent velocities for various dip angles
and offsets. We can see that the apparent velocity varies
Using equations (8.4) and (8.5), the apparent velocity
widely. Notice also that for the dipping reflection, the
for shot gathers is
apparent velocities in the shot-gather domain are now
different from the apparent velocities in the receiver-
V 2t
Va(s) = , (8.10) gather domain.
xr − xs cos 2α
V 2t Wavenumber
Va(r) = , (8.11)
xs − xr cos 2α
In Chapter 2, we derived the solution of a 1D wave
where V is the actual velocity, with α > 0 for downdip equation as a plane wave. One particular case of this
shooting and α < 0 for updip shooting. Table 8.1 gives solution is
x
u(x, t) = A cos ω t ± , (8.12)
V
t x
u(x, t) = A cos 2π ± , (8.13)
T Λ
FIGURE 8.2. Source-receiver configuration of a dipping where T is the period of the plane wave and Λ
reflector. is its wavelength. The period and wavelength are
318 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
ωn
kn = , (8.20)
V
x = x0
T = 2 π /ω
A
and where V = 3 km/s, and f = 0.25 Hz. The
summation (8.18) produces a more compact straight
t line than do the plane waves in Figures 8.4 and 8.5.
This line follows the traveltime equation of the direct
wave in equation (8.6). Similarly, we can add various
t = t0 plane waves to produce another straight line that fol-
Λ = VT lows the traveltime equation of the dipping reflection in
A
equation (8.9), but with varying amplitude (the move-
x out of this dipping reflector is linear because the origin
of the x-coordinate is at the intersection of the dip-
ping plane and a dip line, as depicted in Figure 8.2).
In Figure 8.6b, we show the 40 plane waves corre-
FIGURE 8.3. Definition of period and wavelength for a sponding to the same frequencies as those used for
plane wave. the direct wave event in Figure 8.6a. However, the
Wavefield Sampling 319
v = 1.0 km/s v = 1.5 km/s v = 3.0 km/s v =∝ FIGURE 8.4. Top row: four gathers, each
0.0 containing 25-Hz cosine waves with dif-
ferent apparent velocities, ranging from
infinity to 1.0 km/s. Bottom row: their
respective amplitude spectra. If the posi-
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Time (s)
to right, then all events map onto the posi-
tive quadrant in the frequency-wavenumber
( f -k) plane. The symbol “v” represents the
apparent velocity.
0.16
800 m
75
Frequency (Hz) f
50
25
0.0
–50 0.0 50
Wavenumber k
(cycles/km)
v = –5.0 km/s v = –3.0 km/s v = –1.5 km/s v = –1.0 km/s FIGURE 8.5. Top row: four gathers, each
0.0
containing 25-Hz cosine waves with dif-
ferent apparent velocities, ranging from
−5.0 km/s to −1.0 km/s. Bottom row: their
respective amplitude spectra. If the nega-
Time (s)
0.16
800 m
75
Frequency (Hz) f
50
25
0.0
–50 50
Wavenumber k
(cycles/km)
+∞ +∞
1
u(t, x) = dω dk U(ω, k)
4π 2 −∞ −∞
600 × exp[−i(ωt − kx)], (8.26)
FIGURE 8.6. Summation of 40 plane waves correspond- where U(ω, k) is the 2D Fourier representation of
ing to frequencies between 0 and 10 Hz: (a) for a constant u(t, x). The 2D Fourier representation is also known
apparent velocity (3.0 km/s) and (b) for a varying apparent in petroleum seismology as the f -k representation.
velocity. Note that by splitting the exponential into two
halves, it is easy to see that the 2D Fourier transform
can be considered to be two 1D transforms, first with
and where V = 3 km/s, dxr = 5 m, xs = 500 m, respect to time t and then to x:
α = 45◦ , and t is given by equation (8.9). The veloc- +∞
ity Vm in equation (8.23) is chosen according to the U(ω, k) = dx exp(−ikx)
formula of the apparent velocity of the dipping reflec- −∞
tion in equation (8.10). Note that if we had used +∞
the actual velocity, we would have ended up with × dt u(t, x) exp(iωt). (8.27)
another constant-amplitude straight-line event, as in −∞
Figure 8.6a, because the actual velocity is constant. In general, U(ω, k) is a complex-valued 2D signal that
So, strictly speaking, we should call kn,m the apparent can be decomposed in amplitude and phase spectra, just
wavenumber, because it is directly related to the appar- as we saw in Chapter 4 for 1D signals.
ent velocity. For convenience, we generally use the
term wavenumber to mean apparent wavenumber in
petroleum seismology. Example 1: 2D Fourier Transform
of the Rectangle Function
Carrying out the integration indicated in equation these reasons, it is important to understand how the
(8.25), we find events with straight paths are represented in the f -k
1/2 1/2 domain.
U(ω, k) = dtdx exp[i(ωt − kx)] Figure 8.6 has shown experimentally that straight
−1/2 −1/2 lines in the t-x domain are transformed into straight lines
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ω
sition stage, during the sampling of the wavefield. For = exp[iωt0 ]δ −k . (8.32)
Va
in the t-x domain, it will transform to the following line: w(t, x) = u(t − t0 , x − x0 ) ⇐⇒
W (ω, k) = U(ω, k) exp[i(ωt0 − kx0 )], (8.39)
ω = −Va k (8.37)
where t0 and x0 are constants.
in the ω-k domain. 3) Scaling (dilatation):
Because a dipping straight line in the t-x domain
ω k
transforms to a dipping straight line in the f -k domain, w(t, x) = u(at, bx) ⇐⇒ W (ω, k) = U , .
overlapping events that have certain dips between two a b
values in the t-x domain can be removed. This is done (8.40)
by multiplying the f -k transform of the data with a filter
that is zero between the corresponding dips in the f -k 4) Convolution:
domain, because these events may not overlap in the f -k
domain. This is known as dip filtering. We will revisit ∞ ∞
this issue in more detail later. w(t, x) = u(t , x )v(t − t , x − x )dt dx
−∞ −∞
⇐⇒ W (ω, k) = U(ω, k)V (ω, k). (8.41)
1 In this book, a 2D signal represents functions with two variables. In Parseval’s theorem states that the energy in the time-
this chapter, we focus on 2D signals whose variables are time and space. space domain and that in the f -k domain are equal;
Wavefield Sampling 323
it basically states the principle of the conservation for q between 0 and N − 1. If, however, we use the
of energy. same equation to evaluate U(±p, ±q), we can see that
the periodicity properties of the exponential factor in
equation (8.45) imply that
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u(m, n) = u(mt, nx), (8.44) Similarly, using equation (8.46), we can show that
m = 0, 1, . . . , M − 1 and n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1,
u(m, −n) = u(m, N − n), and (8.51)
where u(m, n) is the discrete-time signal obtained by
“taking samples” of the continuous u(t, x) at every grid
u(−m, −n) = u(M − m, N − n). (8.52)
point (t, x). Note that the discrete signal u(m, n) is
a function of two independent variables that are inte-
Another related consequence of the periodicity prop-
gers. It is not defined as instants between successive
erties of the exponential factor in equations (8.45) and
grid points. Also, it is incorrect to think that u(m, n) is
(8.46) is that
equal to zero if either m or n is not an integer. Simply,
the signal u(m, n) is not defined for noninteger values
U(kN + p, lM + q) = U( p, q) (8.53)
of m and n.
The 2D discrete Fourier transform (2D-DFT) is
and
defined as
u(kN + n, lM + m) = u(n, m) (8.54)
1
M−1 N−1
U(p, q) = u(m, n)
MN for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , l = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . Therefore,
m=0 n=0
pm qn we reach the following conclusion: Beyond the original
× exp i2π − , (8.45) domain, which is given by [0 ≤ (m and p) ≤ M − 1]
M N and [0 ≤ (n and q) ≤ N − 1], if a discrete 2D signal is
with u(n, m), the extension of u(m, n) and U(p, q) is given by
equations (8.54) and (8.53). In other words, the exten-
p = 0, 1, . . . , M − 1 and q = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1; sions of u(m, n) and U(p, q) are periodic repetitions of
themselves.
the inverse transform is defined as The convolution of two discrete signals, u(m, n) and
v(m, n), is given by
N−1
M−1 pm qn
u(m, n) = U(p, q) exp −i2π − . N−1
M−1
p=0 q=0
M N w(k, l) = u(m, n)v(k − m, l − n)
(8.46) m=0 n=0
N−1
M−1
In equation (8.46), the discrete Fourier transform = u(k − m, l − n)v(m, n) (8.55)
U(p, q) is defined for p between 0 and M − 1 and m=0 n=0
324 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
In Chapter 7, we analyzed the concept of dis- If a plane wave is somehow excited by a seis-
persion, along with the concept of phase velocities mic source, only the phase velocity, Va (ω), of that
and group velocities in the t-x domain. We now plane wave would be needed to fully characterize
revisit it in the f -k domain, based on the fact that the resulting disturbance. However, when several
seismic signals can be described as a series of plane plane waves are excited, as is the case in most real
waves, especially as we establish the relationship seismic sources, the wave disturbances interfere,
between phase and group velocities. producing constructive and destructive patterns that
(continued)
Wavefield Sampling 325
influence the total ground motion. Constructive By inserting equations (8.62) and (8.63) into equa-
interferences behave as wave packets, which them- tion (8.59) and using the cosine law,
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(8.70)
With regard to selection of the time interval for Vmin
the temporal signals discussed in Chapter 4, the objec-
divide the panels into regions with and without
tive here is to define criteria for selecting the spacing
propagating energy (Figure 8.10a). Thus, for a given
between receivers (sensors), such that any energy con-
frequency f , the wavenumber spectrum is confined to
tained in the continuous 2D signal can be preserved in
the discrete 2D signal. Therefore, determining the loca- 2π f 2π f
tion of the energy contained in the continuous signals − ≤k≤ . (8.71)
Vmin Vmin
is one of the first steps that we must address. We will
carry out this investigation in the f -k domain. This property is often referred to as the spatial band-
A 2D seismic data set (which is described as a width limitation for propagating energy (Vermeer,
2D signal) can be described as a sum of plane waves 1990).
