I Kelle 2005

Downloaded 06/25/14 to 134.153.184.170. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.
org/
INTRODUCTION TO
Downloaded 06/25/14 to 134.153.184.170. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.org/
PETROLEUM SEISMOLOGY
Luc T. Ikelle
Lasse Amundsen
Investigations in Geophysics Series No. 12

Michael R. Cooper, series editor
Anthony F. Gangi, volume editor
Society of Exploration Geophysicists

Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA
ISBN 0-931830-46-X (Series)
ISBN 1-56080-129-8 (Volume)
© 2005 by Society of Exploration Geophysicists

All rights reserved. This book or parts hereof may not be reproduced in any form without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Published 2005
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Introduction to petroleum seismology / Luc T. Ikelle, Lasse Amundsen.

p. cm. — (Investigations in geophysics ; no. 12)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-56080-129-8 (alk. paper)
1. Petroleum—Prospecting. 2. Petroleum engineering. 3. Seismic waves. 4. Seismic
prospecting. 5. Petroleum—Geology. I. Ikelle, L. (Luc) II. Amundsen, Lasse, 1957-III.
Series.
TN271.P4I65 2005
622'.1828–dc22
2005051614
This book is dedicated to
Caroline Ikelle, my loving and caring wife

—Luc T. Ikelle
Eli Reisaeter, Christine, and Birgitte, my loving family

—Lasse Amundsen
SEG
wishes to thank the following for their generous contributions to
Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Statoil ASA
Texas A&M University

OVERVIEW
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Chapter 2 The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions
in Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Chapter 3 Partition of Energy at an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Chapter 4 The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Chapter 5 Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Chapter 6 The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Chapter 7 Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 8 Wavefield Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Chapter 9 Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing

and Downgoing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Chapter 10 Multiple Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
Chapter 11 An Example of an Inverse Problem: Linearized Seismic Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Chapter 12 Anisotropy and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Appendix A Some Terminology of Petroleum Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
Appendix B Velocities and Densities of Reservoir Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Appendix C A Review of Finite-difference Modeling: Explicit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Appendix D Definitions of Some of the Integral Transforms Used in Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Appendix E 3D-to-2D Transformation and 2D-to-3D Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Appendix F A Derivation of the Linearized Forward Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii
Chapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The “Bottom Line” of Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Petroleum Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
How Does Petroleum Seismology Work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Challenges of Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring for Stratigraphic Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring the Subsalt Stratigraphic Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Exploring the Subbasalt Stratigraphic Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Environmental Challenges of Exploring the Arctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Exploring for Gas Hydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Petroleum Seismologists in Production of Oil and Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Technological Advances outside the E&P Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Technological Advances inside the E&P Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Instrumented Oil Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Measurement while Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Reservoir Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Box 1.1 Marine Electromagnetic Surveying for Hydrocarbon Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Scope of this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chapter 2 The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions
in Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
An Example of Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
The Assumption of a Continuous Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Continuous and Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Particle Positions and Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Homogeneous Media and Heterogeneous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Internal Forces (Stresses) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Box 2.1 Scalar Product and Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Examples of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Box 2.2 Conventions of Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Abbreviated Notation of the Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
vi
Table of Contents vii
Box 2.3 Change of Orthonormal Basis: Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Box 2.4 Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The Stress Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Box 2.5 Changes of Orthonormal Basis (Stress Tensor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Principal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Particle Displacement and Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Particle Displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Abbreviated Notation of the Strain Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Examples of Strain Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Example 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Elastic Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law): General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Hooke’s Law with Abbreviated Tensor Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Box 2.6 Change of Orthonormal Basis (Stiffness Tensor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law): Isotropic Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Physical Interpretation of Elastic Moduli for an Isotropic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Equations of Elastodynamic Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Newton’s Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Elastic Waves: P-waves and S-waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Box 2.7 Helmholtz Decomposition of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Box 2.8 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Parameters of Isotropic, Elastic Rock Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Relating Elastic Parameters to Petrophysical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Sources of Seismic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Definition of Sources in the Context of Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Equations of Wave Motion and the Generalized Hooke’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Examples of Seismic-wave Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Geometric Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Box 2.9 Another Form of the Equations of Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Box 2.10 Acoustic Equations of Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Box 2.11 The Equivalence Fluid Model for P-waves in a Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Isotropy, Anisotropy, Homogeneity, and Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Exercises in Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
viii Table of Contents
Chapter 3 Partition of Energy at an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Huygens’ Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Fermat’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Snell’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Reflection and Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Snell’s Law: Fluid-fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Snell’s Law: Solid-solid and Fluid-solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Snell’s Law: Air-water and Air-solid Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
What is a free surface? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Snell’s law at the free surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Traveltime Equations for a Horizontal Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Direct Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Refracted Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Reflected P-P and S-S Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
P-S Converted Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Conversion Point Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Box 3.1 Traveltime in 1D Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Turning Rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Variation of Linear Velocity with Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Box 3.2 The Notion of rms Velocity for 1D Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Box 3.3 Dix’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Boundary Conditions for the Elastodynamic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Solid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Fluid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Vacuum-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Fluid-fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
From elastodynamic to acoustic fields: A brief background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Boundary conditions at the interface between two fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Interface between Vacuum and Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Zoeppritz’s Equations for a Horizontal Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Zoeppritz’s Equations: Solid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Reflection and transmission coefficients for a downward-traveling incident P-wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Special case: µ constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Special case: VS and ρ constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Special case: Normal incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Reflection and transmission coefficients for a downward-traveling incident SV-wave . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Reflection and transmission coefficients for incident waves from below . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Zoeppritz’s Equations: Fluid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Box 3.4 R/T Coefficients in Terms of Slowness: Solid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Zoeppritz’s Equations: Vacuum-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Zoeppritz’s Equations: Fluid-fluid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
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Box 3.5 R/T Coefficients in Terms of Slowness: Fluid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for the Energy of Seismic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Normal incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Oblique incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Example 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Example 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Surface Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Motivations for Studying Surface Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Evanescent Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Phase Velocity of Scholte and Rayleigh Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Rayleigh waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Scholte waves: A fluid half-space on a solid half-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Scholte waves: A fluid layer above a solid half-space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Surface-wave Particle Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Linearized Zoeppritz’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Matrix Form of Zoeppritz’s Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Linearized Versions of Reflection Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Application to AVA Analysis: P-P Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Box 3.6 Some Probable Values of Reflection Coefficients at Normal Incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Application to AVA Analysis: P-P and P-S Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Dipping Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Traveltime Equation for Refracted Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Traveltime Equation for Reflected Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Diffractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
An Illustration of Diffractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Traveltime Equation for Refracted Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Traveltime Equation for Reflected Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Chapter 4 The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Signals and Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Box 4.1 Periodic and Transient Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
The Cosine Wave: Concept of Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
A Useful Form of Cosine Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
The Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Basis Representation for Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
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Box 4.2 Orthonormal Basis of the Space of Signals: The Vector Space Analogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
The Fourier Series: General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

The Fourier Series: Even and Odd Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Example 1: The Fourier Series of Sawtooth Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Example 2: The Fourier Series of Square Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
The Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
The Fourier Transform of Periodic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Fourier Transform of a Nonperiodic Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Box 4.3 Fourier Transform and Square Integrable Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Example 1: The Fourier Transform of the Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Box 4.4 Nyquist Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Example 2: The Fourier Transform of a Symmetrical Rectangular Pulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

Properties of the Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
The Multidimensional Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Sampling Theorem and Discrete Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Discrete Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Reconstruction of the Continuous Signal from its Discrete Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
The Discrete Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Some Properties of the Discrete Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Definition of the Impulse Response of a Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Examples of the Impulse Response of a Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Example 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Convolution Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Example 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Example 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Convolution Sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Seismic Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Basic Terminology of Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Inverse Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
An Example of Inverse Filters: Multiple Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A Limitation of the Effectiveness of the Fourier Transform Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Examples of Nonstationary Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Example: A signal with impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Example: A quadratic chirp signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Example: A signal with a shutdown period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
The Windowed Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Example: A signal with impulses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
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Example: A quadratic chirp signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

The Wavelet Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
An Example of the Wavelet Transform of Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Quadratic (Nonlinear) Time-frequency Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Box 4.5 The Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Chapter 5 Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Examples of Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Probability Density Functions and Characteristic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Probability density functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Characteristic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Moments and Cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Central moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Joint Moments and Joint Cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Linear Regression: An Application of Joint Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Statistics of the Optimization Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Box 5.1 The Central Limit Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Seismic Imaging and Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Stochastic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Moments and Cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Polyspectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Cross-cumulants and their Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Cross-cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Cross-cumulant spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Examples of Calculations of Cumulants, Cross-cumulants, Polyspectra, and Cross-cumulant Spectra 201
Example 1: Quadratic phase coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Example 2: Non-Gaussian signal applied to a linear system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Example 3: Gaussian signal applied to a nonlinear Volterra system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Deterministic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Moments, Cross-moments, and their Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Examples of Calculations of Moments, Cross-moments, and their Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Example 4: Time delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Example 5: Minimum-, maximum-, and mixed-phase signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Box 5.2 Similarities between Crosscorrelation and Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Application of Autocorrelation to Ghost Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Ghost Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
A Mathematical Derivation of the Autocorrelation Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Application of Crosscorrelation and Bicoherence Correlation to Moveout Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Data Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Moveout Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
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Box 5.3 Definition of Bicoherence Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Some Differences between Second- and Third-order Cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Second-order statistics: Crosscorrelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Second-order statistics: Coherence correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Third-order techniques: Bispectral correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Third-order techniques: Bicoherence correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
More Insight into Second- and Third-order Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Time Delays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Normalized Third-order Cumulants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Coherence correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Bispectral correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Seismic Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
Wiener-Hopf Equations and the Quadratic Volterra Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Convolution as a Matrix Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
The Method of Least Squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Quadratic Volterra Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Box 5.4 The Concept of Signal-to-Noise Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Chapter 6 The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Time-domain Green’s Functions in Unbounded Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Acoustic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Solving for pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Analytic solutions for a homogeneous medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Elastic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Solving for displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Frequency-domain Green’s Functions in Unbounded Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Acoustic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Solving for pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Elastic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Solving for displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Analytic solution for a homogeneous medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Rayleigh’s Reciprocity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Box 6.1 Divergence Theorem (Gauss’s Theorem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Special Cases of Acoustic Reciprocity for Identical Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Box 6.2 Application of Equation (6.68) to Towed-streamer Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Representation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

Lippmann-Schwinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Marine-source Radiation-pattern Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
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Betti-Rayleigh’s Reciprocity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

General Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Box 6.3 Derivation of Lippmann-Schwinger Equation Using the Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Special Cases of Elastic Reciprocity for Identical Unbounded Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Reciprocity of particle velocity for point forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Reciprocity of strain for stress-point sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Reciprocity of stress for strain-point sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Reciprocity for P-wave source and force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Chapter 7 Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Seismic Acquisition in Water and in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Marine Towed-streamer Seismics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Acquisition Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Box 7.1 The Superposition Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Shot and Receiver Gathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Common-midpoint and Common-offset Gathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Out-of-plane Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Swell Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Measurement of Particle Velocity in Towed-streamer Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Box 7.2 Displaying Seismic Data: Amplitude Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Ocean-bottom Seismics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Acquisition Geometry: 4C-OBS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Ocean-bottom Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Direct waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Receiver ghosts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
The dominant converted shear-wave reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
PZ data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Brief History of Marine 4C-OBS Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Some Benefits of 4C Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Imaging below gas-invaded sediments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Imaging under salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Imaging of reservoirs with low P-wave reflectivity but high PS-wave reflectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Quantification of amplitude anomalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Quantitative VP /VS velocity ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Overpressured zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Anisotropy: Fractured reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Reservoir monitoring (4D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Imaging of complex structures by multiazimuth, true 3D surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Box 7.3 4D Seismic Monitoring of a Subsurface CO2 Repository . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

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Land-surface Seismics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287

Contrasting Land and Marine Acquisitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Explosive Sources (Dynamite) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Vibroseis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Land Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Ground roll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Statics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Transition Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Box 7.4 Scholte Waves Recorded on the Seafloor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Borehole Seismics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

VSP Acquisition Geometries and Borehole Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Check shot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Zero-offset VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Offset VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Walkaway VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Walkabove VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Drill-noise VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Salt-proximity VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Shear-wave VSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
3D VSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Through-tubing VSPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Tube Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Vertical Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Marine VC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Acquisition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Potential Impact of Land VC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
VC data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Resolution of VC data versus surface data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Chapter 8 Wavefield Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Plane Waves and the 2D Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Apparent Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Wavenumber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
2D Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Example 1: 2D Fourier Transform of the Rectangle Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Example 2: 2D Fourier Transform of an Event with Linear Moveout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Properties of 2D Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Discrete 2D Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Box 8.1 Dispersion, Phase Velocities, and Group Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Criteria of Uniform Spatial Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

Energy Distribution in the f -k Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Sampling Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Spatial Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Table of Contents xv
Dip Filtering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

An Application of Dip Filtering to Multiple Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
An Application of Dip Filtering to Up-down Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Spatial Resampling Based on a Hardwired Array Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Definition of Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334

Impulse Responses of Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Wavenumber Response of Arrays: General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Ideal wavenumber response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Wavenumber response of an array with an odd number of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Wavenumber response of an array with an even number of elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Wavenumber Response of Equally Weighted Line Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Wavenumber Response of Nonuniformly Weighted Line Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Nonuniform line arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Areal arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Wavenumber Response of a Combination of Source and Receiver Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Array System Designed as an Antialiasing Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
Array System Designed as a Surface-noise Suppressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Sensitivity of Array Summation to Sensor Dropouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Spatial Resampling Based on Adaptive Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Single-sensor Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
What Is Beamforming? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
A Formulation of Beamforming as a Variant of the Wiener Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Linearly Constrained Adaptive Beamforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
An Example of Swell-noise Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Box 8.2 Crossline Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

3D Wavefield Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
The Multisource and Multistreamer Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Chapter 9 Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing and Downgoing Waves . . . . . . 361
The Concept of Decomposition into P- and S-wave Arrivals (P/S) and Total Upgoing and
Downgoing Waves (U/D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Definitions of P- and S-wave and Upgoing and Downgoing Wave Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
The Benefit of Multicomponent Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Derivation of P/S and U/D Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
The Matrix-vector Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Decomposition of the Particle-velocity Vertical-traction Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Box 9.1 The Matrix-vector Differential Equation (9.14) for a Special Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Upgoing and Downgoing P- and S-wave Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Total Upgoing and Downgoing Wave Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Total P- and S-wave Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Box 9.2 Relationship between Vertical-traction and Particle-velocity Vectors for Purely Upgoing or
Purely Downgoing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
xvi Table of Contents
Application of P/S and U/D Decomposition to 4C OBS Recordings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377

Upgoing and Downgoing P- and S-wave Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Total P- and S-wave Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
U/D Decomposition Just below the Seafloor as a Demultiple Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Horizontal components of the particle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Vertical component of the particle velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Demultiple process as a function of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Acoustic Wavefield Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Application of U/D Decomposition to Towed-streamer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Box 9.3 Reflection and Transmission from a Generalized Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Box 9.4 The Relationship between Downgoing Field Components below the Seafloor . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
Application of U/D Decomposition to VC Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

Application of U/D Decomposition to Snapshots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Chapter 10 Multiple Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Multiple Attenuation: Towed-streamer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
The Exercise of Constructing Free-surface Multiples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
The Representation Theorem and the Kirchhoff Scattering Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
The integral relationship between data containing multiples and data without multiples . . . . . . . . . . 397
Extrapolation of the vertical component of the particle velocity from the receiver positions to
the sea surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Box 10.1 Formulating the Representation Theorem to Predict Data Containing Multiples . . . . . . . . . . 401
Box 10.2 Another Choice for the Surface Integral in the Representation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
A Kirchhoff Scattering Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402

A Physical Interpretation of the Kirchhoff Scattering Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
The pressure field and the vertical component of particle velocity without ghosts and without
direct waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
The pressure field with ghosts and direct waves, and the vertical component of the
particle velocity without ghosts and without direct waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
Both the pressure field and the vertical component of the particle velocity with ghosts and
direct-wave arrivals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Box 10.3 Some Basic Taylor Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
Box 10.4 The Two-reflector Problem in Towed-streamer Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Box 10.5 Computing Particle Velocity from Pressure Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
Estimation of the Inverse Source Signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

Table of Contents xvii
Box 10.6 Extrapolation of Missing Near Traces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Barents Sea Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417

Troll Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Pluto 1.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

Multiple Attenuation: OBS and VC Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
The Representation Theorem and the Kirchhoff Scattering Series for OBS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
A Physical Interpretation of the Kirchhoff Scattering Series for OBS Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
Box 10.7 The Two-reflector Problem in OBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
An Optimization of the Kirchhoff Series for the OBS Demultiple Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
A Synthetic Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
The Demultiple Process for VC Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Chapter 11 An Example of an Inverse Problem: Linearized Seismic Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
A Multiple-step Inversion Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Basic Components of an Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Nonuniqueness, Instabilities, Convergence, Uncertainties, and Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
A Multiple-step Approach to the Seismic Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Key Assumptions of our Example of an Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
The Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Solving the forward problem, on the basis of the finite-difference technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
Solving the forward problem on the basis of the Born approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
Smooth-background medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
An Illustration of the Limitations of the Born Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
Straight-ray Approximation: Hyperbolic and Nonhyperbolic Moveouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
An Optimal Data Set: The Common-azimuthal-section Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Box 11.1 The Born Scattering Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Box 11.2 The Kirchhoff Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
An Example of a Linearized Forward Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465

Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
A Physical Interpretation of the Linearized Forward Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Geometric spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Traveltimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
Amplitude variations with angles (AVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
A Numerical Illustration of Out-of-plane Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Box 11.3 Linearized Forward Problem for P-P Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469

Scattered Wavefield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
AVA Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Box 11.4 Linearized Forward Problem for P-S Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
An Example of a Linearized Inversion Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

A Compact Notation for the Forward Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
xviii Table of Contents
Data-fitting Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473

Norms and criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
Constrained least squares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
A Derivation of the Least-squares Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
A Physical Interpretation of the Least-squares Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

The Hessian Matrix and its Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
Spatial Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
Box 11.5 Covariance Operator in the f -k Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
Box 11.6 Scalar Products and Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Linearized Inversion and AVA Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490

Preprocessing by AVA Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Linear Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
What Is Migration? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Poststack Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Dip-moveout (DMO) plus stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Normal moveout (NMO) plus stack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
2D prestack f -k migation plus zero-offset f -k migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Time Imaging and Depth Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Time imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
Box 11.7 f -k Migration and Stolt’s Time Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
Depth imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

Models for Estimating Background Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Linking the Imaging Requirements with the Background-velocity Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
Velocity Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Velocity-migration Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Velocity Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Creating an initial-velocity model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Iterative process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Imaging Receiver Ghosts of Primaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Box 11.8 The Eikonal Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Box 11.9 Semblance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

Chapter 12 Anisotropy and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
Wave Propagation through 2D Random Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Description of Random Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Setting up the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
Elliptical correlation function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Other Evidences of Anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Seismic Coda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Table of Contents xix
Seismic Pulse-broadening Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525

Scattering Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Box 12.1 Backus’ VTI-equivalent Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527

Anisotropic Symmetries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

Isotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Stiffness tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Small-scale heterogeneity arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Transversely Isotropic Media with a Vertical Symmetry Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Wave propagation in a homogeneous-VTI medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Box 12.2 Quasicompressional and Quasishear Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Transversely Isotropic Media with a Horizontal Symmetry Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

Wave propagation in a homogeneous-HTI medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Transversely Isotropic Media with a Tilted Symmetry Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Orthorhombic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Wave propagation in a homogeneous orthorhombic medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Monoclinic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Wave propagation in a homogeneous monoclinic medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
The Alford Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
A 2 × 2C Experiment (XX, XY , YX, and YY Experiment) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Mathematics of Shear-wave Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
A Numerical Illustration of the Alford Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
A Shear Sonic-log Application of the Alford Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
Box 12.3 A Brief Review of the Principles of Sonic-log Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
Phase Velocity as a Function of Elastic Moduli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Box 12.4 The Christoffel Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
Box 12.5 Phase and Group Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Thomsen’s Parameterization for VTI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

qP-wave Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
qS1- and qS2-wave Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
Box 12.6 Equation of Vertical Slowness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Slowness Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
Dispersion Relationships for Anisotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

The Dispersion Relationship for qP-waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
The Dispersion Relationship for qS-waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
xx Table of Contents
Applying the Dispersion Relationship for Phase-shift Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571

Common-azimuthal section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Phase-shift migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Zoeppritz’s Equations for Anisotropic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Up-down Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572

Schoenberg and Protázio’s Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
Box 12.7 Linearized Reflection Coefficients for VTI Half-spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Box 12.8 Vertical Wavenumbers, Polarization Vectors, and Slowness Vectors in Isotropic Media . . . . 575
Amplitude Variations with Offsets and Azimuths (AVO-A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577

AVO-A Derivation and Analysis for P-P Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Dip and azimuthal angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Decoupling of AVAZ and AVO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Heterogeneity versus anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
AVO-A analysis for inversion purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
AVO-A Derivation and Analysis for P-SV Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
Heterogeneity versus anisotropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
AVO-A Derivation and Analysis for P-SH Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
AVO-A of a Horizontally Flat Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
Sensitivity of AVO-A to Properties of Fractured Rock Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Linear Anelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Geometric Spreading and the Concept of Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
Box 12.9 Relationships of the Phase Velocity and the Quality Factor with Complex Moduli . . . . . . . . 599
The Maxwell Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601

The Kelvin-Voigt Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
The Standard Linear Solid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
The Constant-Q Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Box 12.10 Models of Linear Attenuation: A 3D Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

Perfect Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Elasticity with Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Standard Linear Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
P-wave and S-wave Drifts: An Interplay of Anisotropy and Anelasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

Anisotropy Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Intrinsic Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608
Lateral Inhomogeneity Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
Box 12.11 Intrinsic Attenuation and Scattering Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611

Table of Contents xxi
Appendix A Some Terminology of Petroleum Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

Appendix B Velocities and Densities of Reservoir Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
Appendix C A Review of Finite-difference Modeling: Explicit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Basic Equations for Elastodynamic Wave Motion in Elastic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
Discretization in Both Time and Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624

Staggered-grid Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
Stability of the Staggered-grid Finite-difference Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Grid Dispersion in Finite-difference Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
3D Elastic Finite-difference Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Box C.1 Implicit Finite-difference Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Appendix D Definitions of Some of the Integral Transforms Used in Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . 641
The Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
The Mellin Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
The Hartley Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
The nth-order Hankel Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 642
The Hilbert Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Analytic Function and Instantaneous Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
The Radon Transform in Petroleum Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
The Abel Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
More on Abel Transform Pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
On the Discrete Fast Radon Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
On the Numerical Implementation of the Triangle Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Appendix E 3D-to-2D Transformation and 2D-to-3D Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

Explosive Point Source in an Acoustic or Elastic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Plane-wave Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
3D-to-2D Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
Point Force in an Elastic Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
Appendix F A Derivation of the Linearized Forward Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653

Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Midpoint and Half-offset Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
3D Acquisition Geometry as a Series of 2D Multioffset Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
PREFACE
Seismology is a branch of geophysics that aims wide have modified their curricula. However, textbooks
for the understanding of earth’s interior, through the to accompany the ever-changing field of petroleum
analysis of ground motion. seismology are very limited; Exploration Seismology
The science of seismology began with study of nat- (Sheriff and Geldart, 1982, revised 1992) is one of the
urally occurring earthquakes. Seismologists soon found few examples. We hope our book will add significantly
that seismic waves produced by earthquakes contained to the achievements of Sheriff and Geldart.
valuable information about earth’s interior (crust, man- This book is derived from lectures given to senior
tle, and core). Later they discovered that similar but undergraduate and first-year graduate students at Texas
much weaker man-made seismic waves could be used A&M University (U.S.A.) and to graduate classes at
to interpret the shallow structure of earth, to locate min- the Norwegian University of Science and Technology
erals, water, and petroleum resources. Thus, a special from 1998 to 2003. We have tried to provide stu-
branch of seismology known as petroleum seismology1 dents with the basic theoretical background needed to
and the associated seismic exploration industry were tackle challenges of petroleum seismology, especially
born. To distinguish between petroleum seismology and those related to seismic data acquisition and process-
the study of naturally occurring earthquakes, we will ing, to reservoir characterization, and to monitoring of
call the latter earthquake seismology. oil recovery based on sensors permanently positioned
Although both branches of seismology are based at the seafloor (4D seismics). Most existing textbooks
on study of the generation, propagation, and record- and syllabi related to petroleum seismology focus on the
ing of elastic waves in the earth and of the sources processing of P-wave energy. In this book, we include
that produce them, the job of a petroleum seismol- a background for processing S-wave energy in addition
ogist differs significantly from that of an earthquake to that of processing P-wave energy, as emerging tech-
seismologist. The advent of 3D seismics — which can nologies. Ocean-bottom seismic (OBS) potentially will
produce an enormous amount of detail about subsurface provide better access to S-wave energy, therefore lead-
geology and hydrocarbon reservoirs — has changed the ing to better characterizations of reservoirs. We used
job profile of a petroleum seismologist tremendously. this basic background to introduce state-of-the-art tech-
No longer isolated to the domain of academic, post- nology and to discuss possible solutions to some of the
doctoral, or postgraduate researchers or of similarly emerging challenges of petroleum seismology.
trained specialists in research centers of the oil and gas We further emphasize that our goal is to provide
industry, petroleum seismologists are widely accepted readers with the basic background needed to tackle not
today as key players in finding petroleum traps and even only present challenges of petroleum seismology but
producing oil and gas more efficiently from complex also some foreseeable challenges. The field is spanned
reservoirs. fully by several excellent solution-driven texts that our
In their new role, petroleum seismologists interact readers can use as specialized applications: Castagna
with computer scientists, signal processors, petroleum and Backus, 1993; Evans, 1997; Pieuchot, 1984; Sprad-
engineers, geologists, and others whose concerns in- ley, 1984; Stolt and Benson, 1986; Tarantola, 1987;
clude the simulation, monitoring, and controlling of Toksöz and Johnston, 1981; and Yilmaz, 1987, 2001.
processes critical to efficient exploration for and pro- The background required for effective reading of
duction from of petroleum reservoirs. Consequently, this book consists of the typical freshman/sophomore
the basic background requirements for petroleum seis- courses in calculus, elementary differential equations,
mologists have changed also. They no longer can be and geology. It is also helpful but not necessary to have
assimilated with those of earthquake seismologists, as had some exposure to physics.
was once the case at many universities. To accommo- One of the key features of this book is the use
date these changes, most geoscience programs world- of finite-difference modeling (FDM) to simulate wave
propagation and to generate and analyze seismic data.
The finite-difference modeling provides the reader with
1 We elect to use the term petroleum seismology rather than exploration the opportunity to verify theory and to experiment with
seismology, to emphasize that this science is no longer limited exclusively applications of the techniques studied. For example, in
to exploration but is used to enhance oil and gas recovery also. Chapter 2, an FDM simulation of wave propagation
xxii
Preface xxiii
is presented to give some concreteness to the basic acquisition, and processing. More than 100 problems
idea that a pressure source in a homogeneous, isotropic are included.
medium can produce only compressional waves. We are indebted to those students who have endured
Another feature is the inclusion of a wide range of preliminary versions of this material, and we invite them
examples and problems drawn from different aspects to replace those with this updated presentation of course
of petroleum seismology, including survey design, data material.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A project such as this cannot be undertaken with- for permission to reproduce some examples of the
out the help and cooperation of many professional Fourier series in Chapter 4 and of the array impulse
colleagues and graduate students. It is impossible to responses in Chapter 8.
name and sufficiently thank everyone who has helped We express our gratitude to Gary F. Stewart, Sharon
us to mature our insights in petroleum seismology Mason, and Anne H. Thomas for copy editing and to all
through numerous discussions during many years. Sev- of them and Sue Coffman for their meticulous efforts in
eral people have contributed directly to this book by proofreading the book. It was a great pleasure to work
critically reading and commenting on selected chap- with them.
ters or sections or by offering figures that have been We thank our publisher, SEG, especially Michael
included. In alphabetical order, they are Børge Arntsen, Cooper (Investigation in Geophysics Series editor),
Anthony T. Buller, Juan Carcuz, Anthony Gangi, Kai Ted Bakamjian, (director of publications), Rowena
Hsu, Alexander Kritski, Nick Moldevanu, Are Osen, Mills (manager of Geophysics, books, and digital
Erik Skjetne, Andre Tran, and Ryan Wilson. publications), William D. Underwood, Linda Adams,
We would particularly like to record our gratitude and Julie Colley for their encouragement and all their
to Anthony Gangi, SEG volume editor of this book, for behind-the-scenes efforts on this book project.
a critical review of an early version of the manuscript Luc Ikelle is deeply grateful to Albert Tarantola and
and subsequently for giving us many helpful comments Raul Madariaga. Tarantola invited Ikelle to his group
and suggestions. In particular, we have rewritten Boxes in the mid-1980s and introduced him to the exciting
3.1, 3.2, and 11.8 based on his suggestions. field of inverse scattering theory, to which Tarantola has
We also thank Kai Hsu for helping us gain more made substantial contributions. Madariaga introduced
insight into his past work on P-wave and S-wave drifts. Ikelle to finite-difference modeling and to asymptotic
His assistance was especially useful because the materi- techniques that play a key role in petroleum seismology.
als in the public domain related to his work on drifts are Our research in petroleum seismology during the
still limited to an SEG expanded abstract. We are also two years when we were writing this book was sup-
grateful that he provided us with high-quality figures. ported by Statoil, the Center for Automated Seismic
We extend our gratitude to Carmen Aroztegui Mas- Processing (CASP), and the Texas Advanced Research
sera and Amitava Sinharay for assistance in preparing Program under Grant No. 010366-0235-1999.
some figures.
We are indebted to CGG, ChevronTexaco, Conoco-
Phillips, PGS, Read Well Services, Schlumberger,
Statoil, and Veritas for permission to reproduce certain — Luc T. Ikelle
figures in the text. We are also indebted to ExxonMobil — Lasse Amundsen
xxiv
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Luc T. Ikelle is Robert R. Berg Professor in the Department of Geology and

Geophysics and director of the Center of Automated Seismic Processing at Texas A&M
University. Earlier, he worked at Cray Research Inc. in Minneapolis, developing 3D seis-
mic inversion algorithms for CRAY Y-MP. From 1988 to 1997, he worked as a scientist at
Schlumberger Geco-Prakla, Schlumberger Doll Research, and Schlumberger Cambridge
Research.
Ikelle earned a Diplôme d’Études Approfondies and a Ph.D. in geophysics and geo-
chemistry from Paris 7 University in France. He received Le Prix de These du CNRS
in 1986 for his Ph.D. thesis. His research interests include looking at ways of automat-
ing seismic data processing for reservoir definition and monitoring. He is coeditor of
Anisotropy 2000: Fractures, Converted Waves, and Case Studies and is a member of
AGU, EAGE, and SEG.
Lasse Amundsen is geophysical adviser at Statoil ASA and adjunct professor in

the Department of Petroleum Technology and Applied Geophysics at the Norwegian
University of Science and Technology (NTNU). From 1983 to 1991, he worked as a
geophysicist with GECO and SINTEF Petroleum Research.
Amundsen holds M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in physics from NTNU and received the
Norwegian Geophysical Prize in 2002. His current research deals with the theory of wave
propagation in acoustic, elastodynamic, and electromagnetic media, with application to
geophysical problems. He is a member of SEG and EAGE.
xxv
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1
INTRODUCTION
What challenges does the future hold? This chapter Petroleum Traps
is an attempt to answer this question.
Forecasting the future is difficult and dangerous; Commercial accumulations of petroleum are
erroneous forecasts can have catastrophic effects. An almost exclusively in sedimentary rocks, where sub-
example related to petroleum seismology is the predic- surface geometries of strata stop the upward migration
tion of oil prices. In 1997, experts claimed that oil prices of petroleum. Such geometries are known as petroleum
would neither fall below $15 per barrel nor increase traps. They can be classified in three groups: (a) struc-
to more than $25 per barrel, at least until the demand tural traps, caused by folding or faulting, (b) traps
exceeded 80 MBOP1 (for comparison, the present associated with diapirs, caused by extraordinary dif-
demand is about 70 MBOP). However, by the end of ferences in densities of materials, and (c) stratigraphic
1998, oil prices had plunged to as low as $10 per barrel, traps, caused by uncommon variation in sedimentation
resulting in huge layoffs. The low oil price in 1998 was or erosion. Examples of these three types of traps are
caused by overproduction of 1%, and the increase to shown in Figures 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. Figure 1.1 illus-
$26 per barrel in late 1999 was related to a reduction of trates examples of structural traps caused by faulting.
about 1.5% in world production. Note that a requirement for a commercial accumulation
In the context of building an educational back- of petroleum is an impermeable cap rock (also known as
ground, forecasting the challenges of petroleum seis- a seal) that inhibits upward movement of petroleum. In
mology does not have similar consequences. If the each example of petroleum traps in Figure 1.1, the fault
forecast we make here is inaccurate, we will have given plane and shale that overlies the reservoir constitute the
our students a stronger or weaker background than they seal.
will need: But one thing is sure — the forecast and the Figure 1.2 shows an example of a diapiric trap. As
preparation for it will be a step higher than the present sediments are buried, the density and acoustic veloc-
curriculum. ity generally increase, except in situations in which
the density of sediment layers decreases locally with
depth. This situation causes the denser overlying sedi-
ment to move downward, and to displace the less dense
material. The displaced low-density material generally
THE “BOTTOM LINE” OF moves upward to form subcircular domes, as described
PETROLEUM SEISMOLOGY in Figure 1.2. This figure shows that upward movement
of the less dense material gives rise to many kinds of
Before we discuss our vision of the future chal-
potential traps.
lenges of petroleum seismology, it is important to recall
Stratigraphic traps are results of local vagaries of
that the ultimate goal of modern petroleum seismology
deposition or erosion. They include traps that are asso-
is to help discover new petroleum reservoirs2 and to
ciated with unconformities — such as onlap pinch-
enhance production from existing ones, through imag-
outs and truncations — and traps not associated with
ing of these reservoirs. To understand this better, let
unconformities (e.g., channels, barrier bars, and reefs).
us elaborate on how petroleum in commercial quantity
Figure 1.3 illustrates some types of stratigraphic traps.
accumulates in the subsurface and how petroleum
seismology allows us to image the subsurface.
How Does Petroleum Seismology Work?

1 MBOP stands for “million barrels of oil production per day.”
2 See Appendix A for definitions of geologic terminology used in this Petroleum seismology is the main method used in
chapter, including the word petroleum. oil and gas exploration and production for imaging
1
2 Introduction to Petroleum Seismology
Space waves shown in this example. Some of the reflections

(a) and transmissions at various interfaces can be recog-
H nized, especially from the snapshots corresponding to
Depth earlier times. For later times, pictures are complex,
despite the relative simplicity of the geologic model.
Figure 1.4 also shows an example of seismic data

recorded by sensors in horizontal arrays and vertical
arrays. Notice that the various reflections and trans-
missions of energy in the snapshots are captured by
(b) seismic data also.
The source is moved to another location, where the
H entire process of generating waves and recording them
is repeated. To obtain the model of the subsurface, data
recorded in this procedure are imaged, based on arrival
time and magnitude of reflection energy. Time required
for the wave to travel from the source to the receivers
is recorded in the seismic data. From these traveltimes,
(c)
we can reconstruct the depth of the reflector from which
the recorded energy was reflected. Furthermore, the
H magnitude of the reflected wave allows us to determine
the contrast in physical properties that resulted in the
reflection of energy. Thus, we construct a model of
the locations of the various discontinuities of our geo-
logic model and the contrasts of physical properties that
characterize these discontinuities. Figure 1.5 shows an
example of such a reconstruction.
FIGURE 1.1. Sketch cross-sections of different types of
faults. (a) Reverse fault caused by compression. (b) Normal With regard to Figure 1.4, several questions are
fault produced by extension. (Note that for both traps to be appropriate: How does wave propagation work? What
sealed completely, the fault planes must be impermeable.) physical quantity is recorded here? Why do some
(c) Growth fault, with rollover anticline. Growth faults boundaries of our geologic model reflect energy and
are variants of normal faults. H indicates accumulations
of petroleum. (Adapted from Selley, 1983.)
Space
petroleum traps. The medium for imaging is wave

propagation. An explosion or any other man-made
sudden deformation of materials is used to generate Depth
waves that propagate through the subsurface. Where
the descending wave encounters an interface with sig- H
S
nificantly different physical properties (e.g., velocity
and/or density) — such as a fault or abrupt difference
of lithology — a fraction of the generated energy is
reflected toward the earth’s surface; the remaining
energy is transmitted to the next interface. Sensors
located in accessible places (such as in shallow holes
on land, within the sea, and in deep boreholes) record
the reflected or transmitted energy.
Figure 1.4 shows an example of wave propagation FIGURE 1.2. Sketch cross-section showing some types of
through a model that contains a structural trap. Only six traps commonly associated with diapirs. S indicates salt;
snapshots of wave propagation through this model are H indicates accumulations of petroleum. (Adapted from
shown. An explosive device was used to generate the Selley, 1983.)
Introduction 3
Space FIGURE 1.3. Examples of strati-

graphic traps: A indicates a reef;
A B indicates barrier-bar sand-
B
stone; C indicates channel-fill
C sandstone; D indicates an onlap-
Depth
sandstone pinch-out trap; E
E D indicates a trap owing to trun-
cation of a limestone reservoir
beneath a regional unconfor-
mity. (Adapted from Selley,
1983.)
others do not? Why are reflections at the sharp cor- found, and most have been put into production. Now the
ners of the model different from those at the smooth E&P industry has to find the more elusive traps associ-
interfaces? Why does the energy seem to decay with ated with unconformities and pinch-outs that have been
time? We will study the answers to the questions in overlooked because of limitations in seismic resolution.
detail, in the coming chapters. These sorts of stratigraphic traps may constitute a large
In summary, seismic data is acquired in many ways amount of petroleum reservoirs yet to be discovered.
and in several settings, as we will illustrate in the com- Most undiscovered stratigraphic traps are in strata
ing chapters. Each setting requires its own techniques, so thin or so conformable to their surrounding geome-
but all work on the same premise: Set off a bang (the try that the subtleties critical for identification are nearly
source), let waves bounce through the subsurface, and invisible in traditional seismic data, and detection there-
record the reflected energy at various locations in the fore requires data of the highest possible quality. In this
earth. context, high quality means large frequency bandwidth
and small spacing between sensors, to resolve small
features.
CHALLENGES OF PETROLEUM Detecting these subtle traps also requires the capa-
SEISMOLOGY bility of attenuating multiple reflections (unwanted
reflections that tend to obscure these subtle features)
Exploring for Stratigraphic Traps and of reducing differences of scale between seismic
images and well logs. Furthermore, our processing and
Decades ago, exploration for petroleum consisted our simulation of seismic data must incorporate sophis-
simply of deducing subsurface geology from evidence ticated models of the subsurface — models that take into
at the surface — signs such as seeps of oil, creek beds account small-scale heterogeneities of strata. Our mod-
of anomalous configuration, and landforms associated els must evaluate the anisotropic and anelastic behavior
with salt domes — and drilling where the party chief of rock.
poked his stick. Those days are long gone. Petroleum
seismology has revolutionized the search for petroleum
and has led to many remarkable discoveries. Exploring the Subsalt
Despite these tremendous strides, most discover- Stratigraphic Column
ies were relatively easy compared with the necessities
for future exploration searches. In fact, most discov- One of the most effective processes in nature for
eries have been structural traps composed of faults the trapping of oil and gas is the piercing of strata by
and anticlines that manifested themselves readily in salt domes; moreover, bedded rock salt is a superb seal
seismic data, and stratigraphic traps that revealed them- in some petroleum-rich basins. Many of the petroleum
selves in seismic data as bright spots (reflections with accumulations in North America are trapped in salt-
anomalously high amplitudes). For years, techniques related structures, as are significant amounts in oil
of acquisition and processing seismic data have been provinces around the world (see Figure 1.6). We are
tailored to accentuate the attributes of these features. finding that commercial accumulations of petroleum
In almost all of the world, such reservoirs have been are also below extensive strata of salt in many basins.
Space (km)
0.0 0.35 1.50 1.90 2.5

0.15
Horizontal array
Vertical array
0.55
Depth (km)
100ms 200ms 400ms

2.5
Horizontal array Vertical array
0
Time (s)
2s
Space (km)
0.0 0.35 1.50 1.90 2.5

0.15
Horizontal array
Vertical array
0.55
Depth (km)
600ms 800ms 2000ms

2.5
Horizontal array Vertical array
0
Time (s)
2s
FIGURE 1.4. Snapshots of wave propagation through a structural trap (top), and the corresponding seismic
data for horizontal and vertical arrays of sensors.
Introduction 5
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 km

0.5 1.7 km
FIGURE 1.5. An example of construc-
0
tion of the model of the subsurface
by use of seismic data shown in
0.5 0.5
Figure 1.4. Only data corresponding to
the horizontal array were used. (a) The
1.0 1.0 portion of the model constructed by

imaging corresponds to the dotted
Max
1.5 1.5
square. (b) A result of imaging.
Notice that boundaries among rock
formations have been constructed and
2.0 2.0 km that the fault is detected. However,
Min amplitudes at these boundaries are
2.5 km not identical, because they describe
different contrasts of physical
(a) (b) properties among rock formations.
However, the geometry of many of these accumula- be thin tabular “blankets” that shield traps with rich
tions makes the traps difficult to identify from seismic reserves. Detecting these traps requires more energy
data. To gain insight into this problem, we have dis- penetration than is employed in traditional acquisi-
played an example of a geologic model constructed by tion of seismic data. It also requires the attenuation
the SMAART JV group (Figure 1.7), which included of multiple reflections (i.e., obscuring reflections that
contributions from representives of four major oil com- arrive at almost the same times as reflections from sub-
panies (BP, BHP, ChevronTexaco, and ExxonMobil). salt strata, and with higher energy than that of the
The physical properties of salt — density of 2.1 g/c2 desired, informative reflections from the subsalt strata).
and velocity of 4400 m/s or more — are in sharp con- Drilling through salt is particularly difficult because of
trast with properties of the surrounding sediments or pseudoplastic flow under subsurface temperatures and
sedimentary rock, which are generally denser and have pressures, and low permeability make drilling through
lower velocities. Strong contrasts in velocity and den- salt bodies similar to drilling through fluids. These
sity at the sediment-salt interface act like an irregularly operational difficulties increase the need for accurate
shaped lens. Petroleum seismologists have treated this imaging of subsalt traps, so as to reduce the risks of
contrast like a mirror, producing images that portrayed drilling.
rock-units of salt as bottomless diapirs that extend to
the deepest level of seismic data. Once considered
as impenetrable barriers to seismologic probing for
0m
oil and gas traps, many salt structures are proving to
3000 m S S S
6000 m
9000 m
FIGURE 1.7. A geologic model of a small region of the

Gulf of Mexico, constructed by the SMAART JV group.
The group included representatives of BP, BHP, Chevron-
Texaco, and ExxonMobil. The letter S indicates salt
FIGURE 1.6. Distribution of offshore salt sheets. (Adapted sheets. (From Bishop et al., 2001; Miley et al., 2001; and
from Farmer et al., 1996.) Stoughton et al., 2001.)
Exploring the Subbasalt of such basalts commonly have been altered to clays.
Stratigraphic Column Longitudinal-wave velocities of the clays range from
2.5 to 3.5 km/s, whereas velocities of the crystalline
Many oil and gas fields with large reserves are interior basalt range from 5 to 6 km/s. Flood basalts
beneath extensive formations of complex volcanic rock, typically have average vertical longitudinal wave veloc-
or are sandwiched between two such formations. Most ities of 4 to 5 km/s, and seismic waves propagate
of these formations are basaltic, and the sedimentary anisotropically through them. If the volcanic rocks
strata beneath them are broadly termed “subbasalts.” were formed in shallow-marine environments, then the
Some offshore basins in the Atlantic Ocean are targets rocks are heterogeneous deposits of fragmented lavas,
of exploration, e.g., the basins on the Faroe Islands, tuffs, and basalt boulders with average longitudinal-
basins in locations marginal to West Greenland, Brazil, wave velocities of 3 to 5 km/s. Basalt deposits of
Angola, and Namibia, as well as basins offshore from deep-marine environments mostly are highly fractured
mid-Norway. Figure 1.8 shows locations of large basins pillow basalts. The average longitudinal wave velocity
that contain extensive basaltic complexes, identified depends strongly on the fracture density; the velocity
along rifted continental margins. Notice that parts varies from 2.5 to 6 km/s.
of these basins are in deep waters; in some places The large variation in the structure of basalts and,
water is deeper than 2000 m. Petroleum explorationists accordingly, in seismic properties of the rock, leads
and producers working in these areas are faced with to a wide range of difficulties in seismic imaging. For
significant challenges in acquisition, processing, and instance, consider the “simple” situation of a high
interpretation of data, and — because of deep water velocity, homogeneous, isotropic basalt. Primary waves
and thick complexes of volcanic rock — high risks in reflected from subbasalt sedimentary strata will have
drilling. undergone the transmission effect of four large acoustic-
Seismic imaging of subbasalt regions is gener- impedance contrasts (two on the way down and two on
ally complex. The complexity depends on the types the way up). This results in an unusually weak rendering
of volcanic eruptions (see Appendix A) that gave of images of the primary waves. In addition, high
rise to the basaltic formations which overlie the acoustic-impedance-contrast interfaces lead to strong
sedimentary-rock sequence. If eruption of lava was multiple energy, which tends to arrive at the same time
subaerial, (the so-called “flood basalts”), the basalts as subbasalt primary waves, thus limiting the imaging
show layered velocity “structure.” The uppermost parts resolution of potential hydrocarbon traps below basalt.
FIGURE 1.8. Locations of large

basins that contain exten-
sive terranes of volcanic rock
60
(white ellipses) along the mar-
gins of the Altantic Ocean.
(Adapted from Coffin and
Eldholm, 1992.) 30
–30
–60
–180 –120 – 60 0 60 120 180

Introduction 7
Source
Offset
Receiver Environmental Challenges
of Exploring the Arctic
No business can call itself efficient if it threatens the
environment in which it operates. Acquisition of seis-
Water
mic data is the component of petroleum seismology that
can affect the environment directly or secondarily if
special care is not taken. Potential damage to the envi-
Overburden
ronment includes adverse effects on health and safety,
hazards to endangered species, general habitats, and
Basalt vegetation, and temporary closing of access roads. At
θ no place in the world are these hazards more acutely
potential than in territories bordering and near to the
Subbasalt 1
Arctic Ocean (Figure 1.10), yet these territories may
contain much of the world’s reserves of oil and gas.4
Subbasalt 2 Because the Arctic climate is forbidding, and
because the area is remote from the world’s principal
FIGURE 1.9. A very simple model of sedimentary strata markets, it has remained among the areas least affected
overlain by basalt. The raypath describes wave propaga- by industry. Nevertheless, oil exploration and produc-
tion from the source to subbasalt sedimentary rock, and tion have been under way for many years in parts of
from these strata to the receiver. Observe that the angle of Alaska, Canada, and Siberia. Governments in the region
reflection in the subbasalt rock is quite small.
4 “Oil and gas exploration and production in Arctic and subarc-

The key challenge of processing data in terrane of tic onshore regions,” London, England, E&P Forum and IUCN, Gland,
basaltic rock probably is the poor signal-to-noise ratio Switzerland, September 1993.
of acquired data.
Another major challenge associated with the imag-
ing of subbasalt rock formations is the limited coverage
of these structures by standard seismic data acquisition.
Figure 1.9 shows a simplified volcanic-basin model. We
can see that the basalt significantly narrows the reflec-
tion angle of subbasalt rock formations.3 For a typical
seismic-acquisition survey, the maximum source-and-
receiver distance (generally known as the maximum
offset) is about 5 km, which corresponds to less than 20◦
of reflection angle for subbasalt rock formations. Such
reflection-angle coverage is not enough to characterize
rock formations properly. For effective description of
subbasalt formations the angle must be at least 60◦ ,
which corresponds to a maximum offset on the order of
20 km.
The oil and gas industry expects more accurate seis-
mic definition and characterization of subbasalt hydro-
carbon traps, in order to reduce the huge risks associated
with drilling in low temperatures and high pressures
associated with deep marine waters. To meet this
expectation, petroleum seismologists must develop new FIGURE 1.10. A satellite photograph of the North Pole
seismic-acquisition and seismic-imaging technology. region. The Arctic Ocean and surrounding countries offer
promise of significant oil reserves, but also present major
environmental challenges for protection of the natural
3 Figure 1.9 is based on Snell’s law, which is discussed in Chapter 3. environment. (Adapted from Read et al., 1993.)
almost surely will allow exploration to increase. There-

fore, the challenge will be how to acquire high-quality
data while avoiding or minimizing degradation of the
environment.
Arctic territories are covered by a layer of perma-
nently frozen subsoil — permafrost — as much as 1500

m thick but overlain by soil that thaws in the summer
(Figure 1.11). The vegetation is very sensitive to change
of conditions and because of the prevailing low tem-
peratures vegetation is extremely slow to recover from
damage. To avoid clearing of vegetation, acquisition of
seismic information essentially is conducted in winter,
when snow is sufficient to cover and protect the underly-
ing vegetation. Permits to conduct operations in Alaska FIGURE 1.12. A track-mounted vibrator. (Adapted from
are not issued until accumulated snow is at least 15 cm Read et al., 1993.)
thick.
The quality of sources of seismic waves is crit-
ical to recording the high-quality data needed for
accurate imaging. Unfortunately, environmental condi- Acquisition of seismic records in the territories
tions in the Arctic severely limit the selection of seismic around the Arctic Ocean requires development of seis-
sources. Detonation of explosive charges, which is one mic sources and sensors that can operate effectively at
common source of seismic signals, may not be practi- temperatures below 0◦ C, without damaging the envi-
cable in this environment. The explosions can impact ronment. Methods to reduce the acquisition turnaround
aquatic life and adversely affect the migrations of birds time are very important because they will reduce health
and animals such as caribou, which tend to congregate and safety hazards significantly. The key challenge in
in the Arctic at certain times of the year. Vibrators — imaging seismic data from the Arctic is overriding the
large vehicles equipped with hydraulically operated attenuation of energy, which is “trapped” in permafrost
pads that shake the ground — seem to be one of the and in the soil (Figure 1.11).
few appropriate solutions. Their effect on vegetation is
minimized, because the vehicles can be equipped with
tracks rather than wheels (see Figure 1.12). Special care
must be taken when refueling vibrators because spilled Exploring for Gas Hydrates
fuel is a significant threat to vegetation. Even partial
Perhaps in this century, the earth’s stores of con-
recovery of vegetation may take as much as 10 years.
ventional hydrocarbons will no longer supply adequate
energy. The unfamiliar but kindred hydrocarbons called
gas hydrates5 may be developed enough to complement
X- space oil and conventional natural gas.
Gas hydrates are a combination of two common
substances — water and natural gas (methane). Under
Air
specific conditions where pressure is high and tem-
perature is low, they combine to form a solid icelike
Z- depth
0 m. substance (see Figure 1.13). Vast volumes of sediments
Permafrost Ice
5 Note that natural disasters have been associated with gas hydrates.
Unfrozen basal rock
The best known was associated with the eruption of overpressured free gas
Ice Permafrost, up to Active layer, up to 1 m from decomposed gas hydrates in Cameroon (Lake Nyos) in 1986. More
1500 m thick thick
than 1700 people were killed by carbon dioxide released from the lake.
Furthermore, risks associated with exploration for and production of gas
FIGURE 1.11. A diagram typical of the Arctic subsurface. hydrates include exposure of drilling-rig personnel to gasification of drilling
(Adapted from Read et al., 1993.) mud and increase in pressures.
Introduction 9
on the ocean bottom and in polar regions are conducive

to formation of gas hydrates. Most gas hydrates seem to
be confined to the marginal parts of continents, where
water is about 500 m deep and inflowing nutrient-rich
waters unload organic detritus that bacteria convert to
methane.
Gas hydrates have been found at the seafloor, but
in most instances they are in sediments 100 to 500 m
below the seafloor. Significant accumulations have been
identified offshore Japan; on the eastern seaboard of
the United States; on the Cascade continental margin
off Vancouver, Canada; and offshore New Zealand.
(a) Figure 1.14 shows known and inferred occurrences of
gas hydrates.
The compressional-wave velocity of pure hydrate
3000
is believed to be similar to that of ice, but the exact
value has not been agreed on. The acoustic velocity
P velocity (km/s)
of a hydrate-bearing bed also is believed to be higher

than that of fluid-filled sediment of the same kind. Con-
1500 sequently, the contact between a hydrate-rich stratum
and a gas-filled stratum can be a prominent seismic
reflector. These reflectors, which are at the bases
of hydrate-bearing formations, are known as bottom-
0 simulating reflectors (BSR), because they parallel the
1 50 100
water-sediment interface reflector.
(b) Substitution material (%)
So BSRs result from the compressional-velocity
1800
contrast between the gas-hydrate-cemented zone and
the underlying sedimentary zone with pores that con-
tain water or water and free gas. Because the shapes
S velocity (km/s)
1200 of BSRs tend to track the shapes of the sea bottom, in

some instances BSRs appear in seismic data as multi-
ple reflections. Therefore, proper multiple attenuation
600 is required to ensure that BSRs are neither distorted
by the multiple-attenuation process nor interpreted as
multiple reflections.
0
1 50 100
Substitution material (%)
Vp , Vs (hydrate to brine)
(c) Vp , Vs (hydrate to gas)
FIGURE 1.13. (a) A sample of gas hydrate. Gas hydrates are

ice-like solids in which gas molecules are included within
the crystalline lattice (courtesy Petroleum Geo-Services
[PGS]), (b) and (c) Calculated P- and S-wave velocities
of sand filled with solid methane hydrate, with the con-
centration of hydrate in pore space ranging from zero to
100%; any remaining pore space is filled with brine (blue) Hydrate location
or gas (red). Calculations are based on the model proposed

by Dvorkin et al. (1999) and Dvorkin and Nur (2003). FIGURE 1.14. Known and inferred tracts of sediments that
(Adapted from Sognnes et al., 2002.) contain gas hydrates. (Adapted from Collett et al., 2000.)
Like the values of the acoustic velocity of hydrates, classes: (a) those predominantly seeking to extend the
the characterization of BSRs is an open question. Early profitable life of existing reservoirs, (b) those essen-
investigations suggest that BSRs are identifiable in tially involved in exploration for new oil and gas fields,
conventional seismic data (ranging from 5 Hz to 70 Hz) and (c) those able to combine exploration and produc-
but not in high-resolution data, with frequencies as tion profitably, independent of the economic cycle. In
high as 650 Hz (see Figure 1.15). These observations the past, the contribution of petroleum seismologists
suggest that BSRs are not well-defined interfaces but has been confined to the exploration for new fields, but
rather sets of small-scale heterogeneities with averages now petroleum seismologists are expected to contribute
dependent on the frequency content of the source signal. to efficient oil and gas production. They must be able to
Understanding of seismic propagation through small- work in any of these three categories of organizations.
scale heterogeneities may help in the identification of An important contribution expected from petro-
BSRs, which in turn would lead to the identification of leum seismologists is that they will take advantage of
gas hydrates. the increasing accuracy of seismic imaging and the con-
Some accumulations of gas hydrates are not comitant increasing quality of sensors to “watch” and
bottom-simulating reflectors. We expect that the con- to “listen” to movements of reservoir fluids far from
trast between seismic sections dominated by the energy the borehole. Knowing how the distribution of fluid
of compressional waves and those dominated by the changes over time is important for effective manage-
energy of shear waves will help us to identify these ment decisions. For example, tracking fluid contacts
other types of gas-hydrate deposits. during production can confirm or invalidate fluid-flow
models, thereby allowing the producer to change recov-
ery schedules. The monitoring of fluid movements also
can help to locate bypassed zones that may become
Petroleum Seismologists in targets of remedial operations.
Production of Oil and Gas The methods for watching and listening to the
movement of reservoir fluids depend on the rates of
The oil and gas industry will continue to extend the movement. For changes over weeks or months, as in
profitable life and effective production of existing reser- the case of a moving gas-oil contact, the method of
voirs and to make small and complex fields economi- choice is time-lapse seismic surveys, sometimes called
cally viable through advances in E&P technology — four-dimensional (4D) or repeated seismic. Images
as well as to capitalize by adaptation of technological from seismic data acquired before and during oil or
advances outside the industry. Depending on the eco- gas production are compared, and the differences
nomic cycle, oil and gas organizations will fall into three are attributed to movement of fluids. The challenge
FIGURE 1.15. Two

views of a portion of the
methane-hydrate stability
zone. (a) High-resolution
image based on a sur-
vey operated at 250 to
650 Hz, and (b) image
from conventional seis-
mic survey operated at
10 to 80 Hz. Notice that a
coherent BSR is apparent
from conventional seis-
mic data but not from
high-resolution data.
(Adapted from Wood
et al., 2002.)
Introduction 11
is to obtain high-quality seismic data so that these of new fields and recovery from old fields, and thus
differences — many of which are subtle — are not reduce the cost of exploration and production.
biased by error inherent in acquisition. In addition,
the capability of repeating the seismic surveys with
use of the same source and receiver points is very
Instrumented Oil Fields

important.
For the case in which noticeable changes in fluid Sensor technology for instrumented oil fields is
movements take place over microseconds to minutes — the most important of these expected technological
as when fluid flows through natural fractures — the advances. One recent advance in the use of sensor
technique is to use borehole sensors to locate the technology is SUMIC,6 which has made acquisition
cracking noise (“microseismicity”) produced by fluid of seismic data at the seafloor possible. Other types
movement. High-quality sensors are needed to record of sensors are being developed — such as downhole
signals from these movements, which are similar to tiny sensors — which will allow measurement of physical
earthquakes. properties; pressure, stress, temperature inside the
reservoir, and even passive acoustic properties (such
as the cracking of rocks) could be documented.
Other advanced uses of sensor technology include
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES
deployment of sensors at the surface of the earth, at
OUTSIDE THE E&P INDUSTRY the sea surface, at the seafloor, and inside boreholes.
Significant technological advances useful in the oil Emplacement of permanent sensors at these locations
and gas industry continue to be made by industries is expected to become the norm. Permanent sensors
of other kinds. For example, advances in computing would permit continuous measurement of the acous-
speed, data storage, multimedia devices, and software tic properties of wavefields (e.g., particle velocity)
“intelligence,” and the consequent reduction of cost will and dynamic properties of reservoirs (e.g., saturation).
render real-time data processing in the field practical. Among other goals, the differential of wavefields and
These developments will reduce the decision-making dynamic properties, with respect to time, is expected to
process by a significant number of layers in most orga- provide information about movement of fluids and pres-
nizations, and also will limit the cost of managing sure depletion in reservoirs. Other expected advances
reservoirs. Likewise, high-bandwidth communication include use of gradient sensors in towed-streamer acqui-
and virtual-reality visualization and interaction will sition of seismic data at sea, to improve productivity in
facilitate multidisciplinary work, allowing reservoir bad weather.
engineers, petroleum geologists, and geophysicists to Improved quality of seismic data acquired on land
share data and models more effectively than they can is expected through deployment of sensors inside bore-
today. Other advances, especially in material sciences, holes instead of at the surface; this setting is known
will reduce drilling costs significantly, particularly as “vertical cable.” The use of remote sensing and
drilling in and through formations of salt. The use of the remote distribution of sensors in areas with com-
“smart fluid” — properties of which can be altered by plex vegetation or complex tectonics also are being
“triggers” (such as temperature and external fields) — investigated.
have parallel applications in the food industry and the Note also that developments are ongoing for
pharmaceutical industry. replacement of electromagnetic sensors by fiber-optic
sensors. Benefits of fiber-optic sensors include freedom
from electromagnetic interference, wide bandwidth,
and compactness. For seismic exploration and for use
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES of seismic information in production, the most attrac-
INSIDE THE E&P INDUSTRY tive properties of fiber-optic sensors are their superior
sensitivity and their durability in harsh environments,
Technological breakthroughs lead to significant such as on the seafloor.
competitive advantages, which allow oil and gas com-
panies to develop methods and technologies in accor-
dance with their needs. In this section, we give a few
examples of technologies that should improve discovery 6 SUMIC (SUbsea seisMIC) is a trademark of Statoil.
Measurement while Drilling Moreover, in the drilling of infill wells, boreholes can
be steered toward undepleted reservoirs.
Figure 1.16 shows a diagram of seismic mea- However, SWD presents a significant number of
surements while drilling (SWD). The SWD uses bit technical challenges: The signal generated by a con-
vibrations as a downhole source for generation of waves ventional seismic source is well controlled (either an
that propagate directly toward the surface and down- impulsive explosion or a sweep from a vibrator of
ward from the bit, reflecting off formations. Geophones known signature), making the time between its emission
at the surface of the earth, on the seafloor, or inside a and detection relatively easy to determine; but the
borehole record the reflection signals. bit’s signal essentially is continuous and uncontrol-
The economic impact of measurement while lable. Geophones at the surface of the earth continu-
drilling should be tremendous. In traditional borehole ously record seismic radiation transmitted through the
seismics, geophones are located inside the borehole and ground. In addition, generally the environment around
sources are at the surface of the earth, on the seafloor, a drilling rig is very noisy.
or inside a borehole. As in all wireline measurements, The key challenges of SWD are (a) processing of
drilling must stop, and the drill string must be removed signals that have been recorded continuously for min-
prior to running the seismic survey. Thus, conventional utes, (b) improvement of the signal-to-noise ratio of
borehole seismic surveys are carried out during open- recorded data, and (c) having all processing of data
hole logging, usually just before casing is run. The take place in real time, so that the interpretations can
results offer certain useful information, but some of this be used for steering of boreholes toward undepleted
information may have been acquired too late. The bore- formations.
hole may be in the wrong place — for example, on the
wrong side of a fault.
Seismic data recorded while drilling and logs Reservoir Model
recorded while drilling offer several advantages over
conventional borehole seismics. Drilling need not Irrespective of oil prices, the oil and gas
be stopped, and because measurements are made industry probably will push for integrated solutions to
continuously, the information allows well-trajectory problems of exploration and production. We believe the
decisions to be made before it is too late. In the E&P industry will move from separate contracts for 3D
drilling of exploratory wells, real-time interpretation of seismics, well construction, and so forth, to full-field
measurements while drilling can be used to identify, integration of seismic data, information from drilling,
locate, and intersect hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs. and from single-well measurements and interwell
FIGURE 1.16. The concept of

recording seismic information
while drilling: images of the
subsurface are constructed from
data generated by noise of the
drill bit. (Adapted from Christie
et al., 1995.)
Sensors
Drill bit
Introduction 13
measurements. An emerging nonseismic method of to simulate data and to model by using elastic wave
surveying the subsurface that may be included in this equations, Maxwell equations, and Darcy’s laws is
integration process is described in Box 1.1. important in the achievement of this goal. Figure 1.17
Development of an integrated solution to explo- shows an example of how such models can be con-
ration and production will require a model of the structed. In this example, we have chosen a poroelastic
earth (commonly known as a “shared model”) that shared model for combining seismic and reservoir-
will honor all reservoir data (e.g., geologic data, flow data. One of the key questions is “How can we
geophysical data, and petrophysical data). Our ability scale our microscopic poroelastic model upward into
BOX 1.1: MARINE ELECTROMAGNETIC SURVEYING

FOR HYDROCARBON DETECTION
The seismic method has long held promi- signals, typically a few tenths of a hertz to a few tens
nence in detailed exploration and, more recently, of hertz. These signals propagate through the under-
in description and monitoring of reservoirs; nobody lying sedimentary materials. The receiver array
expects this to be otherwise. However, research and measures the “backscattered” and refracted EM sig-
development related to petroleum exploration and nal, which is dependent on the resistivity structure
production also are going on in fields not related of the subsurface.
to seismic geophysics. Currently, much effort is In deep-water areas, subsurface rocks domi-
expended in marine electromagnetic (EM) sound- nantly are shales with rather low resistivities —
ing, or seabed logging. Electromagnetic sounding typically less than a few ohm-meters. Water-
essentially involves use of a mobile horizontal elec- bearing sands and sandstones also are of low
tric dipole source and an array of seabed electric- resistivity. However, resistivities of petroleum
field receivers (Eidesmo et al., 2002, and Ellingsrud reservoirs can be 10 to 100 times greater, because
et al., 2002), as illustrated in Figure 1.18. oil and gas essentially are nonconducting sub-
This technique originated from long- stances. With an inline source-receiver config-
established principles of resistivity well logging. uration for a given source-receiver offset, the
In general, matrices of sedimentary rocks are transmitted long-wave electric field enters the
insulators and the fluids in pores are conductors. highly resistive petroleum reservoir under a critical
Normally, formation fluids are as “salty” or saltier angle and is refracted along the reservoir. Because
than seawater, which is a very conductive elec- of lower conductivity, the electric field is atten-
trolyte. In general, the resistivity of porous rock uated less than electric fields propagated in any
that contains saltwater is low; but if the pore fluid water-saturated sediments. As the electric field
is mostly petroleum the overall resistivity is high. is propagated along the reservoir, EM energy is
From standard petrophysical well logging a large refracted upward to the sea-bed receivers. When
resistivity contrast is known to exist between oil the offset is approximately equal to or greater
or gas reservoirs and water-filled sediments or than depth of the reservoir, the refracted energy
sedimentary rock. will dominate the energy transmitted directly.
A major difference between resistivity well log- Then the recorded far-offset data are processed to
ging and marine EM surveying is the frequency obtain bulk-resistivity images that naturally are less
range of the signal. In resistivity well logging, fre- detailed than their seismic counterparts. If the reser-
quencies are in the range of kHz to MHz; signals voir is filled with water, an insignificant response is
penetrate a few meters into rock of the borehole received.
wall (dependent on resistivity). For optimal results, This marine EM surveying technique is the first
the marine EM signal must penetrate thousands of in its field; the method may be revolutionary. The
meters of sediments beneath the sea bed. Today’s method is considered to be a supplement to geologic
high-power energy sources emit low-frequency inference and seismic interpretation.
different computerized grids for elastic-wave equations The introduction of effective approximations of
and fluid-flow modeling?” Development of methods to anisotropy and anelasticity into our models of the
answer this question adequately — as well as that of subsurface will help us improve the mapping of faults,
cross-scaling between models — is expected. the interpretation of lithology, the identification of
FIGURE 1.17. Schematic picture

of upscaling, cross-scaling, and
modeling process. VP stands for Seismic EM Reservoir
P-wave velocity, VS for S-wave data data flow data
velocity, ρ for density, σ for electric
conductivity, and K for permeability. Elastic wave Maxwell’s Diffusion
equation equation equation
VP, VS, ρ σ K
Cross-scaling Cross-scaling
Upscaling Upscaling Upscaling
Poroelastic model
Borehole principle
Shale – very low resistivity; Water-bearing sandstone – low resistivity;
Hydrocarbon-bearing sandstone – high resistivity
FIGURE 1.18. Principle of marine electromagnetic logging — a resistivity-based hydrocarbon detection method. From evi-
dence on standard wireline logs (example above), a large resistivity contrast is known to exist between oil or gas reservoirs
and surrounding water-filled sediments (note that hydrocarbons are highly resistant to passage of electric currents). This
method exploits the contrast in resistivity: A line of receivers is placed on the sea floor in and around a target area; a power-
ful source transmits a low-frequency, electromagnetic signal down through the underlying rock formations. In the presence
of hydrocarbons, signals are reflected to the surface, where they are recorded by the receivers. This information is processed
to obtain bulk-resistivity images of the underlying rocks. However, the resulting images are much less detailed than the seis-
mic counterparts. Where hydrocarbons are absent, no response is received. The technique is currently designed to work in
water depths greater than about 300 m, where the depths of potential reservoirs below the seafloor have been predetermined
by seismic exploration. For successful exploration, depth of reservoir should be less than 2000 m.
Introduction 15
fluids, and even the mapping of fractures and other and Born and Kirchhoff scattering series (Chapters 10
textural properties of rocks. and 11). In Chapters 10 and 11, use of the Born and
Kirchhoff scattering series to simulate seismic data and
to recover physical properties of the earth are described.
The classical concept of forward and inverse problems
THE SCOPE OF THIS BOOK

is introduced in Chapter 11.
To provide solutions to the present and future prob- Recent developments in signal processing — such
lems of oil and gas exploration and production outlined as correlation techniques based on higher-order statis-
here would require several books and would go far tics and wavelet transform analysis — also can be used
beyond a basic university education. Our objective is to for improving the resolution of seismic imaging. These
provide future petroleum seismologists with some of the new signal-processing tools are described in Chapters
fundamental background for understanding the emerg- 4 and 5, along with classical second-order statistical
ing solutions, and even for contributing to development methods and Fourier representation of seismic signals.
of those solutions. The way seismic data are sampled affects the accu-
This fact is clear: Given the vision of integrated racy of the image of the subsurface. Because we cannot
E&P and anticipated advances in technology described cover the entire subsurface with sensors, we must place
here, the education of future petroleum seismologists them at selected locations, but in doing so our capa-
must be multidisciplinary. Coursework outside tradi- bilities of resolving the petroleum traps must be main-
tional geology and geophysics — on topics such as tained. In Chapter 7, traditional and modern acquisition
graphic computations, signal processing, and rock geometries used to illuminate petroleum reservoirs are
physics — will help petroleum seismologists to take full reviewed. In Chapter 8, criteria for spacing between
advantage of advances outside the oil and gas industry. receivers and between sources are described. In that
Integrated E&P will allow petroleum seismologists chapter, errors associated with seismic acquisition are
to make great strides in oil and gas exploration, and assessed. Because we try to interpret ever-smaller
in the recovery of oil and gas. In the latter activity features of seismic data, we must be familiar with
they must be able to interact with petroleum engi- pitfalls that may be caused by errors in acquisition
neers, drillers, and other personnel to work with sets of data.
of measurements at a scale much smaller than the scale In summary, complex theories and models will be
of traditional seismic analysis. For this reason, we will encountered in this book. These are not presented for
consider anisotropic and anelastic models of the sub- their mathematical beauty alone; they are here because
surface (Chapter 12) in addition to the classical linearly we believe that they are, or will become, part of the
isotropic, elastic model (Chapters 2 and 3). Signifi- solution to petroleum exploration and production.
cant aspects of the microscopic scale are taken into In addition to our own experience in the E&P
account in such models, with maintenance of the use industry, we have consulted several references in lead-
of laws of continuum mechanics, on which the present ing magazines in the oil and gas industry, including
formulation of petroleum seismology is based. First Break, Middle East Well Review, The Leading
For economy of cost, seismic data processing has Edge, Offshore, Oilfield Review, and World Oil. Some
been developed for a long time from optic geome- of the articles used in preparation of this chapter are
try tools instead of from wave equations; but with Adam (1991), Anderson et al. (1994), Archer et al.
the evolution of computer power, this is no longer (1993), Armstrong et al. (1994), Bishop et al. (2001),
necessary. Furthermore, to achieve the high resolu- Cassell et al. (1997), Christie et al. (1995), Eidesmo
tion in imaging, in attenuation of multiple reflections, et al. (2002), Ellingsrud et al. (2002), Farmer et al.
and in P- and S-wave splitting — which is now (1996), Johnstad et al. (1993), Kostov et al. (1999),
expected from analysis of seismic data — petroleum Kronfeldt and Schmidt (1999), Leyendecker and Mur-
seismologists are turning to methods based on wave ray (1975), Pedersen et al. (1996), Read et al. (1993),
equations (Chapters 9, 10, and 11). The metaphors of Roed et al. (1996), Wood et al. (2002), and Zuleger
these methods are the reciprocity principle (Chapter 6), (1999).

2
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PROPAGATION
OF SEISMIC WAVES AND PARTICLE MOTIONS

IN ISOTROPIC MEDIA
Suppose that you are in a dark room of the cam- As illustrated in Figure 2.1, the disturbance varies
pus library, surrounded by a multitude of books. You with time and position in space. The speed at which
are faced with the problem of finding a particular book. the wave moves from one point to another depends on
You need a flashlight to guide you to the row and col- physical properties of the medium. Energy decay from
umn where you can locate this book. The problem of similar points also depends on physical properties of
exploration for oil and gas is quite similar. We try to the medium — and on the type of wave (body wave,
see through a dark and compact earth; seismic waves surface wave, etc.) that is propagated in the medium.
are just one of the “flashlights” that help us to “see” These properties and others to be introduced allow us
beneath the earth’s surface. The objective of this chapter to use wave propagation to probe media, even those as
is to help you become familiar with the phenomenon of complex as the subsurface of the earth.
wave propagation and with the physical laws that govern Unfortunately, we cannot see or analyze directly
propagation of seismic waves, namely the elastic-wave the propagation of waves in the subsurface, because we
theory. are dealing with a dark and compact medium. However,
Although the present routine of acquisition, analy- we can put sensors at certain locations at the surface or
sis, and interpretation of seismic data does not explicitly in the subsurface, in boreholes, to record the evolution
require understanding of the elastic-wave theory, such of a disturbance.
knowledge becomes critical when you design new types This narrow view of a disturbance is similar to
of surveys (such as ocean-bottom surveys), when you our observing the New York marathon from a specific
analyze multicomponent seismic data, and when you roadside location instead of from an aerial position.
interpret the growing number of attributes that are Although we could not view all the athletes at the same
derived from seismic data. time, we would have the opportunity to see each of them
For readers with backgrounds in continuum and judge each runner’s speed. As more observers are
mechanics, some of the basic notions on elasticity the- positioned at different locations on the route, the more
ory and wave motion covered here may be familiar. accurate the picture of the race.
Nevertheless, we recommend that time be invested for Let us return to the subject of wave propagation.
study of this chapter. To do so will help to establish Figure 2.2 shows examples of this narrow view of the
how these notions relate to petroleum seismology, and wavefield, from specific points in the medium, to which
especially to its future developments. sensors are attached. Wavefields at these individual
locations, recorded as a function of time, are called
seismograms. The seismograms in Figure 2.2 show that
elements of the medium are displaced from their posi-
AN EXAMPLE OF tions of equilibrium at t = 0, then restored to these
WAVE PROPAGATION positions, just as was illustrated in Figure 2.1. Observe
that each element of the material is coupled to its adja-
Suppose that a stone is dropped into a tank of water. cent elements; displacement of the first element induces
A disturbance of very short duration occurs at the point movement of the second, the second induces movement
of impact. The deformed area returns to equilibrium, of the third, and so on. The net result of this series of
but the disturbance expands gradually from the point interactions is propagation of the initial pulse, similar
of impact (Figure 2.1). This phenomenon is known as to that described in Figure 2.1. Therefore, if enough
wave propagation. sensors are available and if they are deployed properly,
17
seismograms can capture the characteristics of wave problems of prime importance in petroleum seismology
propagation needed to probe the subsurface. include making sure that sensors measure the desired
To summarize: In petroleum seismology we do not physical quantities effectively, and that they are dis-
have direct access to images of waves propagated in tributed adequately to capture the main characteristics
the earth; our data are limited to seismograms recorded of wave propagation. To address these problems prop-
from sensors deployed either at the surface of the earth, erly, we need to develop an understanding of wave
just below the surface, or deeper, in boreholes. Thus, propagation theory. In the following sections of this
chapter, physical quantities that enter into this theory
are introduced — namely, seismic sources, internal
2.0 km forces, displacement and strain, and physical properties
(a)
2.0 km
2.0 km
Max
1 13
(b)
240
2.0 km
280
300
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
320
360
380
400
420
Min
FIGURE 2.2. (a) Snapshots of propagated waves, with
FIGURE 2.1. Snapshots of propagated waves. Throughout positions of receivers. Only one-half of each snapshot is
this chapter, the color scale displayed here is used to dis- illustrated because they are symmetric, as shown in Fig-
play amplitude variations in snapshots. Max and Min are ure 2.1. Rectangular dots indicate positions of receivers.
maximal and minimal values of quantity being displayed. (b) Particle motion in a model of fluid. Time is recorded in
Time is recorded in milliseconds. milliseconds.
The Relationship between Propagation of Seismic Waves and Particle Motions 19
of rock formations. In the example described earlier in and strain) that enter into wave-propagation theory are
this section, a dropped stone is an external force. The assumed to be continuous — as well as derivatives
resulting disturbance (deformation) can be character- of these functions, if they enter the logic. There is
ized by measurements of displacement and/or strain, as one exception to the continuous-medium assumption:
well as measurement of the internal forces (stresses) physical properties of rock formations — the map-
that restore the medium to equilibrium. Before these pable strata. Mathematical functions that describe these
quantities are introduced formally, the assumption of a properties of formations can contain a finite num-
continuous medium — held throughout this book — is ber of surfaces separating regions of continuity. In
redescribed. other words, rock formations can be described as con-
sisting of piecewise-continuous regions separated by
interfaces, where the parameters of the medium are
discontinuous.
THE ASSUMPTION OF A The assumption of a continuous medium permits us
CONTINUOUS MEDIUM not only to define stress, displacement, and strain at the
scale of particles (macroscopic scale, as compared with
Continuous and Isotropic Media microscopic scale), but also to use the laws of contin-
uous mechanics for study of seismic-wave propagation
A material is considered to be continuous if it fills and seismic data.
the space it occupies, leaving no pores or empty spaces, Two additional assumptions are often made about
and if its properties can be described by continuous rock formations: they are linearly elastic and isotropic.
functions. By definition, elastic rock formations return to equilib-
Like all other substances, rocks are composed rium after deformation and, for linearly elastic media,
of atoms. The atoms compose minerals, of which the force-displacement relationship at any point is
rocks are composed. Some rocks are almost entirely linear. These assumptions are valid when forces, result-
solid, but most rocks contain pores (for example, see ing displacements, and gradients of displacements are
Figure 2.3). This attribute is especially true of sed- small. The word isotropic means that physical proper-
imentary rocks, which are the common petroleum ties of rock formations are identical in all directions.
reservoirs (see Appendix A). However, the atomic scale This fact should be clearly understood: The assump-
is to be disregarded. For our purposes, rocks are envi- tion of isotropism is completely independent of the
sioned as being without empty spaces. Furthermore, “homogeneous and heterogeneous” assumption, which
the mathematical functions (force, stress, displacement, will be discussed later.
FIGURE 2.3. A photomicrograph of sand-

stone, showing subangular grains of
quartz and laminations of dark-brown
humic organic matter. The irregularly
shaped blue spaces among grains are
pores. (Adapted from Best, 1997.)
1 mm
The assumption that rock formations are isotropic, i1

O x (or x 1)
linearly elastic, piecewise-continuous materials is good
enough for analyzing the response of seismic-wave i3 i2
propagation through most rock formations. However,
in some cases this assumption is not adequate for
achievement of the objectives in petroleum exploration

or production. To expect a theory that disregards the
microscopic scale to explain seismic data everywhere
in the world is too much. In chapters that follow, we
will discuss solutions to wave-propagation problems
without this assumption, by construction of more-
sophisticated continuous models of rock formations; y (or x2 )
in these models, rock formations can be anisotropic,
anelastic, and even nonlinearly elastic.
Although some of the formulae derived here are z (or x 3)
quite general, the discussion in this chapter is limited
to continuous, isotropic, linearly elastic media. FIGURE 2.4. Configuration of the rectangular Cartesian
coordinates.
Particle Positions and 1) the one-dimensional case (1D), in which physical

Coordinate Systems properties are invariant along the x- and y-axis and
with time — i.e., physical properties vary only along
The history of a given piecewise-continuous elastic the z-axis;
medium will be described by the position of each of its 2) the two-dimensional case (2D), in which physical
particles as a function of time. Particles will be labeled properties are invariant along the y-axis and with
by positions they occupy in space at the fixed time t = 0. time — i.e., physical properties vary along the x- and
To define these positions properly, let us consider z-axis;
the configuration in Figure 2.4, where the position is 3) the three-dimensional case (3D), in which physical
specified by coordinates {x, y, z}, with respect to a fixed properties are invariant only with time — i.e., the
orthonormal Cartesian reference frame with the ori- physical properties vary along the x-, y-, and z-axis;
gin O and three mutually perpendicular base vectors and
{i1 , i2 , i3 }; each vector has unit length. Vector i3 points 4) the four-dimensional case (4D), in which physical
downward vertically. In some cases, coordinates of a properties vary with time as well as with position.
point {x, y, z} will be called {x1 , x2 , x3 }, as indicated in
Such heterogeneous media are illustrated in
Figure 2.4. Thus, the vector x = {x, y, z} = {x1 , x2 , x3 }
Figures 2.5 and 2.6. Derivations in this chapter are lim-
will be used to label a particle throughout its entire
ited mainly to homogeneous media. The 1D, 2D, 3D,
history (x is its position at t = 0).
and 4D cases are to be discussed in chapters that follow.
Homogeneous Media and INTERNAL FORCES (STRESSES)

Heterogeneous Media
The Stress Tensor
Under the continuous-medium assumption, a rock
formation can be characterized as being either homo- Elastic waves are associated with local motions of
geneous or heterogeneous. A rock formation is defined the particles of a solid medium. As illustrated by the
as being homogeneous if its physical properties are seismograms shown in Figure 2.2, particles of a given
invariant with space and time; otherwise the rock is medium are displaced, then restored to their positions.
heterogeneous. In contrast to external forces (processes external to the
Four cases of heterogeneous media are commonly medium), the forces that restore a particle to its initial
cited in studies of petroleum seismology: position of equilibrium are internal to the medium.
BOX 2.1: SCALAR PRODUCT AND VECTOR PRODUCT

The product of two vectors can be a scalar or a The second kind of product is a vector product
vector. For cases in which the product is a scalar, the (cross product). It yields a vector. For two given
product is referred to as a “scalar product,” “inner vectors, a and b, the vector product can be written
product,” or “dot product.” Consider two vectors: as follows:
     
a1 b1 i1 i2 i3 a2 b3 − a3 b2

a = a2  , b = b2  . (2.1) c = a × b = a1 a2 a3 = a3 b1 − a1 b3  .
a3 b3 b1 b2 b3 a1 b2 − a2 b1
Their scalar product is given by (2.10)
a, b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (2.2) By use of these definitions, we can conclude
that the unit vectors i1 , i2 , and i3 form the following
or vector products:
a, b = a b cos θ, (2.3)
with i1 × i1 = i2 × i2 = i3 × i3 = 0, (2.11)

a = a12 + a22 + a32 , b = b12 + b22 + b32 , (2.4) i1 × i2 = i3 , i2 × i3 = i1 , i3 × i1 = i2 ,
(2.12)
where θ is the angle between the two vectors, and
a and b are the magnitudes of a and b, respectively. and
Alternatively, we will also denote as follows:
i2 × i1 = −i3 , i3 × i2 = −i1 , i1 × i3 = −i2 ,
a · b = a, b . (2.5) (2.13)
where 0 represents the zero vector.
From these definitions, the scalar product of
As one application of the vector product, let us
any two orthogonal unit-base vectors can be deter-
calculate the “curl” of the vector field u = u(x, t):
mined to be zero, because cos 90◦ = 0, whereas
the scalar product of any unit vector by itself equals  ∂u3 ∂u2 
i1
∂ i 2 i 3 ∂x − ∂x
unity: ∂ ∂  ∂u21 ∂u33 
∇ × u = ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3 =  ∂x3 − ∂x1  .
i1 , i1 = i2 , i2 = i3 , i3 = 1, u1 u2 u3 ∂u2 ∂u1
∂x1 − ∂x2
and (2.6)
i1 , i2 = i2 , i3 = i3 , i1 = 0. (2.7) (2.14)
As one application of the scalar product, let us
calculate the “divergence” of a vector. We start by ∇ × u is called the “curl” of u. Neither the num-
introducing the “del” vector (the gradient operator), ber, ∇, u, nor the vector, ∇ × u, depends on
defined as follows: the coordinate system {i1 , i2 , i3 } in which it is
 ∂  ∂ computed.
∂x ∂x For three given vectors, a, b, and c, the
 1  ∂ 
∇ =  ∂x∂ 2  =  ∂y . (2.8) following properties hold:
∂ ∂
∂x3 ∂z a, b = b, a
Suppose that u = u(x, t) is a vector field, i.e., a a × b = −b × a
function of position. The scalar product of the “del” a × b × c = a, c b − a, b c
vector and u = u(x, t) is a, (b × c) = b, (c × a) = c, (a × b)
∂u1 ∂u2 ∂u3 ∇ × (∇ × a) = ∇ ∇, a − ∇ 2 a
∇, u = + + , (2.9) (2.15)
∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
where
where u1 , u2 , and u3 are the components of u. The
term ∇, u is called the “divergence” of u. ∇ 2 = ∇, ∇ . (2.16)
FIGURE 2.5. Illustration of media that are x

homogeneous, and heterogeneous in one,
two and three dimensions. y Homogeneous Heterogeneous (1D)
z
For that reason, we will call them

“internal forces,” or “stresses.”
As was pointed out above, the
displacement of each particle is
translated to its adjacent particles
by pulling and pushing, like sur-
face forces act on boundaries of a
medium. However, unlike surface
forces, the stresses responsible for Heterogeneous (3D)
Heterogeneous (2D)
the pulling and pushing are related
to a point (particle), x, rather than
to a surface. Therefore, if we
describe particles as volume ele-
ments, the stress at a point can be
described as a set of surface forces
acting on faces of a volume ele-
ment at time t. These forces are not
necessarily perpendicular to faces
of the volume element; their orien-
tations are arbitrary. Furthermore,
for each face these forces generally are different in both The stress acting on a plane is a vector quantity.
direction and magnitude, because a given particle does Stress at a point (represented here by an elementary
not act on each of the adjacent particles the same way. volume or a particle) is represented by a stress tensor (a
To specify the stresses, a three-component surface force matrix whose columns contain vectors that transform
(traction) is required for each face of the volume ele- like a second-rank tensor):
ment. The traction force (force per unit area) acting on
the area element facing the +x direction in Figure 2.7 is Stress in x-axis τxx τxy τxz
  Stress in y-axis τyx τyy τyz
τxx Stress in z-axis τzx τzy τzz
Tx = Tx (x, t) = τyx  . (2.17) ↓ ↓ ↓
plane ⊥ x-axis plane ⊥ y-axis plane ⊥ z-axis,
τzx
(2.19)
The three components of stress acting on this sur-
face are denoted τxx = τxx (x, t), τyx = τyx (x, t), and or  
τxx τxy τxz
τzx = τzx (x, t). In these components the second sub-
[τ ] = τyx τyy τyz  . (2.20)
script, x, indicates that the surface is perpendicular
τzx τzy τzz
to the x-axis. Notice that the traction, Tx , depends
on the position, x, and the time, t. When the context The symbol [.] is used here to denote a matrix or
unambiguously indicates the quantity under immediate tensor. As was shown in Box 2.1, with reference to vec-
consideration, we will simplify notation; traction forces tors, an alternative notation of the stress tensor is used:
and other quantities entering the wave theory will be Two lower-case subscripts represent nine quantities;
written without the variables x and t. the subscripts take values 1, 2, and 3 in all possible
Similarly, traction forces on unit-area elements combinations. Thus,
facing the +y and +z directions are    
τ11 τ12 τ13 τxx τxy τxz
   
τxy τxz τij ⇔ τ21 τ22 τ23  = τyx τyy τyz  ,
Ty = τyy  , and Tz = τyz  . (2.18) τ31 τ32 τ33 τzx τzy τzz
τzy τzz (2.21)
FIGURE 2.6. Illustration of a four-dimensional model that describes the Gullfaks field in the Norwegian sector, North Sea. This model varies in time as well as in
space, with time being the fourth dimension. In this figure the time variable takes only two values: 1985 and 1999. The 1999 survey (bottom) clearly shows the effect
of production of oil, when compared with the baseline survey of 1985 (top). The difference in the seismic reflection strength of the top of the reservoir is related
not only to reduction of oil saturation, but also to the original oil-column height. Where water replaces oil, the acoustic impedance in the reservoir increases, caus-
ing a dimming effect on what was a strong response from the top of the reservoir. The strong seismic response from the oil-water contact (OWC, middle panel) in
1985 also has been dimmed, owing to production of oil. Red and yellow represent a decrease in acoustic impedance, whereas blue represents an increase in acoustic
impedance. Structure of the oil traps and fluid content of the reservoir are shown in cross-sectional models, on the right. The smaller oil accumulation (to the left of
the fault) was drained by 1999, whereas much oil was still to be recovered from the larger trap (to the right of the fault). (Courtesy of Statoil.)
Tz [Traction on the x-y plane]

Normal in the z-direction Similarly, the traction forces acting on area elements
i1
zz
x facing the +y and +z directions are
i2 xz
i3    
yz
0 0
Ty = τyy  , Tz =  0  . (2.26)
y
0 τzz
xy
zy
Tx
yy
[Traction on the y-z plane]
Ty
These traction forces lead to the following stress tensor:
Normal in the x-direction
[Traction on the x-z plane]
Normal in the y-direction
 
z
τxx 0 0
[τ ] =  0 τyy 0  . (2.27)
FIGURE 2.7. Traction forces acting on a particle of a rock. 0 0 τzz
Note that only the diagonal elements of the stress tensor

with are nonzero; they are called normal stresses. The other
elements [i.e., the nondiagonal elements in equation
i, j = 1, 2, 3 or i, j = x, y, z. (2.22) (2.20)] are referred to as shear stresses.
Note that the stress tensor is symmetric if Example 2. Consider a solid bar that is com-
pressed uniformly along the y direction (see Figure 2.9).
τij = τji . (2.23)
The stress vector on the plane normal to the y-axis is
This relationship will be clearer after study of the  
0
examples in the following section, “Examples of
Ty = − FA  , (2.28)
Stresses.”
0
For water and other nonviscous fluids, traction
forces invariably are oriented along the vector normal to and the two other stress vectors are zero; i.e.,
the surface on which the forces act, regardless of how
 
the elementary volume (particle) is oriented in space. 0 0 0
Based on this property, the stress tensor for nonviscous [τ ] = 0 − FA 0 , (2.29)
fluids can be expressed in the following form: 0 0 0
 
−p 0 0
[τ ] =  0 −p 0  , (2.24)
0 0 −p Tz [Traction on the x-y plane]
i1
where p is a scalar known as pressure. The minus x
sign introduced in this definition is purely a matter of i2

convention. i3
y
Tx Tx
Examples of Stresses [Traction on the y-z plane]
Example 1. Figure 2.8 shows an elementary

volume similar to the one in Figure 2.7. It illustrates
traction forces that are parallel to the outward-pointing
normal vector, for each of the three faces. The trac- z
Ty
tion force acting on the area element facing the +x [Traction on the x-z plane]
Tz
direction is  
τxx
FIGURE 2.8. Traction forces acting on a particle of a rock
Tx =  0  . (2.25) formation similar to that shown in Figure 2.7. This diagram
0 illustrates normal traction forces.
F
F
c z
x
τ xz
τ zx
F
F c
c
F1
F3
z y
F y
Surface (A y=A)
F
c F3
Surface (A x = A z )
F1 x
FIGURE 2.9. Traction forces acting on a uniformly
compressed bar.
where F is the magnitude of the force, F, and A is the

cross-sectional area of the bar. As this example shows,
normal stress leads to compression (or to extension if FIGURE 2.10. Traction forces applied to a uniformly
F is directed along the positive y-axis). Regarding the sheared block.
minus in Ty , we follow the common convention that F
is negative if directed along the negative y-axis, and it the area of each plane is A, the stress tensor is written
is positive if directed along the positive y-axis. thus:  
0 0 FA1
Example 3. Consider an example where forces, [τ ] =  0 0 0  . (2.30)
F3
F, are parallel to planes, as shown in Figure 2.10. If A 0 0
BOX 2.2: CONVENTIONS OF SUMMATION

For reasons that will become evident later in Many of the formulae require summation over
this chapter, we introduce here the subscript nota- all values of the subscript. For example, the scalar
tion for vectors. In subscript notation, a vector, a, product of two vectors, a and b, is given by
can be denoted by ai ; i.e.,
3
    a, b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = ai bi . (2.32)
a1 ax i=1
ai ⇔ a2  = ay  , (2.31) This convention of summation is adopted: In the
a3 az case of orthogonal coordinates (including Cartesian
coordinates), where a letter subscript occurs twice
where lowercase italic subscripts (e.g., i) are in a term, that subscript is to be given all possible
employed. They are to be assigned the values 1, values and the results added. Hence equation (2.32)
2, and 3 unless specified otherwise. can be written
This notation permits us to write many of the 3
formulae used in petroleum seismology in forms a i bi = ai bi . (2.33)

that are much shorter than would be possible other- i=1

wise; once learned, this makes these formulae less The symbol can then be omitted, because the
difficult to remember and to understand. repeated subscript indicates summation.
The forces produce nonzero shear stresses. Notice that represent this vector with a single uppercase letter and
these forces tend to rotate the volume rather than to a subscript taking the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6:
compress it or extend it. However, for this volume to    
be motionless, F1 must be equal to F3 ; in other words, τxx σ1
τxz = τzx . These results can be generalized to other τyy  σ2  | normal stresses
   
shear stresses. By similar argument, τxy must be equal  τzz  σ3 
σI ⇔    
τyz  = σ4  .
to τyx , and τyz must be equal to τzy . Observe that ideal    
fluids cannot support shear stresses. τzx  σ5  | shear stresses
τxy σ6
(2.35)
Abbreviated Notation
The relation between a single uppercase subscript and
of the Stress Tensor two lower-case subscripts is shown in Table 2.1.
In Example 3, we saw that the following conditions,
TABLE 2.1. The relation between the single uppercase
τxy = τyx , τxz = τzx and τyz = τzy , (2.34) subscript and the two lowercase subscripts.
I ij (number) ij (Cartesian)
on components of the stress tensor must be satisfied
for any medium in equilibrium. These components 1 11 xx
2 22 yy
constitute the shear stress, whereas τxx , τyy , τzz are 3 33 zz
normal-stress components. Thus there are six indepen- 4 23, 32 yz, zy
dent stress components instead of nine, and therefore 5 13, 31 xz, zx
6 12, 21 xy, yx
stress can be written as a six-component vector. We will
BOX 2.3: CHANGE OF ORTHONORMAL BASIS: VECTORS

Traction forces were defined with respect to a new axis can be specified by giving its direction
set of rectangular Cartesian coordinate axes. Wave- cosines with respect to the old axes. For instance,
propagation analysis commonly requires transfor- the direction cosines between the unit vector i1 in
mation of the elastic field into a coordinate system the x -axis of the new coordinate system and the unit
that is better suited to the geometry of a par- vector i1 in the x-axis of the old coordinate system
ticular problem. In petroleum seismology, this are
procedure generally involves rotation of the rectan-
gular Cartesian coordinate axes (only right-handed a11 = i1 , i1 = cos θ11 , (2.36)
Cartesian coordinate systems will be considered).
If new rectangular Cartesian x -, y -, z -axes are according to the definition of a scalar product.
chosen with the same origin of the original rectan- Because i1 and i1 are unit vectors, their magnitudes
gular Cartesian x-, y-, z-axes, the direction of each are both unity. The direction cosines that define the
(continued)
Box 2.3 continued
other changes of axes are tabulated conveniently as These orthogonality conditions can be
follows: expressed conveniently by the Kronecker delta

function, δpq :
i1 i2 i3

i1 a11 a12 a13 0 for p
= q
δpq = p, q = 1, 2, 3. (2.40)
i2 a21 a22 a23 1 for p = q
i3 a31 a32 a33
Furthermore, the fact that each basis is orthonor-
where mal — i.e., composed of mutually orthogonal unit
apq = ip , iq = cos θpq . (2.37) vectors — can be expressed by the orthonormality
conditions:
To fix our idea, consider the particular case
of a clockwise rotation of the old coordinate axes ip , iq = δpq , im , in = δmn . (2.41)
through an angle, φ, about the z axis; in the rotation
sense, this defines a right-hand screw advancing Suppose that a force, F, has known compo-
along the positive z direction (Figure 2.11). In this nents, F1 , F2 , and F3 , with respect to the three
case, the matrix of direction cosines is given by mutually orthogonal unit axes {i1 , i2 , i3 }. What are
the components, F1 , F2 , and F3 , of F with respect
 
cos φ sin φ 0 to the three mutually orthogonal unit axes {i1 , i2 ,
[a] = − sin φ cos φ 0 . (2.38) i3 }?
0 0 1 To find Fi , we use the requirement that repre-
sentation of the vector in the two systems of coor-
Because of the orthogonality of the unit vectors, we dinates must have identical forms. We can write
must have
F = Fq iq = F, iq iq and

ip , iq = 0 for p
= q, while ip , ip = 1. (2.39) F = Fp ip = F, ip ip ; (2.42)
then

y' Fp = ip , F = ip , F, iq iq

i'2 = ip , iq F, iq = apq Fq ; (2.43)
φ
z y or
i2    
F1 a11 F1 + a12 F2 + a13 F3
i1 φ i'1 F  = a21 F1 + a22 F2 + a23 F3  . (2.44)
2
F3 a31 F1 + a32 F2 + a33 F3
Another useful identity is

x'
ip , iq ip , ir = apq apr = δqr . (2.45)
x
FIGURE 2.11. Rotation of the coordinate system with To prove this identity, we simply use the fact that
respect to the z-axis; the symbol indicates the
rotation axis. ip , ip = 1 and iq , ir = δqr . (2.46)
BOX 2.4: EULER ANGLES

Actually, any arbitrary rotation (i.e., the gen- Notice that the particular case of clockwise rotation
eral case) of an old coordinate system to a new of the old coordinate system through an angle, φ —
one can be defined by three angles (ψ, θ , φ), as about the z axis — can be deduced from (2.47) by
shown in Figure 2.12. Thus, in the most general taking θ = ψ = 0◦ .
case, the matrix [a] can be written as a product of
three elementary rotation matrices:
     
cos φ sin φ 0 cos θ 0 − sin θ cos ψ sin ψ 0
[a] = − sin φ cos φ 0 ×  0 1 0  × − sin ψ cos ψ 0 . (2.47)
0 0 1 sin θ 0 cos θ 0 0 1
y' x" y"

i'2 i"1 i"2
φ θ ϕ
z y y' x' z' y'
i2 i'1 i'2
i1 φ i'1 i3 θ i'3 i"1 ϕ i'''
1
x' z' x'''

x z x"
FIGURE 2.12. Definition of an Euler angle (φ, θ , ψ); the symbol indicates the rotation axis.
The Stress Field gradients from point to point in stresses. Second, rocks
are made up of grains, layers, or other entities that are
For a given medium, the stress field is simply mineralogically distinct from adjacent parts; therefore
the values of stress components at every point in the they have somewhat different responses to stress. Some
medium. The stress field can be characterized as homo- of these parts resist deformation more than others and
geneous (or uniform) if all stress components are the thereby carry the higher stresses. Given sufficient time
same at every point. This is the case for the tank of or temperature, the parts with the lower stresses may
water described with reference to Figure 2.1, before the decay, but they always will be present to some degree.
stone is dropped. However, the stress field can be inho- Third, as reservoirs are depleted they may subside or be
mogeneous even in the absence of external forces, as damaged by stress fatigue. Therefore, in our theory of
the example in Figure 2.13 shows. wave propagation, the state of the stress field must be
Most petroleum-seismology models of the sub- considered as an important parameter especially if the
surface assume — sometimes implicitly — that the medium is considered to be nonlinearly elastic1 . We can
stress field is homogeneous, in the absence of external seek to recover the stress field from measurements, or
forces (i.e., before the triggering of the external force
responsible for generating seismic waves). Obviously,
this assumption is not true. First, body forces are always 1 Nonlinear elasticity is discussed in detail in Abeele et al. (1997),
present in rock formations, a condition that introduces Johnson and Rasolofosaon (1996), and Kadish and Johnson (1996).
BOX 2.5: CHANGES OF ORTHONORMAL BASIS (STRESS TENSOR)
Let us now add to equation (2.44) the rule for Notice that for
transforming the stress tensor from one coordinate

system to another. Suppose that τkl represents the τjp = −pδjp , (2.51)
stress in the old coordinate system and τij repre-
the stress tensor is invariant with the coordinate
sents the stress in the new coordinate system. The
system. In a fluid, the stress tensor can be approxi-
rule for changing second-rank tensor components
mated well by expression (2.51), where p is called
under rotation of the axes can be deduced from the
“pressure.”
rule for changing vector components as follows:
Observe that the symmetry of the stress tensor
Ti = aij Tj = aij τjp np = aij τjp apq nq , (2.48) is preserved by this transformation; i.e.,
τji = ajk ail τkl = ajk ail τlk . (2.52)

which is also equivalent to
Using the fact that τkl is symmetric, we arrive at
Ti = τiq nq . (2.49)
τji = ail ajk τlk = τij . (2.53)
By equating, equations (2.48) and (2.49), we arrive
at Again, the summation convention is used in these
τiq = aij τjp apq . (2.50) equations.
we can enter it into our theory as an initial condition if This coordinate system can be deduced by diago-
it becomes available from independent measurements. nalizing the stress tensor; in other words, by subtracting
λ from the elements of the trace, and by setting the
determinant of the resulting matrix to 0:

Principal Stresses τxx − λ τxy τxz

τxy τyy − λ τyz = 0. (2.54)

Stress-field variations with time are important data τxz τyz τzz − λ
for monitoring of petroleum reservoirs. However, as
described in Box 2.5, stress components also can vary Solving for p gives
with coordinate systems. This means that if the coor-
dinate system in which measurements are to be taken λ3 − aλ2 + bλ − c = 0, (2.55)
were to change for various reasons (e.g., borehole where
damage), we would lose consistency in our measure- a = tr(τij ) = τxx + τyy + τzz , (2.56)
ment of stress-field variations with time. Fortunately,
we can alternatively use physical quantities known as
principal stresses, the values of which are independent b = minor(τij ) = τxx τyy + τyy τzz + τxx τzz
of the coordinate system (but they can change with − τxy
2
− τyz
2
− τxz
2
, (2.57)
time).
Let us now determine the principal stresses: and
Regardless of the state of stress at a given point, x,
and a time, t, it is always possible to choose a spe- c = det(τij ) = τxx τyy τzz + 2τxy τyz τxz − τxx τyz
2
cial orthogonal coordinate system in which the shear − τyy τxz

2
− τzz τxy
2
. (2.58)
components vanish. This statement is valid as long as
the stress tensor is symmetric; i.e., τij = τji . Actually, Because roots (i.e., principal stresses) of the cubic
this property is common to all symmetric second-rank equation do not depend on a choice of coordinate axes,
tensors. neither do coefficients of the cubic equation depend on a
stress is nonzero. Hydrostatic stress — also known as

(a) pressure — corresponds to a case in which the three
principal stresses are equal. In this instance there is no
shear stress on any plane through the point, and any one
of the three mutually perpendicular directions can be
Fault
selected as the principal direction. Furthermore, hydro-
static stress is the only kind of stress that can exist in a
fluid at rest.
PARTICLE DISPLACEMENT
AND STRAIN
(b)
Particle Displacement
Figure 2.14 shows one portion of the snapshots
described in Figures 2.1 and 2.2. This time we have
Fault placed side-by-side the positions of particles at t = 0 ms
(a)
FIGURE 2.13. Stress field near the end of a fault. (a) Homo-
geneous stress field before displacement of the faulted rock
occurs. (b) Stress field after displacement on the fault, in
homogeneous stress field. (Adapted from Means, 1976.)
choice of axes. Hence a, b, and c are scalar and invariant

with respect to rotations of the Cartesian reference axes.
Each principal stress has a corresponding eigenvec-
tor that gives the principal coordinate axis “direction.”
We can determine eigenvectors by solving the equation (b)
  
τxx − λi τxy τxz xi
 τxy τyy − λi τyz  yi  = 0, (2.59)
τxz τyz τzz − λi zi
where λi is one of the three possible roots of equation

(2.55).
Several terminologies in solid mechanics (elasto-
dynamics) are based on the relative values of princi-
pal stresses. (See Lay and Wallace, 1995; Malvern,
1969; and Means, 1976.) Two that are widely used in
petroleum seismology are uniaxial stress and hydro-
static stress (also called isotropic stress). Uniaxial stress FIGURE 2.14. (a) Positions of particles at equilibrium and
corresponds to a case in which only one principal (b) at 200 ms after a disturbance.
and those at t = 200 ms, so as to illustrate better the relative displacements — are a more appropriate means
displacement of particles with time. For a given particle of describing deformability (i.e., change of shape). We
located at x = {x, y, z} in equilibrium (i.e., t = 0), the will see that strain, as a tensor, is defined in terms of the
displacement of it at t is a vector that can be written as: spatial derivatives of components of the displacement
  field.
ux = ux (x, t) Except in the immediate vicinity of the location

u = u(x, t) = uy = uy (x, t) . (2.60) where seismic waves are generated, changes in shapes
uz = uz (x, t) of rock formations are generally very small: about
In other words, the vector x + u = x + u(x, t) is the 0.001 percent of length and about 0.01 radian rotation.
position occupied at time t by the particle that was at Therefore, in this book we do not discuss complica-
x at time zero, and u refers to the displacement of the tions related to large strains; we limit ourselves in to
particle from its normal unstressed position of equilib- infinitesimal strain (i.e., small strain).
rium. A sensor must be coupled to the particle to capture The three basic measurements of strain are change
motion of the particle with time. Making sure that sen- in length (or longitudinal strain), change in volume (or
sors and particles are coupled well is a very important volumetric strain), and angular change (or shear strain).
technological problem that petroleum seismologists are These are illustrated in Figure 2.15.
still trying to solve. Longitudinal strain is a change in length per unit
Particle displacement is a continuous function with length, defined in the x-direction by

time for all particles within a medium. Sometimes we

x + ∂u ∂x
x

x −
x ∂ux
take advantage of this fact by working with particle exx = = . (2.63)
velocity
x ∂x
   ∂ux 
vx ∂t By definition, the three components of longitudinal
 y
v = vy  =  ∂u ∂t 
, (2.61) strain are
vz ∂uz ∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
∂t exx = , eyy = , ezz = . (2.64)
instead of particle displacement or particle acceleration, ∂x ∂y ∂z
γ , which is given by Volumetric strain, or dilatation, is a change in
 2  volume per unit volume, defined by
  ∂ ux
2
γx  ∂t2 
 
γ = γy  =  ∂ u2y  . (2.62)
∂u

 ∂t 
x + ∂ux
∂x
x
y + ∂yy
y
z + ∂u
∂z
z

z −
x
y
z
γz ∂ 2 uz = .

x
y
z
∂t 2
(2.65)
Expanding and neglecting higher-order terms (which

Strain Tensor are equivalent to letting the volume
x
y
z approach
zero) give
In petroleum seismology, the deformability of
materials — described above in the section titled ∂ux ∂uy ∂uz
“Internal Forces” — is an important characteristic of = + + = exx + eyy + ezz . (2.66)
∂x ∂y ∂z
wave propagation, because it is needed to properly
define the parameters of materials. Unfortunately, par- Notice that = div(u).
ticle displacement is not a sufficient measurement of Shear strain is shear displacement per unit length.
deformation, especially for deformation of particles From Figure 2.15, tan α1 = ∂u ∂ux
∂x and tan α2 = ∂z . For
z
inside a material. The classic example used to illus- a sufficiently small deformation, tan α ∼ = α; therefore
trate this point is a stone that is being kicked around; the shear strain in the xz plane is defined by
the stone will rotate and move. The displacement is
1 1 ∂uz ∂ux
nonzero, but all particles of the stone have maintained exz = (tan α1 + tan α2 ) = +
2 2 ∂x ∂z
their relative positions during the rotations. In this case,
displacement can be an indicator of the stone’s mass but 1
≈ (α1 + α2 ) . (2.67)
not of its deformability. Strains — which are a set of 2
(a) A deformation can be described as a strain tensor made

of nine components, similar to the stress tensor intro-
duced earlier. Three of the components are equal to
displacement gradients, and the other six are simple
∆z
averages of pairs of displacement gradients. At a given
point, x, and a time, t, this tensor can be written in

matrix form, as follows:
∆x  
exx exy exz
[e] = eyx eyy eyz 
ezx ezy ezz
∆x  ∂ux 1

∂ux ∂uy

1

∂ux

∂uz 
∆y + +
 ∂x 2 ∂y ∂x 2 ∂z ∂x 
(b)  
 1 ∂u ∂uz 
 y ∂ux ∂uy 1 ∂uy 
= + + .
 2 ∂x ∂y ∂y 2 ∂z ∂y 
 