(each plane wave being defined by a frequency and an If U(ω, k) = 0 for f > fmax , then there exist max-
apparent velocity). We can use the limits of variations imum wavenumbers |k|max = 2π fmax /Vmin , and the
of apparent velocities and of frequencies of the seismic energy region becomes (see Figure 8.10b)
signal to determine the region in the f -k domain where 2πfmax 2πfmax
the energy of a given signal will be located. − ≤k≤ . (8.72)
Vmin Vmin
Thus, regarding a given seismic signal with a mini-
mum apparent velocity Vmin and a maximum frequency
k fmax , its energy is confined in the cone defined by
(a) equation (8.72).
k = 2π f /V min
Sampling Criteria
Criteria for selecting the sampling interval in time
f or in space are the same. Let us first recall the criteria
for time sampling that we derived in Chapter 4: If fmax
is the maximum frequency in the wavefield, then the
sampling interval t must be chosen such that
k
π 1
k max t ≤ = . (8.73)
(b) ωmax 2fmax
As shown in Chapter 4, criterion (8.73) ensures that
we can reconstruct the continuous wavefield accurately.
A similar criterion is also valid for uniform spatial
f max sampling: If kmax is the maximum wavenumber in the
f wavefield, then the spacing interval x must be chosen
such that
π
Energy present x ≤ . (8.74)
kmax
FIGURE 8.10. Energy distribution of a seismic signal in the Whereas general information concerning the frequency
f -k domain. (a) Minimum apparent velocity determines content of the signal leading to fmax usually is available,
region in which energy is present. (b) If there is a maxi- no such information is directly available for the maxi-
mum frequency, there is also a maximum wavenumber. mum wavenumber, kmax . However, general information
Wavefield Sampling 327
concerning the velocity ranges of the model subsurface Selecting a spatial sampling interval as small as 10 m,
leading to the minimum apparent velocity usually is let alone 1 m, currently is uncommon, which means that
available. Thus, using equation (8.33), we can estimate a certain amount of spatial aliasing is virtually always
kmax . The criterion (8.74) becomes present. Methods for correcting for spatial aliasing are
discussed below. First, we will illustrate the concept of
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π Vmin
x ≤ = . (8.75) aliasing in the x-t and f -k domains.
kmax 2fmax
This criterion is the one that we must use to select
the spacing between receivers and the spacing between Spatial Aliasing
sources for uniform distributions. It is valid for all three
spatial coordinates: x, y, and z. It is also valid for all the As we have already discussed, for the 1D case (the
acquisition geometries reviewed in Chapter 7. How- single-variable signals) in Chapter 4, aliasing occurs
ever, there is one important note of caution: As we when the sampling criteria in equation (8.73) are not
discussed earlier, the apparent minimum velocity can satisfied. It causes duplicates of the input spectrum in
vary from one cross section to another, from one acqui- multiples of 1/t, where t is the sampling interval,
sition geometry to another, and from one axis to another. to overlap (see Figures 4.18 and 4.19). If this overlap-
In other words, we must always adjust the appar- ping does occur, the aliasing effects cannot be removed
ent minimum velocity for the particular context under without additional information about the sampled spec-
consideration. trum, from sources other than the sampled spectrum
Let us consider at some specific examples. If we itself. A trivial example would be a case in which it
want to record as much as 80 Hz in a medium with is known that a 4-ms data set contained frequencies
Vmin = 1600 m/s, then equation (8.75) leads to between 0 and 90 Hz, along with an unknown amount
of aliased 150 Hz. Because 150 Hz produces an alias at
t = 6 41 ms, xs = xr = 10 m. (8.76) 125 − (150 − 125) Hz = 100 Hz, the correct spectrum
Usually, and certainly in land-data acquisition, Vmin is for the 4-ms sampling interval could be reconstructed
much smaller, perhaps 160 m/s; in that case, by zeroing out the 100-Hz contribution. Another illus-
tration of the effect of aliasing for a 1D signal is given
t = 6 41 ms, xs = xr = 1 m. (8.77) in Figure 8.11.
Signal sampled at 2 ms Nonaliased amplitude spectrum FIGURE 8.11. Aliasing for a 1D signal.
(a) (a) Nonaliased signal and its amplitude
spectrum. (b) The same signal as (a), but at
a coarsely sampled interval that produces
aliasing. Notice how the overlapping of
aliased energy has changed the amplitude
in (b).
0 40 80 0 125 250
0 62.5 125
Time (ms) Frequency (Hz)
328 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
have actually computed, for the same receiver spread, Shot 1 Shot 2 Shot 3
data for three other shot points: 500 m, 1125 m, and 550 m 1125 m 1750 m
1750 m. Figure 8.15 shows the f -k amplitude spectrum * * *
plots of these three shots. We can see that the energy (a)
Depth
800 m
Receivers
is now spread over a large area of the f -k domain,
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1450 m
that the three shots corresponding to the same model
and with the same receiver spread produce different
f -k responses. Notice that the shot gather correspond-
ing to the shot at 1750 m is even slightly aliased.
However, this aliasing effect does not include any over-
lapping with the nonaliased signal. Therefore, it is quite 0 2250 m
easy to correct for the aliasing effect by zeroing the
0s
aliased region in the f -k domain (see the section on dip (b) Shot location
Time (s)
filtering for more details).
As is shown in Figures 8.16 and 8.17, we re- Primary
peated the experiment for dipping reflections with the 1s
same source and receiver configurations; the receiver
spread is from 0 m to 2250 m, and the spacing
Multiple
between receivers is 25 m. The dipping model and the 2s
are shown in Figure 8.17. We can see that all the shot FIGURE 8.14. Top: model. Bottom: corresponding data for
gathers are now aliased because of the large moveout the source position at 1375 m. We have also computed data
associated with the dipping reflections. However, we corresponding to the shot at 550 m, 1125 m, and 1725 m.
notice that the aliasing effect still does not include any Each shot gather has 91 receivers from 0 to 2250 m, with
overlapping with the nonaliased signal, and therefore it 25-m spacing between receivers. Because of limited space,
can be eliminated easily (see the section on dip filtering these shot gathers are not shown here, although their f -k
for more details). spectra will be shown in Figure 8.15.
550 m
(Hz) 4
(Shot 1)
2
(a)
0 20 0 – 20
cycle/km
In the cartoon in Figure 8.18, x 10
11
400 m
(a)
leave multiples in the near offsets, where the moveout Receivers
Depth
is minimal.
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1850 m
An Application of Dip Filtering
to Up-down Separation Vp = 2500 m/s, ρ = 2.0 g/cm3
Time (s)
events in the vertical-cable data are arranged as a func-
tion of the gradients only. The downgoing wavefield is 1s
located in the positive wavenumbers, and the upgoing
wavefield is located in the negative wavenumbers. As
2s
shown in Figure 8.22, this separation is very clear. The
up-down separation based on f -k filtering consists of
zeroing energy in the f -k domain corresponding to the
3s
negative wavenumbers, to extract the downgoing field,
and zeroing energy in the f -k domain corresponding to * Source Receiver
550 m
(Hz) 2 (Shot 1)
1
Unfortunately, in most current (a)
vertical-cable surveys, the receiver 0 20 –20
0
spacing generally is greater than cycle/km
11
the maximum required by the sam- x 10
pling theorem. Thus, it is important 60 4
at the acquisition stage to design
well-sampled cables to apply this 3
Aliasing
50 1000 2000 50 1000 2000
(a) 72 72 (d)
(b)
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48 48 D C
Hz
24 24
–50 50
Aliasing
72 (c) 72
48 48
Hz
24 24
–50 50
FIGURE 8.19. An illustration of surface-noise attenuation using f -k filtering. (a) Field record with a trace spacing of
10 m: A = ground roll; B = a backscattered component of A; C = dispersive guided waves; and D = reflections.
(b) The f -k spectrum of this field record. (c) The f -k spectrum of this field record after rejecting ground-roll energy A.
For display purposes, each is normalized with respect to its own maximum. (d) Dip-filtered field record, the f -k
spectrum of which is shown in (c). (From Yilmaz, 1987.)
the output. The hope is that f -k filtering and other that form one source station or one receiver station.
noise-attenuation tools can be used to suppress the All sources in an array are fired simultaneously, and
remaining aliasing effect. Because these surface waves the signal detected by the receivers of an array is
generally are dispersive, they cover a wide range of summed to record one trace. Typically, the elements
wavenumbers (which are related to the range of appar- of an array are arranged in a 1D array and are usu-
ent velocities of the noise) that need to be suppressed ally equidistant, as illustrated in Figure 8.30a. This
by this type of array. Unfortunately, in this suppression type of arrangement is generally known as a line array.
process, often we may end up attenuating or distorting Other arrangements may be used, such as the areal array
the desired signal in these wavenumber ranges. shown in Figure 8.30b. As we will discuss later, areal
Putting aside these concerns for a moment, we arrays can produce a better antialiasing filter than can
begin by describing hardwired array resampling as a 1D arrays. Unfortunately, in most cases, their practical
system that we can associate with a specific impulse implementation is still not feasible in the field.
response. We then describe criteria for which the con- The focus of our discussion in this section will be
volution of the continuous wavefield with this impulse line arrays. Other arrangements, such as areal arrays,
response of the arrays produces either a nonaliased can be deduced easily from derivations of line arrays.
output signal or an output signal without surface noise. The key parameters that we will use in our discus-
sion are the
1050 m
1
Primary 55 0.9
Primary
0.8
0.7
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0.6
t (Hz) 0.5
Multiple 0.4
Multiple 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
40 0 –40
NMO-corrected with (cycle/km)
2D forward FFT
multiple velocity
After zeroing
multiple energy 2D inverse FFT Removal of NMO correction
55 1
0.3
0.9
Primary
0.8
0.7
0.6
(Hz) 0.5
0.4
0.3
Primary
0.2
0.1
0 0
40 0 –40
(cycle/km)
Material Vp Vs
FIGURE 8.21. Synthetic model and
(m/s) (m/s) (g/cm3) parameters.