 1 ∂u ∂ux 1 ∂uz ∂uy ∂uz 
∆z z
+ +
2 ∂x ∂z 2 ∂y ∂z ∂z
(2.69)
Notice that the strain tensor is symmetric. By definition,
eij = eji ; i, j = x, y, z. (2.70)
In water and other nonviscous fluids, only changes in

volume are possible; therefore, shear strains are zero
for nonviscous fluid.
(c)
α2
Abbreviated Notation
∆z of the Strain Tensor
Because the strain tensor (2.69) is symmetric, we
α1 can introduce a system of abbreviated subscripts. So,
the strain tensor can be defined according to the scheme
∆x    
exx exy exz ε1 21 ε6 21 ε5
 
Undeformed state [e] = eyx eyy eyz  =  21 ε6 ε2 21 ε4  ,
Deformed state ezx ezy ezz 1 1
2 ε5 2 ε4 ε3
FIGURE 2.15. Illustration of (a) linear strain, (b) volumetric (2.71)
strain, and (c) shear strain.
or as a six-component vector rather than a nine-element
square matrix, in the following form:
So by definition, the three components of shear strain  ∂ux 
are   ∂x
ε1  ∂uy 
ε2   
   
∂y
ε3    ∂uz 

eyz =
1 ∂uz
+
∂uy
, ezx =
1 ∂ux
+
∂uz
and εI ⇔  = ∂z
ε4   ∂uz + ∂uy  . (2.72)
2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z ∂x    ∂y ∂z 

ε5   ∂uz ∂ux 
1 ∂uy ∂ux ε6  ∂x + ∂z 
exy = + . (2.68) ∂uy ∂ux
2 ∂x ∂y ∂x + ∂y
Notice that we have removed 21 from our definition of z

shear strain, because it is needed only when dealing with u
strain components as second-rank tensors. The abbre-
viated notation in equation (2.72) is known as the Voigt
notation.
Examples of Strain Tensors

Example 4. In Example 2, a solid bar is com- y
pressed uniformly along the y direction and constrained,
so there are no components of particle displacement x
along x and z (Figure 2.9). If the end of the bar at y = 0
is fixed, all particle displacements at the end are zero.
At the other end of the bar, all particles are displaced
by an amount
 
0
 
u(y) = − 1 − ll y , (2.73)
0
FIGURE 2.16. Traction forces applied to a uniformly
in the linearized approximation, where l is the sheared block.
deformed length and l the undeformed length of the bar.
For intermediate points in the linearized approximation,
displacement is assumed to be linearly proportional to
1 ∂ux 1
the undeformed distance, y, from the fixed end of the exz = ezx = = tan ψ, (2.77)
bar. Therefore the only nonzero strain component is 2 ∂z 2
and the strain matrix is
∂uy l
ε2 = =− 1− , (2.74)  1

∂y l 0 0 2 tan ψ
[e] =  0 0 0 . (2.78)
and the strain tensor is 1
  2 tan ψ 0 0
0 0 0
  In this case, the strain (called simple shear) is a measure
[e] = 0 − 1 − ll 0 . (2.75)
of the shearing angle, ψ, shown in Figure 2.16.
0 0 0
Example 5. Because the strain matrix is not sen-
Physically, ε2 = eyy is a change in length per unit
sitive to either rigid or local rotations of the medium,
length, negative for compression and positive for exten-
strain components do characterize uniquely the parti-
sion. Notice also that in this case the compression is
cle displacement field. For example, consider the static
time-independent. This type of deformation is called
displacement field:
“static deformation.”
Another type of deformation is shear strain. Con-  
1
y tan ψ
sider a solid cube that is sheared uniformly along the 2 
x direction (Figure 2.16). In this case, the particle u(x, y) =  21 x tan ψ  . (2.79)
displacement field is 0
 
z tan ψ The nonzero strain components are
u(x, y, z) =  0  . (2.76)
0 1 ∂ux 1
exy = eyx = = tan ψ, (2.80)
2 ∂y 2
The nonzero strain components are, from equation
(2.69), similar to those described in Example 4.
Example 6. Until now, only static examples have I and III: Nonlinear
been considered. The simplest examples of time-
Strain
II: Linear
varying vibration are plane waves. In a uniform plane
wave, propagation is in a particular direction, but the
field is uniform in planes perpendicular to the direction
Fracture
of propagation. For example, point
 
cos(ωt − ky)
u(y, t) =  0  (2.81)
0
is a uniform plane wave of x-polarized particle dis-
placement propagating along the y-axis. Here the
Stress
quantity I II III
2π
k= (2.82) Elastic deformation Plastic deformation
L
is called the wavenumber, where L is the wavelength. FIGURE 2.17. Typical stress-strain relation for a solid
The propagation velocity of a point of constant phase material.
(ωt − ky = constant) is called the phase velocity,
ω
V= . (2.83)
k if strain is increased past a certain limit — typically in
From equation (2.69), the nonzero strain components the range 10−4 to 10−3 for relatively rigid materials —
are deformation is no longer elastic. Beyond this elas-
1 ∂ux k tic limit, the medium deforms permanently (plastic
exy = eyx = = sin(ωt − ky). (2.84) deformation) and ultimately fractures (materials are
2 ∂y 2 no longer elastic). Ordinarily, the region of plastic
deformation is not of interest in study of petroleum
seismology. For small deformations, we will limit our
ELASTIC MODULI discussion to linear elasticity.
Up to this point, we have introduced mathemati-
cal descriptions of stress, displacement, and strain. To
Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law):
complete this list of all physical quantities entering into
General Case
wave propagation theory, we need to introduce mass
density, ρ, and in addition, elastic properties that char- For a given point, x, at time t, the generalized
acterize individual rock formations — basically, the Hooke’s law states that stress is linearly proportional
resistance to deformation. As discussed earlier in this to strain:
chapter, we are essentially considering small deforma- [τ ] = [c][e]. (2.85)
tions, so that we can use a linear relationship between
stress and strain. In subscript notation, this linear relationship can be
For small deformations, an experimentally observed written as follows:
fact is that the strain in a deformed body is lin-
τij (x, t) = cijkl (x) ekl (x, t)
early proportional to the stress applied (generalized
Hooke’s law). In this case, deformation is charac- i, j, k, l = x, y, z or i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3. (2.86)
terized as being linearly elastic. As increasing defor-
The constants of proportionality, cijkl = cijkl (x), are
mations are imposed, the relationship between strain
known as “elastic moduli” or “stiffness constants.” They
and stress becomes increasingly nonlinear, but the body
define the elastic properties of a medium — more
still returns to its original state when the stress is
particularly, its resistance to deformation. These con-
removed2 . In this second case, deformation is character-
stants constitute a fourth-rank tensor that is known as
ized as being nonlinear elastic (Figure 2.17). However,
the “stiffness tensor.” Notice that the elastic moduli
in equation (2.86) are assumed to be independent of
2 In an elastic body, stress depends only on strain (and vice versa). time t. This is the case, because in this chapter we
have assumed that the materials under consideration To summarize, the elastic stiffness constants (or
are elastic. (Anelastic materials will be discussed in compliance constants) of the most general elastic,
Chapter 12.) anisotropic material satisfy cijkl = cklij (or sijkl = sklij )
Note that we have used the summation convention in addition to the symmetry relation,
over the repeated subscripts k and l in equation (2.86).
Each stress component can be expressed as a linear cijkl = cijlk = cjikl , (2.92)
combination of cijkl . For example, τ11 can be written or
as follows: sijkl = sijlk = sjikl , (2.93)
τ11 = c1111 e11 + c1112 e12 + c1113 e13 and correspond to only 21 independent elastic moduli
(or 21 independent compliance constants).
+ c1121 e21 + c1122 e22 + c1123 e23
+ c1131 e31 + c1132 e32 + c1133 e33 . (2.87)
Let us go back to Hooke’s law. Because the stress Hooke’s Law with Abbreviated
and strain tensors each contain nine components, there Tensor Notation
are nine equations in expression (2.86) and 81 elastic
In the previous sections, we introduced abbrevi-
moduli. However, the symmetry of the stress tensor,
ated notations by which stress and strain tensors can be
τij = τji → cijkl = cjikl , (2.88) expressed as six-component vectors, because they are
symmetric. Using these abbreviated notations, Hooke’s
and that of the strain tensor, law can be expressed as follows:
ekl = elk → cijkl = cijlk , (2.89) σI = CIJ εJ . (2.94)
reduce the number of independent equations to six and Because expression (2.94) contains six equations and
the number of independent elastic moduli to 36. A each equation contains six strain variables, there are
further symmetry relation is 36 elastic stiffness constants. Hence, by comparing
expression (2.94) with expression (2.86), we can deduce
cijkl = cklij , (2.90) that
which immediately reduces the number of indepen- CIJ = cijkl . (2.95)
dent elastic moduli to 21 for the arbitrarily anisotropic This relationship is another way of verifying that
medium. Derivation of this symmetry relation is based the symmetry of stress and strain tensors implies a
on thermodynamic considerations that we will not dis- reduction of independent elastic moduli to 36. The sym-
cuss here, because this derivation requires introduction metry related to the thermodynamic argument can be
of concepts that are not essential for education of expressed in this case as follows:
petroleum seismologists. However, this derivation can
be found in Auld (1990), Kolsky (1953), and Malvern CIJ = CJI , (2.96)
(1969).
implying that the constants are further reduced to 21.
Alternatively, the strains can be expressed as linear
This is the maximum number of constants for any
functions of all stresses:
linearly elastic, anisotropic medium; it is known as “tri-
eij = sijkl τkl clinic symmetry.” In most cases the number is much
smaller than this, because of additional restrictions
i, j, k, l = x, y, z or i, j, k, l = 1, 2, 3. (2.91)
imposed by the microscopic nature of the medium.
In this case, the constants, sijkl — called “compliance Alternatively, equation (2.94) can be written
constants” — are measures of the deformability of the
εI = sIJ σJ , (2.97)
medium. The compliances take large values for easily
deformed materials and small values for rigid materials. where
Relation (2.86) and its converse (2.91) are called “elas- 
tic constitutive relations.” The symmetries described 1 for I and J = 1, 2, 3
SIJ = sijkl × 2 for I or J = 4, 5, 6 . (2.98)
earlier for stiffnesses also hold for compliance con- 
stants. 4 for I and J = 4, 5, 6
BOX 2.6: CHANGE OF ORTHONORMAL BASIS (STIFFNESS TENSOR)
The stiffness and compliance constants are Then, by equating equations (2.100) and (2.103)
defined with respect to a certain Cartesian coor- and assuming that some of the elements of ekl are
dinate system. However, in some instances this nonzero, we arrive at
system may not be the most convenient choice of
axes for solving a specific problem; therefore it is ii , im ij , in ik , ip il , iq cmnpq − cijkl
e kl = 0,
necessary to consider how the stiffness and com- (2.104)
pliance constants can be transformed into other which is equivalent to
coordinate systems.

Since Hooke’s law applies in all coordinate cijkl = ii , im ij , in ik , ip il , iq cmnpq
systems, the required transformation laws may be
deduced from expression (2.50). = aim ajn akp alq cmnpq , (2.105)
Suppose that
τij = cijkl ekl (2.99) where the aim are the cosine directions introduced
in Box 2.3.
in axis system {i1 , i2 , i3 }, and
Physical quantities that transform from one
τij = cijkl

e kl (2.100) coordinate system to another based on equa-
tion (2.105) are called fourth-rank tensors.
in axis system {i1 , i2 , i3 }. The two axis systems have Let us summarize the general pattern of the
the same point of origin. If we use the rule for laws for transforming tensors from one coordinate
changing second-order tensor components under system to another: A first-rank tensor (or vector)
the rotation of axes in equation (2.50) and the con- transforms according to this law:
stitutive equation in expression (2.99), τij can be
written ui = aij uj , (2.106)

τij = ii , im ij , in τnm = ii , im ij , in cmnpq epq . and a second-rank tensor, like the strain, was shown
(2.101) to transform according to
Again, we use the rule for changing second-order
e ij = aik ajl ekl . (2.107)
tensor components, this time for the strain tensor:

epq = ip , ik iq , il e kl . (2.102) The fourth-rank stiffness tensor transforms as

By substituting expression (2.102) in equa- cijkl = aim ajn akp alq cmnpq . (2.108)
tion (2.101), we arrive at
Note that expression (2.108) is true for any fourth-
τij = ii , im ij , in ik , ip il , iq cmnpq e kl . (2.103) order tensor.
The differences between equations (2.95) and (2.98) Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law):
result from the manner in which the factors of the Isotropic Case
two are introduced into the definition of strain, in the
abbreviated notation. If a different definition of strains An isotropic material is one in which the physical
were used, the 2s and 4s could be removed from the properties of any given point are independent of direc-
compliances and put into the stiffnesses, but common tion. A liquid is an isotropic material. A rock formation
convention specifies the forms given here. made of very small, randomly oriented crystals or grains
FIGURE 2.18. Snapshots of wave prop-

agation in a homogeneous, isotropic,
elastic medium (left) and a homoge-
neous, anisotropic, elastic medium
(right). For the isotropic medium, the
computation of snapshots is based on

the stiffness tensor in equation (2.109)
[ (λ + 2µ)/ρ = 9.0 (km/s)2 and µ/ρ =
2.25 (km/s)2 ]. Computations of snap-
shots of the anisotropic medium are
based on the stiffness tensor in equation
(2.110) [(λ⊥ + 2µ⊥ )/ρ = 11.9 (km/s)2 ,
(λ + 2µ )/ρ = 9.0 (km/s)2 ,
υ = 7.4 (km/s)2 , µ⊥ /ρ = 2.48 (km/s)2 ,
and µ /ρ = 2.25 (km/s)2 ].
can be treated as being isotropic at the macroscopic in which the medium is anisotropic and the stiffness
scale. tensor is
Let us start by considering two examples of wave
propagation, first through an isotropic medium and sec-  
λ⊥ + 2µ⊥ λ⊥ υ 0 0 0
ond through an anisotropic medium. Figure 2.18 shows  λ⊥ λ⊥ + 2µ⊥ υ 0 0 0 
 
snapshots of wave propagation for a case in which the  υ υ λ + 2µ 0 0 0 
[C] = 
0 
,
medium is isotropic and the stiffness tensor is  0 0 0 µ 0 
 0 0 0 0 µ 0 
  0 0 0 0 0 µ⊥
λ + 2µ λ λ 0 0 0
 λ λ + 2µ λ 0 0 0 (2.110)
 
 λ λ λ + 2µ 0 0 0
[C] = 
 0
.
 0 0 µ 0 0
 0 0 0 0 µ 0 which in this case is described by five parameters. Note
0 0 0 0 0 µ that in the first case the speed of wave propagation does
not depend on direction (axis system), whereas in the
(2.109) second case it does. In the first case, the material is
characterized as being isotropic; in this case the stiffness
Notice that this tensor can be described by two param- tensor must be invariant under rotation and reflection.
eters only. Figure 2.18 also shows snapshots for a case In the second case, the material is characterized as being
anisotropic (i.e., its properties cause wave propagation or

to vary with direction)3 .  
+ 2M 0 0 0
Again, the isotropic material reduces the number  + 2M 0 0 0
 
of independent elastic moduli to two. With subscript  + 2M 0 0 0
[S] = 
0
,
notation, the stiffness tensor of the isotropic materials  0 0 0 M 0 
 0 0 0 0 M 0 
can be written 0 0 0 0 0 M

cijkl = λδij δkl + µ δik δjl + δil δjk , (2.111) (2.116)
where δij is the Kronecker delta function notation: where
λ 1
=− , M= . (2.117)
0 for i
= j 2µ(3λ + 2µ) 4µ
δij = i, j = 1, 2, 3. (2.112)
1 for i = j
The relation between the stiffness tensor, cijpq , and the
By substituting expression (2.111) into equation (2.108), elastic compliances, sijpq , results in
we can effectively verify that the stiffness tensor in sijrs crspq =
ijpq , (2.118)
(2.111) is unchanged by rotation of the coordinate sys-
tems, hence confirming that this stiffness tensor is where
invariant with direction.
1
Before relating the isotropic stiffness tensor to rock
ijpq = (δip δjq + δiq δjp ) (2.119)
properties, let us address the following question: Is the 2
description of a stiffness tensor in (2.111) unique for all is the symmetrical fourth-rank unit tensor (
ijpq
pqrs =
isotropic media? Theoretically, the answer is “no.” We
ijrs ), characteristic for elastodynamics. Actually, the
can show that the following tensor is isotropic: relationship between compliances and stiffnesses in
equation (2.118) also is valid for anisotropic rock
cijkl = λδij δkl + µδik δjl + ηδil δjk , (2.113) formations.
We have seen that each of the six independent com-
and it is the most general case of an isotropic fourth- ponents of stress at a point is a linear function of the set
rank tensor. Observe that it is described by three of six independent components of strain. The result is
parameters instead of two, as we have seen previ- 36 elastic constants, which can be reduced to 21, based
ously. However, when cijkl = cjikl — as is the case in on thermodynamic considerations. The most general
all petroleum-seismology models — we end with this anisotropic materials are described by 21 constants.
condition: Fortunately, the elastic properties of many materials
and material composites in the earth are predominantly
(µ − η) δik δjl − δil δjk = 0. (2.114) independent of direction. Hence the stiffness in tensor
(2.111) is an appropriate first-order approximation of
This condition is valid for all the subscripts in equa- most rock formations.
tion (2.114), including the case in which i = k = 1
and j = l = 2, which implies that η = µ. Therefore the
description of the stiffness tensor of isotropic materials, Physical Interpretation of Elastic
as set out in (2.111), is the most general description for Moduli for an Isotropic Medium
petroleum seismology.
A relation similar to expression (2.111) exists for The relations between stress and strain in the
the compliance isotropic case are

sijkl = δij δkl + M δik δjl + δil δjk , (2.115) τxx = λ + 2µexx
τyy = λ + 2µeyy
τzz = λ + 2µezz
(2.120)
3 Note that equation (2.110) is the stiffness tensor for a transversely
τyz = µeyz
isotropic medium. A detailed discussion of this equation is given in τzx = µezx
Chapter 12. τxy = µexy ,
where The first three equations in the set (2.120) give

= exx + eyy + ezz . (2.121) p
exx = eyy = ezz = − . (2.126)
The constants µ and λ are called the “Lamé parameters.” 3λ + 2µ
The constant µ measures a material’s resistance to shear Using the definition of volume change, = exx +
(i.e., changes in shape without changes in volume). It eyy + ezz ; hence

is positive and has a unit of stress; a typical value for
rock formations is 20 GPa. p 2
K =− = λ + µ, (2.127)
In water and other nonviscous fluids, only changes 3
in volume are important in the stress-strain relationship; where K is called “bulk modulus” or “incompressibil-
therefore µ = 0. ity.” As we can see, K is the material resistance to a
The second constant, λ, has no simple physi- change in volume when subject to a load, and therefore
cal meaning, but it simplifies Hooke’s law greatly. it must be positive, in view of the fact that the volume
Let us introduce two new parameters, incompress- change is negative for a positive pressure change.
ibility (K) and Poisson’s ratio (ν), which have Because µ = 0 and ν = 0.5 for all nonviscous
clearer physical meanings. These parameters are often fluids, they cannot be used to differentiate among fluids.
used to characterize the elastic properties of rock However, the bulk modulus K can be used, because it
formations. varies with the type of fluid.
Let us start with Poisson’s ratio. Consider a purely
compressional stress applied in the x-direction. In other
words, τxx is applied and all other stress components are
EQUATIONS OF ELASTODYNAMIC
zero. After we substitute = exx + eyy + ezz , the first
three equations of the set (2.120) become WAVE MOTION
Our objective in this section is to derive the equa-
τxx = (λ + 2µ)exx + λ(eyy + ezz )
tions of motion and to combine them with the stress-
0 = (λ + 2µ)eyy + λ(exx + ezz ) (2.122)
strain relation, which describes material behavior. This
0 = (λ + 2µ)ezz + λ(exx + eyy ),
combination will allow us to describe the characteris-
where solving for exx , eyy and ezz gives tics of the subsurface from the petroleum-seismology
viewpoint, as well as that of seismic wavefields.
λ+µ
exx = τxx ,
µ(3λ + 2µ)
λ Newton’s Equation of Motion
eyy = ezz = − τxx . (2.123)
2µ(3λ + 2µ) The wave equation that governs the wave propa-
gation described in Figure 2.1, for instance, is derived
Poisson’s ratio is defined as
from Newton’s equation of motion: force equals the
eyy λ product of mass and acceleration. The components of
ν=− = . (2.124) force are derived from the components of stress acting
exx 2(λ + µ)
on an elemental volume representing a particle, x, at
Poisson’s ratio is dimensionless and has a maximum time t, as follows.
value of 0.5 for a nonviscous fluid (i.e., when µ = 0; The stress component in the x-direction on the face
no shear resistance). With the smallest value being 0 a-b-c-d is τxx , whereas on its opposite face, e-f-g-h,
(infinite shear resistance), most earth materials have it is τxx + ∂τ∂xxx
x (Figure 2.19). The net stress in the
a Poisson’s ratio of between 0.2 and 0.4; for typi- x-direction acting on these two faces is the difference:
cal igneous rocks such as granite, ν ≈ 0.25, and for
∂τxx ∂τxx
sedimentary rocks, 0.2 < ν < 0.4. τxx +
x − τxx =
x. (2.128)
Let us now turn to the topic of incompressibility. ∂x ∂x
Subjecting the solid to a uniform hydrostatic pressure The resulting force is the stress multiplied by the
leads to surface area
on which it acts (
y
z). Hence the force
τxx = τyy = τzz = −p ∂τxx
(2.125) is ∂x
x (
y
z).
τxy = τyz = τzx = 0.
a ∆x e
x three equations of particle motion at point x and time t
are

∆y τ xz
∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz ∂ 2 ux
fx = mγx ⇐⇒ + + =ρ 2 ,
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∆z

b
f ∂τyx ∂τyy ∂τyz ∂ 2 uy
fy = mγy ⇐⇒ + + = ρ 2 , and
τ xx ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
y τ xx +
∂τxx
∆x

∂x ∂τzx ∂τzy ∂τzz ∂ 2 uz
d
h fz = mγz ⇐⇒ + + =ρ 2 .
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂τxz
(2.131)
τ xz + ∆z
∂z
Using the subscript notation introduced in Box 2.2,
z equation (2.131) can be written in compact notation as
c g follows:
∂ 2 ui ∂τij
FIGURE 2.19. Element volume and illustration of stress ρ 2 = , (2.132)
∂t ∂xj
components in the x-direction, on opposite faces of the
volume. with
i, j = 1, 2, 3 or i, j = x, y, z.
These equations of wave motion are valid for what-
The stress component in the x-direction on the face ever stress-strain relations hold, including cases in
a-d-h-e
is τxy , whereas
on its opposite face, b-c-g-f, it which the medium is anelastic, or anisotropic; in other
∂τ
is τxy + ∂yxy
y . The difference gives the net stress, words, the behavior of material does not explicitly enter
which, when multiplied by into the equations of motion. We will discuss these
the area of the face (
x
z), cases in Chapter 12. In this chapter, we have limited
∂τxy
gives a force of ∂y
y (
x
z). our discussion to isotropic elastic media.
The stress component in the x-direction on the By combining Hooke’s law in equation (2.86) with
face a-b-f-e is τxz , whereas on its opposite face, the equations of wave motion in expression (2.132), we
∂τxz
d-c-g-h, it is τxz + ∂z
z . The resulting force is arrive at the following system of equations:

∂τxz

z (
x
z). ∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂τij (x, t)
∂z
ρ(x) = and
Hence the total force component in the x-direction is ∂t 2 ∂xj
given by ∂uk (x, t)
τij (x, t) = cijkl (x) , (2.133)
∂xl
∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz
fx = + +
x
y
z. (2.129) where
∂x ∂y ∂z

cijkl (x) = λ(x)δij δkl + µ(x) δik δjl + δil δjk . (2.134)
Substituting fx into Newton’s law of motion,
fx = mγx , where mass is given by m = ρ
x
y
z and The constants λ = λ(x) and µ = µ(x) are the Lamé
2
acceleration in the x-direction is given by γx = ∂ u2x , parameters, and δij is the Kronecker delta function nota-
∂t tion [see equation (2.40)]. The variables are explicit in
yields
these equations in order to emphasize that the density,
ρ = ρ(x), and the stiffness tensor, cijkl = cijkl (x),
∂τxx ∂τxy ∂τxz ∂ 2 ux are independent of time, under the assumption that the
+ + =ρ . (2.130)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t 2 medium is linearly elastic. This system of equations
governs wave propagation as a function of material
Similar considerations of stresses in the y and z direc- properties, {ρ, cijkl }. Therefore, under the assumption
tions lead to force components in the y- and z-directions that the earth is linearly elastic, the subsurface can be
and then to two additional equations of motion. The characterized by stiffness constants and density.
Notice that in addition to λ and µ, we have intro- If u0 = ±n, then equation (2.142) gives
duced another characteristic of rock formations, namely #
the density, ρ. Density of porous sedimentary rocks λ + 2µ
ranges from 1.8 g/cm3 to 2.6 g/cm3 . u0 · n = ±1 and V = VP = . (2.144)
ρ
To conclude this section, let us derive the elasto-
dynamic wave equation for the displacement field. By

Observe that the motion is parallel to the direction of
substituting the Hooke’s equation into the equations of
propagation. Therefore, the wave is called a longitudi-
wave motion, we obtain
nal wave.
! " If n
= ±u0 , then both terms in equation (2.142)
∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂ ∂uk (x, t)
ρ(x) − cijkl (x) = 0. (2.135) have to vanish independently, giving
∂t 2 ∂xj ∂xl
$
The elastodynamic wave equation (2.135) is generally µ
n · u0 = 0 and V = VS = . (2.145)
characterized as being homogeneous, because it does ρ
not include seismic sources.
In this case the motion of the plane wave is normal
to the direction of propagation. The wave is called a
transverse wave.
Elastic Waves: P-waves and S-waves In the literature of seismology, because VP >
VS , longitudinal plane waves are referred to as
In a homogeneous, isotropic, linearly elastic me-
P- (primary) waves, whereas transverse waves are
dium, the equation of wave motion (2.135) can be
called S- (secondary) waves. In the literature of me-
written in operator notation as follows:
chanics (and also in seismology), P-waves are called
ρ∂t2 u = (λ + µ)∇(∇ · u) + µ∇ 2 u. (2.136) compressional or pressure or dilatational waves,
whereas S-waves are called shear or equivoluminal
Two basic types of plane waves can be distinguished waves. We note that if the medium is an inviscid fluid,
by substituting the plane-wave form for the elastic then VS = 0, and VP would be the speed of sound waves
displacement defined in Box 2.8, in the fluid. S-waves cannot be propagated in fluids.
The elastodynamic wave equation of motion
u = A u0 exp[ik(n · x − Vt)], (2.137) (2.136) can be rewritten using the vector identity
into equation (2.136). Here, u0 and n are unit vec- ∇ 2 u = ∇(∇ · u) − ∇ × (∇ × u),
tors defining the directions of motion and propagation,
respectively. Using the relations = ∇(divu) − ∇ × (curlu) (2.146)
∂t2 u = −A V 2 k 2 u0 exp[ik(n · x − Vt)], (2.138) in the alternative form
∇ · u = A ik(n · u0 ) exp[ik(n · x − Vt)], (2.139) ρ∂t2 u = (λ + 2µ)∇(∇ · u) − µ∇ × (∇ × u). (2.147)
Notice that ∇, u [i.e., div(u)] describes the volume

∇∇ · u = −A k 2 (n · u0 )n exp[ik(n · x − Vt)], and
strain, whereas (∇ × u) [i.e., curl(u)] contains only
(2.140) shear strains for plane waves. Equation (2.136) or
(2.147) is one of the most complicated differential
∇ 2 u = −A k 2 u0 exp[ik(n · x − Vt)], (2.141) equations in classical physics. Further insight into the
structure of this equation is obtained by introducing the
we find that
Helmholtz decomposition (2.157) of the displacement
(µ − ρV 2 )u0 + (λ + µ)(n · u0 )n = 0. (2.142) u into scalar and vector potentials, as defined in Box 2.7:
Since n and u0 are different unit vectors, equa- u = ∇χ + ∇ × ψ, ∇ · ψ = 0, (2.148)

tion (2.142) can be fulfilled in two ways only:
where the first term is curl-free [∇ × (∇χ ) = 0] and
(i) u0 = ±n; (ii) n · u0 = 0. (2.143) the second term is divergence-free [∇ · (∇ × ψ) = 0].
Substituting equation (2.148) into equation (2.147), we ion

irect
obtain nd
tio
ga
! " rop
a
ρ p
(λ + 2µ)∇ ∇ 2 − ∂2 χ ve-
Wa
λ + 2µ t
! "
ρ 2 (a)
− µ∇ × ∇ × ∇ × + ∂t ψ = 0. (2.149)
µ
A solution of expression (2.149) will exist if the Particle
following two equations hold: motion
2
∇ − VP−2 ∂t2 χ = 0, and (2.150)

∇ × ∇ × +VS−2 ∂t2 ψ = 0. (2.151)
Particle
motion
Equation (2.150) is the wave equation for the scalar
potential, χ, known as the P-wave displacement poten-
tial. For this solution there is no twisting of the medium, (b)
only stretching and squeezing. The motion vector is
parallel to the direction of propagation, as illustrated in
Figure 2.20a, where propagation is in the x-direction.
Equation (2.151) is the wave equation for the vector
potential ψ, known as the S-wave displacement poten-
tial. For this type of displacement the dilatation ∇ · u
is zero, so there is no expansion or contraction. There- Particle
motion
fore, the strain must be of the shear type. The vector
wave equation (2.151) can be written alternatively in
the standard wave equation form:
2 (c)
∇ − VS−2 ∂t2 ψ = 0. (2.152)
The form (2.152) is often useful when we seek one-

component solutions for the vector potential. Observe
that the scalar and vector potentials of the displacement
field serve to uncouple the elastodynamic wave equa-
tion into two wave equations, with waves traveling with
distinct velocities: VP and VS .
FIGURE 2.20. Compressional and shear waves. Com-
We have shown that the plane-wave solution of pressional, or P-waves (a) have particle motion in the
the elastodynamic wave equation of motion can be x-direction, the direction of wave propagation. Shear
separated into a longitudinal P-wave part (which is waves, or S-waves, have particle motion orthogonal to
the gradient of the scalar potential χ), plus a trans- the direction of wave propagation. S-wave particle motion
verse S-wave part (which is the curl of a vector is polarized in two directions, one horizontal (b) and one
potential ψ). These two waves travel with different vertical (c). (Adapted from Anderson, 1994.)
velocities. The reader should note that the uncoupling
into two wave equations holds only in an infinite homo-
geneous medium. No coupling then exists between S-wave. However, we will see in Chapter 3 that when
equations (2.150) and (2.152); thus P- and S-wave interfaces or scatterers are present, boundary condi-
motions are independent. In particular, if motion begins tions — in general — generate a coupling between
as a P-wave (ψ = 0), it will continue to be a P-wave. P- and S-waves. That is, the boundary conditions give
If it begins as an S-wave (χ = 0), it will remain an rise to the phenomenon of mode conversion.
For S-wave propagation, the displacement can have We conclude that SV waves are governed fully by the
any direction in the plane normal to n. In an elastic y-component of the vector wave equation (2.152); i.e.,
medium where properties differ in the vertical direc- 2
tion only (a vertically inhomogeneous medium), we ∇ − VS−2 ∂t2 ψy = 0. (2.154)
normally choose the (x, z)-plane to contain the vector
n, and we consider motions that are in the (x, z)-plane For SH waves
or normal to the (x, z)-plane. Such shear wave motions
are called “vertically (SV) and horizontally (SH) polar- ux = 0,
ized shear waves,” respectively. SH and SV motions ∂ψx ∂ψz
uy = − , (2.155)
are illustrated in Figure 2.20b and 2.20c, respectively, ∂z ∂x
for wave propagation in the x-direction. Assuming 2D uz = 0.
wave propagation, we can write for SV waves
∂ψy Thus SH waves are governed fully by the x- and
ux = − , z-components of the vector wave equation (2.152). It is
∂z straightforward to show that SH waves obey the wave
uy = 0, (2.153) equation
uz = −
∂ψy 2
∂x
. ∇ − VS−2 ∂t2 uy = 0. (2.156)
BOX 2.7: HELMHOLTZ DECOMPOSITION OF VECTOR FIELDS

The Helmholtz decomposition of a vector field It follows that
states that, in general, any arbitrary vector field can
be represented as a sum of curl-free and divergence- ∇ · u1 = ∇ 2 χ ; ∇ · u2 = 0, (2.159)
free forms. The Helmholtz decomposition of the ∇ × u2 = ∇ × (∇ × ψ); ∇ × u1 = 0.
elastic displacement field u is given as
(2.160)
u = ∇χ + ∇ × ψ, ∇ · ψ = 0, In the above section, “Elastic Waves: P-waves and
= u1 + u2 , (2.157) S-waves,”4 we show that fields χ and ψ uncou-
ple the elastodynamic wave equation for u into two
with wave equations with two distinct wave velocities,
VP and VS :
2
∇ × u1 = ∇ × (∇χ) = 0, ∇ − VP−2 ∂t2 χ = 0, (2.161)
∇ · u2 = ∇ · (∇ × ψ) = 0.
(2.158) ∇ × ∇ × +VS−2 ∂t2 ψ = 0. (2.162)
The scalar potential, χ, and the vector potential, Combining equations (2.160), (2.161), and (2.162),
ψ, are often called “Lamé potentials,” or “P-wave we see that the Lamé potentials are given in terms
and S-wave potential,” or “dilatational and rota- of displacements as
tional displacement potential,” respectively. The
completeness of this representation has been dis- ∂t2 χ = VP2 ∇ · u, (2.163)
cussed by Morse and Feshbach (1953). Note that ∂t2 ψ = −VS2 ∇ × u. (2.164)
the vector potential has only two independent com-
ponents. The part of ψ that can be expressed as a From equations (2.163) and (2.164) we deduce that
gradient of a scalar is discarded, whereas the part ∇ · u describes P-wave propagation, whereas ∇ × u
that has zero divergence is used. describes S-wave propagation.
4 Although our derivations in the section on elastic waves are for plane waves, decomposition into two wave equations [(2.161) and (2.161)]
is valid for any waves in homogeneous media (i.e., cylindrical waves, spherical waves, etc.).
BOX 2.8: PLANE WAVES

When we consider the propagation of waves with phase velocity V in a direction defined by the
at great distances from their sources, the fact is unit propagation vector, n, is then represented by
obvious that the initial curved wavefront tends to
become planar as the wave travels outward. The u = A u0 exp[ik(n · x − Vt)]. (2.167)
initial curvature thus becomes very small. For prac-
It is understood that the physical displacement
tical purposes the wavefronts may be considered
components are the real part of u. As seen in
as planar. In the far-field we should expect that
the section above on P-waves and S-waves, for
plane wave theory is an adequate approximation
an isotropic elastic medium, we have two types
of the exact theory. We shall see that dealing with
of plane harmonic waves: longitudinal (P) and
the propagation of elastic waves using plane-wave
transverse (S) waves, propagating with velocities
theory gives us a useful procedure for analyz-
V = VP and V = VS , respectively. For P-waves,
ing the elastic-wave equation. In Chapter 3, we
will see that wave propagation in elastic isotropic n · u0 = ±1; (2.168)
media with planar interfaces can be examined
with great ease by using plane waves. In particu- i.e., the motion vector, u0 , of the P-wave is parallel
lar, we use the plane-wave representation together to the direction of propagation n. For S-waves,
with the boundary conditions at elastic interfaces
to derive plane-wave reflection and transmission n · u0 = 0; (2.169)
coefficients.
A 3D plane-displacement wave propagating i.e., the motion vector, u0 , of the S-wave is normal
with phase velocity V is represented by to the direction of propagation n. We say that the
vector, u0 , in the plane perpendicular to n describes
u = u0 f (n · x − Vt), (2.165) the polarization of the shear wave.
In Box 2.7, the Helmholtz decomposition of
where u0 and n are unit vectors defining the direc- the displacement vector is introduced. In particu-
tions of motion (polarization) and propagation, lar, equations (2.163) and (2.164) give relationships
respectively, and x denotes the position vector. between the Lamé potentials and the displace-
Observe that n · x = constant is the equation of ment. This relation can be used to derive plane-
a plane normal to the unit propagation vector, n. wave expressions for the Lamé potentials. Consider
Thus equation (2.165) represents a traveling plane propagation in the (x, z) plane. Substituting equa-
wave with velocity V and planes of constant phase, tion (2.167) into (2.163), the P-wave potential is
the normals of which are n. With given as
f (x · n − Vt) = A cos[k(n · x − Vt)], (2.166) ∂t2 χ = VP2 ∇ · u = VP2 A ikP (n · u0 )

exp[ikP (n · x − VP t)], (2.170)
equation (2.166) represents the special case of
equation (2.165) of a time-harmonic, monochro- with kP = ω/VP . Defining the directions of propa-
matic displacement wave. The amplitude A is gation and motion to be parallel, n · u0 = 1 leads,
independent of x and t. As defined in Section after two partial time integrations, to
4.4, ω = kV is the circular frequency and k is
the wavenumber. The harmonic waves are steady- χ = VP A exp[ikP (n · x − VP t)], (2.171)
state waves as opposed to transient waves (pulses),
where A = (iω)−1 A . Combining equations (2.164)
because they represent trains of single-frequency
and (2.167), the equation for the S-wave potential
sinusoidal waves that disturb the complete extent
is given as
of the medium at any instant of time. For math-
ematical convenience we generally use a com-
plex exponential function instead of the cosine. ∂t2 ψ = −VS2 ∇ × u = −VS2 A ikS (n × u0 )
A plane harmonic-displacement wave propagating exp[ikS (n · x − VS t)], (2.172)
(continued)
Box 2.8 continued
with kS = ω/VS . For SV-waves, where direc- introduce physically unimaginable complex angles
tions of propagation and motion are both in the of incidence, corresponding to imaginary verti-
(x, z)-plane, n × u0 = −ey , and only ψy is cal wavenumbers. Such plane waves are called
nonzero. Equation (2.172) gives, after two partial “inhomogeneous” or “evanescent” plane waves.
time integrations, Investigating the possibility of imaginary compo-
nents of n in the depth direction, one finds that the
ψy = VS A exp[ikS (n · x − VS t)]. (2.173)
amplitude of inhomogeneous plane waves grows or
For the plane wave we have introduced, the decays exponentially with depth. The amplitude is
direction, n, of propagation is assumed to be a then not constant on a wavefront. We will discuss
vector that has real Cartesian components. This this amplitude issue in Chapter 3. In the remaining
plane wave is normally called a “homogeneous part of this chapter we consider only homogeneous
plane wave.” Its amplitude is constant on a wave- plane waves.
front. Homogeneous plane-wave theory has some Finally, we remark that wave fields can
shortcomings, however (Grant and West, 1965). be analyzed conveniently by decomposition into
For instance, the theory does not account for monochromatic plane waves using Fourier trans-
the existence of head waves or the existence of forms. In general, the Fourier decomposition of
surface waves. One way to circumvent this prob- spherical waves gives a range of both homogeneous
lem while sticking to the plane-wave theory is to and inhomogeneous plane waves.
In vertically inhomogeneous elastic media, P-waves 2) P-wave impedance (ZP = ρVP ), S-wave impedance
and SV-waves — which both have polarizations in the (ZS = ρVS ), and density (ρ). If the medium is
(x, z)-plane — may couple at the interfaces of layers acoustic, ZS becomes zero, and P-wave impedance
of rock. SH waves have a different polarization — nor- is called “acoustic impedance.”
mal to the (x, z)-plane — and they do not interact with 3) P-wave velocity (VP ), the Poisson ratio ν as intro-
P- and SV-waves. Thus in this case SH motion separates duced in equation (2.124), and density (ρ).
from the coupled P-SV wave.
Poisson’s ratio, also introduced in expression
(2.124), can be determined from measurements of the
shear and compressional velocities:
Parameters of Isotropic, Elastic 2
Rock Formations 1 VP
−1
2 VS
ν= 2 . (2.174)
In an isotropic, elastic rock formation, the wave VP
VS −1
equation and the constitutive equation in (2.133) —
which govern wave propagation — contain three char-
In a fluid, S-wave velocity is zero; Poisson’s ratio in
acteristics of rock: density of mass, ρ; and Lamé’s
this case is 1/2. For rock formations, the Poisson ratio
parameters, λ and µ (µ being null for acoustic media).
is smaller but always positive (between 0.2 and 0.35 for
Therefore, an isotropic, elastic rock formation can be
most consolidated rocks and between 0.4 and 0.45 for
described by three independent parameters: {λ, µ, ρ}.
unconsolidated materials). This last statement implies
Other choices with more physical meaning generally
that
are adopted in petroleum seismology, including the VP √
following: ≥ 2 ≈ 1.41. (2.175)
VS
1) P-wave velocity (VP ), S-wave velocity (VS ), and Some examples of experimental measurements of these
density (ρ). If the medium is acoustic, VS becomes quantities are shown in Table 2.2 and in Figure 2.21.
zero, and the P-wave velocity is called “acoustic Other measurements of these quantities for gas, oil, and
velocity.” brine are in Appendix B.
TABLE 2.2. (a) Poisson’s ratio for common types of sedi- Note that we also discussed the point that the bulk
ment and rock. (Adapted from Burger, 1992.) (b) Velocities modulus in equation (2.127) is consistently positive.
and densities of various materials. (Adapted from Burger, This condition imposes another constraint between VP
1992.) and VS , namely,
(a)
VP ≥ 1.15VS . (2.176)
Type of sediment or rock Poisson’s ratio
Consolidated shale 0.25–0.35 However this constraint generally is not used because
Consolidated sandstone 0.15–0.25 it is taken into account by condition (2.175), which
Poorly consolidated shale 0.35–0.45 requires that Poisson’s ratio must simultaneously be
Poorly consolidated sandstone 0.30–0.35
High-porosity sandstone 0.35–0.40 positive and smaller than 0.5.
Low-porosity sandstone 0.15–0.25
Gas-charged sandstone 0.10–0.20
Oil-saturated sandstone 0.28–0.32
Salt 0.25–0.30 Relating Elastic Parameters
Dolomite 0.25–0.30 to Petrophysical Parameters
Limestone 0.25–0.35
Coal 0.35–0.45
Let us note that the characterization of rock forma-
(b) tions by VP , VS , and ρ — or any other combinations
of these parameters — often does not directly indicate
Substance Vp (m/s) Vs (m/s) Density (g/cm3 ) the presence of hydrocarbons. For instance, consider a
Quartz 5800 3600 2.65 fluid-saturated rock like the sedimentary rock described
Calcite 6400 3400 2.70 in Appendix A. Although VP , VS , and ρ properly
Dolomite 7000 3900 2.90
Halite 4600 2500 2.15
describe the elastic behavior of the rock at the parti-
Anhydrite 6100 3475 2.90 cle scale (the particle scale in petroleum seismology is
Methane 457 0 0.30 about 5 meters), these parameters do not tell us whether
Petroleum 1280 0 0.95 (heavy) fluid (gas, water, oil, etc.) is contained in the rock
0.80 (light)
Water 1500 0 1.00 or whether these rocks are dry. Also, these param-
eters do not tell us directly about the percentage of
empty space (pores) in the rock that is occupied by
fluid or about the interconnected pathways that allow
fluid to circulate through the pores. Figure 2.22 shows
0.5 examples of media with different amounts of porosity
Shale and with different permeability. Porosity is the ratio of
Limestone/dolomite
Coal open space (Vvoid ) to the total volume of the rock plus
0.4 2.5
openings (Vtotal ); φ = Vvoid /Vtotal , where φ is porosity.
(Fluid) In many instances φ is multiplied by 100 and expressed
VP / VS ratio
Poisson's ratio
0.3 (Gas) 1.9 in percentage. Permeability is a measure of a porous

Sandstone
(Fluid) medium’s transmission of fluids.5
Anhydrite
A discipline of geoscience known as petrophysics
0.2 1.6 aims at establishing the connection between the elastic
Fractured
Sandstone gas-filled parameters and the petrophysical parameters, such as
dolomite porosity and permeability. This discipline is grounded
0.1 (Gas) 1.5
in (1) laboratory measurements, which have led
0
2 4 6 8 5 Porosity is the volume fraction of the rock that can be filled with fluid,
and permeability describes the ease of fluid’s flowing through the rock. When
P-wave velocity (km/s)
a petroleum engineer was asked to explain porosity and permeability to a
businessman, he said: “Porosity is equivalent to cash ($) in the reservoir and
FIGURE 2.21. Examples of P-wave velocities, Poisson’s permeability is proportional to the cash flow ($/day) from the reservoir to the
ratios and VP /VS ratios of various kinds of rock. (Courtesy oil company.” Needless to say, porosity and permeability are quite important
Compagnie Générale de Géophysique.) reservoir parameters.
Km = intrinsic modulus of solid

(bulk modulus for zero porosity)
Kp = bulk modulus of pore space
Kf = bulk modulus of saturating
pore-fluid
40
φ = porosity
Most sedimentary
30
rocks are in this The Biot-Gassmann theory (Bourbie, 1987) relates
window.
P-wave and S-wave velocity and density of such rocks
Porosity (p.u.)
to their petrophysical parameters, as follows:

20
4
ρVP2 = Kp + Kb + µ, (2.177)
3
10
ρVS2 = µ, (2.178)
0
0.1 1.0 10 100 1000 and
Permeability (md)
ρ = (1 − φ)ρs + φρf . (2.179)
Recall that the shear modulus describes how a body
deforms under shear stress, whereas the bulk modulus
measures a body’s resistance to change of volume under
pressure. The composite density is made up of density
FIGURE 2.22. General relationships of porosity and perme- contributions from matrix and fluid. The framework and
ability in reservoir rocks. Dark patterns indicate porosity. the pore-space bulk moduli are related to pore-fluid bulk
Porosity is given in “porosity units,” which are equivalent modulus, as follows:
to percentages. (Adapted from Selley, 1983.)
β2
and continue to lead to very productive empirical Kp = β−φ φ
, (2.180)
Km + Kf
relationships between elastic parameters and petro-
physical parameters, and (2) some theoretical devel-
where
opments, such as the famous Biot-Gassmann model Kb
of porous media, the Hertz-Mindlin contact theory β =1− , (2.181)
Km
(which models unconsolidated sediment as a random
packing of spherical elastic grains), and the White and where Km is the bulk modulus of the rock grains. So
model of attenuation and dispersion for heterogeneous, if the petrophysical parameters are known, it is straight-
fluid-saturated media. forward to estimate the elastic parameters VP , VS , and ρ
Our goal in this section is not to review petro- from equations (2.177) through (2.179). Unfortunately,
physics, but to draw the reader’s attention to the impor- the inverse is not true; knowing VP , VS , and ρ is not
tance of and the challenges of connecting elastic and sufficient for estimation of the petrophysical parame-
petrophysical parameters for exploration and produc- ters — ρs , ρf , µ, Kp , Kb , Km , Kf , and φ — because we
tion of petroleum. The importance probably is obvious, have a system of three equations and eight unknowns
but the challenges may not be obvious. To elaborate which, of course, is impossible to solve.
on the challenges of this connection, let us consider One classic objective in passing from elastic param-
the case of a sedimentary rock (quartzose sandstone) eters to petrophysical parameters is to estimate Kf , the
with porosity φ saturated by a homogeneous fluid. The pore-fluid bulk modulus, as an indicator of hydrocar-
pertinent notation is as follows: bons in sandstone formations. S-wave velocity mea-
surements give us µ, but we still need to know Km ,
VP = P-wave velocity Kb , and Kp to evaluate Kf . Laboratory measurements
VS = S-wave velocity of shear and compressional velocities, plus porosity
ρ = composite density measurements on gas-saturated, pure-quartz sandstone,
ρf = density of fluid yield the necessary information on these parameters.
ρs = density of matrix For instance, the experimental measurements of Mur-
µ = shear modulus of rock frame phy et al. (1993) reveal that porosity is linearly related
Kb = bulk modulus of rock frame to Kb and µ for these rocks (Figure 2.23). These
(a)
50 Keff = effective bulk modulus of a dry, random,
Bulk Modulus Kb , GPa
40
identical-sphere packing
µeff = effective shear modulus
30 ν = Poisson’s ratio
P = effective (net) pressure (overburden
20 minus the pore pressure)

C = 9, average number of contacts
10
per grain
0 η = empirical factor
50 the effective bulk modulus of a dry, random, identical-
Shear Modulus µ, GPa
40
sphere packing is given as
#
η C (1 − φ) µ
30 2 2 2
Keff = P, (2.182)
18π 2 (1 − ν)2
20
10
and the effective shear modulus is given by
#
0 5 − 4ν η 3C 2 (1 − φ)2 µ2
0 10 20 30 40 µeff = P. (2.183)
5(2 − ν) 2π 2 (1 − ν)2
Porosity (%)
In the original Hertz-Mindlin theory, the degree of

(b) 2 the root in equations (2.182) and (2.183) was η = 3.
However, η can be regarded as a Mickey Mouse factor.
For gas sands, Vidal et al. (2001) suggested η = 5.6
for P-waves and η = 3.8 for S-waves. For oil sands,
Kb /N
1 Landrø et al. (2001) used η = 5.

According to contact theory, any force applied to
the rock is transmitted at the grain contacts, where one
grain touches another. Consequently, grain contacts
0 govern the rock’s bulk and shear moduli, and hence
0 10 20 30 40 its compressional and shear velocities. Each grain con-
Porosity (%) tact can be thought of as being composed of two coiled
springs that move in directions tangential and normal to
FIGURE 2.23. (a) Bulk and shear moduli as functions of the contact surface. Stiffnesses of these contacts depend
porosity for pure quartz sandstones. (b) Laboratory data in part on the porosity of the rock, because the grain con-
showing that the ratio of the bulk and shear modulus tact area — and thus the force transmitted — increases
(N = µ) is constant, and independent of porosity. (From as porosity decreases. Mathematical expressions that
Murphy et al., 1993.)
describe the theory confirm experimental results that
Kb and µ are nearly linear functions of porosity and
that the ratio of moduli for dry rock, Kb /µ, is indepen-
dent of porosity and for quartz sandstones is equal to
measurements also suggest that the ratio Kb /µ is a 0.9 (Figure 2.23).
constant, 0.9, independent of porosity. Finally, the lab- So by setting Km = 36 GPa and Kb /µ = 0.9, we
oratory measurements show that Km for quartz equals obtain Kp through equation (2.177) and then Kf through
36 Gigapascals (GPa). equation (2.180), as follows:
These laboratory findings on Kb and µ are con-
sistent with the Hertz-Mindlin contact theory (see φKm Kp
Kf = , (2.184)
Murphy et al., 1993; Carlson and Gangi, 1985; and α2K m − (α − φ)Kp
Gangi and Carlson, 1996), which models unconsol-
idated rock as a random packing of spherical elastic with
grains. Introducing the new parameters Kp = ρ VP2 − 2.233VS2 (2.185)
and Equations of Wave Motion and

the Generalized Hooke’s Law
0.9ρVS2
α =1− . (2.186)
Km No matter how complicated a system of seismic
sources is, it can be represented by a body force that
This example shows how a combination of (1) the we will denote by Fi , and/or by stress distributions
empirical relationship derived from laboratory mea- that we will denote by the tensor −Iij . If the earth is
surements, (2) measurements of elastic parameters VP , at rest, the sources are null, and the wave motion obeys
VS , and ρ, and (3) the Biot-Gassmann theory can allow the equations in expression (2.133). However, if one of
us to estimate petrophysical parameters. these sources is not null, the equations of wave motion
For more discussion on the connection between can be modified as follows:
elastic and petrophysical parameters, we refer the reader ∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂τij (x, t)
to five examples: Bourbie (1987), Hornby et al. (1992), ρ(x) = + Fi (x, t)
Murphy et al. (1993), Castagna and Backus (1993), and ∂t 2 ∂xj
White (1965). τij (x, t) = cijkl (x)ekl (x, t) − Iij (x, t). (2.187)
Equation (2.187) is known as the generalized
Hooke’s law because the presence of the source term
−Iij . By substituting the generalized Hooke’s law into
SOURCES OF SEISMIC WAVES the equations of wave motion, we arrive at the elasto-
dynamic wave equations for the particle displacement
Definition of Sources in the Context field:
of Petroleum Seismology
! "
∂ 2 ui (x, t) ∂ ∂uk (x, t)
In the first section, “An Example of Wave Propaga- ρ(x) − cijkl (x)
tion,” we saw that the dropping of a stone into a tank of ∂t 2 ∂xj ∂xl
water would generate acoustic waves. A sudden distur- ∂Iij (x, t)
= Fi (x, t) − . (2.188)
bance at the point of impact was responsible for exciting ∂xj
these waves. Faulting and earthquakes is another exam-
ple of sudden deformation that generates seismic waves. We have explicitly introduced the variables relative
Actually, waves are generated in almost any instance to particle positions in space and time in these equations
when a portion of a given medium is deformed suddenly to emphasize the fact that sources Fi = Fi (x, t) and
or moves suddenly. Iij = Iij (x, t) can be distributed over a volume (i.e.,
Examples of man-made sources of seismic waves volume source) or be located at a specific point (point
used to probe the subsurface are shown in Figure 2.24. source). In petroleum seismology, most sources can be
Seismic sources can be described as forces — body treated as point sources.
force and surface forces: Based on equations (2.187) and (2.188), we can
now conclude that a seismic source can be represented
1) Body forces are related to mass or volume. by a set, {Fk , Iij }. This set has three characteristics:
2) Surface forces or contact forces (also known as trac- (1) it determines the mechanism of the source via the
tion forces) act at the surface of the earth or at the nonzero elements of this set, (2) it defines the pulse,
sea floor. They reflect the pulling and pushing of which describes the magnitude, duration, and overall
atoms on one side of a surface against atoms on the time dependency of the source, and (3) it specifies spa-
other side. Surface forces are reckoned per unit area tial distributions of the source. To fix our idea, let us
across the surface on which they act. Stress forces, consider the weight drop in Figure 2.24b. Historically
which are associated with volumetric and angular weight dropping was the first means of creating seismic
deformation, can be characterized as a set of surface waves. The procedure can be represented as a vertical
forces. force at point xs , as follows:


Iij = 0 for i, j = 1, 2, 3,
Our next task is to include these sources in the equa-
F1 = F2 = 0 (2.189)
tion of wave motion and in Hooke’s law, which were 

introduced earlier. F3 (x, t) = φ(t)δ(x − xs )
Solenoid
Air supply
Water slug
Upper
chamber
Shuttle
Lower
chamber
Gun port
Armed Fired
(d)
High Solenoid
pressure valve
air
Tr iggering
station
Port
High Air bubble

pressure
air
Armed Fired
(e)
FIGURE 2.24. Examples of seismic sources. (a) An explosive source: a charge of dynamite is fired in a shot hole. Waves radi-
ate with equal strength in all directions, in spite of the presence of the hole (adapted from White, 1965). (b) An example
of falling-weight sources: the impact of a falling weight applies a force normal to the surface (adapted from White, 1965).
(c) An example of a horizontal-force source: similar to falling-weight sources, forces parallel to the surface of the ground
can be exercised by a moving mass (adapted from White, 1965). (d) A typical mechanical device of a water gun source, used
in seismic exploration at sea: it consists of two chambers; the upper firing chamber contains compressed air, and the lower
chamber is filled with water. When the gun is fired, the compressed air forces the shuttle downward, expelling water from
the lower chamber (adapted from Telford et al., 1990). (e) A typical mechanical device of an air gun source, used in seismic
exploration at sea: it consists of an air compressor, storage tanks of compressed air, and an electrical firing circuit. When the
firing command is received, the air gun releases a specified volume of high-pressure air into the water. (Adapted from Bolt
Associates, Inc., 1979.)
where φ(t) is the pulse of the weight-drop source. The Examples of Seismic-wave Radiation
term φ(t) is also sometimes called the “source sig-
nature” or “wavelet.” Figure 2.25 shows examples of Most seismic waves are generated and recorded in
pulses. A pulse contains information about the magni- either a fluid or a solid. Our objective in this section
tude and time dependency of the source. is to discuss examples of seismic-wave radiation in an
(a) Let us start with seismic-wave radiation in liquids.