1 1500 0 1000
2 2000 1000 2100
3 2500 1200 1900
4 2600 1500 2400
5 2800 1450 2700
6 3000 1300 2900
7 2200 1050 2200
8 3000 1400 300
is chosen, rather than the distance from the first to Impulse Responses of Arrays
the last element, which is (N − 1)L)
4) spacing between arrays, x The process of converting the continuous wavefield
5) minimum apparent wavelength of surface noise, into a discrete wavefield by using a hardwired array
Λmin , and maximum apparent wavelength of surface summation is schematized in Figure 8.28. We can see
noise, Λmax that this process essentially has two steps:
336 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
z z
z
0 Traces 101
0 Traces 101
0 0 Traces 101
0
0
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125 Hz
Downgoing Upgoing
waves waves
Up Down
-80 0 +80
125 Hz
(c)
Time (s)
Time (s)
frequency
Time (s)
125 Hz
-80 0 +80
Wavenumber
cycles/km
(b)
t 3
-80 0 +80 3
(d) 3
Shot gather Upgoing Downgoing
for one cable waves waves
(a) (e) (f)
FIGURE 8.22. The f -k dip filtering for a vertical cable (VC) shot close to the cable. (a) Raw shot gather for a VC
cable located at 362.5 m from the shot point. (b) The f -k spectrum of the raw shot gather. Separation (c) and (d) of
the f -k spectrum of the raw shot gather into negative and positive wavenumbers. Separation (e) and (f) of the raw
shot gather into an upgoing wavefield and a downgoing wavefield.
1) sampling of the continuous wavefield at the position Let us investigate the impulse response of other
of the array elements types of arrays. Consider a dipping line array of five
2) grouping of one array to form one output trace elements, with spacing L (Figure 8.31b). The effec-
tive spacing is given by L cos θ, where θ is the angle
These two steps can be grouped into a system that between the raypath and the direction of the line array.
represents the hardwired array summation. The sam- The impulse response has the same shape, which is
pled wavefield can then be described as a convolution independent of direction (except for the limiting case,
of the continuous wavefield by the impulse response where θ = 90◦ ), but the effective spacing changes with
of the hardwired array. Our objective in this subsec- the direction of the incident wave.
tion is to introduce the impulse responses of some Let us now examine the impulse response of the
of the common array arrangements used in petroleum areal array. Consider the response of an areal array to
seismology studies. a unit impulse traveling as a plane wave across the
The impulse response of the hardwired array system array, as shown in Figure 8.31c. Each element has
can be defined as the response of an array to a unit unit sensitivity. When the wavefront crosses the array
impulse that is traveling as a plane wave. For example, in the direction indicated by the arrow, D, it sees a
an equally weighted line array of five elements, with five-element array with spacing L and weights of
spacing L, has an impulse response g(x), as shown in 1, 2, 3, 2, 1. In other words, the areal arrays can be
Figure 8.31a. treated as nonuniformly weighted line arrays.
Wavefield Sampling 337
z
z z 0 Traces 101
0
0 Traces 101 0 Traces 101
0 0 z
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Downgoing
waves Up Down
125 Hz
Time (s)
-80 0 +80
frequency
(d)
Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
125 Hz
-80 0 +80
Wavenumber
cycles/km
(c)
-80 0 +80 3
t 3 3
Upgoing
waves
Data with Direct wave
direct wave muted
3
(a) (b) (e) (f) Downgoing
waves
(g)
FIGURE 8.23. The f -k dip filtering for a VC shot far from the cable. (a) and (b) Raw shot gathers with and with-
out direct wave arrivals for a VC cable located at 11375.5 m from the shot point. (c) The f -k spectrum of the raw
shot gather without direct wave arrivals. Separation (d) and (e) of the f -k spectrum of the raw shot gather (with-
out direct wave arrivals) into negative and positive wavenumbers. Separation (f) and (g) of the raw shot gather
(without direct wave arrivals) into an upgoing wavefield and a downgoing wavefield.
In more general terms, nonuniformly weighted the operation in equation (8.79) is performed for each
arrays can be obtained by (1) controlling the sensitivi- time instant t independently of the other time instants,
ties of the individual elements in a line array, (2) using we can drop the time argument from equation (8.79) to
an areal array, and (3) using a combination of shot and facilitate the subsequent algebra; that is,
geophone arrays.
pd (x) = pc (x) ∗x g(x), (8.80)
0 0 0
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Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
3 3 3
Pressure data Upgoing waves Downgoing waves
FIGURE 8.24. Receiver gathers after up-down separation, using f -k dip filtering.
understand the pros and cons of the different responses is the impulse response of a system, its wavenumber
that we will derive later. response G(k) is given by
+∞
Ideal wavenumber response. Recall that the G(k) = g(x) exp(−ikx) dx. (8.82)
spacing between elements of arrays is denoted by L, −∞
with the corresponding Nyquist wavenumber kaN =
In the special case in which the impulse response is
1/(2L); the spacing between traces in the resampled
symmetrical about x = 0, the wavenumber response is
data is x, with the corresponding Nyquist wavenum-
given by the cosine transform
ber kdN = 1/(2x).
+∞
The Nyquist wavenumber kdN = 1/(2x) deter-
mines the desired response of the antialiasing of G(k). G(k) = g(x) cos(kx) dx. (8.83)
−∞
The ideal form of G(k) is shown in Figure 8.32a.
The cutoff wavenumber is at kdN , with a passband for We will consider symmetrical impulse responses
k < kdN and a reject band for k > kdN . Figure 8.32b only. There are two types, depending on whether the
shows a practical version of the ideal filter shown in number of elements is odd or even. Consider an odd
Figure 8.32a, which we will try to emulate with the number of elements first, as shown in Figure 8.33a.
hardwired array. Note that the antialiasing filter in The impulse response is the sum of the weighted and
Figure 8.32b is very close to the ideal filter, although it spaced impulses:
is periodic.
g(x) = g0 δ(x) + g1 δ(x − L) + g2 δ(x − 2L)
Wavenumber response of an array with + g−1 δ(x + L) + g−2 δ(x + 2L)
an odd number of elements. The wavenumber
response of a line array — or an equivalent line array, in
2
the case of areal arrays — can be calculated by taking = gn δ(x − nL). (8.84)
the Fourier transform of the impulse response. If g(x) n = −2
Wavefield Sampling 339
Receiver
spacing
6.25 m
Receiver
spacing
12.50 m
Receiver
spacing
18.75 m
Receiver
spacing
25.00 m
0 125 250
Antialiasing filter, to bring + 2g2 cos(2kL). (8.85)
Hz the spectrum to the desired
Low-pass filtering bandwidth.
G(k) is the cosine spectrum of the
array. It is made up of the sum
of three terms. Each term is plot-
ted in Figure 8.34, along with the
resulting sum. The first term is
a constant, which is independent
0 125 250 of wavenumber. The second term,
FFT
Hz G1 (k) = 2g1 cos(kL), is a cosine
function of wavenumber. Therefore,
this cosine function repeats itself
Resampling after k = 2π/L, 4π/L, . . . . The
( t = 4 ms here) truth of this is apparent by substi-
tuting these values of k into the
second term. The third term is
also a cosine function of wavenum-
0 40 80
ms ber, but it repeats at k = π/L,
2π/L, . . . . Because the array is
FIGURE 8.26. Resampling steps. symmetrical, the sine spectrum is
zero. Thus, the amplitude spectrum
is given by |G(k)|. The phase spectrum is zero if
|G(k)| is positive and π if G(k) is negative. The ampli-
tude spectrum is called the wavenumber array re-
70 0.2 sponse.
B A
0.15
D
(Hz) C 0.1
D C 0.05
D A Wavenumber response of an array with an
0 even number of elements. Consider now that the
20 0 – 20 number of elements is even, as in Figure 8.33b. The
cycle/km
origin is chosen at x = 0 to make the impulse
FIGURE 8.27. The f -k spectra of the data in Figure 8.12, for response symmetrical. There is no impulse at the ori-
25-m spacing between traces. gin. The impulses occur at intervals of (2l − 1)L/2,
Wavefield Sampling 341
In-field Field
processing tape
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Hardwired summation
Σ Σ Σ
Hardwired array
Summation
Sampling
Continuous signals
Fundamental
sampling
∆L
Wavefield
Continuous
signal
FIGURE 8.28. A schematic diagram of array recording. The data are recorded at x, using hardwired-array technology.
∆L
∆L
y
5L L
+ g3 δ x − + g−1 δ x +
2 2
Wavenumber Response of Equally
L 5L
+ g−2 δ x + 3 + g−3 δ x + . (8.86) Weighted Line Arrays
2 2
The array response generally is normalized such
The cosine transform of g(x) is (with g−n = gn ) that the amplitude response at k = 0 is equal to unity.
This normalization is done by making the sum of the
kL 3kL impulse weights equal to unity. In an equally weighted
G(k) = 2g1 cos + 2g2 cos
2 2 line, each impulse will have the weight 1/N.
Consider three elements in the line, with the
5kL
+ 2g3 cos . (8.87) normalized impulse response shown in Figure 8.35a.
2
342 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Plane wavefront
of an areal array. x=0 ∆L
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∆ L cosθ
1 2
G(k) = + cos(kL)
5 5
2
+ cos(2kL).
5
(8.89) (c) 3
∆L
2 2
In general, a line array with an
odd number of elements N = 1 1
2m+1, where m = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
Plane wavefront
x
will have a spectrum given by ∆L
2
m
1
G(k) = + cos(lkL).
N N
l=1
(8.90)
The spectra of line arrays con-
taining odd numbers of ele- band increases, and (2) the amplitude response in the
ments from 3 through 17 are rejection band decreases.
shown in Figure 8.36. In this
case, the spacing is held constant; therefore, the length
of the array increases as the number of elements
increases. Wavenumber Response of Nonuniformly
Note that the spectra are periodic, as is characteris- Weighted Line Arrays
tic of any system having a sampled impulse response,
arrays included. The amplitude spectrum of an array Nonuniformly weighted arrays can be obtained by
has a maximum response at k = 0. The spectral (1) controlling the sensitivities of the individual ele-
period is essentially the reciprocal of the sampling inter- ments in a line array, (2) using an areal array, and
val, 2π/L; therefore, the spectrum rebounds to its (3) using a combination of shot and geophone arrays.
maximum value at k = 2π/L, 4π/L, . . . . Here we present the wavenumber responses of the first
Increasing the length of the array by increasing the two forms of nonuniformly weighted arrays, described
number of elements while holding the spacing con- in this subsection, and the third type of nonuniformly
stant, as shown in Figure 8.36, has two effects on the weighted arrays, which will be discussed in the next
wavenumber spectrum: (1) the width of the rejection subsection.
Wavefield Sampling 343
G(k)
(a) g0
G(k) = g k/(2 )
0
2 g1
G (k) = 2g cos 2 k L
1 1
k/(2 )
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k 2g
1/2 x 1/2 L 1/ L 2
G(k) (b) G (k) = 2g cos 4 k L k/(2 )
2 2
1.0
k
1/2 x 1/2 L 1/ L
Rejection band
|G(k)| k/(2 )
1/ L
(a) g0
g1 FIGURE 8.34. Impulse response of an array with an odd
g–1
number of elements.
g–2 g2
(b) (d)
3 2/9
1/9
5
(b)
x k/(2π)
7
5/17 1.0
4/17
9
2/17
11
(c)
x k/(2π)
13
0 1/n∆L 1/2∆L 1/∆L
15
FIGURE 8.37. Weighted arrays: (a) uniform, (b) triangular,
17 and (c) dome.
–2/ L –1/ L 0 1/ L
that the energy in the reject band has been reduced Theoretically, the results in Figures 8.42a, 8.42b,
significantly, but not totally, because the wavenumber and 8.43a can be improved by using a nonuniformly
response of an equally weighted array has large nonzero weighted array. However, as discussed earlier, nonuni-
values in the reject band. formly weighted arrays are still impractical in the field;
therefore, there is no point in trying to use sophisticated
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1.0 1.0
(b) 60
Time (s)
(b)
Time (s)
1.4
(Hz) 1.2
1
30 0.8
1.0 1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
22 0 –22
cycle/km
FIGURE 8.40. (a) Closely sampled data corresponding to FIGURE 8.41. (a) Amplitude spectrum corresponding
L = 7.5 m; (b) coarsely sampled data corresponding to to data in Figure 8.40a and (b) amplitude spectrum
x = 22.5 m. corresponding to data in Figure 8.40b.
Wavefield Sampling 347
Filter
Filter
cannot be achieved simultaneously
with uniformly weighted line arrays.
We must design our array for one of
these two objectives. Figure 8.45a
shows the results of a hardwired
Filtered data Filtered data
grouping designed as an antialis-
ing filter, for the case in which
Signal Noise Signal Noise the reflection data and surface noise
overlap. We can see that the resam-
(c) Five-element source and
five-element receiver
(d) Seven-element source and
seven-element receiver pled wavefield is not aliased, but
a significant amount of ground-roll
energy remains in the data.
Now let us consider the case
Data Data
of designing our array primarily as
a surface-noise suppressor. Again,
the parameters we have at our dis-
posal are the spacing of sensors and
Filter Filter
the number of elements. Our prob-
lem, then, is to design a line array
that has a uniform sensitivity that
will reduce the surface noise most
effectively.
Filtered data Filtered data
The wavenumber array response
of equally weighted line arrays has
a rejection band of approximately
1/(2 x) 1/(N L) 1/(N L) 1/(2 x) L/Λ = 1/N to L/Λ = (N −
1)/N, as Figure 8.46 illustrates.
These two values are the first zero
following the primary passband and the last zero preced-
ing the first rebound passband, respectively. We desire
Array System Designed as a an array design such that the apparent wavelengths of
Surface-noise Suppressor all noises fall within the rejection band. The following
criteria can be used to design such arrays:
The previous example shows that if the reflec-
tion data and surface noise are well separated in the 1) The noise should be equal to or less than (N − 1)/N
wavenumber domain, an adequate choice of the resam- times the shortest wavelength (denoted by Λmin ), so
pling interval x allows us to achieve two objectives that all noise wavelengths will be to the left of the
simultaneously: (1) resampling of the wavefield free last zero:
from aliasing and (2) attenuation of surface noise. How-
ever, when the reflection data and surface noise overlap, N −1
L ≤ Λmin . (8.97)
as usually is the case in the real world, these objectives N
348 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
This criterion ensures that the wavefield sampled noise contains the smallest apparent wavelength in
with L is not nonaliased for all the events con- the data.
tained in the wavefield, assuming that the surface 2) The length should be equal to, or greater than, the
longest noise wavelength (denoted by Λmax ), so that
all noise wavelengths will be to the right of the first
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zero:
1500.0 Offset (m) 0.0
(a) 0.0 Λmax
N≥ . (8.98)
L
60 (a)
1.4
1.2
(Hz)
1500.0 Offset (m) 0.0 1
(b) 0.0
0.8
30
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
22 0 – 22
0.5 cycle/km
Time (s)
60 (b)
1.4
1.2
(Hz)
1
1.0 30 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
22 0 – 22
cycle/km
FIGURE 8.43. Antialiasing filtering and noise reduction
using (a) a five-element uniform array and (b) a com- FIGURE 8.44. (a) Amplitude spectrum corresponding
bination of identical five-element geophone and source to data in Figure 8.43a and (b) amplitude spectrum
arrays. corresponding to data in Figure 8.43b.
Wavefield Sampling 349
t = 610 ms |G|
Seven-element source and seven-element receiver
1.0 N ∆L > Λ N ∆ L < (N–1)Λ min
max
Signal
Noise (a)
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Data
Nyquist
Filter
FIGURE 8.46. Basic principles of array design.
1.0
Filtered data
(b)
Data 0
0
1/∆L
k/(2π)
Signal is also gathers. It consists of one sensor per trace, with sen-
attenuated
sors spaced closely enough to ensure that noise waves
are not aliased and can be detected easily by looking
Filtered data
across the receiver spread. Such a spacing varies from
1 m to 12.5 m.
k/(2π)
FIGURE 8.45. Noise reduction using (a) a combination of Sensitivity of Array Summation
seven-element identical geophone and source arrays and to Sensor Dropouts
(b) a combination of nine-element identical geophone
and source arrays. Notice that each plot in this figure is Often, some of the hydrophones or geophones
normalized individually. “fail” during seismic experiments. Figure 8.47 shows
a five-element uniform array response to such fail-
ure. We can see that if one element fails during the
recording process, the wavenumber response no longer
A practical issue with the criteria in equations (8.97) corresponds to the uniform array and the range of
and (8.98) is that we have to estimate the Λmin and wavenumbers that the array is expected to attenuate no
Λmax needed to design the array. This information gen- longer coincides with the reject band. Unfortunately,
erally is derived from the so-called “noise” survey. Such once data acquisition with a hardwired array has taken
a survey contains only a very limited number of shot place, the signal cannot be detected or corrected easily.
350 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
As we will discuss in the next section, when data antialiasing filters and noise-suppression tools before
from individual elements of arrays are recorded, defec- we group the data at a desired spatial interval, if such
tive hydrophones can be identified and the missing data grouping is needed at all. Figure 8.48 summarizes the
can be recovered through real-time interpolation, by signal-sensor recording philosophy. We notice the posi-
using the data from neighboring elements for summing tion of data recording in Figure 8.48 compared with that
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Adaptive beamforming
In-field Field
processing tape
x
Dynamic group formed data
Discreted
signal
Real-time data adaptive filtering
Data
recording
L
Wavefield
Continuous
wavefield
FIGURE 8.48. A schematic diagram of single-sensor recording. The data are recorded at L.
Wavefield Sampling 351
(a) 0.0
array of the seismic survey and xj represented the jth
1.0
sensor of the ith array; in other words, xi described
array positions and xj described sensor positions for a
2.0 given array. Instead, now the output of beamforming 2 is
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3.0
N
L
Time (s)
4.0
pd (xi , t) = wjk (t)pc (xj , t − τk ), (8.100)
j=1 k=1
5.0
with
6.0
τk = (k − 1)τ , (8.101)
7.0
where τ is the time interval, wjk (t) are weighting
8.0 coefficients to be determined, and pd (xi , t) is the out-
(b) 0.0 put of the beamforming. Before we describe how to
estimate the weights, wjk (t), let us remark that the
1.0
output of the beamforming uses the outputs of arrays
2.0 before time t, up to tL = t − (L − 1)τ . Therefore,
contrary to a hardwired array in which the outputs of
Time (s)
output as a simple linear summation, that is, as lution operation in the space domain. For example, the fan filter described
in this chapter can be written as follows:
+∞ +∞
N
o( y, t) = i(x, τ )h( y − x, τ )dxdτ
pd (xi , t) = pc (xj , t), (8.99) −∞ −∞
j=1 with
1 1 y−x y−x
where pc (xj , t) was the continuous wavefield taken at h( y − x, τ ) = ∗ δ t− −δ t+
2π t y−x v v
the jth element of the array with the center at xi and
where i(x, τ ) is the input signal on which the fan filter is applied and o(y, t)
where pd (xi , t) denoted the sampled wavefield after the is the filtered output signal. v is the velocity used to define the fan filter, and
hardwired summation. There, xi represented the ith the asterisk denotes convolution in the time domain.
352 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(2000), and Ozbek (2000a, b) have adapted the beam- steered toward the target. However, a major limitation
forming approach to seismic recordings. of the delay-and-sum beamformer is that it has no
In the case of spatial filtering known as the delay- provisions for dealing with sources of interference.
and-sum beamformer, the various sensor outputs are To enable a beamformer to respond to an unknown
delayed by appropriate amounts, to align signal com- interference environment, it has to be made adaptive
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ponents coming from the direction of a target; then the in such a way that it places nulls in the direction(s) of
outputs are summed. (Note that the hardwired array the source(s) of interference automatically, and in real
described earlier is a particular case of a delay-and- time. By so doing, the output signal-to-noise ratio of the
sum beamformer in which the delays are null.) The key system is increased, and the directional response of the
issue in practical implementation of the delay-and-sum system is thereby improved. Below is a brief description
beamformer is to determine the time delay for each sen- of one of Ozbek’s (2000a, b) implementations.
sor of a given array. The standard solution is to take the
crosscorrelation between the sum signal of the array
and each sensor of the array. The proper time delay A Formulation of Beamforming
for each sensor is at the peak of this crosscorrelation as a Variant of the Wiener Filter
function. The sum signal is used as the reference sig-
nal in the crosscorrelation computation, because (1) it An important class of adaptive beamforming is lin-
has the highest signal-to-noise ratio, (2) it is the most early constrained adaptive beamforming. Its objective
representative of all the sensor signals received at the is to preserve signals that are incident from the target
array because of the ensemble-averaging obtained in the direction and to suppress noise interferences that are
summing, and (3) it takes advantage of whatever ran- incident from other directions (Haykin, 1996).
domness there is in the geology under the array. Thus, To facilitate the subsequent algebra, let us rewrite
for a single target, the average power at the output of the linear convolution in equation (8.100) without the
the delay-and-sum beamformer is maximized when it is spatial variable; that is,
N
L
y(t) = wjk (t)ujk (t), (8.102)
1 2 k L
j=1 k=1
(a) τ τ τ
w11 w12 w1k w1L
where
1
y(t) = pd (xi , t), (8.103)
taps is constant, then for the aligned target signal, the (a) Sensors
(8.107) t = t1 1 0 0 0 0
and t = t2 0 0.8 0 0 0
[w]
w(t) = [w11 (t), . . . , wN1 (t), . . . , w1L (t), . . . , wNL (t)]T t = t3 0 0 1 1 1
(8.108) t = t4 0 0 0 0 0
are NL-dimensional column vectors. (The reader is re-
t = t5 0 0 0 0 0
minded that all vectors are indicated by lowercase bold-
face type).