Normalized pressur e
As discussed earlier, in a nonviscous fluid such as water,
1.0 forces are always oriented normal to the surface on
which the force acts, regardless of how the elementary
volume (i.e., particle) is oriented in space. Based on this
0.0 property, the seismic source in a nonviscous fluid can

be represented as a stress source. Assuming that it is a
–1.0 source point, it can be described as follows:
0 80 160 240 320 400 &
Iij = Kiv δij
Time (ms) , (2.190)
F1 = F2 = F3 = 0
(b)
2.0
with
−ρ∂t2 iv = δ(x − xs )φ(t), (2.191)

1.0
where iv is volume density of volume injection, φ(t)
is the pulse of the stress source at x = xs , and K
0.0 is the bulk modulus introduced in equation (2.127).
In practice, this system of force is achieved by a
–1.0 gas- or water-impulsive injection known as an air gun
0 80 160 240 320 400 and water gun, respectively.
Time (ms) For the same reason that forces constituting the
stress tensor for a nonviscous fluid always are oriented
(c) normal to the surface on which the force acts, the stress
1.0 tensor τij , invoked in equation (2.187), can be written
as
0.0 τij = −pδij , (2.192)
where p is the pressure, as introduced in the section

–1.0 above, “The Stress Tensor.” By substituting expressions
(2.190) and (2.192) in expression (2.187), and using the
fact that the shear modulus is null for acoustic materials,
–2.0
0 80 160 240 320 400 i.e.,
Time (ms)
cijkl = Kδij δkl , (2.193)
FIGURE 2.25. Examples of source signatures, also called
wavelets: (a) Water gun. (b) Air gun. For a detailed descrip- the equations of wave motion in (2.187) reduce to
tion of water-gun and air-gun sources, see Hatton et al.
(1997), Kramer et al. (1980), and Telford et al. (1990). ∂ 2 uk ∂p
(c) The theoretical source signature used in the simula- ρ =−
tion of snapshots presented throughout this book, if not ∂t 2 ∂xk
specified otherwise. ∂ui
p+K = Kiv , (2.194)
∂xi
or using the particle velocity instead of displacement,

unbounded nonviscous fluid and in an unbounded solid. ∂vk ∂p
Although these two cases probably are the simplest set ρ =−
∂t ∂xk
of two, they provide the framework for understanding
more complicated cases, which we will encounter in ∂p ∂vi ∂iv
+K =K . (2.195)
chapters to follow. ∂t ∂xi ∂t
Going a step further by combining the two equations in We repeated the experiment shown in Figures 2.1
expression (2.195), we arrive at and 2.2 on an unbounded homogeneous solid, with
exactly the same source. Properties of this solid are
! " VP = 2000 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3 .
∂ 2p ∂ 1 ∂p ∂ 2 iv
− = Snapshots of wave propagation through this medium
K K . (2.196)
∂t 2 ∂xj ρ ∂xj ∂t 2 are shown in Figure 2.26 for display of volumetric
deformation. This figure confirms that pressure sources
For a point source at xs , equation (2.196) reduces to generate only P-waves, irrespective of the properties
of the isotropic medium. Notice that the amplitude
! " radiation patterns are exactly the same as those of fluids,
∂ 2p ∂ 1 ∂p
−K = −Kρ −1 δ(x − xs )φ(t). i.e., invariant with direction.
∂t 2 ∂xj ρ ∂xj Comparison of traveltimes of (a) the snapshots of
(2.197) pressure (Figure 2.26) and (b) the snapshots of particle
Let us consider seismic radiation based on a numer-

ical computation of these equations, which is discussed 1500 m
in Appendix C. The source pulse used in these examples 200 ms
is shown in Figure 2.25c. The unbounded nonvis-
cous fluid in this case is water (i.e., VP = 1500 m/s,
ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 ). Figure 2.1 shows snapshots of wave
1500 m
propagation. The physical quantity displayed here is
the pressure, p. Notice that the amplitude of this defor-
mation is distributed uniformly in all directions with
respect to the source point. The reason for this uniform
distribution of amplitude with direction is that the sys-
tem of sources in equation (2.190), used in this example,
is invariant with direction and that the medium under 280 ms
consideration is homogeneous and unbounded.
In the section of this chapter titled “An Example
1500 m
of Wave Propagation,” we discussed snapshots of wave
propagation in seismic experiments cannot be seen or
analyzed directly. Sensors are put at certain locations
to record the evolution of pressure. These recordings
constitute seismic data. Figure 2.2b shows seismic
data for measurements of pressure using a horizontal
distribution of sensors. 360 ms
Although only volumetric deformation occurs in
nonviscous fluids, we can measure the displacement
1500 m
or particle velocity indirectly by using the relation in

(2.194); i.e.,
∂vk 1 ∂p
=− . (2.198)
∂t ρ ∂xk
The relationship (2.198) allows us to determine par- div

ticle velocity from the gradient of pressure; estimation FIGURE 2.26. Snapshots of wave propagation in a homo-
of the vertical component of particle velocity in sea geneous solid elastic and isotropic medium (VP = 2000
water is based on this relationship. We will discuss the m/s, VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3 ). The waves were
practical issues related to use of equation (2.198) in generated by an explosion. The physical quantity displayed
Chapters 6 and 7. here is volumetric deformation.
1500 m 1500 m FIGURE 2.27. Snapshots of wave propagation in a

homogeneous solid elastic and isotropic medium
200 ms 200 ms (VP = 2000 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ =
1.8 g/cm3 ). The waves were generated by an
explosion. The physical quantities displayed
1500 m
here are (a) horizontal component of the particle

velocity and (b) vertical component of the particle
velocity.
280 ms 280 ms
1500 m
confirming that a horizontal force produces
both volumetric and angular deformations
(Figure 2.28). The amplitude radiation pat-
terns of particle velocity are totally different
from those of the explosive source, shown in
Figures 2.26 and 2.27.
Notice that although the source in this
360 ms 360 ms
case generates P- and S-waves, we can still
measure P- and S-waves separately by calcu-
lating div(u) and curl(u) (see Figure 2.29).
1500 m
The results in Figure 2.29 are consistent

with the fact that div(u) describes vol-
umetric deformation (i.e., P-waves) and
curl(u) describes shear deformations (i.e.,
S-waves).
Vx Vz
GEOMETRIC SPREADING
velocity (Figure 2.27) shows that the traveltimes are Figures 2.26, 2.27, 2.28, and 2.29 show wave
equal. However, the amplitude radiation patterns of the energy spreading outward from a disturbance, as a
components of particle velocity are different from those spherical wavefront. For each distance the wave travels,
of pressure data, as one might expect. the energy must be distributed over a much larger area.
Let us now consider a horizontal source in an Since the total energy on the ever-increasing sphere of
unbounded homogeneous solid (with VP = 2000 m/s, the wavefront is constant, energy density (energy per
VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3 ). The source can unit area) must decrease as the square of the distance
be represented as follows: from the source.
Consider the amount of energy distributed over a
 small area of the spherical wavefront at one instant, and

Iij = 0 for i, j = 1, 2, 3, project that area onto the wavefront at a later instant.
F2 = F3 = 0 (2.199) Because the surface area of a sphere is 4πr 2 , where

 r is the radius, the ratio of the areas must be equal to
F1 (x, t) = φ(t)δ(x − xs )
the ratios of the squares of the radii of the spherical
wavefronts. Thus energy distributed over the new area
and we can record the horizontal and vertical com- of the wavefront must decrease as 1/r 2 . Because wave
ponents of particle velocity (Figure 2.28). We can amplitude is proportional to the square root of wave
see that P- and S-waves are generated in this case, energy, the amplitude decreases as 1/r. The spherical
BOX 2.9: ANOTHER FORM OF THE EQUATIONS OF WAVE MOTION

Let us start by adding another convention of Alternatively, we can express this equation as a
notation, which allows us to simplify further the function of compliances; i.e.,

expressions of equations of waves. Partial differen-

tiation with respect to xj will now be denoted by ∂j epq (x, t) − spqij (x)τij (x, t) = hpq (x, t), (2.204)
instead ∂/∂xj . The symbol ∂t is to be reserved for
partial differentiation with respect to time. (x, t) represents source strain distribution,
where hpq
Equations of wave motion: So far we have written

the equations of motion as hpq (x, t) = spqij (x)Iij (x, t). (2.205)
ρ(x)∂t2 ui (x, t) = ∂j τij (x, t) + Fi (x, t), (2.200) Using the expression for the strain rate as a function
in which the particle acceleration in equa- of the particle velocity, i.e.,
tion (2.131) is expressed as a function of displace-
ment. Introducing particle velocity, vi = ∂t ui , and 1
∂t ekl (x, t) = [∂k vl (x, t) + ∂l vk (x, t)] , (2.206)
the identity fourth-rank unit tensor, 2
1 and taking the derivative of equation (2.204) with

ijkl = (δik δjl + δil δjk ), (2.201)
2 respect to time, the generalized Hooke’s law equa-
equation (2.200) can be written tion can also be written as follows:
ρ(x)∂t vi (x, t) =
ijkl ∂j τkl (x, t) + Fi (x, t).
(2.202)
pqmr ∂m vr (x, t) − spqij (x)∂t τij (x, t)
= hpq (x, t), (2.207)
Generalized Hooke’s law: So far we have writ-
ten the Hooke’s law equation as a function of
where hpq represents strain-source rate distribution,
stiffnesses; i.e.,

τij (x, t) = cijkl (x)ekl (x, t) − Iij (x, t). (2.203) hpq (x, t) = ∂t hpq (x, t). (2.208)
BOX 2.10: ACOUSTIC EQUATIONS OF WAVE MOTION

Let us add a general form of the acoustic wave equations (2.209) and (2.210) in equation (2.202)
equation that we will use in Chapter 6. We assume and equation (2.203), and by using the definition
that seismic sources are described as follows: of stiffness tensor in (2.193), the equations of wave
& motion reduce to
Iij = Kiv δij
, (2.209) ∂vk ∂p
Fk ρ =− + Fk , (2.211)
∂t ∂xk
where K is the bulk modulus introduced in equa- ∂p ∂vi ∂iv
+K =K , (2.212)
tion (2.127), iv is volume density of volume ∂t ∂xi ∂t
injection, and the stress tensor, τij , invoked in
equation (2.187), can be written as or equivalently to
∂vk ∂p
τij = −pδij , (2.210) = −σ + σ Fk , (2.213)
∂t ∂xk
where p is pressure, as introduced in the section ∂p ∂vi ∂iv
above, titled “The Stress Tensor.” By substituting κ + = , (2.214)
∂t ∂xi ∂t
(continued)
Box 2.10 continued
where σ = 1/ρ is the specific volume (i.e., the Equation (2.215) can also be written as a function
reciprocal of the density) and κ = 1/K is the of gradient and divergence, as follows:
compressibility (i.e., the reciprocal of the bulk ! 2 "

∂ ∂ 2 iv
modulus). κ 2 − div (σ grad) p = −div (σ F) + 2 .
Note also that by taking the derivative of ∂t ∂t
equation (2.213) with respect to xk , and then sub- (2.216)
stituting the equation of the wave motion (2.213)
For the particular case in which the specific volume
into Hooke’s law (2.214), we obtain the following
is constant, equation (2.215) reduces to
second-order differential equation:
∂ 2p 1 ∂ 2p 1 ∂ 2 Fk 1 ∂ 2 iv
− = − + , (2.217)
∂ 2p ∂ ∂p ∂ (σ Fk ) ∂ 2 iv ∂t 2 V 2 ∂xk2 V 2 ∂xk2 κ ∂t 2
κ − σ =− + .
∂t 2 ∂xk ∂xk ∂xk ∂t 2 √
where V = V (x) = σ (x)/κ(x) is the acoustic
(2.215) velocity.
BOX 2.11: THE EQUIVALENCE FLUID MODEL FOR P-WAVES IN A SOLID

In many cases in petroleum seismology, a first Upon writing the stress tensor in this form,
impression of the behavior of elastic waves in het- ! "
erogeneous media is arrived at by paying attention 1 1
τpq = τii δpq + τpq − τii δpq
only to the propagation, reflection, transmission, 3 3
and scattering of P-waves. As described earlier ! "
1
[see equation (2.66)], P-waves are characterized = −pδpq + τpq − τii δpq , (2.221)
3
by the volumetric strain or its rate (i.e., volumetric
deformation rate), which is where the first term on the right-hand side is the
pressure field, as given by expression (2.219), and
∂t = ∂r vr , (2.218)
the term in brackets is the deviatoric stress, we
whereas in the coupling of this quantity to the stress, obtain the following identity (de Hoop, 1995):
only the pressure, ! "
1
siipq ∂t τpq = −siipp ∂t p + siipq ∂t τpq − τii δpq .
1 3
p = − τii , (2.219)
3 (2.222)
is taken into account, and coupling to the shear
stresses is ignored. Upon ignoring the influence of the second term
Let us consider the equations of wave motion on the right-hand side in equation (2.222), expres-
for this particular case. sion (2.220) can be approximated by
Generalized Hooke’s law: First, to arrive at an ∂r vr + κs ∂t p = hii , (2.223)

expression for the volumetric deformation rate, we
contract equation (2.207) over the subscripts i and where compressibility κs (the reciprocal of the bulk
j and thus obtain modulus) of the solid is given by
∂r vr − siipq ∂t τpq = hii . (2.220) κs = siipp . (2.224)

(continued)
Box 2.11 continued
Equations of wave motion: If we substitute equa- Upon ignoring the influence of the second term in
tion (2.221) in equation (2.202), we arrive at the square brackets, we arrive at

! "
1 ∂k p + ρs ∂t vk = Fk . (2.226)
−
kmpq ∂m −pδpq + τpq − τii δpq
3
Equation (2.226) represents the equation of motion
+ ρs ∂t vk = Fk . (2.225) for P-waves.
FIGURE 2.28. Snapshots of wave propagation in a 1500 m 1500 m

homogeneous solid elastic and isotropic medium
[VP = 2000 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 1.8 200 ms 200 ms
g/cm3 ]. The waves were generated by a horizontal
force. The physical quantities displayed here are
1500 m
(a) the horizontal component of the particle veloc-
ity and (b) the vertical component of the particle
velocity.
wave solution of the wave equation is of

the form 280 ms 280 ms
1 r
f t− , (2.227)
r V
1500 m
implying that the form of the pulse does not
change, but the amplitude varies as 1/r.
Notice that the plane-wave solution to
the wave equation in elastic media leads
to equations of the form f (t − x/V ), as
we have shown in Box 2.8. Therefore,
once the plane wave is generated, it con- 360 ms 360 ms
tinues to propagate without change in the
waveform or amplitude. The existence of
plane waves requires that the wavefronts 1500 m
have no curvature. This requirement is
certainly unrealistic, except as an approxi-
mation in very specific situations, such as
the one we will consider in the derivation
of Zoeppritz’s equations in Chapter 3.
(a) Vx (b) Vz
ISOTROPY, ANISOTROPY,
HOMOGENEITY, AND
HETEROGENEITY the two properties. Foremost, anisotropy describes vari-
ations of the physical properties with direction at a
Anisotropy is sometimes confused with hetero- given point (note that a point represents a particle),
geneity. There are two important distinctions between whereas heterogeneity describes variations of physical
1500 m 1500 m FIGURE 2.29. Snapshots of wave propagation

in a homogeneous solid elastic and isotropic
200 ms 200 ms medium (VP = 2000 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s, and
ρ = 1.8 g/cm3 ). The waves were generated by
a horizontal force. Physical quantities displayed
1500 m
here are (a) volumetric deformation (i.e., div[u])

and (b) shear deformation (i.e., curl[u]).
280 ms 280 ms
360 ms 360 ms 1500 m

1500 m
(a) div (b) Curl
FIGURE 2.30. Illustration of the difference

between anisotropy and heterogeneity.
Anisotropy describes variations of physical
properties with direction at a given point,
whereas heterogeneity describes variations
of physical properties between two or more
points. The arrows here indicate variations of
elastic parameters at given points, with respect
to vertical and horizontal axes. Notice that
where lengths of the arrows are the same along
(a) (b) both axes, the medium behaves isotropically
at that point, according to our nomencla-
ture. (a) is isotropic and homogeneous, (b) is
isotropic and heterogeneous, (c) is anisotropic
and homogeneous, (d) is anisotropic and
heterogeneous.
(c) (d)
FIGURE 2.31. (a) An acous- 2.0 Offset (km) 0.0

tic 1D medium described by 0.0 0.0
Source
P-wave velocity in the Atlantic
Vp = 1525 m/s
Ocean in the summer. Density is 125
assumed to be constant. (b) Seis- Vp = 1515 m/s
Time (sec)
mograms corresponding to this 0.5
250
1D medium. (c) A homogeneous
Vp = 1510 m/s
medium. (d) Seismograms cor-
375
responding to this homogeneous
medium. Vp = 1500 m/s 1.0
500
Vp = 1490 m/s
Receivers 1.5
(a) (b)
Offset (km)
0.0 0.0
Source
125
0.5
Time (sec)
250
Vp = 1500 m/s
375
1.0
500
Receivers 1.5
(c) (d)
properties between two or more points. So, anisotropy help to clarify this point. First, Figure 2.31 shows a
describes the physical properties of a specific point one-dimensional medium that characterizes the P-wave
of the medium, whereas heterogeneity can be used velocity in the Atlantic Ocean in the summer. The
to describe point-to-point variations in geometries or density is assumed to be constant. Seismograms corre-
physical properties. sponding to this model are displayed in the upper panel
Generally, anisotropy and heterogeneity coexist. of Figure 2.31. A similar computation for a homoge-
Four general circumstances are possible: isotropic and neous medium (lower panel, Figure 2.31) shows that
homogeneous, isotropic and heterogeneous, anisotropic the two models of the ocean, based on seismic data, can
and heterogenous, and anisotropic and homogeneous hardly be distinguished. Therefore, the water column
(Figure 2.30). The third state, anisotropic and heteroge- in the Atlantic Ocean can be treated as being homoge-
neous, is found fairly commonly in studies of petroleum neous for seismic data. In other words, the notion of
seismology. An example would be a bed of rock with homogeneity is a relative concept: It is relative to the
acoustic velocity that varies in direction at any given scale of variations of physical properties. This exam-
point (anisotropy). If different anisotropy was observed ple shows that these variations are so small, that for
at different points, the bed would be both anisotropic seismic exploration the medium can be treated as being
and heterogeneous. homogeneous.
In this chapter we have focused primarily on Let us consider the second example, depicted in
homogeneous media. Although such substances are Figure 2.32. The model6 consists of randomly dis-
interesting theoretically, no homogeneous rock for-
mations are in the subsurface. However, there are
6 A detailed description of the heterogeneous model in Figure 2.32
situations in which a medium or a rock formation
is given in Chapter 12. This description includes the distribution of small-
can be treated as a homogeneous medium — with scale heterogeneities and the specific values of P-wave velocities, S-wave
beneficial effects. Consider three examples that can velocities and density.
X-surface (m) Angles (degrees) FIGURE 2.32. (a) Diagram

showing a homoge-
neous medium. (b) Data
corresponding to this
homogeneous medium.
These data were recorded

for 91 receivers dis-
tributed uniformly along
a quarter of a circle cen-
tered at the source point.
(c) Diagram showing a 2D
medium with randomly
distributed small-scale
heterogeneities. (d) Data
corresponding to this 2D
medium. We used the
pressure source to generate
the data in (b) and (d).
X-surface (m)
Angles (degrees)
3616 - 3730
3501 - 3616
3387 - 3501
3223 - 3387
3159 - 3223
3044 - 3159
2930 - 3044
2701 - 2816
2473 - 2587
2359 - 2473
2587 - 2701
2816 - 2930
2244 - 2359
MAX
MIN
tributed small-scale heterogeneities. The data corre- Let us conclude with the third example, shown in
sponding to this model were recorded by 91 receivers Figure 2.33. Here we are comparing a homogeneous
uniformly distributed along a quarter of a circle cen- medium and a relatively simple heterogeneous medium.
tered at the source point, as shown in Figure 2.32a. We The heterogeneous medium consists of a homogeneous
recorded the data for the same distribution of receivers medium with two small heterogeneities near the surface
as was used for the particular case in which the medium (z = 0 is the surface). Yet, as illustrated in Figure 2.33b,
was homogeneous. If we are interested only in using the presence of two small inhomogeneities significantly
the first arrival, we can treat the heterogeneous medium complicates the form of the seismograms. Therefore,
as being homogeneous. However, if we consider the despite the smallness of these heterogeneities and their
whole dataset, the homogeneous assumption of homo- localization in a small portion of the medium, this
geneity is not valid, due to “noise behind the signal,” medium is very heterogeneous as far as seismic data
which is generally known as a “coda.” (See Aki and are concerned.
Chouet, 1975; Ikelle et al., 1993; and Ikelle et al., So the notion of homogeneity in petroleum seismic
1994.) This example reiterates the fact that the defi- data is defined with respect to information in the seismic
nition of homogeneous media varies with the context data being studied. If differences due to heterogeneities
of the problem. of the model are insignificant in regard to information in
FIGURE 2.33. (a) A homogeneous 0.0 –1.0 Offset (km) +1.0

0.0
medium. (b) Data corresponding to this
Receivers
homogeneous medium. (c) A 2D medium
that essentially is homogeneous, but with
two small heterogeneities near the sur- 0.5
Depth (km)
Time (sec)
face (z = 0 is the surface). (d) Data

0.5
corresponding to this 2D medium. Source
Vp = 1800 m/s 1.0

Vs = 1000 m/s
= 1.0 g/cm3
1.0 1.5
(a) (b)
Vp= 1800 m/s; Vs= 350 m/s; =1.0 g/cc

–1.0 Offset (km) +1.0
0.0 0.0
Receivers
Time (sec)
0.5
Depth (km)
0.5
Source
Vp = 1800 m/s 1.0
Vs = 1000 m/s
1.0
= 1.0 g/cm3 1.5
(c) (d)
seismic data being studied, the medium can be treated (a) Calculate the strain tensor corresponding to the
as being homogeneous. displacement in equation (2.228).
(b) Is this compressional strain, shear strain, or
both?
2) The coordinates used in Exercise 1 are transformed
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING into new coordinates — described as x , y , and z —
by clockwise rotation of the coordinate axes through
1) Here is an example of particle displacement of a an angle θ about the z-axis, in which
uniform plane wave:
x = x cos θ − y sin θ
 
cos(ωt − ky) y = y sin θ + y cos θ
u= 0 , (2.228)
z = z
0
and the displacement in equation (2.228) becomes
with  
cos θ cos[ωt − k(x sin θ + y cos θ )]
2π u = sin θ cos[ωt − k(x sin θ + y cos θ )] .
k= ,  
l 0
(2.229)
where l is the wavelength. The propagation velocity
is called the phase velocity, V , where (a) Calculate the strain tensor corresponding to the
displacement in equation (2.229).
ω (b) Point out any differences between this strain
V= .
k tensor and the one obtained in Exercise 1.
3) Elastic constants (Nm−2 × 1010 ) of five rock forma- Parameter Teapot Ss VP VS ρ

tions are shown below: Porosity (%) 30
Permeability (md) 1900
Bulk modulus of frame (Gpa) 8.63
Rock formation k µ
Shear modulus of frame (Gpa) 6.45

Limestone 4.7 2.4 Bulk modulus of solid (Gpa) 38.0
Granite 3.2 2.1 Bulk modulus of fluid (Gpa) 2.25
Sandstone 1.2 0.6 Density of solid (kg/m3 ) 2650
Marble 3.7 2.1 Density of fluid (kg/m3 ) 1000
Sudbury diabase 7.3 3.7 Viscosity of fluid (cp) 1
where Ss indicates sandstone.

where k represents the bulk modulus and µ repre-
sents the shear modulus. For each rock formation: 7) Obtain the traction due to the displacement, u, act-
ing on area elements normal to n. We assume that
(a) Calculate the Lamé parameters. the medium is isotropic.
(b) Calculate the Poisson’s ratio.
(c) Calculate the VP /VS ratio.
8) The stiffness tensor of the Pierre Shale (near Limon,
4) Derive the stresses τxx and τxy as a function of the Colorado) is:
Lamé parameters and particle velocity, assuming
that the medium is isotropic.
cijkl = (C11 − 2C66 )δij δkl + C66 (δik δjl + δil δjk )
5) The structure of the stiffness tensor for a Rochelle
salt is: + (C11 + C33 − 2C13 − 4C44 )δi3 δj3 δk3 δl3
 
C11 C12 C12 0 0 0 + (C13 − C11 + 2C66 )(δi3 δj3 δkl + δij δk3 δl3 )
C12 C11 C12 0 0 0 
 
C12 C12 C11 0 0 0  + (C44 − C66 )(δil δj3 δk3 + δi3 δl3 δjk
 .
 0 0 0 C 0 0 
 44 
 0 0 0 0 C44 0  + δik δj3 δl3 + δi3 δk3 δjl ), (2.230)
0 0 0 0 0 C44
(a) Is the material isotropic or anisotropic? Why? where δij is the Kronecker delta function notation,
(b) Calculate the corresponding compliance tensor
in terms of C11 , C12 , and C14 .
&
0 for i
= j
6) Calculate VP , VS , and density ρ of water-saturated δij = i, j = 1, 2, 3, (2.231)
Berea sandstone and of water-saturated Teapot sand- 1 for i = j
stone:
Parameter Berea Ss VP VS ρ
and where C11 , C33 , C44 , C66 , and C13 are elastic
Porosity of frame (%) 19
moduli. These elastic moduli are constants.
Permeability of frame (md) 200
P-wave velocity of frame (m/s) 3670
(a) Write the 6-by-6 matrix of the elastic moduli
S-wave velocity of frame (m/s) 2170
associated with the stiffness tensor in (2.230).
Density of fluid (kg/m3 ) 1000
(b) We are now going to use a pressure source to
Viscosity of fluid (cp) 1
generate waves in this Pierre Shale. What type
P-wave velocity of fluid (m/s) 1500
of waves are we going to generate (P-waves
Density of solid (kg/m3 ) 2650 only, S-waves only, or both)? Please justify
Bulk modulus of solid (Gpa) 37.9 your answer quantitatively.
(c) Establish the conditional relationships between where

 
elastic moduli for which the Pierre Shale can x
be considered as being isotropic. r = y  (2.233)
9) z
(a) If n is a unit vector which varies with posi-
tion, what condition must n satisfy if 1/rf (t − and

n · r/V ) is to be a solution of the scalar wave r= x 2 + y2 + z 2 ? (2.234)
equation:
! "! "
∂2 ∂2 ∂2 1 ∂2 1
+ + − f (t −n·r/V ) = 0, (b) Show that these conditions are satisfied if
∂x 2 ∂y2 ∂z2 V 2 ∂t 2 r
(2.232) n = r/r. (2.235)
3
PARTITION OF ENERGY AT AN INTERFACE
INTRODUCTION Ray
Ray
For the most part, our previous discussions have

been limited to wave propagation in infinitely homoge- Wavefront t0 + ∆t
neous, isotropic, elastic media. However, the earth is

made of rock formations with different physical prop- Wavefront t 0
erties, each in contact with one other or more. For
example, the description in Chapter 1 of petroleum Point source
✺ ✺
Point source
traps shows contacts between oil- and water-filled sand-
stone, between shale and sandstone, between shale and
water, etc. Four classic examples of interfaces are the
air-solid interface, which separates the atmosphere and
the earth; the air-water interface, which separates the
Wavefront t0+ ∆t
atmosphere and the sea; the water-solid interface, which Wavefront t 0
separates the sea and the earth; and the solid-solid inter- (a) (b)
face. In this chapter, we consider what happens when
waves encounter such obstructions. First we will con- FIGURE 3.1. Expanding wavefronts. Huygens’ principle
sider a simple model of the subsurface that includes states that each point on a wavefront serves as a secondary
source. The tangent surface of waves expanding from sec-
only one interface separating two infinitely homoge-
ondary sources gives the position of the wavefront at a later
neous, isotropic, elastic media. The interface between
time. Rays perpendicular to wavefronts can be straight (a)
the two can be horizontal, laterally varied in position, or bent (b). (a) Wavefronts in a homogeneous medium.
or even discontinuous. Although the assumption of a (b) Wavefronts in a heterogeneous medium.
model with two media is simplistic, it provides the basis
for tackling models that are more complicated.
We begin our discussion by introducing three prin- for a medium with slowly varying velocity. Notice that
ciples that are important and useful in deriving the the rays are straight lines where a medium is homoge-
arrival times and energies of waves that have encoun- neous, and they take arbitrary form where a medium is
tered obstructions: Huygens’ principle, Fermat’s princi- heterogeneous.
ple, and Snell’s law. These principles and laws provide Before we introduce Huygens’ principle, let us sin-
a geometric explanation of wave propagation — as they gle out one of the most important aspects of rays, an
did in classical optics, where they were used first. aspect used throughout this book: rays provide a con-
venient way of schematizing events in seismic data,
because they allow us to track a wavefront. From here
HUYGENS’ PRINCIPLE on, this property will be used extensively.
Huygens’ principle states that all points on a wave-
For effective introduction of Huygens’ principle, front can be considered as point sources for generation
clarification of the notion of wavefronts and rays is nec- of secondary wavelets. After a time t0 , the new position
essary. A wavefront represents a set of particles (i.e., of the wavefront is the surface envelope tangent to these
points) that undergo similar motions at a given instant. wavelets. If we apply this principle to the wavefront at
A snapshot of wave propagation at a specific time rep- time t0 , as shown in Figure 3.1a, we can construct the
resents a wavefront. Rays are defined as lines normal to wavefront at time t0 + t. For the sake of simplicity,
the wavefront (i.e., they point in the direction of prop- we display only the wavefront of P-waves in this exam-
agation). Definitions of these two terms are illustrated ple, as similar illustrations for S-waves can be repeated
in Figure 3.1, for a homogeneous acoustic medium and by simply replacing the image of P-waves with that of
63
S-waves. In Figure 3.1a, we assume a constant P-wave reaches the interface between the half-spaces, part
velocity throughout the medium. The procedure for pre- of its energy returns to the half-space from which it
dicting the wavefront at time t0 +t can be summarized came; this process is called “reflection.” The remaining
as follows: energy enters the second medium; this process is called
“transmission.”
1) Select a few point sources on the initial wavefront.

In Figure 3.4, the phenomena of reflection and
2) Calculate the radius of the secondary wavelets based
transmission — described by the snapshots — are dis-
on the velocity of the medium and elapsed time, t.
played by the wavefronts. Having superimposed the
3) Construct these wavelets and draw a surface tangent
corresponding raypaths on these wavefronts, we can
to them.
sometimes abandon the complexity of snapshots and
This procedure yields the wavefront at time t = t0 +t. wavefronts to use rays alone, as shown in Figure 3.5.
Figure 3.1b illustrates the procedure for a medium with
varied velocity.
1.5 km
FERMAT’S PRINCIPLE
For an inhomogeneous medium (such as the one we
will discuss in this chapter), the shape and/or direction
of wavefronts can change with time. Therefore, since
rays are normal to wavefronts, their paths will change
with time.
Fermat’s principle — also known as the principle
1.5 km
of stationary time — allows us to predict the raypath

under these circumstances. It states that the wave path
between any two fixed points is the one along which
the time of travel is the extremum of all possible paths.
For example, the ray that follows a minimal time path
(i.e., the path that will allow the wavefront to move from
A to B in the shortest amount of time, as described in
Figure 3.2) is an extremum of all possible paths. In this
example, because we have assumed a constant velocity
we can see clearly that the ray must follow a straight
line, for it is the one for which the traveltime is an
extremum (a minimum).
SNELL’S LAW Min Max
In this section, we will examine the raypath where FIGURE 3.2. Several possible paths connect point A to
the wavefront encounters a horizontal boundary. point B. By definition, the raypath is the path normal to
the wavefronts. In this case the straight line between A and
B is optimal raypath. The Fermat principle also allows us
Reflection and Transmission to select the raypath from among the different possibil-
ities. The principle states that in wave propagation, the
Consider a heterogeneous model consisting of two
wavepath between any two fixed points is that path along
infinitely homogeneous and isotropic media separated which traveltime is the least of all possible paths (t0 = 200
by a horizontal surface: This model is known as a “two- ms; t1 = 400 ms; t2 = 600 ms). The jet color scale dis-
half-space model,” in which each homogeneous medi- played here will be used to display snapshots throughout
um represents a half-space. Assume that an explosive this chapter. Reminder: The source signature used in simu-
source, as shown in Figure 3.3, generates a P-wave lation of snapshots presented throughout this book is given
that propagates in the top half-space. When the wave in Figure 2.25c.
Partition of Energy at an Interface 65
2.0 km 2.0 km FIGURE 3.3. Snapshots of wave propaga-

tion in a model made of two homogenous
acoustic half-spaces. Properties of the
top half-space are VP = 1500 m/s
and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 ; those of the bot-
tom half-space are VP = 2000 m/s

2.0 km
and ρ = 2.25 g/cm3 . The waves were

generated by an explosive. The physi-
cal quantity displayed here is pressure.
(Symbols: i indicates the incident wave,
r indicates the reflected wave, and t
100 ms 450 ms indicates the transmitted wave.)
paths, each coming from A and, after

reflection, going to B, only one path
2.0 km
can actually be taken by the wave-

fronts for homogeneous half-spaces.
According to Fermat’s principle, this
path is shorter than any other path:
250 ms 500 ms it is the path corresponding to the
shortest traveltime.
Let us now use Fermat’s princi-
ple to derive the relationship between
the angle of incidence and the angle
of reflection. We will refer to a as the
2.0 km
distance from point A to the interface

between the two half-spaces and b as
the distance from point B to the inter-
face between the two half-spaces.
From the construction in Figure 3.5
350 ms 600 ms and from the Pythagorean theorem,
we can determine that the total path,
from A to the point of reflection of the
In preparation for our next discussion, let us intro- interface between the two half-spaces and from there to
duce angles to the ray diagram shown in Figure 3.5. B, has the length
The angle between the incident ray and the normal to
the interface is the angle of incidence; it is labeled θi . L(x) = x 2 + a2 + (d − x)2 + a2 , (3.1)
If we refer to Figure 3.5, we can ask “What is the rela-
tionship of the angle of transmission, θt and the angle and that the time needed for P-waves to travel this path
of incidence, θi ?” In other words, why is the raypath is
of transmitted waves different from that of reflected
L(x)
waves? Discussion of Snell’s law will establish this t = t(x) = . (3.2)
relationship and others, including the one between θr VP1
(the angle of reflection) and θi . Furthermore, setting the derivative of t with respect to
x equal to zero, we arrive at the expression
Snell’s Law: Fluid-fluid Interface
dt x d − x
= √ − = 0.
Consider two points, A and B, as defined in Fig- dx VP1 a2 + x 2 VP1 (d − x)2 + a2
ure 3.5. Although we could draw an infinite number of (3.3)
2.5 km The approach used in determining the relationship

between incident and reflected rays can also be used
i
for incident and transmitted rays. With reference to
r Figure 3.5, we would like to know the path that requires
the shortest time for a ray traveling from A to C as it
passes through an interface that separates materials with

different velocities. Consider the P-wave velocities, VP1
and VP2 , above and below the interface, respectively.
The time required for a ray to travel from A to C is
2.5 km

a2 + x 2 (d − x)2 + b2
t= 2
+ 2
. (3.6)
VP1 VP2
t
Again we differentiate:
dt x d−x
= √ − = 0. (3.7)
dx V1 a + x
2 2 V2 (d − x)2 + b2
Using the identities
FIGURE 3.4. Some wavefronts of wave propagation through
two homogeneous acoustic half-spaces, as described in x d−x
sin θi = √ and sin θt = ,
Figure 3.3. a +x
2 2 (d − x)2 + b2
(3.8)
A d’ B
we see that
Incident P-wave Reflected P-wave sin θi sin θt sin θi VP1
θi θr
− = 0, and therefore = .
VP1 VP2 sin θt VP2
a θi
(3.9)
VP1 , ρ
1
The resulting relationship,
VP2 , ρ
2
x sin θi VP1 sin θi sin θt
θt
b = or = , (3.10)
Transmitted P-wave sin θt VP2 VP1 VP2
θi
C
d
is commonly referred to as Snell’s law1 . If VP2 is less
than VP1 , the ray of transmitted waves bends toward
FIGURE 3.5. P-wave raypaths of seismic energy in the the normal (i.e., θt ≤ θi ), whereas if VP1 is greater
model composed of two homogeneous acoustic half-spaces. than VP2 (i.e., θt ≥ θi ) it bends away from the normal,
as shown in Figure 3.6. When θt → 90◦ , the wave is
refracted along the interface rather than transmitted into
Using the relationships the second half-space. Waves are no longer transmitted
to the bottom medium from this point, as illustrated
x d − x in Figures 3.3 and 3.4. Snell’s law predicts the critical
sin θi = √ and sin θr = , angle from which such refractions occur:
a2 + x 2 (d − x)2 + a2
(3.4) sin θicp sin 90◦ 1
we see that = = (3.11)
VP1 VP2 V2
sin θi sin θr or
− = 0, and therefore θi = θr . VP1
VP1 VP1
(3.5) θicp = sin−1 . (3.12)
VP2
Thus the path for which the time of travel is shortest is
the one for which the angle of incidence is equal to the 1 Snell’s law was initially obtained empirically. Now it can be proved
angle of reflection. as a consequence of Huygen’s principle or Fermat’s principle.
A B 2.5 km
Incident P-wave Reflected P-wave

θi θr
θi
VP1, ρ
1 i
VP2, ρ r
2
θt
Transmitted P-wave
Head wave
θi C
✹S
2.5 km
θic
Vp2 > Vp1
t
A B
Incident P-wave Reflected P-wave
θi θr
θi
VP1, ρ
1
VP2, ρ
275 ms
2
θt
FIGURE 3.8. Illustration of the head wave (refracted wave).
Transmitted P-wave Notice that the head wave propagates in the incident half-
space with the velocity of the bottom half-space. Properties
Vp2 < Vp1
C
of the top half-space are VP = 1850 m/s and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 ,
and those of the bottom half-space are VP = 4500 m/s and
sin θi VP1
FIGURE 3.6. Snell’s law: = . ρ = 3.0 g/cm3 . Waves were generated by an explosive.
sin θt VP2 The physical quantity displayed here is pressure. (Sym-
bols: i indicates the wave, r indicates the reflected wave,
t indicates the transmitted wave, and s indicates the source
position.)
He
A ad
wa
ve
(ref
rac
Incident P-wave ted
θic θic
wa
ve
)
Note that if θi ≥ θicp , no seismic energy can
θic
penetrate into the bottom half-space; consequently, the
energy is reflected into the top half-space. If VP2 ≤ VP1 ,
there is no critical angle.
FIGURE 3.7. A wave that hits an interface at the wave’s

critical angle is refracted parallel to the interface. Energy
transmitted from the refracted wave back into the top
Snell’s Law: Solid-solid and
half-space produces a plane wavefront that commonly is Fluid-solid Interfaces
referred to as a “head wave.”
Up to this point, we have assumed that S-wave
velocities in both half-spaces are zero; in other words,
these media do not support S-waves. Here we generalize
The refracted waves have a unique property: as they Snell’s law to cases in which S-wave velocities are not
travel along the interface they continually transmit null.
energy back into the top half-space. Energy returning Let us consider two solid half-spaces. Assume that
into the top half-space — as represented in Figure 3.7 the explosive source generates a P-wave that propagates
by rays that leave the interface at the critical angle — through the top half-space, as shown in Figure 3.9.
defines a plane wavefront known as the “head wave.” When the wave reaches the interface between the
Figure 3.8 shows a snapshot of the head wave. half-spaces, it is partitioned into two reflected waves
FIGURE 3.9. Snapshots of wave prop- (a) 2.0 km (b) 2.0 km

agation in a model composed of two
homogenous half-spaces. (a) Properties
of the top half-space are VP = 2000 m/s,
VS = 900 m/s, and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 ; those
of the bottom half-space are VP = 3000
2.0 km
m/s, VS = 1600 m/s, and ρ = 2.65
g/cm3 . (b) Properties of the top half-
space are VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0
m/s, and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 ; those of the
bottom half-space are VP = 2000 m/s,
350 ms
VS = 1000 m/s, and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 . 200 ms
Waves were generated by an explosive.
The physical quantity displayed here
is the stress component τzz . (Symbols:
iP indicates the incident P-wave, rP indi-
cates the reflected P-wave, rS indicates
2.0 km
the reflected S-wave, tP indicates the

transmitted P-wave, and tS indicates the
transmitted S-wave).
300 ms 500 ms
2.0 km
400 ms 650 ms
(P- and S-waves) and two transmitted waves (P- and S- refractions occur:
waves), as illustrated in Figure 3.9. Raypaths of these
waves are described in Figure 3.10. By use of Fer- −1 VP1
θicp = sin . (3.15)
mat’s principle, one can verify that Snell’s law also VP2
holds for reflection and transmission of S-waves from
the incident P-wave. The new relationships are In the elastic case, a second critical angle can occur
when φt → 90◦ . Snell’s law, as expressed in equa-
sin θi VP1 tion (3.13), predicts another critical angle from which
= , (3.13) such S-wave refractions occur:
sin φt VS2

−1 VP1
and θics = sin . (3.16)
VS2
sin θi VP1
= . (3.14) Note that if θi ≥ θics , no S-wave energy can penetrate,
sin φr VS1
and consequently the incident energy is reflected back
The angles of the reflected S-wave, φr , and the trans- into the top half-space. Also note that θicp is always
mitted S-wave, φt , are defined in Figure 3.10. We have smaller than θics because VP2 > VS2 . Furthermore, if
seen in the previous section that when θt → 90◦ , Snell’s VS2 ≤ VP1 , the second critical angle, θics , does not
law predicts the critical angle from which P-wave occur.
(a) A B i.e.,
Reflected S-wave −1 VS1
φicp = sin (3.20)
Incident P-wave φr Reflected P-wave VP2
θi θr and
θi −1 VS1
φics = sin , (3.21)
VP1, VS1, ρ1 VS2
a third critical angle will occur when θr → 90◦ ; i.e.,
VP2, VS2, ρ2
−1 VS1
θt φicr = sin (3.22)
Transmitted P-wave
VP1
φt
Transmitted S-wave C because VP1 is always greater than VS1 . The number of
critical angles as functions of incident wave types and
of velocities is summarized in Table 3.1.
Thus, the generalized form of Snell’s law is
sin θi sin θr sin θt sin φi
= = =
(b)
A B VP1 VP1 VP2 VS1
Reflected S-wave
sin φr sin φt
Incident S-wave
φr
= = = p, (3.23)
Reflected P-wave VS1 VS2
φi θr
where p is the seismic-ray parameter or the horizontal
φi
component of slowness. The vertical component of the
VP1, VS1, ρ1 slowness of the P-wave, for instance, is
VP2, VS2, ρ2 cos θi
ηP = . (3.24)
θt VP1
Transmitted P-wave
φt We will explore these parameters at great length in the
Transmitted S-wave C following section.
As in the case of acoustic half-spaces, described
earlier, refracted waves (also known as head waves)
FIGURE 3.10. Snell’s law between the elastic homogeneous occur after the critical angle. The case of elastic half-
half-spaces for (a) an incident P-wave and (b) an incident spaces, which we have just described, includes several
SV-wave. possibilities for critical angles; therefore, several head
waves are possible at the interface of two half-spaces.
Figure 3.11 shows the raypaths of four possible head
Similarly, an incident S-wave gives rise to reflected
waves for the case of an incident P-wave. These head
and transmitted P-waves, as well as to reflected and
waves also are illustrated in the snapshot plots in
transmitted S-waves with the following relationships:
sin φi VS1
= , (3.17) TABLE 3.1. Critical angles at a boundary between two
sin φt VS2
solids.
sin φi VS1 Shear-wave incidence
= , (3.18)
sin θt VP2 VS1 > VP2 > VS2 1 critical angle
VP2 > VS1 > VS2 2 critical angles
and VP2 > VS2 > VS1 3 critical angles
sin φi VS1
= . (3.19) Compressional-wave incidence
sin θr VP1 VP1 > VP2 > VS2 No critical angle
In addition to the following two critical angles corre- VP2 > VP1 > VS2 1 critical angle
VP2 > VS2 > VP1 2 critical angles
sponding to the cases in which θt → 90◦ and φt → 90◦ ;
(d)
S R
(a) P1 S2 P1 (hS2P1)
S R P1 P2 P1 (hP2P1) S1 S2 S1 (h ′S2S1)
S1 P2 S1 (h ′P2S1)
SI
PI θics θics P1
θicp θicp S1
φics φics
SI SI
VP1, VS1, ρ1
φicp P1
PI φicp
VP1, VS1, ρ1 VP2, VS2, ρ2
S2
P2 VP2, VS2, ρ2
(e) S R
(b) S1 P1 S1 (h ′P1S1)
S R φics φics
P1 P2 S1 (hP2P1) SI
θicp φicp S1 P2 S1 (h ′P2P1) S1
SI
PI P1 S1
φicp θicp
P1
VP1, VS1, ρ1
P2
VP2, VS2, ρ2
(f) S
P1 P2 S2 (hP2S2)
(c)
θicp
S R PI
P1 S2 S1 (hS2S1)
φics S1 S2 P1 (h ′P2P1)
θics
PI S1
P1 P2
SI φics
θics S2
VP1, VS1, ρ1
θtc
S2
VP2, VS2, ρ2
FIGURE 3.11. The possible refraction (head-wave) paths from the source to the receiver for incident P- and S-waves. The
top half-space has velocities VP1 and VS1 ; the bottom half-space has velocities VP2 and VS2 . Notice that if VP1 > VS2 , the
modes P1 S2 S1 and P1 S2 P1 are not possible.
Figure 3.12. There are five possible head waves with reflection at the air-water interface is almost total; very
an incident P-wave. Actually, five head waves is the little energy is transmitted into the atmosphere because
maximal number for an incident P-wave (see Cagniard, the velocity and density of air are so low in comparison
1962, for the mathematical proof of this number); four with the velocity and density of water. Although a “free”
are in the upper medium, one in the lower medium. surface means contact with a vacuum, the evidence from
This maximum of five head waves is possible only if Figure 3.13a shows clearly that the sea surface can be
VP2 > VS2 > VP1 > VS1 . approximated as a free surface.
We repeat the experiment shown in Figure 3.13b
for another three-layer model consisting of an air-
Snell’s Law: Air-water and solid-solid composition, in which the air-solid interface
Air-solid Interfaces represents the earth’s surface. Figure 3.13b shows snap-
shots of wave propagation through this model, with a
What is a free surface? Let us start by exam- source in the first solid layer. Contrary to the solid-solid
ining wave propagation through a three-layer model interface, the reflection at the air-solid interface is
consisting of air, water and solid. In this model, the air- almost total; very little energy is transmitted into the
water interface represents the sea surface. Figure 3.13a atmosphere because the velocity and density of air are
shows snapshots of wave propagation through this so low in comparison to velocity and density of the solid.
model, with a source in the water. Contrary to the snap- Therefore we can approximate the earth’s surface as a
shots corresponding to the water-solid interface, the free surface.
(a) 2.5 km (b) R P (P1)
VP1,VS1
R S (S1)
HP2,P1
HS2,S1 HP2,S1
θ21c φ21c θ
φ12c HS2,P1
θ12c 11c HP1,S1
θ22c SOURCE
HP2,S2
VP2,VS2
2.5 km
TS (S2)
TP (P2) VP2>VS2>VP1>VS1
FIGURE 3.12. (a) Snapshots of wave propagation in a model

made of two homogeneous elastic half-spaces. Properties
325 ms
of the top half-space are VP = 1850 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s
and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 ; those of the bottom half-space are
VP = 4500 m/s, VS = 2750 m/s, and ρ = 3.0 g/cm3.
Waves were generated by an explosive. The physical quan-
tity displayed here is the normal stress τzz . (Symbols: iP
indicates the incident P-wave, rP indicates the reflected
P-wave, rS indicates the reflected S-wave, tP indicates
the transmitted P-wave, and tS indicates the transmitted
S-wave. Based on the nomenclature in Figure 3.11, hP2P1
indicates the head wave P1 P2 P1 , hP2S1 indicates the head
wave P1P2S1, hS2P1 indicates the head wave P1 S2 P1 ,
hS2S1 indicates the head wave P1 S2 S1 , and hP2S2 indi-
2.5 km
cates the head wave P1 P2 S2 ). (b) Possible critical angles

and head waves associated with an interface between two
elastic half-spaces.
Notice that there is no critical angle for an incident

475 ms P-wave, because VP1 is always greater than VS1 .
For an incident S-wave with angle φi at the air-solid
interface, Snell’s law is
Snell’s law at the free surface. Snell’s law
applies at the free surface as it does at any other inter-
sin φi sin θr sin φr
face between two materials. For incident P-wave with p= = = , (3.27)
angle θi , as described in Figure 3.10, Snell’s law reads VS1 VP1 VS1
sin θi sin θr sin φr

p= = = , (3.25) where θr and φr are angles of the reflected P- and S-
VP1 VP1 VS1
waves, respectively. Now one critical angle exists when
where θr and φr are angles of the reflected P- and θr → 90◦ ; i.e.,
S-waves, respectively; VP1 and VS1 are P-wave and
S-wave velocities, respectively, of the solid in contact
with the atmosphere. If the medium in contact with the −1 VS1
φicr = sin , (3.28)
atmosphere is liquid, equation (3.25) reduces to VP1
sin θi sin θr
= . (3.26)
VP1 VP1 because VP1 is always greater than VS1 .
FIGURE 3.13. (a) Snapshots of wave 2.0 km 2.0 km

propagation in a model made of
Air
two homogenous half-spaces sand-
wiched by a homogeneous acoustic Air
layer, which is fluid, with proper-
ties: VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0.0 m/s, Water Solid

and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3. Properties of the
2.0 km
top half-space are VP = 360 m/s,
VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 0.012 g/cm3.
Those of the bottom half-space are Solid Solid
VP = 2500 m/s, VS = 1000 m/s,
and ρ = 2.25 g/cm3. (b) Snap-
shots of wave propagation in a 250 ms 250 ms
model made of two homoge-
nous half-spaces sandwiched by Air
a homogeneous acoustic layer, Air
which is fluid, with properties
VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 900 m/s,
and ρ = 1.8 g/cm3. Properties of the Water Solid
2.0 km
top half-space are VP = 360 m/s,

VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 0.012 g/cm3.
Those of the bottom half-space are
VP = 3000 m/s, VS = 1700 m/s, and Solid Solid
ρ = 2.75 g/cm3.
350 ms 300 ms
Air
Water Air
Solid
2.0 km
Solid
Solid
450 ms 300 ms
(a) (b)
TRAVELTIME EQUATIONS FOR medium, where they propagate from the source posi-
A HORIZONTAL INTERFACE tion to the receiver positions without encountering any
obstructions, a circumstance described in Figure 3.4.
Our objective in this section is to derive the travel- Such events in seismic data are called “direct arrivals.”
times of reflected and refracted waves, as functions of The traveltime between the source and receiver is
receiver positions. x
t= (3.29)
VP1
for P-waves, and
x
Direct Waves t= (3.30)
VS1
Before beginning these derivations, let us again for S-waves, where x indicates the distance between
examine waves spreading throughout a homogeneous source and receiver.
x
Refracted Waves (a)
A D
Consider the general case shown in Figure 3.14a.
Let V1 represent the velocity of either an incident P- Incident P-wave
wave or S-wave (that is, V1 = VP1 for an incident P- θ12c θ´12c
θ12c
wave; V1 = VS1 for an incident S-wave), and let V2 V´
1
h
V1
represent the velocity either of a refracted P-wave or a VP1, VS1, ρ1
refracted S-wave in the high-velocity half-space. (Note VP2, VS2, ρ2 B C
V2
that V2 also can represent the velocity of the refracted P-
wave in the top half-space, if V1 represents the S-wave
velocity in the top half-space). Let θ12c be the critical (b) x
angle for the incident wave in the top half-space; that
A C
is,
V1
sin θ12c = ; for V2 > V1 . (3.31)
V2 θi θr
θi
Let V1 be the velocity of the upward-traveling wave that h
makes an angle θ12c , as illustrated in Figure 3.14a. This