For convenience in our later derivations, we also
introduce the L-dimensional column vector (c) Optimum output: y = u11 + 0.8 u 22 + u33 + u34 + u35
behind this method is that, for a beamformer to deal with exists in the literature for searching for an optimum fil-
an unknown interference environment, it must be made ter (see Haykin [1996]). One of the common iterative
adaptive in such a way that it automatically places nulls solutions is
in the directions of the sources of interferences. Thus,
we will select wik (t), for which the expectation of the w(n+1) (t) = w(n) (t) − α[P][R(t)]w(n) (t), (8.118)
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1.0
2.0
An Example of Swell-noise Attenuation
3.0
Let us return to the example in Figure 8.49. Using
Time (s)
we can achieve the desired sampling in xs and receivers are sampled densely along both the
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xr . The sampling along the x-axis generally is x- and y-axis, whereas shotpoints are sampled
known as inline sampling, and the sampling along coarsely along the x-axis and densely along the
the y-axis generally is known as crossline. The y-axis, as illustrated in Figure 8.54c. This acqui-
key oustanding problem today in sampling seis- sition is the second of the two common options
mic wavefields concerns the selection of ys and in current ocean-bottom seismics.
yr . This problem generally is known as crossline • xr and xs are sampled according to equa-
sampling. Our objective in this box is to summa- tion (8.75), and yr and ys are not. In
rize briefly some of the approaches being used for other words, both receivers and shotpoints are
crossline sampling. We also will indicate some of sampled densely along the x-axis, and both
the solutions being investigated. are sampled coarsely along the y-axis, as illus-
trated in Figure 8.54d. This source-and-receiver
distribution is the most common option in ma-
3D Wavefield Sampling rine towed-streamer acquisition. It generally is
implemented with the multisource and multi-
We can notice that the wavefield P(t, xs , streamer concept (known in brief as MS/MS).
ys , xr , yr ) is actually five-dimensional. Sampling
this wavefield along the five dimensions in a way Marine acquisitions dominate most seismic
that respects the criteria in equations (8.73) through activity today, and towed-streamer acquisition is
(8.75), especially the need to sample densely both still by far the most commonly used technique
shots and receivers along the x- and y-axis, is still for marine acquisition. Therefore, let us elabo-
well beyond the capability of current acquisition rate a little more on the concept behind the current
systems. In view of this limitation, some practical towed-streamer acquisition technique, namely the
solutions for sampling P(t, xs , ys , xr , yr ) have been multisource and multistreamer concept.
put forward. We can categorize them as follows:
• xr and yr are sampled according to equation
(8.75), and xs and ys are not. In other words, The Multisource and
receivers are sampled densely along both the x- Multistreamer Concept
and y-axis, but shotpoints are sampled coarsely
along both the x- and y-axis, as illustrated in Figure 8.54d describes one typical implemen-
Figure 8.54a. This type of 3D acquisition is tation of the concept of the multisource and mul-
common on land, and some future ocean-bottom tistreamer (MS/MS) experiment. This experiment
seismic (OBS) acquisitions also might have sim- corresponds to a boat towing two sources and eight
ilar source-and-receiver distributions. streamers. That is why it is known as 2/8. The
• xs , ys , and xr are sampled according to sources are fired alternately every 25 m (i.e., each
equation (8.75), but yr is not. In other words, individual source is fired every 50 m). In other
shotpoints are sampled densely along both the words, the spacing between shotpoints in one shoot-
x- and y-axis, whereas receivers are sampled ing line is 50 m (i.e., xs = 50 m). This shooting
coarsely along the y-axis and densely along the technique is known as “flip-flop.” The large spacing
x-axis, as illustrated in Figure 8.54b. This acqui- between shotpoints along a given shot line is one of
sition is one of the two common options in the key drawbacks of flip-flop shooting. This spac-
current ocean-bottom seismics. ing is imposed by the time interval between two
• xs , ys , and xr are sampled according to shots. During that time interval, the boat moved
equation (8.75), but yr is not. In other words, about 25 m.
(continued)
Wavefield Sampling 357
∆ yr
∆ xr
∆ yr
(b) (d)
∆ yr
∆ xs
FIGURE 8.54. (a) describes receivers for a typical 3D land survey with xr ≈ 25 m and yr ≈ 50 m. The spacing
of shots is quite coarse, with xs ≈ 75 m and ys ≈ 150 m. (b) describes one of the common OBS acquisition
geometries. This acquisition has a very high density of source coverage compared to receivers. Typically, as many
as eight cables are deployed at the seafloor, and sources are fired over them. The number of cables is limited to about
eight because OBS cables are still more expensive to manufacture and more time-consuming to deploy than towed-
streamer cables. However, source boats are very cheap, small, and easy to maneuver. Thus, we easily can afford
a dense coverage of shotpoints in both the x (inline — cable direction) and y (crossline) directions. (c) describes
another of the common OBS acquisition geometries in which shooting lines are parallel to cables (inline). (d)
describes sources and receivers in a typical 3D towed-streamer acquisition; sources and receivers are parallel to each
other. Note that values of xr , yr , xs , and ys vary from experiment to experiment. The ones given in this figure
are indicative of typical values used in land, OBS, and towed-streamer acquisitions.
The large spacing between shotpoints along a increase in number sources to k implies that xs
given shot line is also the reason why most MS/MS is k times 25 m along each shooting line (e.g., five
experiments today are limited to two sources. An sources lead to xs = 125 m along each shot line).
(continued)
358 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
be placed, if spatial aliasing of this signal is to be a) Determine the minimum sampling interval, t,
avoided? required to avoid aliasing.
b) Suppose that t = 5 ms. What is the discrete-
4) A surface noise is identified as having a wavelength time signal obtained after sampling?
of between 18.5 and 45 m. Assume that this noise c) Suppose that the signal is now sampled at t =
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is to be filtered out by a hardwired array. Determine 1/75 s. What is the discrete-time signal obtained
the spacing between elements of the array and the after sampling?
number of elements of the array. d) What is the frequency 0 < f < 37.5 Hz of a
sinusoid that yields samples identical to those
5) Establish the sampling criteria, similar to equa- obtained in (c)?
tion (8.75), for the spacing between offsets and for
the spacing between CMPs. 9) Consider the continuous signal:
361
362 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
(a) Total downgoing Total upgoing in Figure 3.9 have shown that the particle velocity
P-wave S-wave P-wave S-wave
contains upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves. For
a 3D medium, we will show later that the S-waves can
}
}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
be split into SV- and SH-constituents, on the basis of
their polarization with respect to the receiver plane. The
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Alternatively, the upgoing P- and S-waves can be one S-wave image obtained from P-wave to S-wave
added to obtain the total upgoing waves: reflections. P-waves are processed with the proper
P-wave velocity model, whereas S-waves are processed
(U) (UP ) (USV ) (USH )
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi . with the best S-wave model of the subsurface, perhaps
including anisotropy.
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Similarly, the downgoing P- and S-waves can be added Intuitively, when we decompose the vector wave-
to obtain the total downgoing waves: field into upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves or
(D) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
total upgoing and downgoing waves, the downgoing
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi . components will contain more multiple energy than do
the upgoing components. In particular, the free sur-
The objective of U/D decomposition is to extract face of the earth totally reflects all upgoing waves into
the total upgoing and downgoing waves from the mul- downgoing waves, giving the petroleum seismologist a
ticomponent data. The next sections will show that P/S multiple-suppression challenge. In the mid-1990s the
and U/D decompositions are realized for every shot advent of four-component (4C) ocean-bottom seismic
gather by adding scaled particle-velocity vector data (OBS) recordings immediately initiated a search for
and scaled vertical-traction vector data. The scalars multiple-suppression schemes. When they are com-
that depend on the medium parameters at the receiver pared with the single pressure measurement from a
level are derived from the elastodynamic wave equa- surface-seismic streamer, the multicomponent record-
tion by introducing proper boundary conditions. Before ings clearly offer a better starting point for multiple-
we embark on the mathematics of elastic wavefield suppression methods: Single pressure measurements
decomposition, we present examples in which P/S cannot, at least in a straightforward manner, be decom-
and U/D decompositions affect multicomponent data posed into upgoing and downgoing waves, as can
processing. multicomponent data. In this context, the upgoing part
of the multicomponent data is the multiple-attenuated
or demultipled data set.