VP1, VS1, ρ1
is the critical angle for this wave; that is, VP2, VS2, ρ2 B
V1
sin θ12c = ; for V2 > V1 . (3.32)
V2 x
(c)
The traveltime associated with the refracted wave xP xS
in Figure 3.14a is given by A C
h h
t121 = +
V1 cos θ12c V1 cos θ12c

θi θi φr h

x − h tan θ12c − h tan θ12c VP1, VS1, ρ1
+ (3.33)
V2 VP2 , VS2 , ρ2 B
or
  FIGURE 3.14. (a) Illustration of symbols used in the deri-
2
h  V2 V2 2 x vation of traveltime for a critically refracted ray. (b) Illus-
t121 = −1+ −1+ . tration of symbols used in the derivation of traveltime for
V2  V1 V1 h
P-P reflection. (c) Illustration of symbols used in derivation
(3.34) of traveltime for the P-S reflection. Point A indicates the
source point; point C indicates the receiver point.
Note that equation (3.34) contains all possible refracted
waves. For example, the refracted wave S1 P2 S1 in
Figure 3.11 can be obtained by letting V1 = V1 = VS1 ,
and V2 = VP2 . The case of the maximal number of poss- or
ibilities of refracted waves occurs under the following
2
2 1/2
condition: 2h VP2 − VP1 x
t= + . (3.37)
VP2 > VS2 > VP1 > VS1 . (3.35) VP1 VP2 VP2
Then we have six possible events of refracted waves,
such as S1 P2 S1 , P1 P2 P1 , etc., as described in Figure In this final form, the traveltime equation is quite sim-
3.12b. ple; the equation of refracted arrivals is a straight line
Consider the particular case of P-to-P-to-P refrac- with a slope of 1/VP2 . Since VP2 > VP1 , the slope of
tions (i.e., V1 = V1 = VP1 , and V2 = VP2 ). For this 1/VP2 must be less than the slope of 1/VP1 .
case, equation (3.34) becomes Figure 3.15 shows an example in which direct-wave
arrivals are superimposed on refracted-wave arrivals,
2h cos θic x confirming that refracted-wave arrivals follow a straight
t= + (3.36)
VP1 VP2 line just like direct-wave arrivals.
X-space (km) Calculation of critical distance is straightforward:

2.5
2500
2.0
2000
1.5 x co
1500
1.0 1000 x crit
500
0.0
0
0
0.0 0.0 VP1 /VP2 xcrit
t0 tan θicp = = (3.40)
2h
0.2
1 − (VP1 /VP2 ) 2
121 0.4
P-P refl.
0.6 or
0.6 0.6 2h
xcrit = . (3.41)
Time (ms)
Time (ms)
P1P2 P1 0.8
P1P2 S1
1
(VP2 /VP1 )2 − 1
P1S2P1
The critical time corresponding to the critical distance
1.2 1.2
1.2
is obtained by dividing the critical distance by the direct

P1S 2 S1
wave velocity, VP1 .
1.4
1.6
P-S refl.
1.8 1.8
1.8
Direct wave Reflected waves (P-P and P-S) Reflected P-P and S-S Waves
Refracted wave (P1 P2 P,
1 P1 P2 S1)
Refracted wave (P1S2 P, PS S)
1 1 2 1
The traveltime derivation for a wave reflected

FIGURE 3.15. For an incident P-wave, traveltime curves from a single horizontal interface is straightforward.
of the direct wave, reflected wave, and refracted wave of Figure 3.14b, shows that
a model consisting of a homogeneous solid half-space √
(VP = 2.0 km/s and VS = 0.75 km/s) overlying a AB + BC x 2 + 4h2
homogeneous solid half-space (VP = 3.5 km/s and t= = . (3.42)
VP1 VP1
VS = 2.25 km/s). The symbol xco , at 1340.5 m, indicates
the crossover point of the direct wave. The refracted wave, In this case, the traveltime equation is not a straight line,
xcrit , at 487.5 m, indicates the first point at which refracted but is a hyperbola. In fact, the equation for a hyperbola
energy can be received. The symbol t0 is the traveltime to [in (x, y)-plane] that is symmetric about x = 0, is
a receiver located at the source point (i.e., x = 0). The
thickness, h, between the source and receiver line and the y2 x2
interface between the two solid half-spaces is 350 m. − = 1. (3.43)
b2 a 2
Before proceeding, we will examine two matters Equation (3.42) can be arranged in the same form as
that Figure 3.15 has revealed. First, the straight direct- equation (3.43):
wave times and refracted-wave times intersect at a point. VP2 t 2 x2
At this point, the refracted wave overtakes the direct − = 1. (3.44)
4h2 4h2
wave. The horizontal coordinate of this point, xco , is
referred to as the “crossover distance.” Figure 3.15 shows an example in which we have
At xco , traveltimes of the direct wave and refracted superimposed direct and refracted arrivals to reflected
wave are equal; therefore arrivals. We can that see the traveltime curve of reflected
arrivals is effectively that of a hyperbola.
2
2 1/2
xco 2h VP2 − VP1 xco An important aspect of the traveltime equation in
= + . (3.38) (3.44) is normal moveout, which is used extensively in
VP1 VP2 VP1 VP2
seismic exploration for velocity estimation and imag-
After some rearrangement, we arrive at ing. Normal moveout (NMO) is defined as the differ-
1/2 ence in reflection traveltime from a horizontal reflecting
VP2 + VP1 surface, due to variations in the source-receiver posi-
xco = 2h . (3.39)
VP2 − VP1 tions. It is determined by subtracting the two-way
traveltime at the source (x = 0),
Observe that the crossover distance is always more than
twice the depth h of the interface. Obviously, xco will 2h
t0 = , (3.45)
be large when the depth is large or when the difference VP1
in velocities is small. from the traveltime at the receiver’s distance, x:
The second item is the first point at which refracted √
energy can be received. This distance is referred to as the x 2 + 4h2 x2
tx = or tx2 = 2 + t02 . (3.46)
“critical distance” and is denoted xcrit in Figure 3.15. VP1 VP1
Thus NMO is equal to tx − t0 or, in terms of our Our goal is to estimate the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 , and
traveltime equation, so forth. Our derivations of these coefficients are along
√ the line of that of Tessmer and Behle (1988).
x 2 + 4h2 2h The exact traveltime of the P-S wave reflection is
tNMO = − . (3.47)
given by
VP1 VP1
The Taylor expansion of equation (3.47) gives AB BC h h
t= + = + . (3.52)
VP1 VS1 VP1 cos θi VS1 cos φr
2
1 x Using Snell’s law, i.e.,
tNMO = t0 1+
2 VP1 t0 sin θi sin φr
4 p= = , (3.53)
1 x VP1 VS1
− + · · · − t0 . (3.48)
8 VP1 t0 expression (3.52) can be written as a function of the ray
parameter, p, as follows:
For small offset-to-depth ratios (i.e., x/(VP1 t0 ) 1), h h
this equation can be truncated to the approximate t= + . (3.54)
parabolic form: VP1 1 − p2 VP1
2 VS1 1 − p2 VS1
2
1 x2 Let us now expand equation (3.54) into a Taylor series.

tNMO ≈ . (3.49) 2 −1/2 and 1 − p2 V 2 −1/2
2
2 t0 VP1 We first expand 1 − p2 VP1 S1
into a Taylor series; i.e.,
This is a convenient form of an NMO equation for
−1/2 1 3
near-offset reflections. Note that it is a function of offset, 1 − p2 VP1
2
= 1 + p2 VP1
2
+ p4 VP1
4
velocity, and the reflector depth h (since h = VP1 t0 /2). 2 8
The concept of NMO is used in various ways in 15
seismic processing and in the interpretation of reflection + p6 VP1 6
+ · · · (3.55)
48
data, which is demonstrated in chapters to follow. It is
used in the following form: −1/2 1 3
1 − p2 VS1
2
= 1 + p2 VS1
2
+ p4 VS1
4
x2 2 8
tx2 − t02 ≈ 2
, (3.50) 15
VNMO + p6 VS16
+ · · · . (3.56)
48
where VNMO = VP1 is known as the “NMO velocity.” By substituting equations (3.55) and (3.56) in (3.54),
Formulae (3.42) through (3.49) are equally valid for we arrive at
S-S reflections: VP1 is simply replaced by VS1 . For P-
S reflections, traveltime requires a new derivation, due 1
−1 −1
to asymmetry between the downgoing P-wave and the t = h VP1 + VS1 + h (VP1 + VS1 ) p2
2
upgoing S-wave, as illustrated in Figure 3.14c. 3 3
+ h VP1 + VS13
p4 + · · · . (3.57)
8
To estimate the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 , etc., in equa-
P-S Converted Waves tion (3.51), we must expand the offset x as a Taylor
series of ray parameter p. Let us begin with the defini-
Figure 3.14c shows the schematic diagram of the P-
tion of x as a function of p. According to Figure 3.14c,
S wave reflection. Our objective here is to demonstrate
and by using Snell’s law in expression (3.23), we can
that despite the asymmetry of the P-S wave reflection,
write:
its traveltime can be written as a function of x (distance
between source and receiver) in the expanded form, h sin θr h sin φr
x = xP + x S = +
similar to the one in equation (3.48) for P-P and S-S cos θr cos φr
waves; i.e., h pVP1 h pVS1
= + . (3.58)
t = c0 + c1 x + c2 x + · · · + cn x
2 2 4 2n
+ · · · . (3.51) 1 − p VP1
2 2 1 − p VS1
2 2
Using the Taylor expansions in (3.55) and (3.56), we Conversion Point Offset
arrive at
For the single-horizontal-interface problem, the
1 3 point where a P-P reflection occurs is the midpoint
x = h (VP1 + VS1 ) p + h VP1 + VS13
p3 between the source and the receiver. As illustrated in
2
3 5 Figure 3.14b, this P-P reflection is at the midpoint

+ h VP1 + VS1
5
p5 + · · · . (3.59) because the downgoing ray and upgoing ray are sym-
8
metrical. For a P-S reflection, this symmetry does not
Now we can substitute the infinite series (3.57) and exist, as shown in Figure 3.14c; the midpoint is not
(3.59) in equation (3.51). Coefficients of the power the reflection point. In this case the reflection point —
series of (3.51) (i.e., c0 , c1 , c2 , etc.) are obtained by known as the conversion point — varies with elastic
comparing the coefficients of like powers of p2 . The properties of rock formations in a quite complicated
first three coefficients of expression (3.51) are then way, in particular the VP1 /VS1 ratio. However, P-S data
processing requires knowledge of this conversion point.
c0 = top
2
(1 + γ )2 , (3.60)
Here we present one way of predicting the conversion
1 point for a given VP1 /VS1 ratio.
c1 = , and (3.61) Let us start by computing the traveltime tP between
VP1 VS1
A and B in Figure 3.14c:
(γ − 1)2 γ 2 xP
c2 = − , (3.62) tP = or xP = tP VP1 sin θi , (3.66)
4(1 + γ )2 top
2 V4
P1 VP1 sin θi
where where xP is the horizontal distance between the source
h0 VP1
top = , γ = . (3.63) location and conversion point. The traveltime tS between
VP1 VS1 B and C is
The formula (3.51) with the coefficients shown in xS
tS = or xS = tS VS1 sin φr , (3.67)
equations (3.60)–(3.63) can be used for S-P reflections. VS1 sin φr
Note that equations (3.52) and (3.58), i.e.,
where xS is the horizontal distance between the conver-
 
sion point and receiver, as described in Figure 3.14c.
h  1 1  The horizontal distance between the source and receiver
t=  +γ  , (3.64)
VP1 1 − p2 VP1
2 1 − p2 VS1
2 x can be written
x = tP VP1 sin θi + tS VS1 sin φr = xP + xS , (3.68)
and
  where tS is the traveltime between B and C. Hence, as
a fraction of the total offset x, the distance between the
 pVP1 pVS1 
x = h  + , (3.65) source location and conversion point, xP , is
1 − p2 VP1
2 1 − p2 VS1
2
x tS VS1 sin φr xS
=1+ = 1 + , (3.69)
with γ = VP1 /VS1 , have parametric forms. Thus, xP tP VP1 sin θi xP
while the traveltime for a P-S converted wave in or, by using Snell’s law,
equation (3.64) is not explicit in terms of x, we can 2 2
still relate t and x by use of the ray parameter p and the x tS VS1 xS tS VS1
=1+ 2
; = 2
.
parametric equations (3.64) and (3.65). In other words, xP tP VP1 xP tP VP1
by use of equations (3.64) and (3.65), the traveltime
curve for this wave can be determined by picking a (3.70)
value for the ray parameter and then calculating both Because both the oblique one-way traveltimes tP
the traveltime and the offset x for this value of the ray and tS are complicated functions of x, the above relation
parameter. The traveltime and the offset give one point is much more complicated than it looks. However, for
on the traveltime curve for this wave. small values of x/h, the ratio of traveltimes becomes
Note also that for a horizontal layer, the traveltime
curve for an S-P wave is identical to the traveltime curve tS VP1
≈ , (3.71)
for a P-S wave. tP VS1
so that, in this limit, the conversion-point offset (Tess- where

mer and Behle, 1988; Thomsen, 1999) becomes x x
D = xP − = − xS (3.74)
x x 2 2
xP ≈ ; xS ≈ . (3.72)
1 + (VS1 /VP1 ) 1 + (VP1 /VS1 )
and
For larger values of x/h, Tessmer and Behle (1988) [VP1 /VS1 ]2 + 1
η = ηP = . (3.75)
express equation (3.70) explicitly as [VP1 /VS1 ]2 − 1

x2 1 4 They also provided a solution for this equation; it is
D + h −
4 2
D2 − h2 ηxD + x + 4x 2 h2 = 0,
2 16 shown in Figure 3.16, for several values of the VP1 /VS1
(3.73) ratio (γ = VP1 /VS1 in Figure 3.16).
Conversion point (km) Conversion point (km) FIGURE 3.16. Horizontal dis-
tance of the conversion point
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
of the P-S reflection, as a
0.0 function of h (h is defined in
Figure 3.14c). Asymptote lines
Midpoint Midpoint
were calculated from equation
(3.72).
Depth (km)
1.0 Asymptote Asymptote
for γ=1.75 for γ=1.75
X = 0.5 km X = 1.0 km
γ=1.75 γ=1.75
γ=2.00 γ=2.00
γ=2.25 γ=2.25
γ=2.50 γ=2.50
2.0
Conversion point (km) Conversion point (km)
4.00
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.00
3.00
0.0
Midpoint Midpoint X = 4.0 km
γ=1.75
γ=2.00
γ=2.25
Depth (km)
γ=2.50
Asymptote Asymptote
1.0 for γ=1.75 for γ=1.75
X = 2.0 km
γ=1.75
γ=2.00
γ=2.25
γ=2.50
2.0
Note that for S-P reflection, equation (3.72) for and equation (3.75) for larger values of x/h becomes
small values of x/h becomes
[VS1 /VP1 ]2 + 1
η = ηS = = −ηP , (3.77)
x [VS1 /VP1 ]2 − 1
xS ≈ , (3.76)
1 + (VP1 /VS1 ) whereas equations (3.73) and (3.74) stay the same.
BOX 3.1: TRAVELTIME IN 1D MEDIA

The 1D medium can be approximated by many terms of the ray parameter as
thin layers, velocities and densities of which we
assume to be constant (see Figure 3.17). The ray
n
n
pVi
X=2 hi tan θi = 2 hi , and
parameter, p, introduced earlier, is given by the
i=1 i=1 1 − p 2 Vi
2
expression
(3.79)
sin θ1 sin θ2 sin θn
p= = = ··· = . (3.78)
V1 V2 Vn
n
hi 1
n
hi 1
T =2 =2 .
Vi cos θi Vi 1 − p 2 V 2
From Figure 3.17, expressions for horizontal i=1 i=1 i
travel distance, X, and traveltime, T , are given in (3.80)
FIGURE 3.17. An approxima- Source Receiver

tion of the vertical heteroge- 0 x
neous medium by many thin θ1 h1 v1
layers. Densities of layers are
considered to be constant. Rays θ2
h2 v2
are traced with the assumption
that velocity increases contin-
θ3
uously with depth. (Adapted
from Slotnick, 1936.)
hi-1 vi-1
θi-1
hi vi
θi
Interface ith
θn-2
θi+1
hn-1 vn-1
θn-1
θn hn vn
θn
H H
z
(continued)
Box 3.1 continued
Thus by means of the two parametric equations Source

above we establish a relationship in terms of the

ray parameters, p, between the horizontal travel
distance, X, and the traveltime, T , for 1D media
consisting of a stack of layers.
Ray
Now consider the case of velocity that varies
continuously with depth. The expressions above
would give us the correct result (by using the funda-
mental law of integral calculus) if we were to take
the limit as n → ∞ and hi → 0, such that

n H
ds
lim hi = dz = H, and H is a constant. dz
n→∞ 0 θ (z)
i=1
(3.81) z
dx
Then upon letting hi = dz and Vi = V (z), the
FIGURE 3.18. A ray in a vertically heterogeneous elas-
parametric equations would become
tic medium. Notice that at a certain depth, the ray will
H
turn back toward the surface.
pV (z)
X=2 dz, (3.82)
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
Variation of Linear Velocity with Depth
H dz The assumption of linear variation of velocity
T =2 . (3.83)
0 V (z) 1 − p2 V 2 (z) with depth is encountered in many studies of
petroleum seismology, because it can be treated
analytically. In many instances it is a good approx-
imation of the variation of velocity over limited
Turning Rays
depths. We will derive the horizontal travel dis-
In the derivations shown above, we have tance, X, and the traveltime, T , for this particular
assumed that a reflecting layer is at depth z = H, velocity model.
and that it returns the ray to the surface. Actually, it Assume that we have the linear velocity
is possible for a ray to return to the surface without variation
hitting a reflecting interface. Figure 3.18 shows that
V (z) = V0 + az, with a ≥ 0. (3.86)
at a certain depth z0 , the ray starts traveling hori-
zontally; eventually it turns back toward the surface. Then, for a reflection at z = H,
The depth z0 corresponds to the point at which
H
2 ap2 (V0 + az)
X= dz
dz 1 − p2 V 2 (z) ap 0
= 0 = (3.84) 1 − p (V0 + az)
2 2
dX z0 pV (z)
z=H
2 2

or =− 1 − p (V0 + az)
2
1 ap z=0
V (z0 ) = . (3.85)
p 2
= 1 − p2 V02
ap
The turning of rays is important in the illumination

of complex geological structures, such as the flanks
of salt domes. − 1 − p (V0 + aH)
2 2
(3.87)
(continued)
Box 3.1 continued

and 1 z ap2 V0 + az
= dz
ap
2 H apdz 1 − p2 (V0
0 + az )2
T=
a
0 p (V0 + az) 1 − p2 (V0 + az)2 1
= 1 − p V0 − 1 − p (V0 + az) ,
2 2 2 2
pVH
ap
2 dy
= ; (3.89)
a pV0 y 1 − y2
(y = p (V0 + az) and VH = V0 + aH) from which we obtain
y=pVH  2

2 1 + 1 − y2  1 − p V0 
2 2
V0 2 1
= − log X −  + z+ = 2 2.
a y ap a a p
y=pV0
 
(3.90)
2  VH 1 + 1 − p2 V02 
= log  . (3.88)
a V0 1 + 1 − p 2 V 2 Equation (3.90) shows that in a medium where vel-
H ocity increases linearly with depth, the downward-
traveling ray is an arc of a circle, as depicted in
The expression for the horizontal distance, X,
Figure 3.19. The center of this circle is at
traveled by a ray at any depth, z, is readily obtained
from the equation for X:  

 1 − p V0
2 2
z V0 
dX xcD , zc =  ,−  (3.91)
X(z) =
dz ap a
0 dz
FIGURE 3.19. Reflected ray in (xUc, zc) (xDc, zc)

a volume with velocity that
increases linearly. x(0)
z=0 x
R = 1/ap
H
v(z) = v0 + az
z=H
v1> v0 + az = vH
x(H)
z
(continued)
Box 3.1 continued
and the radius of the circle is R: Now the center of the circle is at
1  
R= . (3.92)
ap  1 − p 2V 2
0 V0 
xcU , zc = 2X(H) − ,− ,
For the upward-reflected ray we also get an arc ap a
of a circle, since
z (3.94)
dX
X(z) = X(H) +
dz
H dz and the radius of the circle is the same, R = 1/(ap).
0 0
dX dX For this case, the turning depth, z0 , at which the
= X(H) +
dz −
dz rays start returning to the surface without hitting a
H dz z dz
z reflecting interface, is
1 ap2 V0 + az
= 2X(H) − dz .
ap 0 1 − pV0
1 − p2 (V0 + az ) 2 pV (z0 ) = p (V0 + az) = 1 ⇐⇒ z0 = .
ap
(3.93) (3.95)
BOX 3.2: THE NOTION OF RMS VELOCITY FOR 1D MEDIA

For 1D heterogeneous media, we can still for the single interface problem; i.e.,
approximate the two-way traveltime variations of
reflected waves with offset by a hyperbolic move- 1
T2 = 2
X 2 + T02 , (3.97)
out, as shown in Figure 3.15. The trick is to find Vrms
an equivalent homogeneous medium, one that pro-
where T is two-way traveltime at the offset X and
duces traveltime variations with offsets, similar
T0 is two-way traveltime at zero offset. Note that
to those of as the 1D heterogeneous background
the time-offset relation (3.97) is valid only under
medium. For 1D media consisting of n horizontal
the same small-offset approximation.
layers, the velocity
Our objectives in this box are: (1) to derive rms
'n 2 velocity for 1D media and (2) to mathematically
i=1 Vi ti
Vrms = '
2
n (3.96) establish the conditions under which traveltime-
i=1 ti offset relationships for 1D media can be approx-
(where ti is the one-way vertical traveltime imated by hyperbolic moveout.
through layer i) allows us to predict similar travel- Consider a 1D model describing a stack of hor-
time variations with offsets. This equivalent veloc- izontally flat layers, as depicted in Figure 3.17.
ity Vrms is known as the rms (root-mean-square) According to derivations in Box 3.1, traveltime for
velocity. the wave reflected from the n-th interface is given
The especially interesting aspect of rms veloc- by
ity in equation (3.96) is that it allows us to describe H
the time-offset relation for 1D media by the same dz
Tn (p) = 2 , (3.98)
hyperbolic form as is expressed in equation (3.46) 0 V (z) 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
(continued)
Box 3.2 continued
where Tn (p) denotes traveltime for the wave reflec- We can determine the coefficients c0 , c1 , c2 ,
ted from the n-th interface. In Box 3.1 we show etc., by noting that
also that the source and receiver distance (offset),

as depicted in Figure 3.17, is given by Tn2 2 = c0 , (3.105)
X =0
H
pV (z) dTn2
X(p) = 2 dz. (3.99) = c1 , (3.106)
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z) dX 2 X 2 =0

From the above expressions [(3.98) and (3.99)], we d 2 Tn2
= c2 , etc. (3.107)
can see that d(X 2 )2 X 2 =0
Tn = Tn (p2 ); X = X(p); X 2 = X 2 (p2 ). (3.100) The simplest way to compute these coefficients
is to note that X 2 = 0 corresponds to p2 = 0 and
Therefore, we can conclude that the traveltime, Tn , that both X 2 and Tn2 are functions of p2 ; i.e.,
can be expressed as a function of X 2 ; i.e.,
2
H dz
Tn = Tn (X ).
2
(3.101) Tn2 =4 , (3.108)
0 V (z) 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
From (3.100) we can also conclude that Tn2 can

be expressed as a function of X 2 ; i.e., H V (z) dz
2
X = 4p
2 2
. (3.109)
Tn2 = Tn2 (X 2 ). (3.102) 0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
Then, we can deduce c0 easily by considering equa-
To derive the rms velocity associated with the
tion (3.108) for the particular case in which p = 0;
reflection from the n-th interface, we need to expand
i.e.,
Tn in equation (3.101) as a series of X 2 in the
following form: H 2
dz
c0 = 4 = Tn2 (0). (3.110)
V (z)
Tn = Tn (X ) =
2
c0 + c1 X 2
+ c2 X 4 + · · · 0
Calculations of c1 , c2 , c3 are somewhat labo-

+ ck X 2k + · · · . (3.103)
rious. Here we describe calculations of c1 , as an
Alternatively, we can carry out these derivations by example that can be used to derive the other coeffi-
expanding (3.102) in the following form: cients of the series in equation (3.104). So, we can
write c1 in the following form:
Tn2 = Tn2 (X 2 ) = c0 + c1 X 2 + c2 X 4 + · · ·
dTn2 dTn2 dp2
c1 = = .
+ ck X 2k + · · · . (3.104) dX 2 X 2 =0 dp2 dX 2 X 2 =0 or p2 =0
(3.111)
Whereas the expansion in equation (3.103) is By taking the derivatives of expressions (3.108) and
a valid approach, the expansion in (3.104) is more (3.109) with respect to p2 , we obtain expressions of
accurate because it gives us the correct result [i.e., the derivatives that we need for estimation of c1 :
equation (3.46)] when we deal with a single layer of
constant velocity. As we will see, the expansion in
dTn2 H dz
equation (3.103) yields an exact result [i.e., the first =4
two terms of equation (3.48)] only when we deal dp2 0 V (z) 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
with single layer of constant velocity. Therefore,
H V (z) dz
derivations in this box are based on the expansion × ( )3/2 , (3.112)
in equation (3.104). 0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
(continued)
Box 3.2 continued

2 H
n
n n
dX 2 H V (z) dz hi
=4 dz V (z) = Vi h i = Vi2 = Vi2 ti ,
dp2 Vi
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z) 0 i=1 i=1 i=1
(3.120)
H V (z) dz where
+ 4p 2
hi
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z) ti =
. (3.121)
Vi

H V 3 (z) dz By use of these identities, the expression of rms
× ( )3/2 . (3.113) velocity in equation (3.117) can be reduced to
0 1 − p2 V 2 (z)
expression (3.96); i.e.,
These expressions are simplified further for the par- 'n 2
ticular case in which p2 = 0, the case that we are i=1 Vi ti
Vrms = '
2
n . (3.122)
interested in here; i.e., i=1 ti
H H
dTn2 dz If we keep just the first two terms of equa-
= 4 V (z) dz ,
dp2 p2 =0 0 V (z) 0
tion (3.104), we have
(3.114)
H 2 X2
dX 2 Tn2 (X) ≈ Tn2 (0) + 2
, (3.123)
=4 V (z) dz . (3.115) Vrms
dp2 p2 =0 0
an expression that looks the same as equation
By substituting equations (3.114) and (3.115) into (3.42), which we derived for the straight raypath.
equation (3.111), we arrive at Notice also that equation (3.123) describes a hyper-
bola, like that expressed in equation (3.42). How-
1
c1 = 2
, (3.116) ever, equation (3.123) is not the same as (3.42), in
Vrms at least two aspects, which are described below.
where the definition of Vrms is 1) Equation (3.123) is an approximation, which
H corresponds to truncation of the series in (3.104)
2 to its first two terms; equation (3.42) is the
Vrms =
2
dz V (z), (3.117)
Tn (0) 0 correct solution for a single interface prob-
lem with a constant velocity. Truncation of the
with H series in (3.104) to its first two terms renders
dz
Tn (0) = 2 . (3.118) the traveltime-offset relationship for 1D media
0 V (z) hyperbolic. Truncation errors [i.e., the contribu-
The velocity Vrms is known as the root-mean-square tion of terms of the series (3.104) higher than X 2 ]
velocity, or simply the rms velocity. characterize deviations of the traveltime-offset
Before we go further in our discussion of the relationship from hyperbolic behavior.
series in equation (3.104), let us establish the 2) From definition of traveltime at the zero offset,
equivalence between the expression of rms velocity Tn (0), in equation (3.118), note that
derived in equation (3.117) and the one shown in
H
equation (3.96). For a 1D medium with n layers — Tn (0) = . (3.124)
as depicted in Figure 3.17, in which each layer has Vrms
a constant velocity — we have the identities Therefore, the rms velocity may not allow us to
H
n
n predict Tn (0) if we do not know H and Vrms ,
dz hi but generally we know the correct traveltime at
= = ti , (3.119)
0 V (z)
i=1
Vi
i=1
X = 0 from seismic data.
(continued)
Box 3.2 continued
In summary, the traveltime-offset relationship where

for 1D media is 2

n
c0 = 2 Ti = Tn2 (0) (3.127)
Tn2 = c0 + c1 X + c2 X + · · · ,
2 4
(3.125) i=1
and the hyperbolic approximation of this relation- and

ship is 'n
ti 1
c1 = 'n i=1 2 = 2 . (3.128)
Tn2 = c0 + c1 X 2 , (3.126) i=1 Vi ti Vrms
BOX 3.3: DIX’S FORMULA

In Box 3.2 we introduced the notion of rms relationship:
velocity for 1D heterogeneous media. The objective 1 1 1
of this box is to establish the relationship between 2 T0,n 2 T0,n−1 2 T0,n
T0,n = 2 dt = 2 dt + 2 dt
the rms velocity and the interval velocity [i.e., Dix’s 0 0 1
2 T0,n−1
formula (Dix, 1952)]. The following derivations are Hn
valid only for P-P and S-S reflected waves. dz hn
= T0,n−1 + 2 = T0,n−1 + 2 .
Consider the 1D medium in Figure 3.17 and Hn−1 V Vn
these denotations: (a) Vrms;n the rms velocity of (3.130)
the reflection from the bottom of the nth layer
(i.e., at depth Hn ); (b) Hn , the distance in depth So, now we have the following two relation-
between the surface and the nth reflector; and ships:
(c) hn = Hn − Hn−1 , the thickness of the nth 2
Vrms;n T0,n − Vrms;n−1
2 T0,n−1
layer. Now, the relationship between rms and Vn = (3.131)
interval velocity can be derived as follows: 2hn
Hn and
2
2
Vrms;n = V dz
T0,n T0,n − T0,n−1

0
hn = Vn , (3.132)
2 Hn−1 Hn 2
= V dz + V dz
T0,n 0 Hn−1 from which we obtain

2 T0,n−1 2 2
Vrms;n T0,n − Vrms;n−1
2 T0,n−1
= Vrms;n−1 + Vn hn ,
T0,n 2 Vn = , (3.133)
T0,n − T0,n−1
(3.129)
where T0,n is the two-way traveltime at zero off-

*
set for a reflection at nth interface and T0,n−1 is the 1 2 2

hn = Vrms;n T0,n − Vrms;n−1 T0,n−1 T0,n − T0,n−1 .
two-way traveltime at zero offset for a reflection 2
at (n − 1)th interface. Notice that equation (3.129) (3.134)
requires hn , thickness of the nth layer, for estima-
tion of interval Vn from rms velocities. At this point, Interval velocities can thus be calculated from
hn is unknown. Therefore, it is necessary to deter- rms velocities by using the Dix formula [equa-
mine hn by using zero-offset traveltimes, which we tion (3.133)]. We remark that using rms velocities
can obtain from seismic data. This transformation as if they were average velocities can lead to
can be achieved through the following recursive significant errors in estimates of depth.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR According to Newton’s third law of motion, on the

THE ELASTODYNAMIC FIELD interface the vertical tractions must be continuous:
We have shown in Chapter 2 that for homogeneous Tz (z− ) = Tz (z+ ). (3.136)

elastic isotropic media, the equations of motion sepa-
In some small volumes, two neighboring points that

rate into two wave equations, implying the independent
lie on opposite sides of the interface will generally have
propagation of P-waves and S-waves. However, where
different values of normal stress. This difference results
discontinuities are present in the medium parameters —
in a net force that accelerates the small volume. If we
as at an interface that separates two media — bound-
choose points closer and closer together, the stress val-
ary conditions dictate that the P- and/or S-wave hitting
ues must approach each other. Where the two points
the interface will undergo changes. The amplitude,
coincide on the boundary, the two stresses must be
wavenumber, and direction of propagation will change.
equal. If this were not so, the infinitesimally small vol-
Also, boundary conditions in general cause coupling
ume with vanishing mass would be acted upon by a
between the two types of motion. Furthermore bound-
finite force; hence it would have an acceleration that
ary conditions would lead to existence of surface waves
would approach infinity as the two points approached
at interfaces where a solid is in contact with another
each other. The same reasoning applies to horizontal
solid, a fluid, or a vacuum. In this section, boundary
components of the vertical traction vector; thus they
conditions for the elastodynamic field at interfaces of
must be continuous at the boundary.
material are discussed. We will assume that the inter-
face at depth z is horizontal in the (x, y)-plane, with
the depth axis positive downward. For convenience of
notation, in the following subsections, we suppress Fluid-solid Interface
the two horizontal Cartesian coordinates in the field
Consider next an interface, at depth z, between a
variables. The fields governing wave propagation are
fluid and an elastic medium. We assume that the fluid is
the displacement vector, u, and the vertical traction
nonviscous. At such an interface, slip is allowed in the
vector, Tz .
horizontal direction so that only the vertical component
of the displacement vector is constrained by a contact
condition. The continuity of uz reads
Solid-solid Interface
uz (z− ) = uz (z+ ), (3.137)
In seismics, the model of the solid-solid interface
that we use is that of two elastic media in welded where z− and z+ denote locations in the fluid and the
contact. This means that all components of the displace- elastic medium at the interface, respectively.
ment field u must be continuous across the interface: The vertical traction vector at the interface is con-
tinuous. If stresses were not continuous, finite net forces
u(z− ) = u(z+ ), (3.135) would act on small volumes with a vanishingly small
mass, resulting in infinite acceleration. The continuity
where z− and z+ indicate values of u just above and of the vertical traction vector
just below the interface. If the vertical component of
Tz (z− ) = Tz (z+ ) (3.138)
displacement were not continuous, one medium would
separate from the other, leaving a vacuum between, or then requires that the horizontal components of Tz (z) be
would penetrate the other, so that the two media would zero, since the fluid cannot support any shear traction:
occupy the same space. If horizontal displacement were
not continuous, the two would move differently on τxz (z+ ) = τyz (z+ ) = τxz (z− ) = τyz (z− ) = 0. (3.139)
opposite sides of the boundary, causing one to slide over
the other. Such relative motion is assumed to be impos- Using the scalar pressure field to describe wave prop-
sible. Stated differently, continuity of displacement agation in the fluid, the fluid-solid interface model
means continuity of structure and pointedly assumes yields
that no loss of contact or slip occurs. Points on either τzz (z+ ) = −p(z− ). (3.140)
side of the interface that originally are close to each Due to the allowed slip in the horizontal direction, the
other must remain close upon deformation. horizontal components of motion in the elastic medium
in general are unrelated to the horizontal components Fluid-fluid Interface

of fluid motion:
From elastodynamic to acoustic fields: A
ux (z+ ) = ux (z− ); uy (z+ ) = uy (z− ). (3.141) brief background. As described in Chapter 2, elas-
todynamics refers to description of the response of a
Thus, to fully describe wave propagation at a deformable solid to applied and internal force fields.
fluid-solid interface, four components of the wavefield Also in Chapter 2, the reader was introduced to elasto-
must be computed or measured: the pressure field just dynamic fields — that is, fields in elastic solids — and
above and the three components of displacement (or salient features of the physical variables were outlined:
particle velocity, the time derivative of displacement) the displacement vector, the stress and strain tensors,
below. For most cases the fluid-solid boundary condi- and the body forces. The term linear elastic solid
tion is assumed to be representative of the seafloor. In refers to a material in which the force-displacement
ocean-bottom seismics, or 4C seismics, four wavefield relationship is linear. In linear elastic solids, P- and
components are thus required to describe wave propa- S-waves occur. In addition, surface waves can occur at
gation fully. In Chapter 9 we will show that when the sea boundaries (layer interfaces).
floor density and velocities are known, the four compo- In fluids, waves are of one type only — acoustic
nents can be decomposed just below the seafloor into or longitudinal or P-waves. Acoustic waves are asso-
upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves. ciated with local motions of particles of the fluid. The
field variables of interest are normally pressure, p, and
particle velocity, v — i.e., the time derivative of the
Vacuum-solid Interface displacement u. The great distinction between elastody-
namic fields in solids and acoustic fields in nonviscous
Finally, consider an interface at depth z, between fluids is that nonviscous fluids cannot sustain shear
a vacuum and an elastic medium. Such an interface is stresses. The state of stress in a fluid is thus described by
often referred to as a free surface. On the surface the
tractions are continuous, since an infinite acceleration τij = −pδij . (3.143)
would be required to maintain a traction discontinuity. In fluids, pressure p is positive in compression, whereas
Inasmuch as a vacuum cannot sustain any stress, we get the opposite convention is used for stresses.
the free-surface boundary condition
Boundary conditions at the interface be-
Tz (z) = 0. (3.142)
tween two fluids. Assume that two fluids with dif-
No restrictions are imposed on the displacement, u. ferent densities and velocities are in contact. Boundary
The free-surface condition (3.142) can be assumed conditions are
to be representative of the surface of the earth, because p(z− ) = p(z+ ), (3.144)
in most cases the elastic constants for air are sev- uz (z− ) = uz (z+ ), (3.145)
eral orders of magnitude less than elastic constants of
where the minus and plus superscripts refer to field val-
rock. Consider wave propagation in a three-layer model
ues just above and just below the interface at depth z.
that consists of air above two different elastic media.
The proposition is assumed that the horizontal com-
The air-solid interface represents the earth’s surface.
ponent of displacement may be discontinuous; i.e., in
Figure 3.13b shows snapshots of wave propagation in
the horizontal plane the fluids may slip relative to each
this model, with a source in the upper solid layer. Con-
other.
trary to the reflections at the solid-solid interface, we
see that the reflection at the air-solid interface is “total”;
no-energy is transmitted into the “atmosphere” because Interface between Vacuum and Fluid
the velocity and density of air are so low in comparison
to velocity and density of the solid. Therefore, we can No pressure can be exerted from the vacuum side of
approximate the earth’s surface as a free surface. an interface between a vacuum and a fluid. Continuity
In 3C (three-component) receiver seismics, the of pressure implies that the surface is pressure-free; i.e.,
three components of the particle velocity (time deriva-
p(z) = 0. (3.146)
tive of displacement) are enough to describe wave
propagation fully. Such an interface is called a free surface.
In this chapter we have displayed snapshots for

Spherical wave Plane wave
a layered model consisting of air above two elastic
layers. The upper elastic layer is now replaced by a
layer of water. The interface between air and water is P
assumed to be representative of a calm air-sea water
surface. Figure 3.13a shows snapshots of wave prop-

agation in this model, with a source in the water.
Contrary to partitioning of energy at the water-solid θ
interface, reflection at the air-water interface is “total”; O Q
no energy is transmitted into the “atmosphere” because θ
the velocity and density of air are very low in compari-
son with the corresponding values properties of water.
Although a free surface means contact with a vacuum,
in Figure 3.13a shows clearly that the surface of the sea R
can be approximated as a free surface.
ZOEPPRITZ’S EQUATIONS FOR FIGURE 3.20. Relation between spherical and plane waves.
A HORIZONTAL INTERFACE
In Figure 3.9 we illustrated by finite-difference
modeling how energy is partitioned at a solid-solid large (i.e., PR OR). We use this approximation here
or fluid-solid interface that separates two ideal media because plane waves simplify the mathematics of our
into reflected and transmitted energy. One important problem.
aspect of reflection and transmission is their dependence One problem associated with the plane-wave
with angle. The angle of incidence of the incoming approximation, however, is that it leads to neglect of the
wave field, together with the physical properties of the effects of geometric spreading associated with spherical
two media, determines the amount of energy that is waves (see Chapter 2 for more details). For this reason,
reflected and transmitted. Our objective in this section normal practice suggests the correction of seismic data
is to derive — as a function of the angle of inci- for effects of geometric spreading, before application
dence — equations that relate reflected and transmitted of Zoeppritz’s equations to the analysis of data.
energy to the physical properties of the two media. The Thus, when a plane wave is incident upon a plane
equations, known as the Zoeppritz equations, are very interface that separates two elastic media, we expect
important in petroleum seismology because they allow the generation of both reflected and transmitted plane
us to predict some physical properties of rock forma- waves. Discontinuity in the elastic parameters across
tions from reflected or transmitted energy measured by the interface results in compressive stresses as well
receivers. as shearing stresses, when the direction of the inci-
To simplify derivations, we will assume that waves dent plane wave is oblique to the interface. Both plane
arriving at the interface can be treated the same as P- and S-waves are therefore reflected and transmitted
plane waves. From the various snapshots shown in away from the interface. Partitioning of energy into P-
Chapter 2 and in previous sections of this chapter, and S-modes is dictated by boundary conditions at the
the fact is clear that wavefronts in an isotropic, elas- interface. As we showed in a previous section, in solid
tic, homogeneous medium are a series of concentric media displacement and stresses must be continuous
spherical surfaces. However, as these waves progress across interfaces. If the continuity conditions were not
outward from the center, the radius increases and even- fulfilled, the laws of kinematics and Newton’s third law
tually becomes very large; therefore, a portion of the would be violated directly.
wavefront, near any particular point, can be approx- Two classical methods for deriving plane-wave
imated by a plane. As illustrated in Figure 3.20, the reflection and transmission coefficients have been
error we introduce by replacing the spherical wavefront quoted frequently in seismology textbooks. Knott
with the plane wavefront is small if OQ and/or PR is (1899) first derived the reflection and transmission
FIGURE 3.21. Amplitude partition at the (a) AP ≡ 1 R PS R PP AS ≡ 1 R SS R PS

interface of two half-spaces: for inci- (b)
dent (a) P- and (b) SV-waves in the upper
φr φi φr
half-space and for incident (c) P- and θi
(d) SV-waves in the lower half-space. - θr φi θ
The short arrows indicate directions of r

+
particle motion.
VP1 , VS1 , ρ 1
z=0
VP2 , VS2 , ρ 2
θt θt
coefficients by introducing unknown
potential amplitudes into the con- TSP
φt φt
tinuity conditions, leading to what - TPP -
is known as the ‘Knott equations.’ + +
TPS TSS
Zoeppritz (1919) derived a very sim-
ilar set of reflection and transmis-
sion coefficients (which are known U U U U
TPS TPP TSS TSP
by his name) by letting the unknowns (c)
(d)
be displacement amplitudes. Essen- φt φt
tially, we will follow Zoeppritz’s
method, but instead of representing θt θt
the plane wave by displacement, we
will work with the plane-wave P- and VP1 , VS1 , ρ 1
S-wave displacement potentials given z=0
VP2 , VS2 , ρ 2
in Box 2.8. Recall that for their ampli- θr θr
tudes to be consistent with the ampli- θi
tude of displacement, the unknown φr φi φ
r
P- and S-wave potential amplitudes - U
U
R PP + R SP
are scaled by P-wave and S-wave
AP ≡ 1 RUPS AS ≡ 1 RUSS
velocities, respectively.
Zoeppritz’s Equations: Because the wavefronts are plane, in Figure 3.21

Solid-solid Interface we have represented wavefronts by means of raypaths.
When the angle between the incident wavefront and
We associate the (x, y)-plane with the earth’s sur- the plane interface is θi , then θi will also be the angle
face and let the z-axis be positive with depth (a com- of incidence of the incident ray, measured relative to
mon convention). Figure 3.21 shows a model of the the interface normal. In the following text, we let
subsurface consisting of two homogeneous, isotropic, θr and θt denote angles of reflected and transmitted
and elastic media in welded contact. Consider the rays of P-waves. Angles of reflected and transmitted
(x, z)-plane and propagation therein of a traveling- rays of S-waves are denoted by φr and φt , respectively.
incident plane P-wave of amplitude AP or a traveling- As shown in Figure 3.21, traveling-incident plane
incident plane SV-wave of amplitude AS , characterized wavefronts are assumed to be advancing in the pos-
by the displacement potentials χI and ψI , respectively: itive x-direction. In equations (3.147) and (3.148),
P-wave amplitude is AP , and shear wave amplitude
ω is AS . If the incident wave is a pure P-wave, then
χI = VP AP exp i (n · x − VP t) , (3.147)
VP AS = 0. If it is a pure SV-wave, then AP = 0.
Furthermore, in Figure 3.21 we consider incident waves
ω in the upper layer to be traveling downward in the pos-
ψI = VS AS exp i (n · x − VS t) , (3.148)
VS itive z-direction as well as incident waves in the lower
layer to be traveling upward in the negative z-direction.
where n gives the inplane direction of propagation. The diagram of raypaths in Figure 3.21a depicts the
+ ,
reflection and transmission process for a downward- ω
χT = VP2 TPP exp i (x sin θt + z cos θt ) ,
traveling incident-plane P-wave with amplitude AP ≡ VP2
1. Amplitudes of the displacement of the reflected (3.152)
and transmitted P-waves are then by definition called
“reflection and transmission coefficients,” denoted by
RPP and TPP , respectively. The P-SV reflection and + ,

ω
transmission are by definition the reflection coefficient, ψT = VS2 TPS exp i (x sin φt + z cos φt ) .
VS2
RPS , and the transmission coefficient, TPS . Likewise, (3.153)
for a downward-traveling incident plane SV-wave with
amplitude AS ≡ 1, as depicted in Figure 3.21b, the The minus signs in the phase of the reflected potentials
reflection and transmission coefficients are denoted indicate that wave propagation is in the direction of the
by RSS , RSP , TSS , and TSP . Figure 3.21b illustrates negative z-axis. Note that we have omitted the factor
the reflection and transmission process for upward- exp(−iωt) because it will cancel when the potentials
traveling incident-plane waves. To distinguish the are substituted into the boundary conditions.
reflection and transmission coefficients related to upgo- As discussed in the previous sections, for a
ing incident-plane waves from those related to down- downward-traveling incident P-wave (as depicted in
going incident-plane waves, we use the superscript (U) Figure 3.21a) the directions taken by the reflected and
on the first set of coefficients. Thus, for an upward- transmitted waves are given by Snell’s law as
(U)
traveling incident-plane wave, RPP is the reflection
coefficient for the downgoing plane P-wave, and so sin θi sin θr sin θt sin φr sin φt
forth. = = = = = p.
VP1 VP1 VP2 VS1 VS2
Below we show in great detail how to derive reflec- (3.154)
tion and transmission coefficients for a downward-
traveling incident P-wave in the upper solid, as the Since the physical properties of the two media are
wave is depicted in Figure 3.21a. The other coefficients known, the reflection and transmission process is fixed
depicted in Figure 3.21b can be derived in a similar by Snell’s law; the only variables remaining to satisfy
manner. the boundary conditions at the interface are amplitudes
of the reflected and transmitted waves. To examine
Reflection and transmission coefficients the reflection and transmission coefficients further, we
for a downward-traveling incident P-wave. The write out the components of displacement and the com-
subscripts R and T are used to describe reflected and ponents of stress in terms of wave potentials. Explicitly,
transmitted wave potentials, respectively; the down- we find
ward-traveling incident P-wave, the upward-traveling
∂χ ∂ψ
reflected wave, and the downward-traveling transmitted ux = − , (3.155)
P- and SV-wave potentials are ∂x ∂z
∂χ ∂ψ
+ , uz = + , (3.156)
ω ∂z ∂x
χI = VP1 exp i (x sin θi + z cos θi ) , (3.149)
VP1
and
2
+ , 1 ∂ χ ∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ
ω τxz = µ 2 + − 2 , (3.157)
χR = VP1 RPP exp i (x sin θr − z cos θr ) , 2 ∂x∂z ∂x 2 ∂z
VP1
(3.150)
∂ 2χ ∂ 2ψ
τzz = λ∇ χ + 2µ
2
+ . (3.158)
∂z2 ∂x∂z
+ ,
ω The boundary conditions require continuity of both
ψR = VS1 RPS exp i (x sin φr − z cos φr ) ,
VS1 components of displacement and both components of
(3.151) stress at the interface. In addition, Snell’s law must hold.
To simplify the expressions, we let the interface be at which leads to

depth z = 0. Furthermore, we introduce the following
quantities: (1 − RPP ) cos θi + RPS sin φr = TPP cos θt + TPS sin φt .
(3.160)
Z1 = ρ1 VP1
: P-wave impedance, top layer The continuity of the horizontal component of

Z2 = ρ2 VP2 : P-wave impedance, bottom layer vertical traction, τxz (0− ) = τxz (0+ ), yields
W1 = ρ1 VS1 : S-wave impedance, top layer
∂ 2 (χI + χR ) ∂ 2 ψR ∂ 2 ψR
µ1 2 + −
W2 = ρ2 VS2 : S-wave impedance, bottom layer ∂x∂z ∂x 2 ∂z2
z=0
VP1 2
a1 = ∂ χT ∂ 2 ψT ∂ 2 ψT
VS1 = µ2 2 + − .
∂x∂z ∂x 2 ∂z2
VS2 VP1 W2 z=0
b1 =
VP2 VS1 W1 This condition leads to
VP1 W2
c1 = VS1
VS1 W1 (1 − RPP ) W1 sin 2θi − RPS W1 cos 2φr
VS1 VP1
a2 =
VP1 VS2
= TPP W2 sin 2θt − TPS W2 cos 2φt . (3.161)
Z2 VP2
b2 =
Z1
The continuity of the vertical component of vertical
W2
c2 = traction, τzz (0− ) = τzz (0+ ), yields
Z1
W2
b3 = ∂ 2 (χI + χR ) ∂ 2 ψR
λ1 ∇ (χI + χR ) + 2µ1
2
+
∂x∂z z=0
W1
∂z2
VS2 W2 2
c3 = ∂ χT ∂ 2 ψT
VP2 W1 = λ2 ∇ χT + 2µ2
2
+ .
Z2 ∂z2 ∂x∂z z=0
c4 =
W1
This condition leads to
The continuity of the horizontal component of
(1 + RPP ) Z1 cos 2φr − RPS W1 sin 2φr
displacement, ux (0− ) = ux (0+ ), yields
= TPP Z2 cos 2φt + TPS W2 sin 2φt . (3.162)

∂χI ∂χR ∂ψR ∂χT ∂ψT
+ − = − . The four equations (3.159), (3.160), (3.161), and
∂x ∂x ∂z z=0 ∂x ∂z z=0 (3.162) constitute Zoeppritz’s equations — that is, a
system of equations for the reflection and transmission
At z = 0, all the exponential factors reduce to coefficients RPP , RPS , TPP , and TPS . In matrix notation
exp(iωpx) [where p is the ray parameter defined in equa- the system can be written as
tion (3.154)]. If the above definitions of plane-wave
 
potentials and Snell’s law are taken into account, the sin θi cos φr − sin θt cos φt
boundary condition gives  cos θi − sin φr cos θt sin φt 
 
 sin 2θi a1 cos 2φr b1 sin 2θt −c1 cos 2φt 
(1 + RPP ) sin θi + RPS cos φr = TPP sin θt − TPS cos φt . cos 2φr −a2 sin 2φr −b2 cos 2φt −c2 sin 2φt
(3.159)    
RPP − sin θi
 RPS   cos θi 
The continuity of the vertical component of dis- ×  
 TPP  =  sin 2θi
 . (3.163)

placement, uz (0− ) = uz (0+ ), yields
TPS − cos 2φr

∂χI ∂χR ∂ψR ∂χT ∂ψT
+ + = + , The system of equations in (3.163) can be solved
∂z ∂z ∂x z=0 ∂z ∂x z=0 numerically on a computer, for each set of parameters.
We have also given the solution for reflection and seismic experiments, reflections from such interfaces
transmission in terms of slownesses, which result in are hardly visible.
more-compact expressions. Readers are referred to Box
3.4 for the algebraic solution. Special case: VS and ρ constant. When S-
From Snell’s law (3.154), the conclusion follows wave velocity and density are both constant (VS = 0,
that if VP1 > VP2 , there can be no critical angle. All fac- ρ = 0), Zoeppritz’s equations are simplified greatly,
tors in the relationships (3.163) are then real. Further, if reducing to
the velocities are in the order VS1 < VS2 < VP1 < VP2 , VP2 cos θi − VP1 cos θt
there can be one critical angle, θicp = sin−1 (VP1 /VP2 ). RPP = ,
VP2 cos θi + VP1 cos θt
In this case the factor cos θt becomes imaginary for cer-
tain values of θi . Finally, if velocities are such that VP1 2VP2 cos θi
TPP = .
VS1 < VP1 < VS2 < VP2 , there can be two critical VP2 VP2 cos θi + VP1 cos θt
angles, θicp and θics = sin−1 (VP1 /VS2 ). In this case, As we will see in Section 6.4, RPP and TPP correspond
the factors cos θt and cos φt both become imaginary.
to the acoustic reflection and transmission coefficients
Complex coefficients indicate that changes in phase are
with ρ1 = ρ2 . The mode-converted coefficients are
taking place. zero.
In the following special cases, we discuss situations In the real world, some boundaries between shales
in which the reflection and transmission coefficients set and gas-bearing sands behave as acoustically reflect-
out above are simplified. ing interfaces. In such situations, the boundaries are
invisible on mode-converted shear-wave data recorded
Special case: µ constant. From the Biot-Gass- in ocean-bottom seismic experiments.
mann theory (Bourbie, 1987) on the effects of pore
fluids on rock velocities, the conclusion follows that Special case: Normal incidence. Let us con-
at fluid-contact interfaces the shear modulus µ is the sider the particular case of normal incidence. Zoep-
same on both sides of the interface. Then we assume pritz’s equations reduce to
that no diagnetic changes have taken place (that is, dif-
ferences in pore fluid do not affect the elastic properties ρ2 VP2 − ρ1 VP1
RPP = , (3.164)
of the rock matrix). Consequently, the contrast in shear ρ2 VP2 + ρ1 VP1
modulus is zero.