The Benefit of Multicomponent We have long known that pressure and the verti-
Recordings cal component of the particle-velocity recordings on
the seafloor benefit multiple suppression. Although he
The most basic description of the seismic experi- did not formulate it as a wavefield-decomposition tech-
ment is given by a wavefield that propagates downward nique, as we will do in this chapter, in the mid-1960s
from the source to an interface in the subsurface, where White (1965) pointed out the possible usefulness to
the elastic properties change abruptly. At the interface, geophysical prospecting and oceanographic research of
part of the energy will be reflected, and it propagates deploying a composite detector on the seafloor. White
upward to the surface of the earth, where it can be (1965, p. 42) stated: “The output of a pressure detector
recorded by sensitive instruments. Before imaging mul- near the solid interface can be combined with the output
ticomponent data, we assume, basically, that we can of a particle-velocity detector in such proportions that
preprocess the recorded data so that the data fulfill some waves arriving . . . from the fluid will create no net out-
one-way wave equation describing the one-way propa- put, whereas . . . waves from the solid will be detected.”
gation from the subsurface interface to the receivers. By In this book, we show that White’s algorithm can be
their very nature, multicomponent measurements are interpreted as a U/D decomposition scheme just below
vector data. One approach can easily be identified for the seafloor. By adding the pressure recording P to the
preprocessing the multicomponent data to fit the one- scaled vertical component of particle velocity V3 , we
way wave-propagation model: decomposition of the find the upgoing constituent of the vertical component
vector data into upgoing and downgoing scalar P and S of the vertical traction (normal stress), here denoted by
wavefields that obey scalar wave equations. Because the (U)
S3 . For the special case of normal-incidence data, the
fields are scalar, under the one-way propagation model scalar simply equals the P-wave impedance, ρVP , of
assumption they can be processed independently, by use the seafloor, so that
of standard acoustic-imaging software. For a seismic
experiment with a P-wave source only, the data process-
ing results in two images of the subsurface: one P-wave (U) 1
S3 = − (P − ρVP V3 ). (9.1)
image obtained from P-wave to P-wave reflections and 2
364 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
VP1
fn = (n − 1) ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
2z
1.0
For water depths less than 10 m, the second notch
occurs at frequencies higher than 75 Hz. If the geo-
physicist is satisfied with the frequency band between
the first and second notches, standard deconvolution
does a good job of collapsing the reverberations into the 0.0
original wavelet. For water depths greater than 10 m, 0 20 40 60 80
the second notch occurs at frequencies below 75 Hz. Frequency (Hz)
The notches are now in the frequency band required FIGURE 9.2. Amplitude spectra of (a) hydrophone (pres-
for high-resolution imaging. Standard deconvolution or sure) and (b) geophone (vertical component of the particle
receiver deghosting is impossible, because the notches velocity) for a water depth of 25 m.
are deep in the spectrum in the seismic bandwidth. For
the idealized model of a plane sea surface with van-
ishing pressure, there are perfect notches (with zero for data measured on the geophone are
amplitude) in the spectrum.
Figure 9.2a shows the amplitude spectrum of the 1 VP1
ghost on hydrophone data for a water depth of z = 25 m. fn = n − ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
2 2z
There is no information about the seismic signal at the
notch positions. To solve this notch problem, Barr and Figure 9.2b shows the amplitude spectrum of the ghost
Sanders (1989) introduced paired pressure and particle- on geophone data for a water depth of z = 25 m. Thus,
velocity detectors (dual sensors) in the water-bottom because the geophone recording has no zero amplitude
cable, which led to improved resolution when the in its spectrum at the frequencies where the hydrophone
hydrophone and geophone signals were properly com- recording has notches with zero amplitude in its spec-
bined in processing. This improved resolution occurs trum, the geophone provides the missing information
because the vertically oriented geophones have notches about the seismic signal.
at frequencies different from those of the hydrophones, However, as water depth increases, the receiver
so that the sum of hydrophone and scaled geophone ghost more and more resembles a water-layer multiple.
measurements has no receiver ghost. Notch frequencies The receiver ghost and its accompanying water-layer
Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing and Downgoing Waves 365
(a) Time immediately that all these events are purely downgoing
waves below the seafloor. In Figure 9.3a, the events are
labeled by “Dnnn,” where “D” means that the event is
downgoing, and “nnn” indicates its traveltime in mil-
liseconds. Thus, U/D decomposition just below the
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0.5 D500 have in this special case in which all events below the
seafloor are downgoing. Recall that the boundary con-
0.6 ditions at the fluid-solid interface (seafloor) state that
S3 = −P. Therefore, we may say that this particular
0.7 D700
demultiple or dereverberation technique corresponds to
0.8 computing the upgoing pressure wavefield just below
the seafloor.
0.9 D900 In the second model, shown in Figure 9.4a, we
have included, below the water layer, an additional
1.0
layer 125 m thick. The P-wave velocity in this layer
FIGURE 9.3. (a) Model of a water layer 150 m thick, above is 2000 m/s. The reflection coefficient of the seafloor is
a half-space. All events below the seafloor are downgo- again RPP = 0.45, and the reflection coefficient of the
ing and thus absent in the upgoing component that follows interface below is 0.16. For this model, the zero-offset
from the U/D decomposition just below the seafloor. The pressure and the vertical component of the particle
events are labeled by “Dnnn,” where “D” means that the velocity scaled by the seafloor P-wave impedance are
event is downgoing below the seafloor and “nnn” indicates displayed in Figure 9.4b. Observe that this simple model
the traveltime in milliseconds. (b) Modeled zero-offset data gives a very complicated seismic response. To analyze
of pressure, the vertical component of the particle veloc- the seismograms, we have sketched in Figure 9.4a the
ity scaled by the P-wave impedance of the seafloor, and events up to 625 ms. D and U denote downgoing and
the upgoing component of the vertical traction below the
upgoing events, respectively, just below the seafloor.
seafloor.
Computing the upgoing component S3(U) eliminates all
downgoing events just below the seafloor. The upgoing
reverberations may then interfere and overlap with pri- primary, U225, with a traveltime of 225 ms, is clearly
mary reflections from the subsurface. In this case, the present. The water-layer multiples D300, D500, D700,
receiver ghost and its reverberations can totally distort and the like, are clearly eliminated. The internal multi-
any seismic interpretation, unless they are attenuated ple U350, arriving at 350 ms, is hardly visible, because
properly. Let us consider two simple models in which it has reflected twice at the lower interface with a small
we simulate a zero-offset experiment with the source reflection coefficient. Even if the model is simple, it
situated just below the sea surface and the receiver on has several noteworthy characteristics. Receiver ghosts
the seafloor. The first model, shown in Figure 9.3a, has and reverberations are downgoing events just below the
a water layer 150 m thick that lies above a half-space. seafloor and therefore are attenuated by the computation
The P-wave velocity of water is 1500 m/s. The reflec- step (9.1). However, the free surface produces multiples
tion coefficient of the seafloor is 0.45. Using rays to that are upgoing events below the seafloor. Such free-
depict the seismic events — the incident wavefield, the surface-related events, like U425, U550, and U625, are
ghost, and the water layer reverberations — we realize sometimes called source-side multiples. They remain as
366 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
0.1 D100
D100 U225 D300 U350 D425 U425 D500
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0.2
U225
0.3 D300
U350
0.4 U425, D425
Time (s)
D550 U550 D625A D625B U625
0.5 D500
U550, D550
0.6
U625, D625A, D625B
0.7 D700
0.8
0.9
1.0
FIGURE 9.4. (a) Two-layer model above a half-space. The events are labeled by “Dnnn” and “Unnn,” where “D” and “U”
mean that the events are downgoing or upgoing, respectively, below the seafloor, and “nnn” indicates the traveltime in mil-
liseconds. (b) Modeled zero-offset data of pressure, the vertical component of the particle velocity scaled by the P-wave
impedance of the seafloor, and the upgoing component of the vertical traction below the seafloor. The last trace shows the
effect of free-surface multiple elimination.
part of the upgoing wavefield S3(U) . In Chapter 10, we seafloor, for the present analysis and without loss of
will derive algorithms that eliminate all free-surface- generality, we may assume that the vertically oriented
related multiples. Free-surface multiples are events that geophone is also located just above the seafloor. Con-
have at least one reflection at the free surface. The sider a downgoing multiple of unit amplitude hitting
last seismogram in Figure 9.4b shows the response of the sensors. Because the sensors are sitting infinites-
the model when all free-surface-related multiples are imally above the interface when they measure the
absent. Compared with the upgoing field S3(U) just below downgoing event, they will, at the same time, measure
the seafloor, the free-surface-demultipled seismogram an upward-reflected event with an amplitude strength
is almost free of multiples. Therefore, free-surface mul- equal to the reflection coefficient RPP of the seafloor.
tiple attenuation is a better demultiple tool than is U/D Because the hydrophone sensor is isotropic (insensitive
decomposition, below the seafloor. to the wave’s direction), it measures upgoing and down-
A second notable characteristic of the model is that going events without distinction — that is, it measures
the upgoing primary, U225, in Figure 9.4b, is weaker the amplitude sum, 1 + RPP . On the contrary, the geo-
on the pressure recording than it is on the particle- phone is sensitive to orientation and measures upgoing
velocity recording scaled by P-wave impedance. Recall and downgoing events with an opposite sign. In this
that this particular scaling of the particle velocity makes particular case, the geophone measures the amplitude
the downgoing events just below the seafloor equal in 1 − RPP . With RPP > 0, it follows that the downgoing
amplitude between the pressure and particle-velocity multiple is stronger on the pressure seismogram than
seismograms. Stated differently, relative to this pri- it is on the vertical component of the particle-velocity
mary amplitude, the downgoing multiples are stronger seismogram.
on the hydrophone than they are on the geophone. To The third characteristic of this model is related to
see why this is so, we make the following observations. the model’s lateral invariance. In laterally homoge-
The pressure is recorded from a hydrophone placed neous media, source-side multiples will have travel-
just above the seafloor. Because the vertical compo- times equal to receiver-side multiples. For instance,
nent of the particle-velocity field is continuous at the the upgoing source-side multiple, U425, arrives at the
Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing and Downgoing Waves 367
same time that the downgoing receiver-side multiple, arbitrarily inhomogeneous, anisotropic, and anelastic.
D425, arrives. Because their polarity is the same, Along the receiver plane, the wavefield then obeys the
the hydrophones that are measuring their sum will be isotropic elastic equations of motion. The recorded elas-
stronger than the geophones that are measuring their tic field consists of waves passing the receiver plane
difference. This is readily observed in the pressure and both upward and downward.