For µ = 0 the solution for the reflection and trans- VP1 2ρ2 VP2
mission coefficients is much simpler than in the general TPP = . (3.165)
VP2 ρ2 VP2 + ρ1 VP1
case. For a downward-traveling incident P-wave, the
reflection coefficients simplify to The mode-converted coefficients are zero. This result
follows also from the fact that there are no shearing
-
RPP = − (ρ1 VP1 cos θt − ρ2 VP2 cos θi )(ρ1 VS1 cos φt stresses at normal incidence.
./ Thus, a normally incident P-wave produces only
+ ρ2 VS2 cos φr ) + VS1 VS2 (ρ)2 sin θi sin θt reflected and transmitted P-waves. Relationships in
-
(ρ1 VP1 cos θt + ρ2 VP2 cos θi )(ρ1 VS1 cos φt (3.164) and (3.165) are useful when we want to analyze
. the behavior of P-waves propagated through layer-cake
+ ρ2 VS2 cos φr ) + VS1 VS2 (ρ)2 sin θi sin θt , media at nearly normal incidence.
When the velocity and density contrasts are small,
/- we readily obtain the often-used approximation
RPS = ρρ2 VP2 VS2 sin 2θi (ρ1 VP1 cos θt
+ ρ2 VP2 cos θi )(ρ1 VS1 cos φt + ρ2 VS2 cos φr ) d(ρVP ) 1
. RPP ≈ = d[ln(ρVP )],
2ρVP 2
+ VS1 VS2 (ρ)2 sin θi sin θt .
TPP ≈ 1.
Observe that the P-S reflection coefficient RPS is pro-
portional to the difference in density contrast across Reflection and transmission coefficients
the interface, ρ = ρ1 − ρ2 . Normally, the density for a downward-traveling incident SV-wave.
contrast across fluid-contact boundaries is small. In The diagram of raypaths in Figure 3.21b describes the
mode-converted shear-wave data from ocean-bottom energy partitioning caused by a downward-traveling
incident plane SV-wave of amplitude AS ≡ 1 striking (1 and 2) for the two half-spaces. In this book no deriva-
the interface with angle φi . In this case the incident SV- tions are given — just the solution of the reflection and
wave and upward-traveling reflected and downward- transmission Zoeppritz problem, in Box 3.4.
traveling transmitted SV- and P-wave potentials
are
+ , Zoeppritz’s Equations:
ω Fluid-solid Interface
ψI = VS1 exp i (x sin φi + z cos φi ) ,
VS1
+ , In light of new seismic-acquisition technology,
ω such as ocean-bottom seismics (OBS), the case of a
ψR = VS1 RSS exp i (x sin φr − z cos φr ) , homogeneous acoustic medium overlying a solid one
VS1
is an important example. Zoeppritz’s equations for the
+ ,
ω fluid-solid interface can be derived in the same way
χR = VP1 RSP exp i (x sin θr − z cos θr ) , as Zoeppritz’s equations for the solid-solid interface,
VP1
but with use of the proper boundary conditions out-
+ ,
ω lined in the previous section for the fluid-solid interface.
ψT = VS2 TSS exp i (x sin φt + z cos φt ) , However, a shortcut is based on our realizing that a fluid
VS2
can be considered as the limiting case of a solid when
+ ,
ω µ → 0 (or VS → 0). Therefore, Zoeppritz’s equa-
χT = VP2 TSP exp i (x sin θt + z cos θt ) . tions for the fluid-solid interface are a special case of
VP2
the solid-solid ones. The reflection and transmission
Again, the boundary conditions require continuity coefficients thus are found from the solid-solid ones
of displacement and vertical traction across the inter- given in Box 3.4 in the limit VS1 → 0. The resulting
face. If we are going to have any solution at all for the expressions for Zoeppritz’s equations for the fluid-solid
reflection and transmission problem, Snell’s law, interface are given in Box 3.5 as a function of slowness.
The coefficients can be rewritten straightforwardly as
sin φi sin φr sin φt sin θr sin θt a function of an angle, by the use of Snell’s law. Here
= = = = = p,
VS1 VS1 VS2 VP1 VP2 the reflection and transmission coefficients are given
for a downward-traveling incident P-wave in the fluid.
must hold. Following the procedure outlined above, we Defining the coefficients
now obtain the matrix system
A1 = cos2 (2φt ) = B2 ,
 
sin θr cos φi − sin θt cos φt A2 = 4ρ2 VS2 sin2 φt cos φt ,
 cos θr − sin φi cos θt sin φt 
  B = cos 2φt ,
 a2 sin 2θr cos 2φi c3 sin 2θt −b3 cos 2φ
t
a1 cos 2φr − sin 2φi −c4 cos 2φt −b3 sin 2φt C = 2ρ1 VS2 sin φt
   
RSP cos φi leads to
 RSS   sin φi 
×   
TSP  = − cos 2φi  . (3.166) A1 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + A2 cos θi cos θt − ρ1 VP1 cos θt
RPP = ,
TSS − sin 2φi A1 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + A2 cos θi cos θt + ρ1 VP1 cos θt
In Box 3.4 the solution of the reflection and

VP1
transmission coefficients in terms of slowness is given. TPP =
VP2
2Bρ1 VP2 cos θi
Reflection and transmission coefficients × ,
A1 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + A2 cos θi cos θt + ρ1 VP1 cos θt
for incident waves from below. Reflection and
transmission coefficients for an upward-traveling inci-
dent P-wave or SV-wave in the lower solid — as VP1
TPS =
depicted in Figure 3.21c and d — can be derived VS2
in a manner similar to that described above; in the 2C cos θi cos θt
× .
above equations we just interchange subscript numbers A1 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + A2 cos θi cos θt + ρ1 VP1 cos θt
BOX 3.4: R/ T COEFFICIENTS IN TERMS OF SLOWNESS:

SOLID-SOLID INTERFACE
This box gives the reflection and transmission c2 d1 + c4 d3

coefficients at a solid-solid interface in terms of RSS = − .
d1 d2 + d4 d3
horizontal slowness p and vertical slownesses:
The corresponding transmission coefficients are
−2
qP1 = VP1 − p2 : P-wave top layer;

VP1 2ρ1 qP1 d2
−2
TPP = ;
qS1 = VS1 − p2 : S-wave top layer; VP2 d1 d2 + d4 d3

VP1 2ρ1 qP1 d4
qP2 = −2
VP2 − p2 : P-wave bottom layer; and TPS = − .
VS2 d1 d2 + d4 d3

−2 VS1 2ρ1 qS1 d3
qS2 = VS2 − p2 : S-wave bottom layer. TSP = ;
VP2 d1 d2 + d4 d3

Introduce VS1 2ρ1 qS1 d1
TSS = .
VS2 d1 d2 + d4 d3
d1 = 2p2 µ(qP1 − qP2 ) + (ρ1 qP2 + ρ2 qP1 );
d2 = 2p2 µ(qS1 − qS2 ) + (ρ1 qS2 + ρ2 qS1 ); The reflection coefficients for upward traveling
incident plane waves in the upper solid are
d3 = p[2µ(qP1 qS2 + p2 ) − ρ];
(U) d2 c1 + d3 c4
RPP =− ;
d4 = p[2µ(qP2 qS1 + p2 ) − ρ]; d1 d2 + d4 d3

(U) VP2 d4 c1 − d1 c4
RPS =− .
c1 = 2p µ(qP1 + qP2 ) − (ρ1 qP2 − ρ2 qP1 );
2 VS2 d1 d2 + d4 d3

c2 = −[2p2 µ(qS1 + qS2 ) − (ρ1 qS2 − ρ2 qS1 )]; (U) VS2 d2 c3 + d3 c2
RSP =− ;
VP2 d1 d2 + d4 d3
c3 = −p[2µ(qP1 qS2 − p2 ) + ρ];
(U) d4 c3 − d1 c2
RSS = − .
c4 = −p[2µ(qP2 qS1 − p ) + ρ].
2
d1 d2 + d4 d3
The corresponding transmission coefficients are

with contrast parameters µ = µ1 − µ2 and ρ =
ρ1 − ρ2 . The reflection coefficients for downward-
(U) VP2 2ρ2 qP2 d2
traveling incident plane waves in the lower solid TPP = ;
are VP1 d1 d2 + d4 d3

c1 d2 − c3 d4 VP2 2ρ2 qP2 d3
RPP = ; (U)
TPS = .
d1 d2 + d4 d3 VS1 d1 d2 + d4 d3

VP1 c3 d1 + c1 d3 VS2 2ρ2 qS2 d4
RPS = − . (U)
TSP =− ;
VS1 d1 d2 + d4 d3 VP1 d1 d2 + d4 d3

VS1 c4 d2 − c2 d4 (U) VS2 2ρ2 qS2 d1
RSP = ; TSS = .
VP1 d1 d2 + d4 d3 VS1 d1 d2 + d4 d3
Zoeppritz’s Equations: reflected as a P-mode only. In this case the reflected

Vacuum-solid Interface P-displacement is out of phase with the incident
P-displacement wave, so that the displacement van-
Consider an upward-traveling incident plane wave ishes at the free surface.
in the solid generating two reflected waves: reflection 4) When the numerator of the PP reflection coefficient
coefficients for a vacuum-solid interface can be derived vanishes — that is, sin 2θi sin 2φr = a2 cos2 2φr —
in a manner similar to that presented for the solid-solid the incident P-wave reflects to an SV mode only,
interface. Snell’s law and boundary conditions for the with the amplitude a cos 2φr .
vacuum-solid interface given in the previous section 5) For SV-wave angles of incidence φi = 0◦ , 45◦ , 90◦ ,
must be invoked. However, reflection coefficients for (U)
then RSP = 0. The incident SV-wave reflects as an
the vacuum-solid interface can be determined from the SV-mode only.
corresponding ones for the fluid-solid interface, given 6) When the numerator of the SS reflection coefficient
in Box 3.5 in the limit ρ1 /ρ2 → 0. Introducing angles is zero — that is, sin 2φi sin 2θr = a2 cos2 2φi —
by use of Snell’s law for an upward-traveling incident the incident SV-wave reflects to a P-mode only.
plane P-wave, Note that for θr to be real-valued, the angle of
sin θi sin θr sin φr incidence, φi , must be less than the critical angle,
= = = p, φc = sin−1 (VS2 /VP2 ).
VP2 VP2 VS2
and an upward-traveling incident plane SV-wave,
sin φi sin φr sin θr
= = = p, Zoeppritz’s Equations:
VS2 VS2 VP2
Fluid-fluid Interface
the Zoeppritz equations for the vacuum-solid interface
become The reflection and transmission coefficients for
a fluid-fluid boundary follow from the ones for the
(U) sin 2θi sin 2φr − a2 cos2 2φr fluid-solid boundary in the limit VS2 → 0. For a
RPP = , (3.167)
sin 2θi sin 2φr + a2 cos2 2φr downward-traveling incident plane wave, they are
(U) 2a sin 2θi cos 2φr ρ2 VP2 cos θi − ρ1 VP1 cos θt

RPS = , (3.168) RPP = ,
sin 2θi sin 2φr + a2 cos2 2φr ρ2 VP2 cos θi + ρ1 VP1 cos θt
(U) a sin 4φi

RSP =− , (3.169)
sin 2φi sin 2θr + a2 cos2 2φi VP1 2ρ2 VP2 cos θi
TPP = .
VP2 ρ2 VP2 cos θi + ρ1 VP1 cos θt
(U) sin 2φi sin 2θr − a2 cos2 2φi
RSS = , (3.170)
sin 2φi sin 2θr + a2 cos2 2φi Inspection of the reflection and transmission coefficients
where a = VP2 /VS2 is the velocity ratio of the solid. leads to several observations:
Inspection of the reflection coefficients leads to these
observations: 1) When the two fluids have different acoustic
impedance, the reflection coefficient may become
1) Reflection coefficients depend on the velocity ratio zero for a certain angle of incidence, θi . At that angle,
VP2 /VS2 , but not on the density of the solid. RPP changes sign.
2) For the P-wave normal incidence, θi = 0◦ , RPS(U)
= 0, 2) When the two fluids have the same velocities but
so that the incident P-wave is reflected as a P-mode different densities, then Snell’s law dictates that
only. Because the direction of motion is opposite, the θt = θi , and RPP and TPP are independent of angle.
conclusion follows that the reflected P-displacement 3) When VP1 < VP2 , then the reflection and trans-
is in phase with the incident P-displacement wave. mission coefficients become complex at angles
3) For the P-wave grazing incidence, θi = 90◦ , then greater than arcsin(VP1 /VP2 ), and a change of phase
(U) (U)
RPP = 1, RPS = 0, and the incident P-wave is occurs.
BOX 3.5: R/ T COEFFICIENTS IN TERMS OF SLOWNESS:

FLUID-SOLID INTERFACE
This box gives the reflection and transmission (U) A1 ρ2 qP1 − A2 qP1 qP2 − ρ1 qP2
RPP = − ,
coefficients at a fluid-solid interface in terms of hor- A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
izontal and vertical slownesses. The coefficients are
found from those at the solid-solid interface given
in Box 3.4 in the limit VS1 = 0. Introducing (U) 2BC2 (VP2 /VS2 )qP1 qP2
RPS = ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
A1 = (1 − 2p2 VS2
2 2
) = B2 ,
A2 = 4p2 ρ2 VS2
4
qS2 ,
B = 1 − 2p2 VS2
2
, (U) 2BC2 (VS2 /VP2 )qP1 qS2
RSP = − ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
C1 = 2pρ1 VS2
2
,
C2 = 2pρ2 VS2
2
,
(U) A1 ρ2 qP1 − A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
we find RSS = − ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 − ρ1 qP2
RPP = ,
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
(U) 2Bρ2 (VP2 /VP1 )qP2
TPP = ,
TPP =
2Bρ1 (VP1 /VP2 )qP1
, A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
2C1 (VP1 /VS2 )qP1 qP2 (U) 2C2 (VS2 /VP1 )qP2 qS2
TPS = , TSP = .
A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2 A1 ρ2 qP1 + A2 qP1 qP2 + ρ1 qP2
Reflection and Transmission Coefficients In the case of the normal incidence of a P-wave, the
for the Energy of Seismic Waves energy flux into the boundary is given by
Although seismic data represent the particle-dis- II = EI VP1 . (3.172)

placement field or the particle-velocity field, a funda- The energy flux in the reflected and transmitted wave is
mental way of analyzing a physical problem is through given by
energy relations, which satisfy the law of the conserva-
tion of energy. Applying this law to the elastic-wave IR + IT = ER VP1 + ET VP2 , (3.173)
boundary problem, one concludes that the incident
where subscript T indicates the transmitted wave and
energy flow into a boundary must equal the energy
the subscript R indicates the reflected wave. Equating
flow out of the boundary. Outwardly, the energy is
them gives the energy relations at the boundary:
partitioned into the reflected and transmitted P- and
S-waves. VP2
EI = ER + ET . (3.174)
VP1
Normal incidence. The rate of the flow of energy Dividing through by EI gives
through a unit area is called intensity (or energy flux),
I. It is equal to the energy per unit volume times the ER VP2 ET
+ = 1. (3.175)
velocity of propagation: EI VP1 EI
The energy partitioned into the reflected P-wave is given
I = EV . (3.171) by ER /EI , and that in the transmitted P-wave is ET /EI .
Let us consider a displacement plane wave, VS1 cos φr

ERPS = |RPS | , (3.186)
VP1 cos θi
x
u = A cos ω t − . (3.176) ρ2 VP2 cos θt
VP ETPP = |TPP | , (3.187)
ρ1 VP1 cos θi
The particle velocity v = du/dt is given by
and
x ρ2 VS2 cos φt
v = −Aω sin ω t − , (3.177) ETPS = |TPS | (3.188)
VP ρ1 VP1 cos θi
where Aω is the peak amplitude. The energy per unit for an incident P-wave; ERPP and ETPP are the P-P
volume is given by energy reflection and transmission coefficients, respec-
2 tively, whereas ERPS and ETPS are the P-S energy
E 1 2 2 x reflection and transmission coefficients, respectively.
= ρω A sin ω t − .
unit volume 2 VP These coefficients are known as Knott’s energy coeffi-
(3.178) cients (Knott, 1899). Similar derivations for an incident
SV-wave yield the following coefficients (Tooley et al.,
By substituting equation (3.178) into equation (3.174),
1965):
and canceling the ω2 /2 and [sin ω (t − x/VP )]2 factors,
which are common to all terms, we obtain ERSS = |RSS | , (3.189)
ρ2 VP2 2 VP1 cos θr
ρ1 A2I = ρ1 A2R + A . (3.179) ERSP = |RSP | , (3.190)
VP1 T VS1 cos φi
Dividing by ρ1 A2I gives ρ2 VS2 cos φt

ETSS = |TSS | , (3.191)
2 ρ1 VS1 cos φi
AR ρ2 VP2 AT 2
+ =1 (3.180) and
AI ρ1 VP1 AI ρ2 VP2 cos θt
ETSP = |TSP | , (3.192)
or ρ1 VS1 cos φi
ρ2 VP2 2
2
RPP + T = 1. (3.181) where ERSS and ETSS are the S-S energy reflection and
ρ1 VP1 PP
transmission coefficients, respectively, and ERSP and
The reflection and transmission coefficients corre-
ETSP are the S-P energy reflection and transmission
sponding to the energy flux partitioning at normal
coefficients, respectively.
incidence are
ERPP = |RPP | (3.182)
ρ2 VP2 Examples
ETPP = |TPP | . (3.183)
ρ1 VP1
Example 1. Figure 3.22 shows the reflection and
ERPP and ETPP are the P-P energy reflection and
transmission coefficients in terms of energy ratios
transmission coefficients, respectively.
(ERPP , ERPS , ETPP , and ETPS ) and in terms of amplitude
Oblique incidence. By repeating the derivations ratios (RPP , RPS , TPP , and TPS ) for a case in which
(as in the case of normal incidence, set out above) and VP2 ρ2
by using the following plane wave of displacement, = 2.5, = 1.22. (3.193)
+ , VP1 ρ1
x sin α + z cos α
u(x, z, t) = A exp iω t − , Poisson’s ratio, v =√0.25, is identical for
VP √the two-half-
(3.184) spaces (i.e., VP1 = 3VS1 and VP2 = 3VS2 ). These
plots show several interesting points:
instead of equation (3.176), we obtain the energy reflec-
tion and transmission coefficients corresponding to the 1) At normal incidence, no shear waves are generated.
energy-flow partitioning at the interface between two This observation confirms again what is illustrated
solid half-spaces; i.e., in the snapshots in Figure 3.09. The P-wave reflec-
tion and transmission coefficients are almost equal
ERPP = |RPP | , (3.185) (RPP ≈ 0.5 and TPP ≈ 0.5).
1 0.8
(a) (c)
0.9 E RPP 0.6
RPP
0.8 0.4
0.7 0.2 RPS

Amplitude
0.6 0
Energy
0.5 –0.2
0.4 –0.4
0.3 –0.6
0.2 –0.8
E RPS
0.1 –1
0 –1.2
1 1.2
0.9 1
(d)
(b)
0.8
ETPP
0.8
TPP
0.7 0.6
0.6 Amplitude 0.4

Energy
0.5 0.2
0.4 E TPS 0
0.3 –0.2
0.2 –0.4 TPS

0.1 –0.6
0 –0.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
FIGURE 3.22. Diagrams (a) and (b) show reflection and transmission coefficients in terms of energy ratios. Diagrams (c)
and (d) show reflection and√transmission coefficients
√ in terms of amplitude ratios. Physical properties are VP2 /VP1 =
2.5, ρ2 /ρ1 = 1.22, VP1 = 3VS1 , and VP2 = 3VS2 .
2) No compressional energy enters the bottom half- 5) The compressional reflection amplitude is very small
space at angles beyond the first critical angle, θic : at about 35◦ , and no converted shear reflection
occurs at 24◦ , 44◦ , or 90◦ .
−1 VP1 6) The reflection and transmission coefficients in terms
θic = sin ≈ 24◦ . (3.194)
VP2 of amplitude ratios (i.e., RPP , RPS , TPP , and TPS )
can be negative, whereas when they are expressed in
3) No shear energy enters the bottom half-space at an terms of energy ratios (i.e., ERPP , ERPS , ETPP , and
angle beyond the second critical angle, here denoted ETPS ), they are invariably positive.
θis :

−1 VP1 Example 2. A second series of reflection and
θis = sin ≈ 44◦ . (3.195)
VS2 transmission coefficients is shown in Figure 3.23 for
a case in which
4) Three angles have almost total P-wave reflection,
the first critical angle (i.e., θ = 24◦ ), the second VP2 ρ2
critical angle (θ = 44◦ ), and the third critical angle = 2, = 0.5. (3.196)
VP1 ρ1
(θ = 90◦ ). Two angles have almost total reflection
as shear: the second critical angle (i.e., θ = 44◦ ) and Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.25, is identical for the two half-
θ = 70◦ . spaces. Note that the P-P reflection can be null at normal
FIGURE 3.23. Diagrams (a) and (b): 1 0.8

0.9 (a) (c)
Reflection and transmission coefficients E RPP 0.6
RPS
0.8
in terms of energy ratios. Diagrams (c) 0.4
0.7
Amplitude
and (d): Reflection and transmis- 0.2
0.6
Energy
sion coefficients in terms of amplitude 0
0.5
ratios. The physical properties are 0.4
–0.2
RPP
VP2 /VP1 = 2.0, ρ2 /ρ1 = 0.5, ν1 = 0.25 0.3
E RPS
–0.4
(Poisson’s ratio), and ν2 = 0.25. 0.2 –0.6
0.1 –0.8
0 –1
1 2.5
0.9 (d)
(b)
E TPP 2
0.8
0.7 1.5
Amplitude
0.6
1 TPP
Energy
0.5
0.5
0.4 E TPS TPS
0.3 0
0.2
–0.5
0.1
0 –1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
incidence. As no shear waves are generated at normal These parameters are characteristic of water over a firm
incidence, most of the energy is the transmitted P-wave sea bottom. Notice that no P-wave energy is transmitted
at low-incident angles, as shown in Figure 3.23. Other into the solid for an angle of incidence greater than 60
observations about the curves in Figure 3.23 are that degrees.
(i) at high angles of incidence, most of the energy is
the reflected P-wave, (ii) the transmitted P-wave and Example 5. By substituting equations (3.167) and
the transmitted S-wave disappear at the critical angle, (3.168) in equations (3.185) and (3.186), respectively,
and (iii) away from the critical angle, the energy of we can deduce the P-P and P-S reflection coefficients
reflected S-waves is generally low in comparison to that at the air-solid interface in terms of energy ratios.
of reflected P-waves, so these S-waves are likely to be Figure 3.26a shows calculations of the energy parti-
difficult to identify in seismic-reflection data. tioning, as a function of the angle of incidence for P
waves for various values of Poisson’s ratio. Notice that
Example 3. A third series of reflection and trans- RPS vanishes when θ = 0 and when θ = 90◦ , but in
mission coefficients is shown in Figure 3.24, for a case this case there is no critical angle. Also, recall that at the
in which air-water interface, RPP = −1 and RPS = 0, because
VP2 ρ2
= 0.5, = 0.8. (3.197) the shear velocity, VS1 , is null.
VP1 ρ1 Moreover, by substituting equations (3.170) and
Poisson’s ratio, v = 0.25, is identical for the two-half- (3.169) in equations (3.189) and (3.190), respectively,
spaces. Here the curves are less complicated than those we can deduce the corresponding SP and SS reflection
in Figures 3.22 and 3.23, mainly because no critical in term of energy ratios. These energy ratios are also
angle exists in this case (S-wave velocity and P-wave shown in Figure 3.26b. Clearly, a critical angle exists
velocity in the bottom half-space are less than P-wave so that the P-wave can travel along the free surface.
velocity in the top half-space).
Example 4. A fourth series of reflection and trans-

mission coefficients is shown in Figure 3.25, for the SURFACE WAVES
water-solid case in which In this section we give a brief introduction to a fam-
ily of surface waves that can exist at horizontal interface
ρ1 = 1.0g/cm3 , VP1 = 1.5km/s, VS1 = 0.0km/s, and
between two media, at least one of which must be a
ρ2 = 1.7g/cm3 , VP2 = 1.7km/s, VS2 = 0.6km/s. solid. Basically, there are two families of surface waves:
1 0.5 FIGURE 3.24. Diagrams (a) and (b):

(a) (c)
0.9 Reflection and transmission coefficients
0.8
RPS in terms of energy ratios. Diagrams (c)
0.7
Amplitude
0 and (d): Reflection and transmission
0.6
Energy
RPP coefficients in terms of amplitude ratios.

0.5
0.4 The physical properties are VP2 /VP1 =
0.3 ERPP ERPS
0.5
0.5, ρ2 /ρ1 = 0.8, ν1 = 0.25 (Poisson’s
0.2 ratio), and ν2 = 0.25.
0.1
0 1
1 1.5
(b)
0.9 ETPP (d) TPP
0.8
0.7
Amplitude 1
0.6
Energy
TPS
0.5
0.4
ETPS 0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
1 1 FIGURE 3.25. Diagrams (a) and (b):

0.9 (a) 0.8 (c)
Reflection and transmission coefficients
0.8 0.6 RPP
in terms of energy ratios. Diagrams (c)
0.7 0.4
Amplitude
and (d): Reflection and transmission

Energy
0.6 0.2
0.5 0 coefficients in terms of amplitude ratios.
0.4 –0.2 The physical properties are VP1 = 1.5
0.3 E RPP –0.4 km/s, VS1 = 0 km/s, ρ1 = 1.0 g/cm3 ,
0.2 –0.6 VP2 = 1.7 km/s, VS1 = 0.6 km/s, and
0.1 –0.8
ρ1 = 1.7 g/cm3 .
0 –1
1 1.2
0.9 E TPP 1 (d) TPP
0.8 (b)
0.8
0.7
Amplitude
0.6
0.6
Energy
0.5 0.4
0.4 0.2
0.3
TPS
E TPS 0
0.2
–0.2
0.1
0 –0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
surface waves with displacements only in the vertical convention of Scholte waves, as the term is used in the
plane (waves that are “vertically polarized”) and those field of underwater acoustics.
with displacements only in the horizontal plane (waves Another family of surface waves has polarization in
that are “horizontally polarized”) (Figure 3.27). The the horizontal plane. These waves are known as Love
surface waves we study in this book are vertically polar- waves2 . Love waves are not present at the interface
ized waves. Generally they are classified according to between two half-spaces. However, if a homogeneous
the names of their discoverers: Rayleigh waves at a solid layer bounded above by a free surface is on top
vacuum-solid interface, Stoneley waves at a solid-solid
interface, and Scholte waves at a fluid-solid interface.
In seismology the Scholte wave is generally called a 2 Strictly speaking, Love waves are not surface waves; they are
Stoneley wave, but in this book we adopt the name “guided” or “trapped” waves.
horizontal axes. Love waves will not be discussed fur-

ther in this section; we will focus entirely on waves that
are polarized in the vertical plane.
To avoid mathematical complexity, our analysis
will treat the solid half-space as being isotropic and
homogeneous. If this solid has a layered (“layercake”)

structure, which is the problem of interest in practical
seismology, the boundary conditions make any detailed
analytical evaluation extremely laborious. However,
numerical solutions are readily achieved for layer-
cake models. Nevertheless, the analytical procedure we
present here gives us some insight into the characteris-
tics of surface waves. For treatment of heterogeneous
half-spaces, in Chapters 7 and 8 we will revisit the
issue of dispersive characteristics of surface waves, with
some numerical examples.
Motivations for Studying Surface Waves

The study of surface waves is required, for several
reasons; first among them is the fact that they are
part of the elastic wavefield recorded in seismic
experiments. Therefore to understand their properties
and what attributes distinguish them from body P- and
S-waves is necessary. Figure 3.27 schematically shows
particle motions during passage of body P- and S-
waves and Rayleigh and Love waves. In a land seismic
experiment, in which we generate and record waves at
the air-solid interface (mathematically represented by
FIGURE 3.26. Reflection at the free surface for various val- a vacuum-solid interface), Rayleigh waves (generally
ues of Poisson’s ratios. Diagrams: (a) shows the incident known in petroleum seismology as ground roll) are the
P-wave and (b) shows the incident SV-wave. dominant components of the data. They tend to mask
the desired signals. Moreover, the amplitudes of body
waves diminish as r −1 , where r is the distance from
of a homogeneous solid half-space, Love showed that the source, but Rayleigh surface waves attenuate less
dispersive SH waves will exist. The shear-wave velocity rapidly, essentially as r −1/2 . At large source-receiver
in the half-space must exceed the shear-wave veloc- distances, the amplitude of Rayleigh waves is the dom-
ity of the above layer. Love waves are one of the inant portion of the seismic signal and is much larger
major contributions of noise in SH-wave reflection than any other portion of the signal. As is discussed
data. Special horizontal-force sources that generate pre- in Chapter 8, in land seismics, one of the key criteria
dominantly SH-waves (see Chapter 12 for more details) for selecting the spacing between receivers is to deter-
have been used on land for characterization and imaging mine the particular spacing or arrangement of receivers
of the shallow subsurface. In the marine environment, that can best attenuate ground roll energy manifest in
Love waves can be excited by similar horizontal-force seismic data.
sources if the sources are located at the seafloor. Sources Surface waves that are encountered in marine data
of these types are being developed for use on the seafloor are Scholte waves. They can be excited only by sources
in the so-called SH-wave seismic surveys. The inter- close to the seafloor in terms of wavelength. Their
est for SH-wave seismics is decoupling of SH-waves amplitudes diminish exponentially with distance from
from P- and SV-waves. Generally, this decoupling the source to the seafloor. In ocean-bottom seismic
takes place when the medium is invariant in one of the experiments, receivers are located at the seafloor and
(a) (c) Love wave

P-wave
Compressions
Undisturbed medium
Dilatations
(d)
(b) S-wave Rayleigh wave
Double Amplitude
Wavelength
FIGURE 3.27. Schematic diagrams that show of the sense of particle motions during passage of the two fundamental elas-
tic waves — (a) P-waves and (b) S-waves — as well as surface waves, (c) Love and (d) Rayleigh waves. All the waves
are propagating from left to right, with the surface of initial motion corresponding to the wavefront. Relative velocities of
wave types decrease from (a) through (d).
sources typically are 5 to 10 m below the sea surface. to estimate the seismic-moment tensor of earthquake
When the Scholte wave is measured with sufficient sources, to identify underground nuclear explosions, to
amplitude (e.g., in shallow-water ocean-bottom seis- determine the periods of free oscillations of the earth,
mics or when the source is moved close to the seafloor, and to deduce the structure of the crust and upper man-
to deliberately excite the Scholte wave), its dispersive tle. Inferences about the crust and mantle are derived
characteristics can be used to infer the shear-wave prop- from regional dispersion curves obtained from surface-
erties of the sea bed. This inference has applications in wave recordings. Surface waves excited by earthquakes
low-frequency underwater acoustics, where knowledge or man-made explosions are even being studied to
of sea-bottom shear velocity is required for develop- search for major sedimentary basins in inaccessible
ing models for propagation of waterborne sound. For areas, such as the Arctic shelf.
geotechnical investigations, Scholte waves can be used
to estimate the shear rigidity of seafloor sediments.
Surface waves depend mainly on the shear-wave veloc- Evanescent Plane Waves
ity of the medium to which they are confined. They are
quite insensitive to P-wave velocity and density. There- Up to this point, we have analyzed the propaga-
fore, the velocity of the Scholte wave indirectly is a tion of elastic waves in a homogeneous solid or near an
reliable measurement of the solid’s shear-wave velocity interface, within the framework of homogeneous plane-
over the propagation area of the surface wave. wave theory. A problem we now face is that surface
Surface waves traveling in the inhomogeneous waves are not homogeneous plane-wave solutions of
earth have been important in earthquake seismology for the wave equation. Rayleigh (1894) first proposed that
a long time. For instance, surface waves can be analyzed another type of solution can be written for the elastic
equation of motion. Rayleigh considered the possibility equation (3.202) is dictated by the physics of the par-
of a wave traveling along the free surface in a manner ticular problem under study. The physical requirement
such that its displacements are confined largely to the of the solution is that the wave must decay exponen-
surface itself. In general, the criterion for surface waves tially as z → ∞. The other solution is nonphysical
to exist is that the displacements decay exponentially and must be discarded. To distinguish this form of
with distance from the surface. plane wave from traveling homogeneous plane waves,
Now we expand on the discussion of plane waves: as in equations (3.198) and (3.201), form (3.202) is
We have considered homogeneous plane waves of the often called an “inhomogeneous” or “evanescent” plane
form wave.
Observe that when k > kP , then v < VP , and the
exp[ikP (x sin θ + z cos θ ) − iωt]; kP = ω/VP . factor cos θ becomes imaginary. The question one must
(3.198) ask is “How can plane waves of physically unimagin-
able complex angles of incidence be realized to excite
This particular plane wave represents a downward- surface waves?” A plane wave with any real angle of
traveling plane P-wave in the positive x-direction; VP incidence cannot excite any surface wave. The solution
and θ represent the propagation velocity and direction lies in the fact that in the seismic experiment, the source
relative to the x-axis, respectively. The phase (appar- does not excite plane waves, but a wave with some
ent) velocity of the plane wave along the x-direction curved wavefront. Surface waves arise from diffrac-
is v = VP / sin θ. The phase (apparent) velocity of the tion of incoming P- or S-waves at the interface of the
plane wave along the z-direction is VP / cos θ . Note that curved wavefront. In terms of seismic wavelength, a
VP is the physical velocity. The phase velocities related condition necessary for generation of high-amplitude
to the plane wave are mathematical quantities show- surface waves is that the source must be near the
ing how fast the wavefront is moving along a plane. interface, so that the wavefront is strongly curved. A
Introducing the horizontal wavenumber source on the surface certainly will set up strong surface
k = ω/v = kP sin θ , (3.199) waves.
we have
Phase Velocity of Scholte
kP cos θ = kP2 − k 2 , (3.200) and Rayleigh Waves
so that the traveling homogeneous plane wave (3.198) The simplest marine environment admitting inter-
can be rewritten as face waves consists of a homogeneous water-layer
+ , over a homogeneous solid half-space, as depicted in
exp i kP − k z + kx − ωt . (3.201)
2 2 Figure 3.28a. Above the fluid is a vacuum. Let the water-
layer thickness be z1 . In the fluid, density and velocity
are ρ1 and VP1 , respectively. The solid has density and
The homogeneous plane-wave expressions (3.198) and
P- and S-wave velocities ρ2 , VP2 , and VS2 , respectively.
(3.201) are identical, and therefore both are the solution
Observe that this model is sufficient for the analysis
of the scalar-wave equation.
of Scholte and Rayleigh surface waves. The Rayleigh
However, when k > kP , the plane wave takes the
wave is obtained as the special case of the Scholte wave,
form
by letting the water-layer thickness be zero; then the
+ ,
model is a vacuum above a solid half-space. We now
exp ±k 1 − (kP /k) |z| + i(kx − ωt) .
2
derive the characteristic equations governing the disper-
(3.202) sion and the particle motion of these interface waves:
Assume that a vertical (x, z)-plane contains the source
By direct substitution into the scalar-wave equation, we and receiver. The surface waves we are considering have
see that the waveform (3.202) is also a solution of the their polarization in the vertical plane, with vanishing
scalar-wave equation. The solution represents a wave displacement in the y-direction. Let the displacement
that is traveling in the positive x-direction with velocity potentials χ and ψ be associated with an inhomoge-
v, but the wave has experienced an exponential increase neous plane wave of mixed P- and SV-modes, traveling
or decrease along the z-axis. The choice of sign in with velocity v along the x-axis. In the fluid, the P-wave
(a) (b) FIGURE 3.28. Models used to analyze

Vacuum (air) Vacuum (air)
surface waves: (a) Fluid layer bounded
above by vacuum, and below by solid
half-space. (b) Solid half-space bounded
Z1 Water Solid above by vacuum. For surface waves to
exist, at least one of the layers must be

solid.
Solid
displacement potential is This condition leads to
χ1 = [A1 exp(−kP1 z) + A2 exp(kP1 z)] exp[i(kx − ωt)]; A1 = −A2 . (3.207)

(3.203)
At the fluid-solid interface at depth z1 the normal
and shear stresses are continuous, τzz (z1− ) = τzz (z1+ ),
kP1 = k 1 − (v/VP1 )2 , and, with τxz being zero, τxz (z1+ ) = 0. The boundary
where A1 and A2 are constants. Notice that since the conditions give
fluid layer is bounded (has finite thickness), both terms 2
2 ∂ χ2 ∂ 2 ψ2
in the solution for χ1 are required to specify the wave λ1 ∇ χ1 = λ2 ∇ χ2 + 2µ2
2
−
potential. In the solid, let us introduce the potentials z=z1 ∂z2 ∂x∂z z=z1
(3.208)
χ2 = {B1 exp[−kP2 (z − z1 )]
and
+ B2 exp[kP2 (z − z1 )]} exp[i(kx − ωt)]; (3.204)
∂ 2 χ2 ∂ 2 ψ2 ∂ 2 ψ2
2 + − = 0. (3.209)
∂x∂z ∂z2 ∂x 2 z=z1
ψ2 = {C1 exp[−kS2 (z − z1 )] At the fluid-solid interface, uz is also continuous,
uz (z1− ) = uz (z1+ ), leading to
+ C2 exp[kS2 (z − z1 )]} exp[i(kx − ωt)]; (3.205)

∂χ1 ∂χ2 ∂ψ2
= − . (3.210)
∂z z=z1 ∂z ∂x z=z1
kP2 = k 1 − (v/VP2 )2 , kS2 = k 1 − (v/VS2 )2 .
From the four equations (3.207) through (3.210), the
The condition that kP1 , kP2 , and kS2 are all real implies following system of equations must be satisfied:
that the phase velocity of the surface wave must be
lower than all physical body-wave velocities: v <  
ρ2 (ω2 − 2k 2 VS2
2 ) 2
2iρ2 k kS2 VS2 2ρ1 ω2 sinh(kP1 z1 )
VP1 , VP2 , VS2 . The physical requirement of the solution  
 2iρ2 k kP2 VS2
2 ρ2 (ω2 − 2k 2 VS2
2 ) 0 
is that |χ2 | → 0, |ψ2 | → 0 as z → ∞. Therefore,
−kP2 ik 2kP1 cosh(kP1 z1 ).
B2 = C2 = 0. (3.206)
B1 0
× C1 = 0 . (3.211)
To determine the coefficients A1 , A2 , B1 , and C1 , A1 0
we apply the boundary conditions. At the free surface at
depth z = 0, the pressure, or, equivalently, the normal The only solution other than the trivial solution
stress, τzz , vanishes and τzz (0) = 0, so that A1 = B1 = C1 = 0 is given by the vanishing of the
determinant of the system of equations (3.211). This
χ1 (0) = 0. requirement gives the dispersion relation for the phase
velocity of the Scholte wave as it applies to the ideal- Consider equation (3.212). Notice that when
ized model of a fluid layer of thickness z1 overlying a (f z1 )/VR 1 — that is, at low frequency or in shallow
homogeneous solid half-space: water, or equivalently, for wavelengths much greater
than fluid thickness — the dispersion relation (3.213) is
2 still valid. Thus in this case the wave will also travel as
2
v
(v) = 2 − a Rayleigh wave in the solid half-space, uninfluenced
VS2 by the fluid layer.
  The Rayleigh wave function (3.213) can be ratio-
2 2
v v nalized to give a final form suitable for a solution for
− 4 1 − 1− 
VP2 VS2 VR :
*
2 VR 6 VR 4 VS2 2 VR 2
4 1 − VvP2 −8 +8 3−2
ρ1 v VS2 VS2 VP2 VS2
+ *
ρ2 VS2 2
1− v VS2 2
VP1 − 16 1 − = 0. (3.214)
  VP2
2
v
× tanh kz1 1 −  = 0. (3.212) For prescribed values of VS2 and VP2 , one solution of
VP1
equation (3.214) for 0 < VR < VS2 can always be
found. If we set VR = 0, the left-hand side of equa-
The dispersion relation shows that under certain condition (3.214) is negative (less than zero), whereas for
tions, a wave can propagate along the interface between VR = VS2 the left-hand side becomes positive. Thus
the fluid and the solid with a velocity that is lower than there must be one real root of equation (3.214) lying
any physical body-wave velocities. Note that expression between VR = 0 and VR = VS2 . As an example, we
(3.212) has many roots. consider the√case of a Poisson solid for which λ = µ
Before we discuss this particular dispersion rela- and VP2 = 3VS2 . Equation (3.214) becomes
tion, let us look at two limiting cases: Rayleigh waves at

the free surface of a solid half-space, and Scholte waves VR 6 VR 4 56 VR 2 32
at the interface between fluid and solid half-spaces. −8 + − = 0.
VS2 VS2 3 VS2 3
Rayleigh waves. In the special case in which (3.215)

z1 = 0, the model is a vacuum over a solid, the sur-
This equation has three roots: VR2 = 4VS2 2 , V2 =
face wave is called a Rayleigh wave, and the Rayleigh √ R
function, 2(1 ± 1/ 3)VS2 2 . Because of the requirement that
VR /VS2 < 1, the only permissible solution is

2
VR 2 VS2 2 VR 2 √
R (VR ) = 2− − 4 1− VR2 = 2(1 ± 1/ 3)VS2 2
, VR = 0.9194VS2 . (3.216)
VS2 VP2 VS2
Figure 3.29 shows solutions of equation (3.214) for

VR 2 different values of Poisson’s ratio. For typical values of
× 1− = 0, (3.213) Poisson’s ratio (i.e., 0.2 < ν < 0.4), the Rayleigh-wave
VS2
velocity varies from 0.9VS2 to 0.95VS2 .
is obtained, determining the Rayleigh-wave velocity, We have shown that a nondispersive Rayleigh wave
VR . Notice that the Rayleigh velocity does not depend is propagated along a free surface with a wave velocity
on frequency. Physically this property arises because slightly less than the shear-wave velocity of the homo-
there is no intrinsic length-scale in a homogeneous geneous solid. However, the real earth normally has
half-space; thus, the Rayleigh wave traveling along a abrupt differences in its near-surface elastic properties,
bounded elastic homogeneous solid is nondispersive. due to the mantle of soil and weathering of the shal-
The Rayleigh function shows that the ratio between low bedrock. In this case, the Rayleigh wave becomes
Rayleigh velocity and shear-wave velocity depends dispersive; the dispersive characteristics are noticeable
only on the ratio of S-wave to P-wave velocity of the in land-seismic recordings. This issue is discussed in
solid (or equivalently, Poisson’s ratio). Chapters 7 and 8.
Notice that when fz1 /vS 1 — that is, at high fre-

0.8
0.950
0.7 VS/VP
quency or in deep water, or equivalently for wavelengths
0.940
0.6
much smaller than fluid thickness — the dispersion rela-
0.930 tion (3.217) is still approximately valid. Thus in this
VR/VP
VR/VP, VS/VP
case the interface wave will also travel as a Scholte

0.5
VR/VS
0.920
0.4 wave, uninfluenced by the free surface. As we will
VR/VS
0.910 show shortly, except in the immediate vicinity of the
0.3
0.900
fluid-solid interface, with distance from the interface
0.2 the amplitude of the Scholte wave diminishes on both
VP: P -wave velocity
0.890
sides.
0.1
VS: S -wave velocity
VR: Rayleigh wave velocity 0.880
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 Scholte waves: A fluid layer above a solid
Poisson’s ratio half-space. The general dispersion relation for the
Scholte wave, equation (3.212), shows that for a fluid
FIGURE 3.29. Velocity ratios VR /VP , VR /VP , VR /VP versus layer of finite thickness, the trapped wave is dispersive.
Poisson’s ratio, ν. (Adapted from Knopoff, 1952.) Consider VS2 < VP1 . The solution of equation (3.212)
for v provides one real solution: the phase velocity of
the Scholte wave. Its velocity is invariably less than
Scholte waves: A fluid half-space on a solid the shear-wave velocity. The velocity decreases mono-
half-space. In the special case z1 → ∞, the model tonically from the Rayleigh wave velocity at low fre-
is a fluid half-space above a solid half-space. The sur- quency to the Scholte wave velocity at high frequency.
face wave is called a Scholte wave, and from equation Figure 3.30 shows an example of how the Scholte
(3.213) the Scholte function, surface-wave velocity varies relative to the shear-wave
velocity, VS2 , as a function of frequency f and fluid layer
2 2
thickness z1 .
vS
S (vS ) = 2 − The model we have considered for the Scholte wave
VS2
  is a fluid layer above a solid half-space. In most situa-
2 2 tions the seafloor can be considered as a water-sediment
vS vS
− 4 1 − 1− 
VP2 VS2
2
0.95
vS 0.94 VSc : Scholte surface wave velocity

4 1− VP1/VP2 = 0.75, ρ1 /ρ = 0.5
ρ1 vS VP2 0.93
2
+ 2 = 0, (3.217) VS2/VP2 = 0.25,

ρ2 VS2 vS
0.92
1− 0.91
VS2/VP2 = 0.375,
VP1 VSc VS2/VP2 = 0.50.
0.9
VS2
is obtained. The Scholte function has one real root, 0.89
which we denote vS . Note that for this model the Scholte
0.88
velocity does not depend on frequency. Thus the Scholte
0.87
wave traveling along a fluid-solid interface separating
two half-spaces is nondispersive. However, when the 0.86
medium below the interface has depth-dependent var- 0.85

0 50 100 150 200 250 300
iations in shear-wave velocity, the Scholte wave be-
Frequency × fluid layer thickness (Hz × m)
comes dispersive, due to the medium’s intrinsic length
scale. FIGURE 3.30. Variations of Scholte surface-wave velocity
Note that vS < min(vR , VP1 ), where vR ≈ 0.9VS2 . VSc relative to the shear-wave velocity, VS2 , as a function of
For hard sea beds (VS2 > VP1 ), vS is roughly in a range frequency f and fluid-layer thickness. The parameters VP1 ,
from 1250 m/s to a value slightly smaller than VP1 . For VP2 , VS1 , ρ1 , and ρ2 (VP1 = 1.5 km/s, VP2 = 2.0 km/s,
soft sea beds (VS2 VP1 ), vS is usually of the order of VS1 = 0 km/s, ρ1 = 1.0 g/cm3 , and ρ2 = 2.0 g/cm3 ) are
some tens to a few hundreds of meters per second. common to all three curves.
interface, with a P-wave sediment velocity somewhat is elliptical and retrograde (i.e., at the top of its ellip-
higher than the velocity of sound in water. In soft tical path the particle moves opposite to the direction
marine sediments, such as clay and silt, S-wave veloc- of propagation). Notice that the Scholte wave radiates
ity is much smaller than velocity of sound in water, but a pressure component into the water layer. Therefore,
shows very large gradients close to the seafloor. Then Scholte waves can be measured by hydrophones, and
the interface wave becomes highly dispersive, although by geophones on the seafloor.
recognizably of the Scholte type. Recall that the seis- Equations (3.219) and (3.220) can be simplified
mic source should be close to the seafloor to excite the for Rayleigh waves by using the Rayleigh func-
Scholte interface wave. tion, R , given in equation (3.212). Rayleigh dis-
placements in the vertical and horizontal directions
become
Surface-wave Particle Motion
κ2 − 2
Consider the model of a fluid layer or half-space Uz (z) =
κ2
above a homogeneous solid half-space at depth z1 .
Where the movement of particles is a consideration, 2
× exp(−kP2 z) + exp(−kS2 z) , (3.221)
to introduce the normalization Uz (z1 ) = 1 is conve- κ2 − 2
nient. For z < z1 displacement in the vertical direction
becomes
Uz (z) = exp (−kP1 |z − z1 |) C(z), (3.218) κ2 − 2

Ux (z) = i
where C(z) = 1 for a fluid half-space but κ 2 1 − γ22 κ 2

1 + exp (−2kP1 z) κ2 − 2
C(z) = × exp(−kP2 z) + exp(−kS2 z) (3.222)
1 + exp (−2kP1 z1 ) 2
for a fluid layer. For z > z1 displacements in the vertical
and horizontal directions become for z > 0. Because the x-motion lags 90 degrees
behind the z-motion, trajectories of the particles
κ2 − 2 are ellipses. The direction of particle motion and
Uz (z) = the form of the ellipse are controlled by the ratio
κ2
+ |Ux (z)/Uz (z)|. A particle at the free surface (z1 =
2 0) of the earth describes an elliptical path that is in
× exp [−kP2 (z − z1 )] +
−2
κ2 the vertical plane, and in which motion is retrograde
, (toward the source in the upper portion of the par-
× exp [−kS2 (z − z1 )] , (3.219) ticle path). Ratio |Ux (0)/Uz (0)|, being independent
of frequency, defines the ellipticity (the ratio of the
major to the minor axis). Below a certain depth at
which the horizontal component of motion becomes
κ2 − 2 zero (approximately 0.2 Rayleigh wavelengths), the
Ux (z) = i
κ 2 1 − γ22 κ 2 sign of the motion changes, and the ellipse changes to
progradational.
+ √ To summarize, a solid half-space bounded above
2 1 − κ 2 1 − γ22 κ 2
× exp[−kP2 (z − z1 )] + by a vacuum or fluid can propagate a surface wave
κ2 − 2 along its surface, a wave that travels with velocity
,
somewhat less than the shear-wave velocity of the
× exp [−kS2 (z − z1 )] , (3.220) solid. The surface-wave propagation velocity is closely
related to shear properties of the sediment. The particle
where we have introduced the normalization κ = motion is elliptical in the vertical plane. The surface-
v/VS2 , and γ2 = VS2 /VP2 . The amplitude decays expo- wave amplitude decreases exponentially with depth of
nentially from the interface. At z = z1 particle motion penetration.
LINEARIZED ZOEPPRITZ’S The 4 × 4 coefficient matrix contained in this equa-

EQUATIONS tion can be rearranged in the form of 2 × 2 by rewriting
expression (3.223) in the following form:
Zoeppritz’s equations (3.163) and the ones in
Box 3.4 have complicated dependence on elastic para- Y1 Y2 R Y1
=
, (3.224)
meters of the two media, and on the angle of incidence. X1 −X2 T −X1
For contrasts both in densities and velocities, the only
where
simple case involves normal-incidence reflection coef-
ficients. However, the usefulness of these coefficients is − sin θi cos φi
Y1 = ,
limited, because they describe only P-wave impedance −Z1 cos 2φi −W1 sin 2φi
variations.
− sin θt cos φt
To better understand the relationship between coef- Y2 = (3.225)
−Z2 cos 2φt −W2 sin 2φt
ficients and the physical parameters at a given incidence
angle or horizontal slowness, the inspection of approxi-
mate expressions is instructive, as they were derived by − cos θi − sin φi
X1 = ,
Aki and Richards (1980). − VVP1
S1
W1 sin 2θi W1 cos 2φi
We will assume that the two half-spaces have sim-
ilar properties; i.e., the ratios VP /VP , VS /VS , and − cos θt − sin φt
X2 =
ρ/ρ are all much less than unity (VP , VS , and ρ are − VVP1
S2
W2 sin 2θt +W2 cos 2φt
the mean values for the two half-spaces, and VP , VS , (3.226)
and ρ are the differences). Also, we will assume that
all incidence angles are less than any critical angle and
TPP TSP −RPP −RSP
less than 90 degrees. T= , R= .
For deviation of approximations of Zoeppritz’s TPS TSS RPS RSS
equations, we will use the matrix formulation proposed (3.227)
by Frasier (1970), and Schoenberg and Protazio (1992)
instead of equation (3.163). This matrix formulation is Using
useful for complicated cases in which the assumption of R + Y1−1 Y2 T = I
(3.228)
isotropism is relaxed to include cases where the media R − X1−1 X2 T = −I
are anisotropic. This formulation will be preparation for
Chapter 12. and solving for R and T, we get
−1
T = 2 X1−1 X2 + Y1−1 Y2 (3.229)
Matrix Form of Zoeppritz’s Equations −1

R = X1−1 X2 − Y1−1 Y2 X1−1 X2 + Y1−1 Y2
Combining the matrix equations (3.163) and
(3.166) gives 1 −1
= X1 X2 − Y1−1 Y2 T, (3.230)
2
 
− sin θr cos φr − sin θt cos φt where subscript 1 denotes the incident medium, sub-
 −Z1 cos 2φr −W1 sin 2φr −Z2 cos 2φt −W2 sin 2φt 
  script 2 denotes the transmitting medium, and matrices
 − cos θr − sin φr cos θt sin φt 
− VVP1
S1
W1 sin 2θr W1 cos 2φr VS2
VP1 W2 sin 2θt −W2 cos 2φt X1 , X2 , Y1 , and Y2 — which are known as impedance
   − sin θ  matrices — are given in equations (3.225) and (3.226).
−RPP −RSP i cos φi
 RPS RSS   −Z1 cos 2φi −W1 sin 2φi 
.
× =
TPP TSP   cos θi sin φi 
VS1
TPS TSS VP1 W1 sin 2θi −W1 cos 2φi
Linearized Versions of
(3.223) Reflection Coefficients
With the matrix formulation, the case of an incident Approximate expressions of transmission and re-
S-wave can be treated simultaneously with that of an flection coefficients can be derived using, for instance,
incident P-wave. the impedance matrix formulation.