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the scaled vertical component of the particle-velocity The two key steps required for wavefield decom-
traces in Figure 9.4b. It is straightforward to show that position are (1) the formulation in the frequency-
the multiple’s amplitude on the pressure trace is propor- horizontal wavenumber domain of the equations of
tional to 1 + 2RPP , whereas the multiple’s amplitude wave motion as a linear system and (2) the resolution
on the particle velocity is proportional to 1 − 2RPP . of this linear system through its eigenvalue equation
For a hard seafloor with a reflection coefficient of (see Kreyszig [1988] for a quick review of some
RPP = 0.5, the multiple’s amplitude will be zero on of the key results of the theory of eigenvalues and
the geophone recording. Furthermore, observe that the eigenvectors). The solution of the eigenvalue equation
amplitude of this particular multiple is larger on the allows us to decompose the elastic wavefield into
demultipled seismogram S3(U) than it is on the verti- upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves.
cal component of the particle velocity. On S3(U) , the
downgoing receiver-side multiple, D425, is eliminated,
but the source-side multiple, U425, with amplitude The Matrix-vector Differential Equation
proportional to RPP , is present. For hard seafloors, U/D
decomposition below the seafloor is not sufficient to At the horizontal receiver plane, the density and
suppress multiples. Source-side multiples will be sig- the P-wave and S-wave velocities do not vary later-
nificant and must be suppressed by other demultiple ally. They depend only on the local depth x3 (where
techniques. recording takes place): ρ = ρ(x3 ), VP = VP (x3 ),
Finally, we remark that the dual-sensor summation and VS = VS (x3 ). The wave-propagation velocities
(9.1) is known as PZ-summation, where P indicates the are
√ related to the Lamé √ parameters, in that VP =
pressure measurement on the hydrophone and Z indi- (λ + 2µ)/ρ and VS = µ/ρ. In accordance with
cates the vertical component of the particle-velocity geophysical convention, let the depth axis be positive
measurement on the geophone. In this chapter, we downward.
show how White’s (1965) and Barr and Sanders’ (1989) In the time-space domain, the system of equations
schemes, or PZ summation, can be derived from wave- governing the wave motion at the receiver plane at
field decomposition just below the seafloor. Further- depth x3 consists of the following equations of motion
more, we follow the work of Osen et al. (1999) and show
how water-column reverberations can be suppressed on ρ∂t v1 = ∂1 τ11 + ∂2 τ12 + ∂3 τ13 ,
each of the three other measured components in the 4C ρ∂t v2 = ∂1 τ21 + ∂2 τ22 + ∂3 τ23 , (9.2)
experiment — the vertical velocity and the two horizon-
tal velocities — thus presenting a complete extension ρ∂t v3 = ∂1 τ31 + ∂2 τ32 + ∂3 τ33 ,
of White’s (1965) result. Alternative derivations are
and the time derivative of the generalized Hooke’s law
given in Amundsen and Reitan (1995), Amundsen et al.
(the constitutive relation)
(2000), and Paffenholz and Barr (1995).
∂t τ11 = λ(∂1 v1 + ∂2 v2 + ∂3 v3 ) + 2µ∂1 v1 ,
∂t τ22 = λ(∂1 v1 + ∂2 v2 + ∂3 v3 ) + 2µ∂2 v2 ,
DERIVATION OF P/S AND ∂t τ33 = λ(∂1 v1 + ∂2 v2 + ∂3 v3 ) + 2µ∂3 v3 ,
(9.3)
U/D DECOMPOSITION ∂t τ12 = ∂t τ21 = µ(∂2 v1 + ∂1 v2 ),
In this section, we present the theory underlying ∂t τ23 = ∂t τ32 = µ(∂3 v2 + ∂2 v3 ),
wavefield decomposition. We assume that the elastic ∂t τ13 = ∂t τ31 = µ(∂1 v3 + ∂3 v1 ),
wavefield has been measured along a horizontal receiver
plane in a 3D earth where the medium’s parameters where τij = τij (t, x) is the stress, vi = vi (t, x) is the
are isotropic and do not vary along the receiver spread. particle velocity, and ∂i and ∂t are partial-derivative
Above and below the receiver plane, the medium can be operators with respect to xi and time t.
368 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
To separate the variables, we Fourier-transform using equations (9.7), (9.8), and (9.10). Bring ∂3 terms
equations (9.2) and (9.3) with respect to time t and the to the left and all other terms to the right. Introduce the
horizontal spatial coordinates (x1 , x2 ). The 3D Fourier particle-velocity vertical-traction vector, b, containing
transform is used in the form the field variables
T
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three above the source, propagating upward as P-, SV-, waves are manifest, it is necessary to find the eigen-
and SH-waves, and three below the source, propagating values and eigenvectors of the system matrix A. The
downward as P-, SV-, and SH-waves. Their amplitudes eigenequation reads
are determined by the nature of the source. These upgo-
ing and downgoing P- and S-waves are now organized A − γ (N) I β (N) = 0, (9.23)
into the wave vector
T
w = [U T , DT ] , (9.22) where I is the 6-by-6 identity matrix, γ (N) is the eigen-
value, and β (N) is the eigenvector corresponding to
where U T = [UP , USV , USH ] and DT = [DP , DSV , DSH ]. γ (N) . We note that, in wave equation theory, γ (N) rep-
The question we must ask is “How can we transform the resents the phase slowness and β (N) the polarization
first-order differential equation (9.14) for the particle- vector. The polarization vector β (N) consists of two
velocity vertical-traction vector (which shows coupling three-component vectors, one corresponding to the par-
between the field variables) to a first-order differential ticle velocity, V , and the other to the traction vector, S.
equation for the wave vector (which shows uncoupling The superscript N indicates the wavetype. It takes val-
between the upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves ues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, according to this convention:
for the homogeneous medium)?” From the theory of N = 1 → upgoing P, N = 2 → upgoing SV, N =
matrices, the fact is well known that to achieve the wave 3 → upgoing SH, N = 4 → downgoing P, N =
vector structure in which the upgoing and downgoing 5 → downgoing SV, and N = 6 → downgoing SH.
370 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
The eigenvalue or vertical phase slowness γ (N) is In a homogeneous medium, the well-known solu-
determined by solving the determinantal equation tions are
det A − γ (N) I = 0. (9.24) UP (x3 ) = UP (0) exp(−iωqP x3 );
USV (x3 ) = USV (0) exp(−iωqS x3 );
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qP p1 p2 √
1
−2µp1 (ρ − 2µp2 ) √ µq S
we may scale the components so that they have dimen-
ρ p p
ρqS
sions of particle velocity or traction, in such a way that
1 qP p2 1 p1 √
LSU (p) = √ −2µp2 2
(ρ − 2µp ) √ − µqS
. their sum gives a component of particle velocity or a
2 ρ p ρq S p
1
qS
component of vertical traction. Let Vi(UP ) denote the
2
(ρ − 2µp ) √ 2µp 0 upgoing P-waves on Vi , let Vi(USV ) denote the upgoing
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ρqP ρ
(9.35) SV-waves on Vi , and so on. Then,
(UP ) (USV ) (USH ) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
Consider equation (9.30), which describes the compo- Vi = Vi +Vi + Vi +Vi +Vi + Vi ,
sition of the particle-velocity vertical-traction vector,
b, from the wave vector, w. The three first elements of with a similar equation for vertical traction:
b are the particle-velocity vector, V . Further, the first
three elements of each eigenvector β (N) of the eigenvec- Si = Si
(UP )
+ Si
(USV )
+ Si
(USH ) (DP )
+ Si
(DSV )
+ Si
(DSH )
+ Si .
tor matrix L determine the particle-velocity polarization
for the particular wave type. Letting Let us introduce particle-velocity vectors and vertical-
traction vectors for upgoing and downgoing P-waves,
β (N) = V (N) , S(N) , according to
each column of LVU represents the polarization vectors (U ) (U ) (U )
T
for upgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves, respectively: V (UP ) = V1 P , V2 P , V3 P ;
(D ) (D ) (D )
T
V (DP ) = V1 P , V2 P , V3 P , (9.40)
LVU = V (1) , V (2) , V (3) , (9.36) (U ) (U ) (U )
T
S(UP ) = S1 P , S2 P , S3 P ;
with (D ) (D ) (D )
T
S(DP ) = S1 P , S2 P , S3 P . (9.41)
1
V (1)
= −√ (p1 , p2 , −qP )T , (9.37)
2ρqP Likewise, we introduce particle-velocity vectors and
1 T vertical-traction vectors for upgoing and downgoing
V (2) = √ p1 qS , p2 qS , p2 , and (9.38) S-waves, according to
p 2ρqS
1 (U ) (U ) (U )
T
V (3) =− √ (−p2 , p1 , 0)T . (9.39) V (USV ) = V1 SV , V2 SV , V3 SV ;
p 2µqS
(D ) (D ) (D )
T
Polarization vectors for downgoing waves are similar, V (DSV ) = V1 SV , V2 SV , V3 SV , (9.42)
but they have opposite signs for the vertical slownesses. (U ) (U ) (U )
T
It is now easily verified that the upgoing and downgoing S(USV ) = S1 SV , S2 SV , S3 SV ;
P- and S-waves have been decomposed into one part for (D ) (D ) (D )
T
S(DSV ) = S1 SV , S2 SV , S3 SV , (9.43)
which the particle velocity is curl-free and into another
(U ) (U ) (U )
T
part for which the particle velocity is divergence-free. V (USH ) = V1 SH , V2 SH , V3 SH ;
The curl-free part represents P-waves, whereas the (D ) (D ) (D )
T
divergence-free part represents S-waves. The decom- V (DSH ) = V1 SH , V2 SH , V3 SH , (9.44)
position of the S-waves into SV- and SH-constituents is (U ) (U ) (U )
T
carried out on the basis of their polarization with respect S(USH ) = S1 SH , S2 SH , S3 SH ;
to the horizontal receiver plane. The SH-constituent has (D ) (D ) (D )
T
its polarization in the horizontal plane. S(DSH ) = S1 SH , S2 SH , S3 SH . (9.45)
Assume now that, say, the upgoing P-, SV-, and SH-
waves UP , USV , and USH , respectively, have been
Upgoing and Downgoing P- determined from equation (9.29). We now want to scale
and S-wave Components UP , USV , and USH , such that they represent upgoing
P-, SV-, and SH-waves on each of the particle-velocity
Upgoing and downgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves, components. In the previous section, we determined the
as defined in equation (9.29), are not defined uniquely, polarization vectors V (1) , V (2) , and V (3) for upgoing
because the eigenvectors can be scaled arbitrarily. Thus, P-, SV-, and SH-waves, respectively. We immediately
372 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
For mathematical convenience, we introduce “projec- cle velocity and of the vertical traction, and does not
tion operators” require knowledge of P-wave velocity. Finally, as one
may expect, there is no SH energy on the vertical
1 0 0 0 0 0 components of the particle velocity. Based on the for-
P = 0 0 0 ; SV = 0 1 0 ; mulae in Table 9.2, similar remarks can be made about
0 0 0 0 0 0 reconstruction of the SH information contained in the
vertical traction; reconstruction of the SH information
0 0 0
SH = 0 0 0 . (9.46) contained in the vertical traction is independent of the
0 0 1 vertical components of the particle velocity and of the
vertical traction and does not require knowledge of
Thus, a right-hand-side multiplication of a projection P-wave velocity. Also, we observe that there are no
operator with a submatrix of L brings out one particu- SH waves in the vertical components of the vertical
lar polarization vector. For instance, LVU P extracts traction.