Let VP , VS , and ρ be arithmetic averages of veloci- 1 W W 3 VS
RSS ≈− +2 + sin2 φi
ties and densities above and below the interface, defined 2 W W 4 VS
as follows: 1 VS
VP2 + VP1 − sin2 φi tan2 φi , (3.240)
VP = , (3.231) 2 VS
2
VS2 + VS1 where

VS = , (3.232)
2
Z ρ VP µ ρ VP
and = + , = +2 and
ρ2 + ρ1 Z ρ VP µ ρ VP
ρ= . (3.233)
2 W ρ VS
= + (3.241)
If we assume that the incident and transmitting media W ρ VS
have similar properties, the following ratios,
are the relative differences change in P-wave imped-
VP VP2 − VP1 ance, in shear modulus, and in S-wave impedance,
= , (3.234)
VP VP respectively.
The reflection coefficients RPP , RPS , RSP , and
VS VS2 − VS1 RSS are of special interest to petroleum seismolo-
= , (3.235)
VS VS gists, because our data consist essentially of reflections.
and Therefore, to end with the mathematical expressions
ρ ρ2 − ρ1 in equations (3.237) through (3.240), is useful because
= , (3.236) they greatly simplify the behavior of the reflection coef-
ρ ρ
ficients with angles. Furthermore, these expressions
are all much less than unity. Therefore the approximate provide more insight into which changes in the elas-
formulae for the transmission and reflection coefficients tic parameter affect one particular reflection coefficient.
can be written as (for derivations see Aki and Richards, Before we analyze the usefulness of approximations
1980): (3.237) through (3.240), let us validate them.
First of all, at normal incidence the linearized re-
1 Z 1 VP VS2 µ flection coefficients, RPP and RSS , in equations (3.237)
RPP ≈ + −2 2 sin2 θi and (3.240) describe the contrast of impedances,
2 Z 2 VP VP µ
whereas the linearized reflection coefficients RPS and
1 VP RSP in equations (3.237) and (3.240) are null, as the
+ sin2 θi tan2 θi (3.237)
2 VP exact formulae in equation (3.223) predicted. For
oblique incidence, a numerical validation of the lin-
earized reflections in equations (3.237) through (3.240)
+ is the only realistic option, because the Zoeppritz
1 ρ VS µ equations for oblique incident angles are too complex.
RPS ≈ − sin θi +2
2 ρ VP µ To reduce redundancies in numerical validation
of the linearized reflection coefficients, we will limit
1 VS2 1 ρ VP µ
+ − 1+ 2
sin θi , our discussion to RPP and RPS . Because the expres-
2 VP2 2 ρ VS µ sion of RSS in equation (3.240) has the same form as
(3.238) that of RPP in equation (3.237), our conclusion of the
RPP can be easily adapted to RSS . A similar obser-
vation about the relationship between RPS and RSP is
+ valid.
1 ρ VS µ
RSP ≈ − sin φi +2 The linearized expressions in equations (3.237)
2 ρ VP µ through (3.240) are derived under a small-angle approx-

1 1 VS2 ρ VS µ imation. However, for a small angle, the third term
+ − 1+ sin2 φi , in (3.237) is negligible compared to the second term,
2 2 VP2 ρ VP µ
because at small angles, sin2 θi tan2 θi is very small in
(3.239) comparison to sin2 θi . For this reason, in our numerical
validation of the linearized reflection coefficient RPP , angle. We can see that to near the critical angle, the
we will use the formula linear approximation tracks the exact solution quite
well before it breaks down. For the model without
1 Z 1 VP VS2 µ critical angles, the linear approximations still break
RPP ≈ + −2 2 sin2 θi (3.242)
down, although at a larger angle (≈ 35 degrees). Actu-
2 Z 2 VP VP µ
ally, the limits of validity that we have observed for
instead of the formula shown in equation (3.237). these two models are quite general. In fact, the lin-
Figure 3.31 shows linearized reflection coefficients earized approximations in equations (3.237) through
computed from equations (3.237) and (3.238) and the (3.238) are valid only for precritical data (i.e., before
exact solution computed directly from the Zoeppritz’s the incident angle reaches the critical region) or up to
equations in (3.223), for two models: one model yields 35 degrees if the first critical angle occurs later than
critical angles, whereas the other yields no critical 35 degrees.
Another interesting aspect of linearized formulae in
equations (3.237) through (3.238) is their linear behav-
0.8
ior with sin2 θi . This behavior is readily visible for
(a) RPP
0.6 RPP in equation (3.237). However, for RPS , expression
0.4 (3.238) must be normalized with sin θi : Replace RPS by
, which is defined as
RPS
0.2
Amplitude
0 RPS

RPS = for θi > 0, (3.243)
–0.2 sin θi
–0.4
–0.6
to see clearly this linear behavior with sin2 θi . Before
carrying our analysis of the linear behavior of the lin-
–0.8 RPS earized formulae further, let us confirm that this behav-
–1 ior is noticeable on the exact formulae. Figure 3.32
shows the exact RPP and RPS as a function of sin2 θ
–1.2 i
for several models. Behavior in the interval between
0.6
sin2 θi = 0 and sin2 θi = 0.3 is linear. Figure 3.33
(b)
0.4
shows the same plots for this interval only; the linear
behavior is even more apparent in this figure. By super-
0.2 imposing the linearized solutions on the exact solution,
RPS
we see also that at a small angle the approximations
Amplitude
0 in equations (3.237) and (3.238) are valid and follow a

linear trend.
–0.2
Notice that at a small-incidence angle (i.e., θi < 35◦
or sin2 θi < 0.4), the gradient of RPP (dRPP /d sin2 θi ) is
–0.4
RPP opposite that of RPS ; RPP decreases when RPS increases
–0.6
and vice versa, as illustrated in Figure 3.33. In fact,
analyses of RPP and RPS for multiple contrasts among
–0.8 several rock formations suggest that at small angles the

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 gradient of RPP is generally opposite that of the gradi-
Incident angle (degrees) ; in other words, when the gradient of R
ent of RPS PP is
is negative, and vice versa. These
positive, that of RPS
FIGURE 3.31. Comparison of the exact solution of Zoep-
pritz’s equations (solid curves) and the linearized solution analyses include the models in Table 3.2, which will
(dashed curves). In (a) the two-half-space model (with be used for our study of how amplitude varies with
VP2 /VP1 = 2.5, ρ2 /ρ1 = 1.22, and Poisson’s ratios, angles.
can be
ν1 = ν2 = 0.25, identical for the two half-spaces) yields Also note that at small angles, RPP and RPS
critical angles, whereas in (b) the two-half-space model approximated by
(with VP2 /VP1 = 0.5, ρ2 /ρ1 = 0.8, and Poisson’s ratios,
ν1 = ν2 = 0.25) does not yield any critical angle. RPP = APP + BPP sin2 θi (3.244)
0.8 RPP 0.2 RPP

1
0.6
0.1
Amplitude
0.4
0 4
Amplitude
0.2
1
–0.1
4 2
0
2
–0.2 5
–0.2 5
–0.4 3 –0.3
–0.6
1: Vp2/ Vp1 =1.32; ρ / ρ1=1.03; γ = 1.68 , γ =1.70 –0.4
3
2 1 2
–0.8 2: Vp2/ Vp1 =0.90; ρ / ρ1=0.87; γ = 1.68 , γ =1.50
2 1 2
3: Vp2/ Vp1 =0.69; ρ / ρ1=0.53; γ = 1.68 , γ =2.07 –0.5
2 1 2
–1
1.4
1.2
4: Vp2/ Vp1 =1.20; ρ / ρ1=0.85; γ = 1.68 , γ =1.67 1.2
′
RPS
2 1 2 3
3 5: Vp2/ Vp1 =0.85; ρ / ρ1=0.77; γ = 1.80 , γ =1.67
1 2 1 2
1
RPS
0.8 0.8
Amplitude
0.6 0.6
Amplitude
0.4
0.4 5
5
0.2
0.2 2
2 0
4
0 4
–0.2
–0.2 1
–0.4
1 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3
–0.4 Sin2θ i
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Sin2θi FIGURE 3.33. Comparison of the exact solution of a

Zoeppritz’s equation (solid curves) and a linearized
) as
FIGURE 3.32. Reflection coefficients (RPP and RPS solution (dashed curves) for the two-half-space models
2
functions of sin θ1 for various two-half-space models. The defined in Figure 3.32.
parameter γ denotes the VP /VS ratio.
and

and 1 VS2 1 ρ VP ρ VS
BPS = − − 1 + + 2 .

RPS = APS + BPS sin2 θi , (3.245) 2 VP2 2 ρ VS ρ VS
(3.249)
where
The symbols APP and APS are called intercepts, and
BPP and BPS are called gradients. We ignore the third
1 ρ VP
APP = + , (3.246) term, which in RPP corresponds to the large angles.
2 ρ VP
These approximations are validated in Figure 3.33.
Figure 3.34 shows another validation, using the model
that dealt with unconsolidated materials (see Table 3.2
1 VP V2 ρ VS
BPP = − 2 S2 +2 , (3.247) for description of these models). These figures show
2 VP VP ρ VS
the exact solutions and the approximated solutions
in equations (3.237) and (3.238). Again, we can see

1 ρ VS ρ VS that the approximations obtained from these equations
APS =− − +2 , (3.248) follow the reflective trend quite well, up to about 35◦ .
2 ρ VP ρ VS
TABLE 3.2. Elastic parameters for four half-space models: shale-sand (unconsolidated), shale-salt, shale-limestone
(with gas), and limestone-salt.
Statistics for four half-space models
Model 1 2 3 4
Shale/sand
(unconsolidated) Shale/salt Shale/limestone (gas) Limestone/salt
Rock type Shale Sand Shale Salt Shale Limestone Limestone Salt
VP (Km/s) 2.0570 2.1340 3.8110 4.5730 3.8110 5.0430 5.3350 4.5730

VS (Km/s) 0.4895 0.9693 2.2630 2.7290 2.2630 2.9570 2.9750 2.7290
ρ(g/cm3 ) 2.16 2.08 2.40 2.05 2.40 2.49 2.65 2.05
APP −0.0005 0.0123 0.1571 −0.2026

BPP −0.2913 −0.0623 −0.2561 0.1969
APS −0.4259 −0.0500 −0.3536 0.3662
BPS 0.3010 0.1166 0.2632 −0.1667
Estimated Actual Estimated Actual Estimated Actual Estimated Actual
VP /VP 0.0343 0.0367 0.1551 0.1818 0.2834 0.2783 −0.1876 −0.1538
VS /VS 0.6554 0.6578 0.1602 0.1867 0.2721 0.2659 −0.1191 −0.0802
ρ/ρ −0.0352 −0.0377 −0.1305 −0.1573 0.0308 0.0368 −0.2176 −0.2553
VP /VS 2.8760 2.8729 1.6482 1.6795 1.7003 1.6962 1.7709 1.7425
Symbols: VP : P-wave velocity; VS : S-wave velocity; ρ: density; APP : RPP intercept; BPP : RPP gradient; APS : RPS intercept;
BPS : RPS gradient. Accuracy of estimated values as they approximate the actual ones is with error no greater than 1%.
VP
Application to AVA Analysis: VP
P-P Reflections Q= ρ VS
. (3.253)
ρ + VS
The term AVA stands for “amplitude variations with The terms ν1 and ν2 denote the Poisson’s ratio of
angle,” and AVO stands for “amplitude variations with incident and transmitting media, respectively.
offset,” where offset is the distance between the source In some instances this equation is simplified in
and the receiver. For all intents and purposes of practi- practice by assuming that
cal application, AVO and AVA are the same. The main
difference between the two is that an offset must be 1
ν= (3.254)
converted into an angle, or vice versa. This conversion 3
will be discussed in Chapter 11.
so that equation (3.250) becomes (Q0 = −1)
The AVA analysis has become a valuable method
for petroleum seismologists because it can provide RPP (θi ) = RPP (0) + [4.5ν − RPP (0)] sin2 θi .
valid and useful information about a reservoir or
help to locate a new one. To facilitate AVA analysis, (3.255)
Shuey (1985) suggested rearranging the approximated [See Castegna and Bakus (1993) for detailed informa-
equation (3.244) in terms of P-wave impedance and tion about this assumption.] Clearly, the intercept is the
Poisson’s-ratio contrasts as follows: reflection at normal incidence, whereas the gradient can

2ν be approximated as the change in Poisson’s ratio.
RPP (θi ) = RPP (0) + RPP (0)Q0 + sin2 θi , Based primarily on correlations between the
1 − ν2
(3.250) changes in Poisson’s ratio and the presence of hydrocar-
where bons in a reservoir, petrophysists have established four
classes of AVA responses. Class I response occurs when
ν1 + ν2 ν1 − ν2
ν= , ν = , (3.251) the acoustic impedance of the upper layer is less than
2 2 that of the lower layer. The normal-incidence P-wave
1 − 2ν reflection coefficient is strongly positive; it shows a
Q0 = Q − 2(1 − Q) , and (3.252) strong decrease of amplitude with angle and possibly
1−ν
Rpp for small offset 0.20

II CLASS I BA I
Approx.
0.3 Exact Z1< Z2 SE
RE
SE
RV
0.10 OI
P–P Reflection coefficient (Rpp)
0.2 R
CLASS
Model 3 CLASS III
AVO GRADIENT (B)

CLASS IV II
Z1< Z2
0.1
0.0
Model 2 CLASS IV
0 TO
PR Z1 ~ Z 2
Model 1 ES
ER
–0.10 V OI
–0.1 R
CLASS III CLASS
II CLASS I
Z1< Z2
–0.2 Z1< Z2
Model 4 III IV (a)
–0.20
–0.20 –0.10 0.0 0.10 0.20
–0.3
AVO INTERCEPT (A)
–0.4 CLASS I CLASS II CLASS III/IV

0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
Sin2θ VELOCITY DENSITY VELOCITY DENSITY VELOCITY DENSITY
Normalized Rps for small offset
SHALE
SHALE
SHALE
0.6 Approx.
Exact
P–S Reflection coefficient (Rps)
0.4
Model 4
SAND
SAND
SAND
0.2
(b)
0
Model 2 FIGURE 3.35. A and B crossplotting of AVO.
–0.2
Model 1
–0.4
Model 3 III originally were introduced to detect and describe gas
sands. However, some gas sands exhibit AVA responses
–0.6
contrary to that the much-used rule of thumb. Although
0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
the normal-incidence P-wave reflection coefficient is
Sin2θ
strongly negative, the reflection coefficient decreases
FIGURE 3.34. Comparison of the exact solution of Zoep- with angle. This is the characteristic of sands with Class
pritz’s equations for the two-half-space models defined in IV response. Class IV sands have been recorded in
Table 3.2. many basins throughout the world, including the Gulf
of Mexico.
In Figure 3.35, the crossplot of the intercept and the
a phase change at large angles. Class II response shows gradient illustrates these four classes of AVO responses.
very little difference in acoustic impedance between the In a stratigraphic setting where shale overlies sand,
upper and lower layers, and in many cases velocities and Class I sands are in quadrant 4 of the A-B plane: A
densities will vary in opposite directions. The normal- is positive, whereas B is negative. Class II sands have
incidence P-wave reflection coefficient is either slightly about the same P-wave impedance as the overlying
positive or slightly negative. In the first case, a phase shale. Such sands may be positioned in quadrants
change occurs at angles of small or moderate size. Class 2, 3, and 4 of the A-B (intercept-gradient) plane.
III response occurs where the acoustic impedance of Class III sands, many of which are bright, have lower
the upper layer is higher than that of the lower layer. P-wave impedance than the overlying shale. They
For Class III anomalies, the normal-incidence P-wave are positioned in quadrant 3. Class IV sands are in
reflection coefficient is strongly negative. The reflection quadrant 2.
coefficient becomes more negative with angle. Classical In addition to APP and BPP , numerous combina-
bright spots show Class III behavior. For shale-over-gas tions of APP and BPP are used in AVO analysis, such
sand reflections, a simple, often-used “rule of thumb” as APP + BPP , APP − BPP , and APP × BPP . Correlation
is that the reflection coefficient becomes more negative of these combinations to petrophysical parameters or
with increasing angle. Responses of Classes I through lithology is still an unsolved problem. Efforts are
BOX 3.6: SOME PROBABLE VALUES OF

REFLECTION COEFFICIENTS AT NORMAL INCIDENCE
1) No other reflector within the earth has a reflec- 6) Similar (but positive) measurements of RC can
tion coefficient (RC) like that of the free sur- occur at the tops of sills (plutonic rock); most of
face. (RC: P-P reflection coefficient at normal the contribution is due to contrast in velocity.
incidence.) 7) The low density of salt can produce unusual
2) In places where basement rocks are exposed effects. Reflection coefficients of some inter-
on the seafloor, the RC of the seafloor can faces between soft shale and salt are weakly
be as much as +0.8. This situation, typified positive, whereas reflection coefficients of some
by offshore eastern Canada, makes seismic contacts between hard shale and salt are weakly
data processing very difficult (the “hard-bottom negative. Of course, the RC can be zero; veloc-
problem”); much of the outgoing seismic energy ity increases across the interface, but density
is trapped in the water. decreases.
3) In places where sediment is actively deposited 8) The RC at the top of a porous, gas-saturated sand
on the seafloor, RC of the seafloor typically is negative in almost all instances; the reflection
is +0.3 and in large part is due to contrast in strength of a given seal, or cap rock, is a coarse
density. measure of its porosity.
4) Most strong reflections indicate a marked con- 9) The RC of a gas-water contact is invariably
trast of rock type. Accordingly, the RC of the positive.
interface between marine shale and hard tight 10) The RC of an oil-water contact is positive, but
limestone can be as much as +0.3. However, very small.
at most localities, few such reflectors are in the
geologic column. Many of these conclusions are concerned with
5) One particularly anomalous rock is coal: The unusual situations, but the numbers should not
RC of some shale-coal interfaces is −0.5, due obscure the fundamental fact that most reflection
largely to the contrast in density between shale coefficients in the earth are small; most are less
and coal. than 0.1.
under way to explain or establish these correlations approximation, and especially not when one considers
satisfactorily (Castagna and Backus, 1993; De Nico- in addition to R .
RPS PP
las and others, 1993; Djikpéssé and Tarantola, 1999; Equations (3.247) to (3.250) form a system of
Ikelle et al., 1992; and other sources). four independent equations with four unknown elastic
parameters (VP /VP , VS /VS , ρ/ρ, and VP /VS ). By
solving the system of equations (3.247) through (3.250),
these parameters can be estimated from a given set of
Application to AVA Analysis: AVA intercepts and gradients of P-P and P-S reflections
P-P and P-S Reflections (APP , APS , BPP , and BPS ) [See Carcuz and Ikelle (2003)
for derivations.] Furthermore, from the definition of
The general claim is made that seismic amplitude average and contrast velocities, it is straightforward to
carries information only about the contrast of elastic show that
parameters of the two rock formations, but not the

actual values of the rock formations. In other words, VP1 VP 2 − VP /VP
from seismic amplitude we can recover the changes = (3.256)
VS1 VS 2 − VS /VS
in acoustic impedance and Poisson’s ratio across the
reflecting interface but not the actual values of Poisson’s and
ratio of the rock located on either side of the interface. VP2 VP 2 + VP /VP
This claim is not absolutely true even for small-angle = , (3.257)
VS2 VS 2 + VS /VS
TABLE 3.3. Estimated values of VP /VS and of Poisson’s x

ratio, based on equations (3.257) and (3.258).
Absolute VP / VS ratio and Poisson’s ratio A Up-dip D
VP / VS σ ✷ α G
Model Layer Estimated Actual Estimated Actual
1 Shale 4.2045 4.2022 0.4700 0.4700 α θic Zu

Sand 2.2033 2.2016 0.3703 0.3700
2 Shale 1.6528 1.6840 0.2113 0.2276 E VP1
Salt 1.6443 1.6757 0.2065 0.2234
3 Shale 1.6892 1.6840 0.2302 0.2276
Zd C
Limestone 1.7087 1.7054 0.2395 0.2380
4 Limestone 1.8281 1.8042 0.2865 0.2783
Salt 1.7064 1.6757 0.2385 0.2234 B VP2
F
VP2 > VP1
from which we can deduce the actual values of Poisson’s
ratio.
FIGURE 3.36. Illustration of symbols used in derivation of
In summary, the linear properties of RPP and RPS the traveltime equation of refracted waves. Observe that the
at small angles can be used to set up the system of interface dips. “Shooting updip” is illustrated.
equations (3.247) through (3.250), which can help
us estimate uniquely the elastic parameters VP /VP ,
VS /VS , ρ/ρ, and in principle even the VP /VS
horizontal interface, but with one key difference: For
ratio — all from the intercepts and gradients of P-P and
the case of a single horizontal interface, if the verti-
P-S data. Table 3.2 shows results of this inversion for the
cal and horizontal distances between the source and
four models in Table 3.2. Then, by using these results
receivers are known, we can predict the traveltime
and formulae (3.255) and (3.256), we can estimate the
arrival. In the case of a dipping interface, we need infor-
absolute value of Poisson’s ratio for the four models
mation about the source position relative to the receiver
in Table 3.2; for instance, see the results in Table 3.3
position, in addition to knowledge of the horizontal dis-
obtained by Carcuz and Ikelle (2003).
tance between the source and receivers (offset). The
terminology commonly used for this problem is the
“downdip” position, where the receivers are located on
DIPPING INTERFACE the negative x-axis with respect to the source position
Locally the subsurface consists of rock formations (“shooting” updip) and “updip” where the receivers are
that are horizontal, for all practical purposes. Con- along the positive x-axis with respect to the source posi-
sequently, the interfaces are horizontal. However, at tion (“shooting” downdip). Directions and the symbols
many places the interfaces dip strongly. At some local- employed in the following derivations are described in
ities the interfaces are discontinuous. In this section we Figure 3.36.
illustrate the effects of a dipping interface on reflection First let us tackle a scenario in which the source
and transmission coefficients, as well as on traveltime position is located in the downdip position (“shooting”
arrivals. updip) and deduce the updip position3 :
Derivations of reflection and transmission coeffi-
cients of dipping interfaces are exactly the same as those AB BC CD
td = + + , (3.258)
of horizontal interfaces. In Section 6, we simply have VP1 VP2 VP1
to replace θi by θi = θi + α; α is the angle between the
horizontal axis and the dipping interface. zd zu
AB = , CD = , (3.259)
cos θic cos θic
Traveltime Equation for Refracted Waves
Derivation of the traveltime equation for a single 3 We can get the same equation for updip or downdip positions — the
dipping interface is essentially the same as for a single only difference is the sign associated with the dip.
and since In land seismics, refracted arrivals can be employed to

zd − x sin α predict the thicknesses of weathered layers by using
zu = zd − AE = zd − x sin α, CD = , the intercepts of refracted waves. Unfortunately, the
cos θic
traveltime curve of a dipping interface is a straight line,
(3.260)
just like that of a horizontal interface. The solution to
we can determine the relevant quantities: this problem lies in updip and downdip shooting, but
more particularly in the use of intercept times instead
ED = x cos α, FB = zd tan θic , and of slopes. According to equations (3.263) and (3.264),
GD = (zd − x sin α) tan θic . (3.261) these intercept times are
This gives us the basic traveltime equation: 2zd cos θic 2zu cos θic
tid = and tiu = . (3.265)
zd VP1 VP1
td =
VP1 cos θic
We can use them to deduce zd and zu .
x cos α − zd tan θic − (zd − x sin α) tan θic
+ Now, turn to the problem of determining the trav-
VP2 eltimes of refracted converted waves. We will treat all
zd − x sin α possible refracted waves in a general way, as we did in
+ . (3.262)
VP1 cos θic the case of a horizontal interface.
Raypaths for the general refracted wave are shown
We can reduce this equation to a simpler form by using
in Figure 3.37. Let us start with derivations of travel-
the following trigonometric identities:
times for the case depicted in Figure 3.37. This case
sin (θic − α) = sin θic cos α − cos θic sin α, and allows us to illustrate the computation of traveltime for
downdip shooting, as the previous computations were
sin (θic + α) = sin θic cos α + cos θic sin α.
carried out mainly for updip shooting. In Figure 3.37,
Finally, we arrive at V1d is the velocity of the ray as it propagates down from
the source (in the +z direction) in the top layer, V2 is
2zd cos θic x the velocity of the refracted wave (generally, one of the
td = + sin (θic − α) . (3.263)
VP1 VP1 velocities in the half-space), and V1u is the velocity of the
Our next step is to move the source to the updip ray traveling upward in the top layer (in the −z direc-
part of the interface to shoot downdip. As one might tion), to the receiver. Two critical angles are possible in
expect, we arrive at an equation that looks similar to this case; they are given by
equation (3.263):
2zu cos θic x −1 V1d −1 V1u
tu = + sin (θic + α) . (3.264)
d
θ12 = sin , u
θ12 = sin . (3.266)
VP1 VP1 V2 V2
R S FIGURE 3.37. Illustration of symbols used

X
in derivation of the traveltime equation
x of converted refracted waves, for a dip-
ping interface. Critical symbols: S is the
Vu position of the source; R is the position of
θ12
u
1
θ12
d
Zu the geophone; X is the source-to-receiver
θ12
d
Vd α distance; and α is the dip of strata in the
1
Zd θ12
u
subsurface.
α α
d
θ12
Z u tan
Vp1, Vs1 u
θ12
Z d tan
Vp2, Vs2
z
Thus, for shooting downdip the traveltime is x
Downdip Updip
zu zd A C
t121 (x) = + u u ✷
V1d cos θ12
d V1 cos θ12 90-α VP1
x cos α − zu tan θ12

d − zd tan θ12
u
+ , (3.267)
V2 α α
Z CV
P2
and BB
VP2
zd = zu + x sin α, (3.268) E
D
D
where zu is the distance from the source to the lower
interface, zd is the distance from the receiver to the
lower interface, and α is the angle of dip.
Substituting these equations into the equation for
the traveltime, we obtain
Q

d
cos θ12 u
cos θ12 x u
t121 (x) = zu d
+ u + u sin θ12 +α . FIGURE 3.38. Diagram illustrating symbols used in deriva-
V1 V1 V1 tion of the travel-time equation of P-P reflection for a
(3.269) dipping interface. Symbols: A is the position of the source;
C is the position of the geophone; X is the source-to-
In exactly the same way, the traveltime for shooting receiver distance; and α is the angle of dip of strata in the
updip (a reversed profile) is subsurface.

u
cos θ12 d
cos θ12 x u
t121 (x) = zd u + d
+ u sin θ12 −α , to the dipping interface; if we imagine extending the
V1 V1 V1
line EQ an equal distance on the opposite side of the
(3.270)
interface, we would be given the line EQ, which is also
where zu is the distance from the source to the lower of length z. The image point is at Q. If we draw a line
interface in the updip case. from Q to C, which is the geophone position, we have
In each case, the traveltime equation is a linear a particularly useful geometric construct. Because tri-
equation angles AEB and EQB are congruent, AB is equal to QB.
( u in ) the offset, x, with a slope equal to
Therefore, the path QBC is equal in length to the actual
sin θ12 + α /V1u and with an intercept equal to
path traversed by the reflected wave, ABC.
The traveltime equation is
d
cos θ12 u
cos θ12
t121 (0) = zu + . (3.271)
V1d V1u √
QC 4z2 + x 2 − 4zx sin α
t = t(x) = = (3.272)
VP1 VP1
Traveltime Equation for Reflected Waves
or
Figure 3.38 illustrates a reflection on a dipping

interface. To maintain the conventions used for deriva-
x 2 − 4zx sin α
tion of refraction equations, the dip angle is taken to t = t0 1 + , (3.273)
be positive where the slope is upward and toward the 4z2
right. The directions and the symbol employed in the
following derivations are described in Figure 3.38. with
A useful trick for derivation of reflected traveltime
equations is based on the concept of image point. With 2z
t0 = t(0) = . (3.274)
reference to Figure 3.38: The line AE is perpendicular VP1
Expanding (3.274) leads to and α = 20◦ . The traveltime curve for the horizontal
interface is symmetrical with respect to x = 0. If we
+
x 2 − 4zx sin α refer to the minimum time on this hyperbola as tmin and
t = t0 1+ the x-position (at which traveltime is at a minimum) as
8z2
xmin , then clearly
2 2
x − 4zx sin α
− + · · · . (3.275)
32z2 tmin = t(0) and xmin = 0. (3.277)
Again, we take only the first two terms in the expansion

From Figure 3.39, the fact is clear that these observa-
to arrive at
tions do not hold in the case of dipping interface,
x 2 − 4zx sin α
t ≈ t0 + . (3.276)
4zVP1 tmin = t(0) and xmin = 0, (3.278)
Let us analyze the effect of dip in equation (3.273).
because in every case xmin will be updip from the source
Figure 3.39 shows the traveltime curves for α = 0◦
position at x = 0. The value of xmin can be determined
by differentiating equation (3.277) with respect to x and
setting the result to zero, which gives
1.6 Equation (3.43) α = 0 degree
xmin = 2z sin α. (3.279)
By substituting expression (3.279) into (3.274), we

1.2
find the expression of tmin :
Time (s)
2z sin α
0.8 t NMO tmin = . (3.280)
VP1
Thus, if reflection arrivals are relatively conspicuous,

0.4 t0 their hyperbolic forms directly indicate whether the
reflections are from a dipping interface and, if so, the
direction of the dip.
1.6
Equation (3.273) α = 20 degrees An interesting concept in seismic data processing
is related to using the displacement of the hyperbolic
form of a traveltime curve when dealing with a dipping
1.2 interface. This concept is called “dip moveout” (DMO).
t DMO It is the difference in traveltime to receivers at equal dis-
Time (s)
tances from the source position (x = 0) in a split-spread

0.8 geometry, or
tDMO = t(x) − t(−x), (3.281)

0.4
t0 where using equation (3.277), the DMO equation
-x x
-2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 becomes
Distance (m)
2x sin α
tDMO = − . (3.282)
FIGURE 3.39. Comparison of normal-moveout (NMO) and VP1
dip-moveout (DMO) definitions on time-distance curves.
In the acquisition geometry illustrated in Figure 3.38, dip Let us now look at the case of converted waves.
moveout is the difference in traveltime to the receiver, at an In a dipping layer, traveltimes for the converted waves
equal distance from the source position (x = 0). tPS (incident P-wave and reflected S-wave) and tSP
FIGURE 3.40. Illustration of symbols R S

X
used in derivation of the traveltime
equation of P-S and S-P reflections for
a dipping interface. Symbols: S is the θ
P P θ
source, R is the geophone, and α is the S Zu
α α
dip of strata in the subsurface. Other φ S φ
θ φ
symbols: zu is the distance from the Zd φ
θ α
source to the dipping bed, normal to the
φ
dipping bed. zd is the distance from the Z u tan
geophone to the dipping bed. Distance

V p1, V s1
from source to receiver is shown by X. φ
V p2, V s2 Z d tan
(incident S-wave and reflected P-wave) are not equal and

(see Figure 3.40). The traveltimes are given by  
zu  1 1 + x/zu sin α 
zu zd tPS =  +  , (3.289)
tPS = + , (3.283) VP1
VP1 cos θ VS1 cos φ 1 − p20 γ1 1 − γ12 p20
zu zd with
tSP = + , (3.284) VS1
VS1 cos φ VP1 cos θ p0 = VP1 p, . γ1 = (3.290)
VP1
where Again, we see that both expressions reduce to those
zd = zu + x sin α (3.285) found for the horizontal layer where the dip angle, α, is
zero.
and as before, zu is the distance from the source to the Equivalent expressions for the S-P converted wave
lower surface (along the perpendicular to that surface), are
whereas zd is the distance from the receiving point to the 0 0
lower surface and x is the source-receiver separation.
x p0 1 − p0 + (γ1 p0 )
2 1 − γ12 p20
To obtain an explicit relationship between the trav- = 0 (3.291)
eltime tPS (or tSP ) and the source-separation distance, zu cos α − p sin α 1 − p2
0 0
x, is not possible. We limit ourselves to parametric
equations between these two quantities by using the and
ray parameter,  
zu  1 1 + x/zu sin α 
sin θ sin φ tSP =  + .
p= = . (3.286) VP1 γ 1 − γ 2 p2
VP1 VS1 1 1 0 1 − p 2
0
For the P-S wave, the source-separation distance, x, can (3.292)

be related to the ray parameter by the equation
Notice that the parametric equations are not indepen-
dent. The offset x should be computed first for each
x cos α = zu tan θ + zd tan φ
value of p0 , and then the value for the traveltimes can
= zu (tan φ + tan θ ) + x sin α tan φ. (3.287) be computed.
Therefore, we have
0 0 DIFFRACTIONS
x p0 1 − p20 + (γ1 p0 ) 1 − γ12 p20
= 0 (3.288) The subsurface is composed of more than reflec-
zu cos α − γ12 p0 sin α 1 − γ12 p20 tors; it also includes faults, simple and complex folds,
pinchouts, unconformities, and so on. In many in- limitation can be caused by a fault, a pinchout, an
stances, the laws of reflection and refraction are inad- unconformity, or some other local discontinuity in the
equate because the energy is diffracted, rather than rock.
reflected or refracted. Our objective in this section is Let us now consider propagation of waves in
to introduce the notion of diffraction and to derive 2D media. Figure 3.42a shows a wave pattern pro-
traveltime equations corresponding to diffractions. duced at the termination of a reflector. The original
down-traveling wavefront is shown as wavefront i, radi-
ating from the source point. The reflected front is shown
An Illustration of Diffractions as r. Near the termination of the discontinuous stratum,
the reflected front abruptly changes to a wavefront of
As an example, consider a plane wave of infinite greater curvature. This wavefront, denoted by d, radi-
extent traveling in homogeneous material. Three typical ates from the top corner of the terminated stratum;
secondary wavelets are shown in Figure 3.41a. Arrows the wavefront is a diffraction. In turn, this diffrac-
represent the amplitude and direction of particle veloc- tion changes to a wavefront of still greater curvature,
ity resulting from the wavelets. These vectors cancel which is a diffraction from the low corner of the broken
each other in all directions except the direction of prop- stratum.
agation. Consequently, the envelope of the secondary Figure 3.42b is an identical model but with the
wavelets remains a plane wave. However, if for some source placed just above the termination of the reflector.
reason the wavefront is limited, this mutual cancellation Again, the incident, reflected, and diffracted wavefronts
is incomplete; the resulting envelope of the secondary are visible.
wavelets is not a plane, because it has a diffraction tail. Figure 3.43 shows the wavefront pattern for a model
Figure 3.41b shows a plane wave that is finite in of faulted bedrock. Reflections from each side of the
extent and terminated by a barrier. Secondary wavelets fault, r1 and r2 , end abruptly and become diffrac-
are drawn, and vectors indicating the amplitude and tions. Again, limitation of the reflected wavefronts and
direction of particle velocity are shown. The wavelet the resulting lack of wavelet cancellation cause the
on the far right is not completely canceled; conse- diffraction.
quently, the envelope of wavelets shows a diffraction
tail. In general, the phenomenon of diffraction owes
its appearance to limitation of the wavefront. This Traveltime Equation for Refracted Waves
Figure 3.44 illustrates raypaths for forward tra-
verses and reverse traverses over a vertical step and
(a) the resultant traveltime curves. The area of interest is a
region surrounding the vertical step. At significant dis-
tances from the step in either direction we essentially
are dealing with two half-spaces. First, we concentrate
on the forward traverse. Early arrivals consist of direct
and head waves in a classic pattern, producing a two-
Plane wavefront segment traveltime curve. The last raypath to follow
(b) the normal state of affairs is QF. The position of F
on the surface is controlled by both z1 and the critical
angle; however, it is extremely unlikely that a receiver
would be located at this exact spot. In Figure 3.44, the
last receiver to record head-wave energy from the shal-
lower portion of the interface would be immediately to
the right of F.
Wavefront at a corner
Some wave energy follows the path BC (Figure
3.44), encounters the bottom of the step, produces
FIGURE 3.41. (a) Plane wavefront and (b) wavefront at a diffractions, and travels along CD. Then energy
corner. traveling along the deeper portion of the interface
FIGURE 3.42. (a) Snap- (a) 2.0 km 2.0 km

shot of diffraction from
the termination-edge of a (b)
reflector. (b) Snapshot of i
diffraction from the edge
of a reflector, but with

the source not over the r
model. Properties of the
2.0 km
background medium are
VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0.0
m/s; and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 . t
Properties of the reflec-
tor are VP = 3000 m/s,
VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ =
250 ms 250 ms
3.0 g/cm3 .
2.0 km
350 ms 350 ms
i i
r
2.0 km
d r
d
t
450 ms 550 ms
generates waves following such paths as CG and DN, intercept time of ti2 , whereas DN has an intercept time
which will return at the critical angle. Once again, on of ti1 .
the surface the position of G is controlled by the crit- If we compare QF and CG, (Figure 3.44) we see
ical angle and z1 + h. At some point to the left of G, that the difference in intercept ti2 −ti1 is due to the extra
this energy arrives first. These arrival times plot along distance, CE, traveled by CG at VP1 . CE is related to
a straight line with a slope of 1/VP2 . Note that this line the critical angle and the height of step h:
must be displaced later in time because raypaths such
as DN are longer than ones such as QF, which has an RD = h cos θic . (3.293)
2.0 km 2.0 km FIGURE 3.43. Snapshots of

diffraction from a model of
500 ms faulted bedrock. Properties
of the top medium are VP =
i 1500 m/s, VS = 0.0 m/s,
and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 . Those

of the bottom medium are
VP = 2000 m/s, VS = 0.0
2.0 km
r m/s, and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 .
350 ms t
550 ms
2.0 km
400 ms
650 ms
i
d
r2
r
2.0 km
r1
t
450 ms t
Hence the intercept time difference can be computed Traveltime Equation for Reflected Waves
and z determined by the following:
Traveltimes of reflected waves computed for a
h cos θic single interface obviously are valid for the two sets
ti2 − ti1 = (3.294)
VP1 of reflections involved in the diffraction problem. In
or fact, the traveltimes tt for diffractions consist of two
(ti2 − ti1 ) VP2 VP1 components: 1) the traveltime td of a diffracted wave
h= . (3.295)
2 − V 2 1/2
VP2 from the edge of the step to a given horizontal distance,
P1
N GF A Xg Xs
✷ A
Z1 + h θic
θic
Z1
✷
Q
E B Z1
VP1
Z2
D C
VP2
VP1
✷
VP2
FIGURE 3.45. Diagram illustrating symbols used in the

derivation of the traveltime equation for a reflected ray.
The total traveltime becomes

FIGURE 3.44. Illustration of symbols used in derivation of
the traveltime equation for a reflected ray.
xg + z1
2 2
xs2 + z12
tt = + . (3.298)
VP1 VP1
Figure 3.45 shows a model, and symbols used
xg , and 2) the time ts for the energy from the source for derivation of traveltime for a reflected ray. The
to reach the step edge. Path distances are straightfor- diffraction times determined by equation (3.296) plot
ward to determine, because right angles can be applied as a hyperbola, as do the total times determined by
in both cases. The diffraction traveltime is expression (3.298), since the first term in this equation
simply adds a constant time to each diffraction time
(compare diffraction times in Figures 3.46a and 3.46b).
xg2 + z12 Figures 3.46a and 3.46b show typical traveltime plots
td = , (3.296) for the model in Figure 3.45. Reflection arrivals produce
VP1
their characteristic hyperbolic curve, symmetrical about
the source. Diffraction arrivals also produce a hyper-
and the traveltime from source to edge is bolic curve, as mentioned previously. This curve has a
greater NMO than that of the reflections, even though
both diffractions and reflections travel entirely in the
xs2 + z12 same medium. Note that the minimal diffraction time
ts = . (3.297)
VP1 is located directly above the position of the step’s edge.
(a) Offset (km) (c)

–1.0 0.0 1.0 2500 m 2500 m
0.5 0.5
D1
i R1
Source
R3
0.9 R1 D1 R2
0.9
D1 R1
R3
2500 m
R2
Time (s)
1.3 R2 D1
1.3
1.7 R3 D4 D3 D2
Edge 1.7
800 ms 1100 ms
(b) Offset (km) (d) 2500 m 2500 m

-0.8 0.0 1.2
0.5 0.5
R1 D1
Source
i R1 R3
D1
0.9 0.9
R2
R3
D1
2500 m
R1 R2
Time (s)
R2
1.3 R3 1.3
D1
1.7 D4 D3 1.7
Edge D2
800 ms 1100 ms
FIGURE 3.46. Diffraction and reflection patterns over a vertical step fault such as that depicted in Figure 3.45. (Note that the
downthrown block is to the right.) In (a) the source is directly over the step. In (b) the source is displaced 200 m from the
diffracting edge (z1 = 500 m and z2 = 750 m in accordance with annotations in Figure 3.45). (c) Two snapshots of wave
propagation recorded in Figure 3.46a. (d) Two snapshots of wave propagation recorded in Figure 3.46b. Properties of the top
medium are VP = 1500 m/s, VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 1.0 g/cm3 . Properties of the bottom medium are VP = 2000 m/s,
VS = 0.0 m/s, and ρ = 2.0 g/cm3 . Symbols: R1: reflection from the interface at z1 (see Figure 3.45); D1: first diffraction
from the top corner; R2: reflection from the interface at z2 ; R3: reflection from the interface at z2 followed by a reflection
from the step (vertical interface). For description of the other events see Problem 11.21.
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING the refracted wave. The subsurface model used to
generate the traveltime curves is an acoustic two-
1) We consider two half-spaces, as described in half-space medium.
Figure 3.47. Elastic properties of the upper half-
space are known; those of the lower half-space 3) Figure 3.49 represents the P-P reflection coeffi-
are not. The critical angle of P-P reflection is 30 cient versus the incident angle. The model of the
degrees (Figure 3.47a), and that of the P-S reflec- subsurface used here is two half-spaces.
tion is 60 degrees (Figure 3.47b). The P-P reflec- a) Estimate the critical angle.
tion coefficient at normal incidence is 0.2. Cal- b) If the P-wave velocity of the upper half-
culate the density, P-wave velocity, and S-wave space is 2300 m/s, what is the P-wave
velocity of the lower half-space. velocity of the lower half-space?
c) Estimate the P-P transmission coefficient
2) Identify the seismic events in Figure 3.48 and and the P-S transmission coefficient at the
the corresponding slopes for the direct wave and normal incidence.
a) 0.4
R PP
0.2
0
Amplitude
–0.2
– 0.4
b)
–0.6
–0.8
–1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Angle (degrees)
FIGURE 3.49. P-P reflection coefficient versus the incident

FIGURE 3.47. Postcritical reflection.
angle.
FIGURE 3.50. Wavefront pattern for a model of a normal

fault.
5) Figure 3.32 displays amplitude-versus-angle

(AVA) curves. These curves were calculated using
the exact Zoeppritz’s equations. The curves show
P-wave reflections as functions of the incidence
angle, for a P-wave incident at a single interface
FIGURE 3.48. Travel as a function of offset (t versus x). that separates two half-spaces of homogeneous
isotropic media.
Using this approximation (Shuey, 1985;
4) Consider a two-half-space model. Elastic proper- Ostrander, 1984):
ties of the upper half-space are known; those of RPP = A + B sin2 θ, 0◦ < θ < 30◦ . (3.299)
the lower half-space are unknown. The P-P reflec-
a) Calculate A and B for Figures 3.33 and 3.34.
tion coefficient at the normal incidence is 0.06; the
b) Find the AVO class of each of these cases.
critical angle for the P-P reflection is 65 degrees,
and Vp /Vs = 2 for the two half-spaces. 6) Figure 3.50 shows the wavefront pattern for a
Assume that the incident P-wave angle is 30 model of a normal fault. Arrows in this figure indi-
degrees: cate reflections and diffractions. Identify the spe-
a) Calculate the reflected P-wave angle. cific event (reflection or diffraction) associated
b) Calculate the transmitted P-wave angle. with each of these arrows.
c) Calculate the reflected S-wave angle.
d) Calculate the transmitted S-wave angle. 7) Derive the equations for the traveltime curves, for
e) Calculate P-wave and S-wave impedances the converted waves PSPS, PPSS, and PPSS (see
of the second half-space. Figure 3.51).
continuous velocity model; i.e.,

V0 exp(cz) 0 ≤ z < H
V (z) = , (3.301)
V1 H<z
where V0 , V1 , c, and H are constants.
14) Repeat the derivations in Box 3.2 of traveltime

T and horizontal distance X for the following
FIGURE 3.51. A diagram of PSPS reflection. continuous velocity model:
V (z) = c (z + A)1/n , (3.302)
where c, A, and n are constants and additionally,
n is an integer and a constant.
15) Assume that a velocity variation in the crust is

given by

V (z) = H km/s; 0 ≤ z ≤ H; H = 1 km,
1 + 2z
3.5 km/s; z > H.
FIGURE 3.52. A ray diagram of a multiply reflected wave. (3.303)
Determine the normal-moveout correction
8) Using the diagram in Figure 3.51, show that (NMO) for a reflection from the interface at H
(for the source and receiver on the surface) using
tPSPS = 2tPS . (3.300) the two following approximate expressions. Note:
(0 ≤ x ≤ 2km).
9) a) For instances of the source and receiver on the
a) Approximation 1:
top surface (see Figure 3.52), find the expres-

sions for traveltimes of multiply reflected x2
waves. t1 (x) = t(x) − t0 ≈ t0 1+ 2 −1 ,
b) What happens when the dip angle is an integral t0 V̄ 2
fraction of π? (3.304)
c) When it is an irrational fraction of π?
where
10) Derive the Zoeppritz’s equations for an incident H
2
SH-wave. V̄ = V (z) dz. (3.305)
t0 0
11) Calculate the amplitude of reflected and trans- b) Approximation 2:
mitted P- and S-waves where an incident P-wave
strikes the interface from a water layer (VP1 = 1.5 x2
t2 (x) ≈ . (3.306)
km/s, VS1 = 0 km/s, ρ1 = 1.0 g/cm3 ), at 20 2V̄ 2 t0
degrees, (1) where the seafloor is “soft” (VP2 =
2.0 km/s, VS2 = 1.0 km/s, ρ2 = 2.0 g/cm3 ), and c) Compare these values with those obtained
(2) where the seafloat is “hard” (VP2 = 4.0 km/s, from exact NMO (t) by plotting them.
VS2 = 2.5 km/s, ρ2 = 2.5 g/cm3 ). [Use values of p given by 0 ≤ 3pV0 (0.5) ≤
0.65, where V0 = 1 km/s; (3pV0 =
12) How would you recalibrate the scale to change a 0, 0.05, 0.1, . . . , 0.65).]
plot showing (a) amplitude variation with offset
(AVO) to (b) a plot of amplitude variation with 16) Let us now assume that the velocity variation in
angle (AVA)? the crust is given by

13) Repeat the derivations in Box 3.2 of traveltime V1 ; 0 ≤ z ≤ H1 ,
V (z) = (3.307)
T and horizontal distance X, for an exponential 3.5 km/s; z > H1 .
If the layer is assumed to have a constant velocity, (a) S-wave S-wave P-wave
V1 , and a thickness, H1 , determine the values of V1

and H1 that give the same vertical traveltime (t0 )
and NMO corrections as obtained from Approxi- Interface between
two homogeneous
mation 1, shown in Problem 11.15.
half-spaces
P-wave
17) Now assume that the velocity variation in the crust S-wave
is given by (b)
 1.0

V0 ; 0 ≤ z ≤ H2 , 0.8
1 2
V (z) = V2 ; H2 < z ≤ 2H2 ,
Energy
(3.308) 0.6

 0.4
3.5 km/s; z > 2H2 .
0.2
If there are two layers of equal thicknesses, H2 , 0.0

0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
and constant velocities, and the top layer has a con- Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
stant velocity V0 (1 km/s), determine the velocity
1.0
V2 (a constant) and H2 that give the same t0 and
3 4
t(x) (i.e., NMO corrections) as Approximation 0.8
Energy
1, shown in Problem 11.15. 0.6
0.4
18) Calculate the exact NMO correction, t, for the 0.2
models in Problems 11.16 and 11.17, and com- 0.0
pare the results of these calculations with the exact 0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
NMO correction for the assumed (linearly vary- Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
ing) velocity variation in Problem 11.15.