the particle-velocity polarization vector of upgoing
P-waves, LVU SV extracts the particle-velocity polar-
ization vector of upgoing SV-waves, and so on. Using
the projection operator “trick,” it follows that the Total Upgoing and Downgoing
particle-velocity vectors and vertical-traction vectors Wave Components
for upgoing and downgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves
defined in equations (9.40) through (9.45) are related We have shown how to find equations for calculat-
to the originally defined vectors for upgoing and down- ing upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves on each
going waves, U and D, respectively, as of the particle-velocity components and each of the
vertical-traction components. Here, we want to derive
V (UP ) (p) = LVU (p)P U(p); formulas for total upgoing and downgoing waves on
each of the components of particle velocity and vertical
V (DP ) (p) = −LVU (−p)P D(p), (9.47) traction. By total upgoing waves, we mean the sum of
S(UP ) (p) = LSU (p)P U(p); upgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves. Likewise, total down-
going waves are the sum of downgoing P-, SV-, and
S(DP ) (p) = LSU (−p)P D(p), (9.48) SH-waves. We define Vi(U) as the sum of upgoing waves
V (USV ) (p) = LVU (p)SV U(p); on Vi ,
V (DSV ) (p) = −LVU (−p)SV D(p), (9.49) (U) (UP ) (USV ) (USH )
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi ,
S(USV ) (p) = LSU (p)SV U(p);
(D)
S(DSV ) (p) = LSU (−p)SV D(p), (9.50) and Vi as the sum of downgoing waves on Vi ,
V (USH ) (p) = LVU (p)SH U(p); (D) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi .
V (DSH )
(p) = −LVU (−p)SH D(p), (9.51)
S(USH ) (p) = LSU (p)SH U(p); The total upgoing waves on Si are
S(DSH ) (p) = LSU (−p)SH D(p). (9.52) (USV ) (USH )
Si(U) = Si(UP ) + Si + Si ,
In Tables 9.1 and 9.2, we write out all of the com-
ponents of the vectors defined in equations (9.47) and the total downgoing waves on Si are
through (9.52). Table 9.1 corresponds to the particle
velocity, and Table 9.2 corresponds to the vertical trac- (DSV ) (DSH )
tion. Notice in Table 9.1 that the reconstruction of Si(D) = Si(DP ) + Si + Si .
Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing and Downgoing Waves 373
TABLE 9.1. The upgoing and downgoing P-waves on each of the particle-velocity components. Equations (9.47)
through (9.52) define upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves on each of the components of particle velocity and
of vertical traction, in terms of the physical fields entering the wave-propagation problem. All vector components
of the particle velocity are written out here.
(UP ) p1 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p2 p1 p2 p
Upgoing P V1 = VS2 p21 V1 + VS2 p1 p2 V2 − V3 + 2ρq1 S1 + 2ρq S − 2ρ1 S3
2qP P P 2
(DP ) p1 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p2 p1 p2 p
Downgoing P V1 = VS2 p21 V1 + VS2 p1 p2 V2 + V3 − 2ρq1 S1 − 2ρq S − 2ρ1 S3
2qP P P 2
(UP ) p2 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p1 p2 p2 p
Upgoing P V2 = VS2 p1 p2 V1 + VS2 p22 V2 − V3 + 2ρq S + 2ρq2 S2 − 2ρ2 S3
2qP P 1 P
(DP ) p2 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p1 p2 p2 p
Downgoing P V2 = VS2 p1 p2 V1 + VS2 p22 V2 + V3 − 2ρq S − 2ρq2 S2 − 2ρ2 S3
2qP P 1 P
(UP ) p p2 q
Upgoing P V3 = −VS2 p1 qP V1 − VS2 p2 qP V2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 − 2ρ1 S1 − 2ρ S2 + 2ρP S3
(DP ) p p2 q
Downgoing P V3 = VS2 p1 qP V1 + VS2 p2 qP V2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 − 2ρ1 S1 − 2ρ S2 − 2ρP S3
(USV ) p21 p p p2 q p p q p
Upgoing SV V1 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p1 qS V3 + 1 S2 S1 + 1 2 2S S2 + 2ρ1 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(DSV ) p21 p p p2 q p p q p
Downgoing SV V1 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 − VS2 p1 qS V3 − 1 S2 S1 − 1 2 2S S2 + 2ρ1 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(USV ) p1 p2 p2 p p q p2 q p
Upgoing SV V2 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p2 qS V3 + 1 2 2S S1 + 2 S2 S2 + 2ρ2 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(DSV ) p1 p2 p2 p p q p2 q p
Downgoing SV V2 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 − VS2 p2 qS V3 − 1 2 2S S1 − 2 S2 S2 + 2ρ2 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(USV ) p p p p p2
Upgoing SV V3 = 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p2 V3 + 2ρ1 S1 + 2ρ2 S2 + 2ρq S3
S S S
(DSV ) p p p p p2
Downgoing SV V3 = − 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p2 V3 + 2ρ1 S1 + 2ρ2 S2 − 2ρq S3
S S S
(USH ) p1 p2 p2 p p p21
Upgoing SH V2 =− V1 + 12 V2 − 1 2 2 S1 + S
2p2 2p 2µqS p 2µqS p2 2
(DSH ) p1 p2 p2 p p p21
Downgoing SH V2 =− V + 12 V2 + 1 2 2 S1 − S
2p2 1 2p 2µqS p 2µqS p2 2
(USH )
Upgoing SH V3 =0
(DSH )
Downgoing SH V3 =0
TABLE 9.2. The upgoing and downgoing P-waves on each of the vertical-traction components. Equations (9.47) through (9.52)
define upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves on each of the components of particle velocity and of vertical traction, in terms of
the physical fields entering the wave-propagation problem. All vector components of the vertical traction are written out here.
(UP )
Upgoing P S1 = 2ρVS4 p21 qP V1 + 2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V2 − ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p21 S1 + VS2 p1 p2 S2 − VS2 p1 qP S3
(D )
Downgoing P S1 P = −2ρVS4 p21 qP V1 − 2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V2 − ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p21 S1 + VS2 p1 p2 S2 + VS2 p1 qP S3
(U )
Upgoing P S2 P = 2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V1 + 2ρVS4 p22 qP V2 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p1 p2 S1 + VS2 p22 S2 − VS2 p2 qP S3
(D )
Downgoing P S2 P = −2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V1 − 2ρVS4 p22 qP V2 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p1 p2 S1 + VS2 p22 S2 + VS2 p2 qP S3
(U ) p p
Upgoing P S3 P = −ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + − 2qρ (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V3 − 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
P P P
(D ) p p
Downgoing P S3 P = −ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + 2qρ (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V3 + 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
P P P
(U ) ρp2 ρp p p2 p p p
Upgoing SV S1 SV = − 12 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V1 − 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V2 + ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + 12 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 + 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
2qS p 2qS p 2p 2p S
(DSV ) ρp21 2 2 2 ρp1 p2 2 2 2 2 2 2 p21 2 2 p1 p2 2 2 p1
Downgoing SV S1 = (1 − 2VS p ) V1 + (1 − 2VS p ) V2 + ρVS p1 (1 − 2VS p )V3 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S1 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S2 − 2q (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
2qS p2 2qS p2 2p 2p S
(USV ) ρp1 p2 2 2 2 ρp22 2 2 2 2 2 2 p1 p2 2 2 p22 2 2 p
Upgoing SV S2 =− (1 − 2VS p ) V1 − (1 − 2VS p ) V2 + ρVS p1 (1 − 2VS p )V3 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S1 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S2 + 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
2qS p2 2qS p2 2p 2p S
(DSV ) ρp1 p2 ρp22 p p p2 p
Downgoing SV S2 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V1 − (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V2 + ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 + 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
2qS p2 2qS p2 2p 2p S
(U )
Upgoing SV S3 SV = ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + 2ρVS4 p2 qS V3 + VS2 p1 qS S1 + VS2 p2 qS S2 + VS2 p2 S3
(D )
Downgoing SV S3 SV = ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 − 2ρVS4 p2 qS V3 − VS2 p1 qS S1 − VS2 p2 qS S2 + VS2 p2 S3
Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing and Downgoing Waves 375
TABLE 9.3. Total upgoing and downgoing wave components of the particle velocity. Equations (9.53) through
(9.56) define the total upgoing and downgoing waves on the components of the particle velocity and of the vertical
traction, in terms of the physical fields. The explicit expressions of total upgoing and downgoing waves for V1 , V2 ,
and V3 are provided here.
(U) p p p
Upgoing V1 = 21 V1 − 2q1 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )]V3 + 2µq1 q [qP − p21 VS2 (qP − qS )]S1 − 2ρq1 2q (qP − qS )S2
P P S P S
(D) (U)
Downgoing V1 = V1 − V1
(U) p p p
Upgoing V2 = 21 V2 − 2q2 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )]V3 − 2ρq1 2q (qP − qS )S1 + 2µq1 q [qP − p22 VS2 (qP − qS )]S2
P P S P S
(D) (U)
Downgoing V2 = V2 − V2
(U)
Upgoing V3 = 21 V3 + 2ρq
1 (p2 + q q )S + 1 [1 − 2V 2 (p2 + q q )](p V + p V )
P S 3 2qS S P S 1 1 2 2
S
(D) (U)
Downgoing V3 = V3 − V3
TABLE 9.4. Total upgoing and downgoing wave components of the vertical traction. Equations (9.53) through (9.56) define the
total upgoing and downgoing waves on the components of the particle velocity and of the vertical traction, in terms of the physical
fields. The explicit expressions of total upgoing and downgoing waves for V1 , V2 , and V3 are provided here.
where we have used P + SV + SH = I, where I and S fields on particle velocity and vertical traction are
is the 3 × 3 identity matrix. In Tables 9.3 and 9.4, we defined as
write out all of the components of the vectors defined
in equations (9.53) through (9.56).