FIGURE 3.53. (a) Partition of energy at the interface of
two half-spaces, for an incident SV-wave. (b) Reflection
19) Over what range of offsets, x, are the NMO
and transmission coefficients (RSP , RSS , TSP , and TSS ) as
approximations 1 and 2 (see Problem 11.15) the functions of incident angle.
same as the exact value to within (a) ±1ms and
(b) ±5ms?
Demonstrate that for an inclined seafloor,
20) Consider an inclined seafloor (i.e., an interface
between a fluid and an elastic medium). If we Vz (z+ ) = Vz (z− ). (3.311)
denote the normal component of particle velocity
with respect to seafloor by Vn and the vertical com- 21) (1) Describe the raypath of the events D2 , D3 and
ponent of particle velocity by Vz , the continuity at D4 in Figures 3.46a and 3.46b. (2) Identify these
the inclined seafloor can be stated as follows: events in Figures 3.46c and 3.46d.
Vn (x− ) = Vn (x+ ), (3.309) 22) Figure 3.53b is a series of graphs showing the par-
titioning of energy corresponding two half-space
where x− and x+ denote locations in the fluid and model as depicted in Figure 3.53a. The incident
the elastic medium at the interface, respectively. wave is S-wave and it is located in the upper-half
Notice that when the fluid/solid interface is hori- space. Note that VP2 > VP1 .
zontal and flat, then Vn is the vertical component a) Associate each of the diagrams in Figure
of the particle velocity Vz . So for a horizontal flat 3.53b to a reflection or transmission coef-
interface, the following relation is true: ficient (RSP , RSS , TSP , and TSS ).
b) Estimate the Poisson’s ratio of each
Vz (z− ) = Vz (z+ ), (3.310) half-space.
Note that the upper half-space is characterized by
where z− and z+ denote depths in the fluid and VP1 , VS1 , and ρ1 , whereas the bottom half-space
the elastic medium at the interface, respectively. is characterized by VP2 , VS2 , and ρ2 .
4
THE FOURIER REPRESENTATION
OF SEISMIC SIGNALS
Petroleum seismology has undergone a dramatic The changes might be due to noise, for instance. For
change in the past four decades, due in significant mea- such changes, wavelet representations — which have
sure to the increasing use of digital signal-processing recently entered the arena of seismic signal representa-
tools. Chief among these tools is the concept of the tion — are more appropriate. For this reason, in this
Fourier representation of seismic signals. Although no chapter we will also discuss the concept of wavelet
information contained in seismic signals is lost or added representation.
when we pass from the time domain to the Fourier rep- We will begin the chapter by recalling the definition
resentation, this representation provides a framework of signals and systems, as this terminology will be used
for determination or reconstruction of some obscure or repeatedly, here and in subsequent chapters.
hidden aspects of seismic data.
In this chapter our first goal is to introduce the
Fourier series and Fourier transforms, which are the
two basic tools of the Fourier representation generally SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS
used in petroleum seismology.
Seismic signals are generally very complex. In most Signals
instances, they cannot be represented by an analytical
mathematical expression; therefore we cannot handle A signal is defined as any physical quantity that
the Fourier transform analytically in most cases. We varies with time, space, or any other independent vari-
need a computer to perform the Fourier transforms able. A seismic trace is an example of a one-variable
(actually, computers are needed in the entire processing signal, S(x0 , t) (where x0 is a fixed point and t is the
of seismic data). Consequently, the signals, which are variable), and a shot gather is an example of a two-
continuous1 by nature, must be digitized; that means variable signal, S(x, t), where x and t are variables, (see
they are converted into discrete signals by taking “sam- Figure 2.2b).
ples” of the continuous signals at discrete instants in Sometimes we will qualify a signal as being ran-
time. Our second goal in this chapter is to describe dom, when it describes an unwanted behavior (random
ways of making the signals discrete, without distorting signals are also known as stochastic signals). How-
them. ever, when the signal describes a perfectly predictable
To gain more insight into the usefulness of the behavior, we will qualify it as a deterministic signal
Fourier representation, we will discuss its applica- and, for short, as a signal. Notice that many perfectly
tion in some basic operations routinely encountered predictable signals are sometimes treated as random sig-
in petroleum seismology, such as convolution between nals, because we may not be interested in their detailed
signals. behavior.
As with most things in life, the Fourier represen- Signals can be classified further as being continuous
tation has its limitations, which we will describe. In or discrete. Continuous signals — say, in time — are
particular, we will show that the Fourier representation defined for every value of time, and they take on values
does not clearly represent signals with sudden changes. in the continuous interval (a, b), where a can be −∞
and b can be ∞. Discrete-time signals are defined only
at certain specific values of time.
In addition to signals being represented as functions
1 A seismic signal is a measurement of ground motion, which by nature
of time, they can also be represented as functions of
is continuous. Actually, most signals encountered in science and engineering
are continuous: the signals are functions of a continuous variable, such as frequency by use of the Fourier transform; this topic is
time or space, and usually take values in a continuous range. discussed in this chapter.
127
Systems Three basic properties are commonly used to dif-

ferentiate systems: passive, time-invariant (or space-
A system can be defined as a physical device that invariant), and linear properties. A passive system is one
performs an operation on a signal. For example, a com- that generates no output signal if there is no input signal.
puter filtering program used to reduce the interferences In the context of earthquake seismology, the earth can
of noise on desired signals is a system. In this case, the be regarded as a nonpassive system, because in the event
filtering program performs some operations on seismic of an earthquake, it can generate seismic data without
signals (i.e., seismic data). The program has the effect an external input signal. In petroleum seismology, we
of reducing the interferences of noise on the desired treat the earth as a passive seismic system because we
signals (we say that we have “processed” the data). In a assume that it generates a ground motion (i.e., an out-
more general sense, software realizations of operations put signal) only if there is an input signal. Actually, all
on a signal are examples of systems. Hence, soft- systems discussed in this book are considered as being
ware programs that compose seismic data-processing passive. Notice that in petroleum seismology, cultural
packages constitute an ensemble of systems. noise, wind noise, and microseismicity generally are
The definition of a system is not limited to software considered to be negligible.
programs or to physical devices; systems are far broader A system is time-invariant if shifting the input sig-
than that. For instance, the earth can be treated as a sys- nal by a certain time increment produces an output that
tem because it responds to a source by producing ground is shifted by the same time, without changing the output
motions that are recorded as seismic signals (seismic signal in any other way. For example, if the source time
data). Here the “source” represents the means by which function (which is the input signal in this case) used
seismic data are generated. The weight-drop source to generate seismic data is shifted by 100 ms, then the
introduced in Chapter 2 is an example of a source. seismic data are also shifted 100 ms — if the earth (“the
BOX 4.1: PERIODIC AND TRANSIENT SIGNALS

A time signal is periodic if it satisfies the fol-
lowing relation: u(t) = u(t−T ). This relation states (a) Periodic
that if u(t) is shifted by T , the resulting signal is
identical to u(t). T is called the basic period of the
signal. Notice that signals with finite duration are
not periodic. t
Each periodic signal, u(t), has a correspond-
ing transient signal that is identical for one basic
period, but outside this interval the transient signal
is zero (see Figure 4.1). So, transient signals are not T
periodic. They constitute good examples of signals

with finite duration.
In petroleum seismology we are interested in (b) Transient
transient signals because generally we are deal-
ing with transient signals rather than periodic ones.
t
However, to study periodic signals and their spec-
tra is instructive, because they provide a good
background for the study of transient signals.2
T
2 In practice, any nonperiodic fixed-duration signal (e.g., tran-

FIGURE 4.1. Corresponding periodic and transient
sient signals) can be made periodic by repeating it, usually with a
signals of time.
period greater than the fixed duration.
The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals 129
system,” in this case) is assumed to be elastic and the task. In this section, we will answer this question based
recording system time-invariant. However, if the seis- on the cosine wave signal, which is the simplest set
mic data are shifted by any other amount, and if the earth of real periodic functions, yet it is very important in
is assumed to be elastic, then the recording system is Fourier representation.
considered to be variable with time. The cosine-wave signal can be described mathe-
A system is considered to be linear, under these matically as follows:

conditions: if the input signal is scaled by a certain con-
2π t
stant value, then the system produces an output that is u(t) = A cos −φ . (4.4)
scaled by the same value. Consequently, superposition T
of the input signals leads to superposition of the outputs. An example of a cosine wave signal is shown in
In petroleum seismology, this property of superposition Figure 4.2. Obviously, this signal is periodic. It is char-
is valid if we assume that the earth (the system, in this acterized by three parameters: the amplitude A (maxi-
case) is linear. As we will discuss in a later chapter, the mum value assumed by u; the amplitude is always pos-
property of superposition does not hold for nonlinear itive, with the dimension of the phenomenon described
elastic models of the earth. by the cosine), the period T (in seconds), and the initial
These three properties of linear time-invariant sys- phase φ (in radians). These three quantities — A, T , and
tems can be written symbolically as follows. If i1 (t) and φ — are constants.
i2 (t) are two input signals to a linear time-invariant sys-
tem, and o1 (t) and o2 (t) are their output, respectively —
i.e., i1 (t) → o1 (t) and i2 (t) → o2 (t) — then Frequency
1) The output produced by the sum of the number of Frequency of the cosine wave in (4.4), denoted f ,
inputs is the sum of the outputs due to the individual is the inverse of the period
inputs. This property is called superposition:
1
i1 (t) + i2 (t) → o1 (t) + o2 (t). (4.1) f = . (4.5)
T
2) If the input is multiplied by a constant, the output It indicates how many complete periods exist in the
will be multiplied by the same constant. This prop- time interval between 0 and 1 second. The frequency is
erty is called homogeneity (time invariance is not directly connected with the number of oscillations of a
important here): signal in a unit of time. The notion of frequency is also
directly related to the concept of time. Actually, it has
c i(t) → c o(t), with c as the constant. (4.2) the dimension of the inverse of time (1/s), also called
3) In linear systems in which the elements of the sys- Hz (after the German scientist, Hertz).
tem do not change with time, the response of the It is customary to use the angular frequency,
elements to a given input is independent of the time denoted ω, which is given by
at which the input is applied. This property is called ω = 2πf , (4.6)
time-invariance:
as it allows us to shorten the mathematical expression
i1 (t ± τ ) → o1 (t ± τ ), of cosine waves to
with τ as the time shift. (4.3) u(t) = A cos(ωt − φ). (4.7)
THE COSINE WAVE: CONCEPT Delays

OF FREQUENCY The phase φ characterizes the initial position of the
The concept of the Fourier representation of a given cosine wave at t = 0. By taking
signal revolves around the notion of frequency. The fol- u0 (t) = A cos(2π ft) (4.8)
lowing question comes directly to mind: What is the
frequency of a signal? When the signal under investi- as the reference signal, the initial phase φ allows us
gation is periodic, the answer to this question is an easy to determine whether the cosine wave is advanced or
(a) (b)
T1 =1/f1
A1
t1 A1 f
f1
Amplitude spectrum
0
φ1
f
f1
Phase spectrum
t=0
FIGURE 4.2. (a) Cosine wave and (b) its spectrum (φ1 = 2π t1 ).
delayed with respect to the reference signal. Figure 4.2 we can write the cosine wave in this form:
illustrates this point for different values of φ.
By writing phase φ in the following form, these u(t) = a cos(2π ft) + b sin(2π ft), (4.14)
advances and delays can be expressed in time instead where
of angles: a = A cos φ, b = A sin φ. (4.15)
φ = 2πft0 (4.9)
Conversely,
(for example, when φ = π/2, t0 = T /4). b
If we substitute expression (4.9) in equation (4.4), A= a 2 + b2 , sin φ = √ ,
the cosine wave takes the following form: a + b2
2
a
u(t) = A cos[2πf (t − t0 )] cos φ = √ . (4.16)
a 2 + b2
= A cos(2πft − φ). (4.10) Cosine waves in the form of equation (4.14) will be used
extensively in the next section.
Notice that because
−π ≤ φ ≤ π, (4.11)
then THE FOURIER SERIES

T T
≤ t0 ≤ .
− (4.12)
2 2 Adding cosine waves produces a signal whose char-
Therefore, the time delay t0 stays within the period of acter depends upon the frequency, amplitude, and phase
the signal. of each individual cosine wave. In Figure 4.3, two
cosine waves are added: one has a frequency of 10 Hz;
the other has a frequency of 20 Hz. The spectrum of
the resultant signal is plotted beside the cosine waves.
A Useful Form of Cosine Waves
The phase of the 10-Hz cosine wave has been set
Using a well-known formula of trigonometry, arbitrarily at zero.
In Figure 4.4, 11 individual cosine waves of equal
cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β, (4.13) amplitude and zero phase are added to produce the
FIGURE 4.3. Waveform and spectrum of

2 the sum of two cosine waves.
1
10 20 f
Amplitude spectrum
+
– 800
0 50 100 150 200
Time (ms) Phase spectrum
FIGURE 4.4. Eleven cosine waves of equal

amplitudes and zero phase are added, to
produce a periodic impulse function.
1
f
10 100
Amplitude spectrum
f
10 100
Phase spectrum
–100 –50 0 50 100
Time (ms)
periodic narrow pulse shown on the top trace. The series, in which each cosine wave has its own frequency,
effect of successively adding cosine waves is shown amplitude, and phase. In this section our objective
in Figure 4.5, in which the nth signal is the sum of is to demonstrate that this observation is correct; any
the first n cosine waves. As cosine waves are added, periodic signal can be decomposed as a sum of cosine
the pulse becomes larger and narrower. Furthermore, waves. This sum is known as the Fourier series.
as the number of cosine waves continues to increase
toward infinity, the resultant signal approaches a series
of impulses having infinite height and zero width. In this Basis Representation for Signals
figure the amplitude of the nth trace has been reduced
by the factor 1/n, for the clarity of this display. Our derivation of the Fourier series here utilizes the
The amplitude spectrum of the pulse consists of notion of basis representation for signals. So we start
a series of lines of equal amplitude at frequencies by recalling this notion.
of 10, 20, . . . , 100 Hz. This series of lines is plotted As shown in Box 4.2, the notion of orthonormal
in Figure 4.4. The phase spectrum is zero for each basis representation is not limited to the Cartesian repre-
frequency. sentation. It can also be used for spaces made of signals,
Results shown in Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 suggest as long as an appropriate scalar product can be defined.
that a periodic time signal can be reconstructed Let us consider a space of square integrable signals on
by adding individual cosine waves in the form of a the interval [a, b], which we will denote X . We can
BOX 4.2: ORTHONORMAL BASIS OF THE SPACE OF SIGNALS:

THE VECTOR SPACE ANALOGY
The fact is well known that if {i, j, k} is the is said to be orthonormal on the interval [a, b] if
orthonormal basis of a vector space, any vector x in
b
this space can be represented uniquely as a linear
combination of i, j, k: en (t), em (t) = en (t)em (t)dt = 0
a
(n = m; n, m = 0, 1, 2, . . .) (4.20)
x = x, ii + x, jj + x, kk, (4.17)
and
where ., . denote a scalar product, as defined in b
Chapter 2. en (t), en (t) = e2n (t)dt = 1
Actually, this description is not limited to the a
Cartesian vector space; it is also valid for spaces (n = 0, 1, 2, . . .). (4.21)
of signals as long as we can define a scalar product
in the given space. For a space of square integrable Condition (4.20) says that every pair of two dif-
signals in the interval [a, b], we can define the scalar ferent signals of the system (4.19) is orthogonal,
product as whereas condition (4.21) says that each signal is
normalized.
Now that we have defined the orthonormal
b
basis of the space of signals, any given square
φ(t), ψ(t) = φ(t)ψ(t)dt, (4.18)
a integrable signal in the interval [a, b], say, u(t),
can be expressed uniquely as a linear combina-
where φ(t) and ψ(t) are two square integrable tion of signals constituting the orthonormal basis,
signals in the interval [a, b]. as follows:
Let us introduce the concept of the orthonor- ∞

mal basis in this space of signals. A system of real u(t) = u(t), en (t)en (t). (4.22)
signals, n=0
Notice that this relationship is analogous to that

e0 (t), e1 (t), e2 (t), . . . , en (t) . . . , (4.19) expressed in equation (4.17), for vector spaces.
define a scalar product of two signals, x1 (t) and x2 (t) and

of space X , as follows: αj = x(t), ej (t). (4.25)
b
In other words, equation (4.24) allows us to reconstruct
x1 (t), x2 (t) = x1 (t)x2 (t)dt. (4.23)
a x(t) from a set of signals ej (t) constituting the basis of
X . Furthermore, this reconstruction is unique.
So, a natural technique used to obtain a representation
of a square integrable signal on the interval [a, b] is
to construct an orthonormal basis for X . If a set B =
{ej (t), j = 0, 1, 2, . . .} is the orthonormal basis of X , The Fourier Series: General Case
then for each signal x(t) in X there exists a sequence For derivation of the Fourier series, which is our
(αj ) of the number, such that objective in this section, we are interested in the repre-
sentation of periodic signals. Let us consider a space of
x(t) = αj ej (t) (4.24) periodic signals with a period T ; we denote this space
j as U . We can define a scalar product of two signals,
Box 4.2. Therefore, any arbitrary periodic function u,

with a period T , can be written uniquely as a linear
combination of the elements of U , as follows:
∞
∞

u(t) = αj ej (t) = u(t), ej (t)ej (t) (4.28)

j=0 j=0
or
∞ ∞
a0 2πnt 2π nt
u(t) = + an cos + bn sin ,
2 T T
1 1
(4.29)
where

2 +T /2
a0 = 2u(t), e0 (t) = u(t)dt, (4.30)
T −T /2

2 +T /2 2πnt
–100 –50 0 50 100 an = u(t), e2n (t) = u(t) cos dt,
Time (ms) T −T /2 T
(4.31)
FIGURE 4.5. The effect of successively adding the cosine and
wave, as shown in Figure 4.4.
2 +T /2 2πnt
bn = u(t), e2n−1 (t) = u(t) sin dt,
T −T /2 T
u1 (t) and u2 (t) of the space U , as follows: (4.32)
T T /2
where T is the basic period of the periodic time func-
u1 (t), u2 (t) = u1 (t)u2 (t)dt = u1 (t)u2 (t)dt.
0 −T /2 tion u. The reciprocal of T is called the fundamental
frequency, f1 = 1/T . The sum given by equation (4.29)
(4.26) is called a Fourier series. It is composed of
The next step is to construct an orthonormal basis of (1) DC component, a0 /2;
periodic functions with a periodic T , which can be used (2) series of cosine terms with frequencies f1 , 2f1 , . . . ;
to represent any signal of U . and
The whole idea of basis representation is to find a (3) series of sine terms with frequencies f1 , 2f1 , . . . .
set of simpler signals that can be used to reconstruct
the complex ones. Cosine and sine signals of period Using the identity (4.13), the Fourier series alter-
T probably are the simpler signals of space U . Fortu- natively can be reorganized as a sum of cosine waves,
nately, the following set of cosine and sine signals of in which each cosine wave has a frequency fn = n/T ,
period T , an amplitude An , and a phase shift φn , as follows:
∞

2 1 2πt 2πt 4πt
B= √ , sin , cos , sin , u(t) = A0 + An cos(ωn t − φn ), (4.33)
T 2 T T T n=1

4πt 2nπt 2nπt
cos , . . . , sin , cos ,... where ωn = 2π fn = 2π n/T . The amplitude of each
T T T cosine wave, An , is given by
= {eo (t), e1 (t), e2 (t), e3 (t),
a0
e4 (t), . . . , e2n−1 (t), e2n (t), . . .}, (4.27) A0 = , An = an2 + bn2 . (4.34)
2
constitutes an orthonormal basis in U . Based on the The phase shift of each cosine, φn , is defined by
definition of scalar product in expression (4.26), it
is easy to see that the elements of B verify both the bn
φn = arctan (4.35)
orthogonality and normalization conditions defined in an
+T /2
or 2
an = [ue (t) + uo (t)] cos ωn tdt, (4.42)
bn an T −T /2
sin φn = , cos φn = . (4.36)
an2 + bn2 an2 + bn2 2 +T /2
bn = [ue (t) + uo (t)] sin ωn tdt. (4.43)
T −T /2
When bn is positive, the phase shift is a lag in the range

between zero and π radians, and when bn is negative, If the time function is odd or even, computation of
the phase shift is a lead between zero and π radians. these coefficients can be simplified by using the fact
The amplitude An is always positive and independent that the integral of an odd function between symmet-
of the time origin, whereas the phase shift depends upon ric limits is zero, and the integral of an even function
the location of the time origin. between such limits is equal to twice the value of the
Thus, a periodic function of time can be represented integral between t = 0 and the upper limit. In equa-
by either of two series in equations (4.29) and (4.33). tions (4.38) and (4.39), the functions uo (t) cos ωn t and
Each series requires that two sets of coefficients be ue (t) sin ωn t are odd because they are products of even
specified for each frequency, either an and bn or An and odd functions, and the functions ue (t) cos ωn t and
and φn . The plot of An versus the frequency constitutes uo (t) sin ωn t are even because the former are the product
the amplitude spectrum, and the plot of φn versus the of two even functions and the latter is the product of two
frequency constitutes the phase spectrum. odd functions [even × even = even, even × odd = odd,
Notice that the evaluations of the coefficients a0 , odd × odd = even]. Thus these equations reduce to
an , and bn , i.e.,
4 +T /2
2 +T /2 a0 = ue (t)dt, (4.44)
a0 = u(t)dt, (4.37) T 0
T −T /2
4 +T /2
2 +T /2 an = ue (t) cos ωn tdt, (4.45)
an = u(t) cos ωn tdt, (4.38) T 0
T −T /2
4 +T /2
2 +T /2 bn = u0 (t) sin ωn tdt. (4.46)
bn = u(t) sin ωn tdt, (4.39) T 0
T −T /2 Notice that the a0 and an coefficients are deter-
require the evaluation of definite integrals in which the mined from the even component of u(t), and the bn
limits are ±T /2, but any other interval of length T may coefficients are determined from the odd component of
be chosen as the interval of integration. u(t). So in the special case when u(t) is an even func-
tion, bn = 0. Then the amplitude and phase coefficients
given by equations (4.34) and (4.35) become
The Fourier Series: Even
and Odd Functions An = an2 + bn2 = an2 = |an | (4.47)
A well-known mathematical property is that any and

time function u(t) can be decomposed into even and
bn 0, an positive
odd functions, u(t) = ue (t) + uo (t), where ue (t) is the φn = arctan = . (4.48)
even function and uo (t) is the odd function: an π , an negative
ue (t) = 21 [u(t) + u(−t)]; On the other hand, when u(t) is an odd function,
a0 = 0 and an = 0. In this special case, the amplitude
uo (t) = 21 [u(t) − u(−t)]. (4.40) and phase coefficients become
We will use this property to derive the Fourier series of
even and odd functions. An = an + bn = bn2 = |bn |
2 2 (4.49)
Substituting the relation u(t) = ue (t) + uo (t) into
equations (4.37) through (4.39) gives and

bn bn positive
2 +T /2 φn = arctan =
π/2,
. (4.50)
a0 = [ue (t) + uo (t)]dt, (4.41) an −π/2, bn negative
T −T /2
Example 1: The Fourier Series Within these limits the sawtooth increases linearly with
of Sawtooth Waves a slope equal to 2, and passes through the origin. Hence,
u(t) = 2t is substituted into these equations, along with
Let us consider a sawtooth waveform of the type T = 1. Calculation of a0 is shown:
shown in Figure 4.6. Clearly, this sawtooth waveform
T /2 1/2
is a periodic signal, with a period of 1 second (i.e., 2
T = 1 sec). Our objective is to calculate the Fourier a0 = u(t)dt = 2tdt = 0. (4.51)
T −T /2 −1/2
series of the sawtooth waveform.
Calculation of the Fourier series involves deter- Because the sawtooth waveform is an odd function, we
mination of the cosine and sine coefficients an and could have concluded that a0 = 0 without evaluating
bn , respectively, and the DC value, a0 , in the infinite the integral based on the derivations in the preceding
series, given by equation (4.29). The coefficients are subsection.
computed using equations (4.37) through (4.39). First, The an coefficients are evaluated as follows:
u(t) must be specified within the limits of integration.

2 T /2 2π n
an = u(t) cos t dt
T −T /2 T
u(t) 1/2
=2 2t cos(2πnt)dt. (4.52)
−1/2
+1
The integral is equal to the area under the product
curve 2t cos(2πnt) between the above limits. Figure 4.7
t shows that the net area under the product curve is
zero; hence a1 = 0. Similar graphs of the product
–1 curves 2t cos(2πnt) would show that the net area under
1 sec
the curves is zero for any n; hence an = 0 where
t=0 n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . This result is expected because the
sawtooth is an odd function.
FIGURE 4.6. A sawtooth wave. The bn coefficients are calculated using equation
(4.39), which becomes
1/2
+1 +1 bn = 8 t sin(2π nt)dt (4.53)
−1/2
after substitution of T = 1 and u(t) =

u(t) sin(2πt) 2t. The plot of the product curve
u(t) cos(2πt)
2t sin(2πt) is shown in Figure 4.7.
–1 –1
Notice that the area under the left half
+1 +1
of the product curve is identical to the
area under the right half. The integral
cos(2πt) sin(2πt)
can be evaluated over half the range
and the result multiplied by 2:

–1 –1 16 1/2
+1 +1 bn = t sin(2π nt)dt.
T 0
(4.54)
u(t) = 2t u(t) = 2t
–1 –1
FIGURE 4.7. Calculation of a1 and b1 for
a1 b1 a sawtooth wave.
This equation can be integrated by parts: special case, the amplitude and phase spectra are given
by
x sin xdx = sin x − x cos x. (4.55)
An = |bn | (4.60)

To get equation (4.54) into its proper form, let x = bn π/2, bn positive
2πnt. Then t = x/2πn, dt = dx/2πn, and the upper φn = arctan = . (4.61)
an −π/2, bn negative
limit t = +1/2 becomes x = πn. Then equation (4.54)
becomes The sum of the cosine wave of the sawtooth wave is
+π n shown in Figure 4.8. Each successive trace contains one
x dx
bn = 8 sin x more term than the trace below. As the number of terms
0 2πn (2πn) increases, the resultant signal approaches the sawtooth
+π n
2 waveform more closely. It is interesting to see the effect
= x sin xdx that changes in the phase spectrum have on the resultant
(πn)2 0
waveform. In Figure 4.9b, each frequency component
2
= (sin x − x cos x)|+πn
0 has been shifted in phase by 180 degrees. This shift
(πn)2 inverts each sine component in equation (4.59), and
2 as a consequence, the resultant signal is inverted. In
= (sin πn − πn cos nπ). (4.56)
(πn)2 Figure 4.9a, each frequency component has been shifted
in phase by 90 degrees. The resultant signal bears no
Thus resemblance to a sawtooth; in fact, it has become an

2 2
, n odd even function. This result is to be expected, because
bn = − cos nπ = π n 2 . (4.57) upon being shifted 90 degrees, each of the sine terms in
(πn) − πn , n even
equation (4.61) becomes a cosine term.
As the a0 and an coefficients are equal to zero, the
Fourier series representation of the repeating sawtooth
is given by a sine series, Example 2: The Fourier Series
∞
of Square Waves
2πn
u(t) = bn sin t. (4.58)
T Let us consider a square waveform, as shown in
n=1
Figure 4.10. We can see that this square waveform is an
By substituting the computed values of bn into equation even periodic signal, with a period of 2 seconds (i.e.,
(4.57) and by setting T = 1, we obtain T = 2). Our objective is to calculate the Fourier series
of the square waveform.

2 1
u(t) = sin 2πt − sin 4πt
π 2

1
+ sin 6πt − · · · .
3
(4.59)
The amplitude and phase spectra

1 2 3 4 5 6 f
for the sawtooth wave are plotted in
Amplitude spectrum
Figure 4.8 as a function of frequency.
Because a0 and an equal zero in this π/2
f
FIGURE 4.8. The effect of successively
– π/2
adding the terms of a Fourier series of 0 500 1000 1500
sawtooth waves. Time (ms) Phase spectrum
Hence the equation for calculating an can be written

(a)
T /2
4 2π n
an = u(t) cos t dt. (4.63)
T 0 T
The value of the integral is zero between t = +1/2 and

t = 1; therefore, the upper limit becomes t = +1/2.
The square wave function is equal to unity; u(t) = 1
between the limits t = 0 and t = 1/2. Making these
substitutions into equation (4.63) gives

4 1/2 2π n 4 T 2π nt 1/2
an = (1) cos t dt = sin
T 0 T T 2πn T 0
2 πn
= sin . (4.64)
(b) πn T
In this example T = 2, which, when substituted into

equation (4.64), gives the term sin πn/2. This term
is zero when n is even. When n is odd, it alternates be-
tween +1 and −1 for successive odd integers. Thus

 2
 πn , n = 1, 5, 9, . . .
an = 0, n = 2, 4, 6, . . . . (4.65)

 2
− πn , n = 3, 7, 11, . . .
As the bn coefficients are zero, the Fourier series

that represents the given square wave is obtained as a
0 500 1000 1500
cosine series; i.e.,
Time (ms)
∞
FIGURE 4.9. Modifications of the Fourier series of sawtooth a0
waves, due to (a) a 90-degree phase shift and (b) a 180- u(t) = + an cos ωn t. (4.66)
2
degree phase shift. n=1
Therefore the amplitude and phase spectra are given by

Let us start by calculating the a0 term:
An = |an | (4.67)
4 T /2
a0 = (1)dt = 2. (4.62)
T 0
0, an positive
φn = . (4.68)
Before calculating the an and bn coefficients, look at π , an negative
graphs of the functions u(t) cos πnt and u(t) sin πnt
for n = 1, where u(t) is the square wave shown in Since T = 2, the fundamental frequency and the fre-
Figure 4.10. We can see that the net area for u(t) sin π nt quency spacing are equal to 1/2 Hz. The amplitude
is zero. Similar construction for any other values of n and phase spectra of this square signal are shown in
(the higher frequencies) would show that the net area of Figure 4.11.
each product function u(t) sin πnt is zero; hence bn = 0 Figure 4.11 also shows summations of cosine waves
for all values of n. This result can be anticipated because according to equation (4.66). Each successive trace con-
the square wave is an even function. tains one more cosine term than the trace below. As the
For the product function u(t) cos πt, the net area is number of terms increases, the signal of the sum more
equal to twice the area between t = 0 and t = +T /2. closely approaches the square wave.
FIGURE 4.10. Calculation of a1 and b1 for +1 6 +1

a square wave.
u(t) sin(πt)
5
u(t) cos(πt)
–1 4 –1
+1 +1
3
cos(πt) sin(πt)
–1 –1
1 1
1
u(t) u(t)
0
–1 –1/2 1/2 1 –1 –1/2 1/2 1

a1 b1
FIGURE 4.11. Illustration of the effect of

successively adding the first 11 terms
of the Fourier series of a square wave.
The first term is not shown, because it is
constant.
1 2 3 f
Amplitude spectrum
–π
0 500 1000 1500
Time (ms) Phase spectrum
THE FOURIER TRANSFORM establish a mathematical relation — known as the

Fourier transform — that will allow us to go directly
As shown in the two examples in the preceding from a given periodic time function to its amplitude
section, any periodic time signal can be represented and phase spectra, and vice versa. We will also seek to
in the Fourier domain by an amplitude spectrum and generalize this relation to cases in which the time signal
a phase spectrum. In this section our objective is to is not periodic.
The Fourier Transform of we obtain the inverse Fourier transform, which allows
Periodic Functions us to predict a periodic function when its amplitude and
phase spectrum are known; i.e.,
Let us consider a periodic function u(t) of a period
∞
T . Its Fourier series representation is 1 2π nt
u(t) = (an − ibn ) exp i (4.78)

∞ ∞ 2 −∞ T
a0 2πnt 2πnt
u(t) = + an cos + bn sin , or
2
n=1
T
n=1
T ∞
n
2π nt
(4.69) u(t) = U exp i , (4.79)
where T T
−∞
2 +T /2
a0 = u(t)dt, (4.70) where
T −T /2 n 1
= (an − ibn )
2 +T /2 U
T 2
an = u(t) cos ωn tdt, (4.71)
T −T /2 1 +T /2 2πnt
= u(t) exp −i dt. (4.80)
and T −T /2 T
2 +T /2
bn = u(t) sin ωn tdt. (4.72) Similarly, by substituting equations (4.71) and (4.72)
T −T /2
in equation (4.80), we arrive at the forward Fourier
By substituting these well-known formulae of trig- transform, also known as Fourier analysis. The forward
onometry, Fourier transform allows us to calculate the amplitude
and phase spectrum of a periodic function; i.e.,
2π nt 1 2πnt 2πnt
cos = exp i + exp −i
T 2 T T n 1 +T /2 2πnt
(4.73) U = u(t) exp −i dt. (4.81)
T T −T /2 T
and

2πnt 1 2πnt 2πnt
sin = exp i − exp −i ,
T 2i T T The Fourier Transform of
(4.74) a Nonperiodic Signal
in (4.69), we arrive at The above description of the function u(t) worked

perfectly for periodic signals. We were able to obtain
∞
a0 1 2πnt an exact representation of the function u(t), and this
u(t) = + (an − ibn ) exp i representation completely characterizes u(t) by its fre-
2 2 T quencies. The only drawback is the assumption that the
n=1
∞ signal u(t) is periodic.
1 2πnt
+ (an + ibn ) exp −i . (4.75) Is it possible to extend the above results for nonpe-
2 T riodic signals? To answer this question, let us start by
n=1
discussing the Fourier transform of the transient signal
By using the properties of the periodic square wave signal.
a−n = an , b−n = −bn (4.76) Consider three signals shown in Figure 4.12.
Trace 1 is the periodic square-wave example used in a
and previous section, and Trace 2 is the corresponding tran-
sient signal. Trace 1 has a period of two seconds; there-
∞
fore its fundamental frequency and the spacing between
2πnt
(an + ibn ) exp −i frequencies are 0.5 Hz. Trace 2 is also a periodic square
T
n=1 wave, but with a different period: 20 seconds; hence

n=−1
its fundamental frequency and the spacing between fre-
2πnt
= (an − ibn ) exp i , (4.77) quencies are 0.05 Hz. In Trace 2, we have increased the
−∞
T period by a factor of 10 while decreasing the spacing
Trace 1
1s
T=2s t (a) T = 2 s
Trace 2
t
T = 20 s
f
1 2 3 4
Trace 3
T→ ∞ t
FIGURE 4.12. A periodic square wave and its corresponding

transient wave.
(b) T = 20 s
between frequencies by a factor of 10. Also, the ampli-
tudes at the frequencies that are common in the two
cases, namely,
1 3 5 f
f = 0, , 1, , 2, , . . . , 1 2 3 4
2 2 2
are reduced by a factor of 10 when the period of the
square wave is increased by the same factor of 10. The
Fourier representation of Traces 1 and 2 is shown in
Figure 4.13. Therefore, as the basic period increases, (c) T → ∞
the spectrum contains more and more frequencies with
less and less amplitude. However, at the frequencies
common to the two cases, the amplitude per fundamen-
tal frequency (or amplitude × period) remains constant,
independent of the period. As the period approaches
f
infinity (i.e., the transient case), both the amplitude
and the fundamental frequency approach zero, but the 1 2 3 4
amplitude per fundamental frequency remains constant.
FIGURE 4.13. Cosine spectra for square waves shown in
Then the spectrum becomes a continuous function of
Figure 4.12: (a) corresponds to Trace 1, (b) corresponds to
frequency rather than a set of coefficients located at Trace 2, and (c) corresponds to Trace 3.
the specific frequencies. The coefficient an (i.e., cosine
spectra) of the Fourier series in the three cases is shown
in Figure 4.13. The discrete spectra of the periodic func- in both equations (4.80) and (4.81). Because ω1 =
tions are plots of amplitude per fundamental frequency, 2π/T , as T increases to infinity, ω1 becomes infinite-
and the continuous spectrum is the limiting case as the simally small, a condition that is denoted by replacing
fundamental frequency approaches zero. ω1 with ω. The factor 1/T becomes ω/2π. With
As we have seen in this example, the periodicity these algebraic manipulations and changes in notation,
constraint imposed on the Fourier series representation equations (4.80) and (4.81) take on the following forms:
can be removed by taking the limits of statement (4.79)
+∞
as the period T is increased to infinity. 1
Some modifications to equations (4.80) and (4.81) u(t) = U (n) exp{inωt}ω (4.82)
2π n=−∞
are required, so that these results can be well defined
after the limit is taken. It is convenient to remove the 1/T +T /2
factor in front of the integral by multiplying expression
U (n) = u(t) exp{−inωt}dt. (4.83)
(4.81) through by T and then replacing TU(n) by U (n) −T /2
+∞
The final step in obtaining the Fourier transform of a 1
u(t) = U(ω) exp{iωt}dω. (4.85)
nonperiodic function is to take the limit of both expres- 2π −∞
sions (4.82) and (4.83) as T → ∞. In the limit, the Note that there is no universal agreement on the defi-
infinite summation in equation (4.83) becomes an inte- nition of the Fourier integral transform. Often, authors
gral, ω becomes dω, nω becomes ω, U (n) becomes
take the kernel of the transform as exp{iωt}, so that the

continuous, and the Fourier transform of u(t) becomes kernel of the inverse transform is exp{−iωt}. In either
a continuous function of frequency, denoted by U(ω). case, we define the Fourier transform as
The result is summarized in the following transform
+∞
pair, which is known as the classical Fourier integral
transform: U(ω) = u(t) exp{±iωt}dt, (4.86)
−∞
+∞ +∞
1
U(ω) = u(t) exp{−iωt}dt (4.84) u(t) = U(ω) exp{∓iωt}dω. (4.87)
−∞ 2π −∞
BOX 4.3: FOURIER TRANSFORM AND

SQUARE INTEGRABLE FUNCTIONS
A time function, u(t), can be expressed in terms The Fourier-transform pair is sometimes written as
of its Fourier transform, U(ω), in the following +∞
way:
+∞ u(t) = U( f ) exp{i2π ft}df , (4.91)
1 −∞
u(t) = U(ω) exp{iωt}dω. (4.88)
2π −∞ +∞
This equation shows that the time function is just U( f ) = u(t) exp{−i2πft}dt, (4.92)
the superposition of all its Fourier components. The −∞
Fourier transform of the time function is given by with
+∞ ω
f = . (4.93)
U(ω) = u(t) exp{−iωt}dt, (4.89) 2π
−∞
Note that
provided that u(t) is square integrable; that is,
provided that +∞ +∞
+∞ df exp{i2πf (t − t )}dt = δ(t).
−∞ −∞
|u(t)|2 dt is finite. (4.90) (4.94)
−∞
Example 1: The Fourier Transform Substituting u(t) into the basic transform equation
of the Exponential Function (4.84), we obtain
+∞
In this example we calculate the Fourier transform U(ω) = exp(−at) exp(−iωt)dt
0
of the exponential function defined by +∞
= exp{−(a + iω)t}dt

0
t≥0 +∞
u(t) =
exp{−at} 1
0 t<0
. (4.95) = exp{−(a + iω)t}
−(a + iω) 0
BOX 4.4: NYQUIST FREQUENCY

If t is the sample interval used to make a con- then the function x(t) is completely determined by
tinuous signal discrete, the Nyquist frequency is de- its discrete values, xn = xc (nt). In fact, xc (t) is
fined as follows: given by the following formula:
1
fN = , +∞
2t sin[2π fN (t − nt)]
xc (t) = t xn .
or π n=−∞
π(t − nt)
ωN = .
t
The Nyquist frequency is the highest frequency The other reason why the Nyquist frequency is so
that the signal can represent unambiguously. important involves the sampling of continuous sig-
So the Nyquist frequency is important for two nals that are not bandwidth-limited to less than the
reasons. The first reason is that if a continuous sig- Nyquist frequency. In this case, all the power spec-
nal xc (t), made discrete at an interval t, happens trum that lies outside frequency range | f | > fN is
to be bandwidth-limited to frequencies smaller in moved into the range | f | < fN . This phenomenon
magnitude than fN — i.e., if X( f ) = 0 [X( f ) is is called aliasing. In the coming sections, these two
the Fourier transform of x(t)] for all | f | > fN — reasons are discussed and illustrated in more detail.
1 This example demonstrates that the real part of

= {exp(−∞) − exp(0)}
−(a + iω) U(ω) is an even function of frequency, α(ω) = α(−ω),
1 and the imaginary part is an odd function, β(ω) =
= . (4.96) β(−ω). Although the transform extends from −∞ to
(a + iω)
+∞, the negative frequencies obviously contain no
To obtain the real and imaginary parts of the Fourier additional information. This remark may seem to imply
transform U(ω), we multiply and divide U(ω) by the that the negative frequencies are unnecessary, but it does
factor a − iω; i.e., not: it merely states that when the Fourier transform is
1 a − iω known for the positive frequencies, it is known for neg-
U(ω) = ative frequencies as well. Also, the amplitude spectrum
(a + iω) a − iω
is an even function, |U(ω)| = |U(−ω)|, and the phase
a −ω
= 2 +i 2 is an odd function, φ(ω) = φ(−ω). These observations
a + ω2 a + ω2 are true for all real-time functions and will be used later
= α(ω) + iβ(ω), (4.97) in our discussion of the discrete Fourier transform. For
a real-time function, u(t), the Fourier transform obeys
where
U(−ω) = U ∗ (ω).
a −ω
α(ω) = 2 , β(ω) = 2 . (4.98)
a + ω2 a + ω2
The amplitude spectrum of u(t) is given by the absolute Example 2: The Fourier Transform of
value of U(ω), a Symmetrical Rectangular Pulse

1
|U(ω)| = = √ 1 , (4.99) In general, a symmetrical rectangular pulse of
(a + iω) a2 + ω 2 length T and height A,
and its phase spectrum by
A, |t| ≤ T2
β(ω) −ω u(t) = (4.101)
φ(ω) = arctan = arctan . (4.100) 0, otherwise,
α(ω) a
has a Fourier transform given by

2f0
+T /2
T /2 A
U( f ) = A exp(−iωt)dt = exp(−iωt) (a)
−T /2 −iω −T /2

A ωT ωT
= exp i − exp −i
iω 2 2
2A ωT
= sin ,
ω 2
2A 2πf T sin πf T t
= sin = AT 1/(2f0) 1/f0 3/(2f0 ) 2/f0
2πf 2 πf T
= AT sinc f T ,
= α( f ) + iβ( f ), (4.102)
(b)
A
where
α( f ) = AT sinc f T , β( f ) = 0. (4.103) –f0 f0

f
The rectangular pulse and its sinc spectrum are FIGURE 4.15. Sinc time function and its spectrum: (a) sinc
shown in Figure 4.14. At f = 0, α( f ) = AT , which time function and (b) rectangular spectrum.
shows that the DC spectral value is equal to the net
area of the time function. Notice that α( f ) is an even
function of frequency, but the phase spectrum is null. transform (4.85). The results of the calculation show
Consider now a time function whose Fourier trans- that the corresponding time function is a sinc function,
form is unity between ±fo and zero outside [i.e., its real u(t) = 2fo sinc 2fo t. (4.104)
part, α( f ), is given in Figure 4.15; its imaginary part,
β( f ), is zero everywhere]. The time function having Its value at t = 0 is 2fo , which is equal to the net area
this transform can be calculated from the inverse Fourier of the rectangular spectrum (see Figure 4.15).
The transform relationship shown above, in which
a rectangular function in one domain transforms into a
(a)
sinc function in the other domain, is an example of the
A reciprocity that exists when the time function is a real,
even function. The phase spectrum is zero, β( f ) = 0.
T t
AT Properties of the Fourier Transform

In this section, we list some properties of the Fourier
transform that are necessary for a thorough understand-
ing of the material in subsequent chapters. The prop-
erties will be stated in theorems, the proofs of which
(b) can be found in a variety of textbooks (e.g., Bracewell,
1978; Brigham, 1974; and Cartwright, 1990).
To describe some of the basic properties of the
f Fourier transform, let us consider two real signals, u(t)
1/T 2/T 3/T
and v(t), and their respective Fourier transforms, U(ω)
and V (ω). Using the conventional notation in which
⇐= indicates an inverse Fourier transform, =⇒ indi-
FIGURE 4.14. The rectangular wave and its spectrum: cates a forward Fourier transform (known simply as
(a) rectangular time function and (b) sinc spectrum. “the Fourier transform”), and ⇐⇒ indicates that the
properties are valid for both the forward and inverse The Multidimensional Fourier Transform
Fourier transforms, the following properties of the
Fourier transform are valid: The Fourier transform extension from the one-
dimensional Fourier transform to a multivariable signal
1) Linearity (superposition): is straightforward. For instance, the two-dimensional
Fourier transform for a signal varying in time and space,

w(t) = u(t) + v(t) ⇐⇒ W (ω) = U(ω) + V (ω) u(x, t), is given by
w(t) = cu(t) ⇐⇒ W (ω) = cU(ω), +∞ +∞
U(kx , ω) = u(x, t) exp[i(kx x − ωt)]dxdt,
with c being a constant. −∞ −∞
(4.105)
2) Folding (time inversion):
with inverse
w(t) = u(−t) ⇐⇒ W (ω) = U(−ω) = U ∗ (ω). +∞ +∞
1
u(x, t) = U(kx , ω)
U ∗ (ω)is the complex conjugate of U(ω). (2π)2 −∞ −∞
3) Shifting: × exp[−i(kx x − ωt)]dkx dω, (4.106)
w(t) = u(t − τ ) ⇐⇒ W (ω) = exp(−iωτ )U(ω). where kx and ω are the spatial and temporal frequencies
associated with x and t, respectively. Properties of the
4) Differentiation: two-dimensional Fourier transform are essentially the
same as those of the one-dimensional Fourier transform.
du(t)
w(t) = ⇐⇒ W (ω) = iωU(ω).
dt
5) Integration: SAMPLING THEOREM AND DISCRETE

FOURIER TRANSFORM
t 1
w(t) = u(t )dt ⇐⇒ W (ω) = U(ω). In petroleum seismology, the phenomena that we
−∞ iω are recording as seismic signals — namely, ground
motion and pressure — are continuous by nature. That
6) Scaling (dilation): is, signals that represent these phenomena are func-
1 ω
tions of a continuous variable, such as time or space.
w(t) = u(ct) ⇐⇒ W (ω) = U . Unfortunately, these seismic signals are so complex
c c that we cannot represent them by analytical mathe-
matical expressions; therefore, for example, we cannot
7) Convolution:
calculate the Fourier transform of these signals ana-
lytically. Consequently, our continuous signals must
+∞
be converted into discrete signals by taking “sam-
w(t) = u(t) ∗ v(t) = u(τ )v(t − τ )dτ ⇐⇒
−∞ ples” of the continuous signals at discrete-time instants.
To complete this entire process requires the use of a
W (ω) = U(ω)V (ω).
computer.
Another reason why we need to make the signals
8) Parseval theorem:
discrete is that we do not know how to record continuous
+∞ +∞ signals, and we do not know how to store them without
1
U(ω)V ∗ (ω)dω = u(t)v(t)dt. distorting them or losing fidelity of the signals. There-
(2π)2 −∞ −∞ fore, we are reduced to making the signals discrete —
that is, selecting values of a continuous phenomenon
In particular, for u(t) = v(t), at discrete-time instants or accumulating variables over
+∞ +∞
time or space.
1 Our main objectives in this section are two: to intro-
|U(ω)| dω =
2
[u(t)]2 dt.
(2π)2 −∞ −∞ duce the basic rules of sampling continuous signals,
and to analyze the properties of the discrete form of the sample interval, 1/t, which is called the sampling
Fourier transform. rate. To avoid confusion, we will use only the term sam-
ple interval to indicate t, throughout the remainder of
this book.
Discrete Signal Uniform sampling establishes a relationship bet-
ween the time variables t and n of continuous-time and

There are many ways to sample a continuous signal. discrete-time signals, respectively. Indeed, these vari-
To generate a discrete signal, one of the two methods ables are linearly related through the sample interval
commonly used in petroleum seismology consists of t as
accumulating values of a continuous signal over a cer- t = nt. (4.108)
tain period of time or space. This method generally is
used for sampling the seismic signal with respect to As a consequence of equation (4.108), there exists a
space; we will revisit it in Chapter 8. relationship between the frequency variable for contin-
The other method consists of selecting values of a uous signals and the frequency variable for discrete-
continuous signal at discrete instants called “samples.” time signals. To establish this relationship, consider a
This method generally is used for seismic signals with continuous cosine wave of the form
respect to time. The time instants need not be equidis-
tant, but in practice they are selected at equally spaced xc (t) = A cos(2π fc t + θ), (4.109)
intervals, for convenience of computation and for math-
which, when sampled uniformly, yields
ematical tractability. In this chapter, we limit ourselves
to the case in which time instants are equidistant. This xc (nt) ≡ x(n) = A cos(2πnfc t + θ )
case is known as “uniform sampling.”
If we let xc (t) be a continuous time signal, its con- = A cos(2πnf + θ), (4.110)
version to a discrete signal using uniform sampling can
with
be described by the following relation:
f = fc t. (4.111)
x(n) = xc (nt), n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , (4.107) Equation (4.111) provides the relationship between
the frequency variable fc of the continuous cosine wave
where x(n) is the discrete-time signal obtained by “tak-
and the frequency variable f of the discrete cosine
ing samples” of the continuous xc (t) every t seconds.
wave signal. This equation implies that we can use f
Note that the discrete-time signal x(n) is a function of
to determine the frequency fc , if the sample interval t
an independent variable that is an integer, as illustrated
is known. Also, note that the range of the frequency
in Figure 4.16. It is not defined at instants between suc-
variable f of the discrete cosine wave, i.e.,
cessive samples. Also, it is incorrect to think that x(n)
is equal to zero if n is not an integer. The signal x(n) is − 21 < f < 1
(4.112)
2
not defined for values of n that are not integers.
The time interval t between successive samples is or
called the sample interval. Note that petroleum seismo- −π < 2π f < π , (4.113)
logists refer to the sample interval as the sample rate.
In digital signal processing, it is the reciprocal of the is different from that of the continuous cosine wave,
which is
−∞ < fc < ∞ (4.114)
or
xc(t) x(n)
−∞ < 2π fc < ∞. (4.115)
By multiplying equation (4.112) by 1/t, we find
x(n)=xc(n∆t)
that the frequency of the continuous-time cosine wave,
when sampled uniformly at a sample interval t, must
0 t 0 ∆t
n fall in the range
1 1
− ≤ fc ≤ . (4.116)
FIGURE 4.16. Uniform sampling of a continuous signal. 2t 2t
From these relations we observe that the fundamental it is common practice to use the largest sample inter-
difference between the continuous-time and discrete- val allowed by the sampling theorem. For instance, a
time signals is in the range of values of the frequency 1- or a 4-ms sample interval is adequate for seismic
variable fc . Uniform sampling of a continuous-time sig- signals. However, we commonly select 4 ms, so as to
nal implies a mapping of the infinite frequency range reduce the number of samples and therefore our storage
for the variable fc into a finite frequency range where requirements.

the highest frequency is
1
fmax = . (4.117) Aliasing
2t
Actually, the relationship (4.117) is valid for the uni- According to the sampling theorem, if the highest
form sampling of any given continuous signal. It frequency contained in a continuous signal xc (t) is fmax ,
constitutes the sampling theorem, which can be stated and if the signal is uniformly sampled with a sample
as follows: If the highest frequency contained in a con- interval,
1
tinuous signal xc (t) is fmax , and the signal is sampled t < , (4.121)
uniformly with a sample interval 2fmax
then xc (t) can be exactly recovered from its sample
1 values by use of the interpolation formula (4.119). How-
t < , (4.118)
2fmax ever, what happens in the case where t > 1/(2fmax )?
That is the question we address in this subsection. To
then xc (t) can be exactly recovered from its sample
answer this question, let us start by considering the
values by use of the interpolation formula:
following examples.
∞
Implications of these frequency relations can be
sin[(π/t)(t − nt)]
xc (t) = xc (nt) . appreciated fully by considering the two continuous
n=−∞
(π/t)(t − nt) cosine wave signals,
(4.119) x1 (t) = cos(2π f1 t), f1 = 31.25 Hz (4.122)
To add clarity to the sampling theorem three basic and
questions must be addressed: 1) Given a continuous
signal, how should we select the sample interval t? x2 (t) = cos(2πf2 t), f2 = 156.25 Hz, (4.123)
2) What happens in the case where t > 1/(2fmax )?
3) How did we derive the interpolation in equa- which are sampled uniformly at a sample interval t =
tion (4.119)? In the remaining part of this section, our 8 ms. The corresponding discrete-time signals or se-
main task is to answer these three questions. quences are
Given a continuous signal, how should we select the πn
31.25
sample interval t? To answer this question, we must x1 (n) = cos 2π n = cos , and
have some information about the characteristics of the 125 2
signal to be sampled. In particular, we must have some (4.124)
general information concerning the frequency content
of the signal. Such information generally is available to
156.25 5π
us. In petroleum seismology, we know generally that x2 (n) = cos 2π n = cos n .
125 2
the maximum frequency is less than 100 Hz. So, we (4.125)
must select t such that our maximum frequency stays
greater than 100 Hz; i.e., However,
1
fmax = > 100 Hz ⇐⇒ t ≤ 5 ms. (4.120) cos(5π n/2) = cos(2πn + πn/2) = cos(πn/2) ⇐⇒
2t
x2 (n) = x1 (n). (4.126)
Therefore, from our knowledge of fmax , we can select
the appropriate sample interval. Notice that to minimize Thus the sampled sinusoidal signals are identical, and
the storage space of seismic signals in the computer, consequently are indistinguishable. If we are given the
sampled values generated by cos(πn/2), there is some 8-ms sample interval, because 62.5 Hz is smaller than
ambiguity about whether these sampled values corre- 156.25 Hz.
spond to x1 (t) or x2 (t), as illustrated in Figure 4.17. To understand the effect of aliasing better, it is use-
Since x2 (t) yields exactly the same values as x1 (t) when ful to study the amplitude spectrum of the signal, in
the two are sampled with t = 8 ms, we say that the addition to the time-domain picture. For example, con-
frequency f2 = 156.25 Hz is an alias of the frequency sider the continuous signal, as shown in Figure 4.18a,
f1 = 31.25 Hz at t = 8 ms. with its amplitude spectrum. The spectrum is zero for
Based on the sampling theorem, the signal x1 (t), | f | ≥ fmax . Now, if the sample interval t is selected
which has a maximum frequency at 31.25 Hz, will such that
be sampled adequately with the 8-ms sample inter- 1
t < , (4.127)
val because the highest frequency associated with this 2fmax
sample interval is 62.5 Hz, well above 31.5 Hz. How- the amplitude spectrum of the discrete-time signal will
ever, the signal x2 (t), which has a maximum fre- appear as shown in Figure 4.18b. In this case there is no
quency at 156.25 Hz, will not be sampled well with an aliasing, and therefore the spectrum of the discrete-time
signal is identical to the spectrum of the analog signal
within the fundamental frequency range | f | ≤ 2t 1
.
On the other hand, if the sample interval t is
selected such that
1
t > , (4.128)
2fmax
the amplitude spectrum of the discrete-time signal will
appear as shown in Figure 4.18c. Thus the spectrum
of the discrete-time signal contains aliased frequency
components of the continuous signal spectrum. The
result is that the aliasing prevents us from recovering
the original signal xc (t) from the samples.
So aliasing occurs when the sample interval is too
FIGURE 4.17. Illustration of aliasing. large. The effect can be described by a multiple folding
FIGURE 4.18. Illustration of the aliasing

(a) x c(t) X(ω)
effect. (a) A band-limited continuous
signal and its amplitude spectrum; i.e.,
the amplitude spectrum is zero for
|f | ≥ fmax . (b) The case in which the
t F band-limited continuous signal is sam-
fmax
pled with t < 1/(2fmax ). (c) The case
–fmax
(b) in which the band-limited continuous
signal is sampled with t > 1/(2fmax ).
(Adapted from Proakis and Manolakis,
1997.)
n F
t 2fN
(c)
n F
FIGURE 4.19. Illustration of aliasing

around the Nyquist frequency for the case X(ω)
in which t > 1/(2fmax ). (Adapted from
Proakis and Manolakis, 1997.)
F
-fmax fmax
F
0
of the frequency variable f for the continuous signal. at 2 ms — during the seismic acquisition, to avoid
The shifted portions are added to the corresponding distorting the desired spectrum with noise that may
spectrum of the discrete-time signal within the funda- contain frequencies higher than 125 Hz. Then, at the
mental frequency range, as illustrated in Figure 4.19. In start of data processing, we can filter the recorded sig-
practice, an antialiasing filter is usually employed prior nal for noise containing frequencies higher than 125 Hz,
to sampling. This ensures that frequency components of before resampling the data at 4 ms.
the signal above f ≥ fmax are sufficiently attenuated, so
that if they are aliased, they cause negligible distortion
of the desired signal. Reconstruction of the Continuous
According to the sampling theorem and the recon- Signal from its Discrete Samples
struction formula in equation (4.119), recovery of xc (t)
from its samples, x(n), requires an infinite number of Our objective here is to prove that the interpolation
samples. However, in practice we use a finite number formula (4.119) allows us to reconstruct the original
of samples of the signal and deal with finite-duration continuous signal xc (t) from the samples x(n).
signals. Consequently, we are concerned only with Figure 4.15 clearly shows that the frequency re-
reconstruction of a finite-duration signal from a finite sponse function H( f ) of the interpolating filter is given
number of samples. by
In exploration seismology, the sample interval com-
monly used in processing data is 4 ms. This sample t, −fmax ≤ f ≤ fmax
H( f ) = . (4.131)
interval causes frequencies greater than 0, all other f
1 From results in equation (4.104), the impulse h(t) of
= 125 Hz (4.129)
2(0.004) this filter is given by
to be aliased. An original frequency of 200 Hz present
in the original signal (which may be noise) before dis- h(t) = 2fmax tsinc(2πfmax t),
cretization will appear in the discrete version folded at − ∞ < t < ∞, (4.132)
[125 − (200 − 125)]Hz = 50 Hz. (4.130) and the output y(t) of the interpolation filter is given by
∞
The common solution to this problem is to record xc (t) = h(t) ∗ x(t) = x(τ )h(t − τ )dτ , (4.133)
data at a sampling interval smaller than 4 ms — say, −∞
where or
∞

x(t) = x(nt)δ(t − nt). 1
N−1
(4.134) 2π kn
n=−∞ X(k) = x(n) exp −i . (4.141)
N N
n=0
Inserting equation (4.134) into equation (4.133) gives
∞ ∞ Equation (4.141) is a discrete Fourier transform (DFT).
xc (t) = x(nt)δ(τ − nt)h(t − τ )dτ It allows us to go from the discrete periodic signal to the
−∞ n=−∞ corresponding phase and amplitude spectrum. Notice
(4.135) that the derivation leading to equation (4.141) involves
From the shifting property of the impulse, equation a discrete approximation to an integral. Therefore, the
(4.135) reduces to DFT is an approximation, the accuracy of which may
be expected to improve as N becomes very large and
∞
the sample interval t becomes correspondingly small.
xc (t) = x(nt)h(t − nt). (4.136) As we did for the continuous signals, we can also
n=−∞
define an inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) as
Finally, inserting equation (4.132) into equation (4.136) follows:
gives

N−1
∞ 2πkm
fmax x(m) = X(k) exp i . (4.142)
xc (t) = x(nt)sinc (t − nt) . (4.137) N
n=−∞
π k=0
The interpolation formula (4.137) forms the basis of the To see how we arrive at this result, let us substitute
sampling theorem. Notice that this formula for recov- equation (4.142) in equation (4.141); i.e.,
ering xc (t) from its samples x(n) requires an infinite
number of samples. However, in petroleum seismology
N−1
2π km
we use a finite number of samples of the signal and deal X(k) exp i
with finite-duration signals. Consequently, we are con- N
k=0
cerned only with reconstructing a finite-duration signal
1
N−1 N−1
from a finite number of samples. 2πk(n − m)
= x(n) exp −i
N N
k=0 n=0

N−1
1
N−1
The Discrete Fourier Transform 2π k(n − m)
= x(n) exp −i .
N N
n=0 k=0
Let us consider a periodic function x(t) with a
(4.143)
period T . Its Fourier transform is given by

1 T 2πkt Using the identity
X(k) = x(t) exp −i dt. (4.138)
T 0 T

N−1
If we assume that the signal x(t) is also discrete, i.e., 2π k(n − m) N if m = n
exp −i = ,
N 0 otherwise

N−1 k=0
x(t) = x(nt)δ(t − nt), (4.139) (4.144)
n=0 we arrive at
where t is the sample interval and N is the num-
N−1
1
N−1
ber of discrete equidistant values of t contained in one 2π k(n − m)
x(n) exp −i = x(m).
period T = Nt, then the integral in expression (4.138) N
n=0 k=0
N
becomes a sum, as follows: (4.145)

1
N−1
2πknt
X(k) = x(n) exp −i t (4.140) So, equation (4.142) allows us to reconstruct x(m) from
Nt Nt
n=0 the coefficients of the Fourier series.
To recap, the definition of the DFT of a sequence

x(n), where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , N − 1, is Period

1
N−1
2πkn
X(k) = x(n) exp −i ,
N
n=0
N *
k = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1, (4.146)
*
and the inverse DFT (IDFT) is given by

N−1 k
2πkn
x(n) = X(k) exp +i , N/4 N/2 3N/4 N
N
k=0
n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1. (4.147) FIGURE 4.20. Conjugate symmetry of the Fourier transform
of a real-time signal. Note that here, ∗ denotes a complex
Note that other definitions of DFT and IDFT use N −1/2 conjugate. (Adapted from Hatton et al., 1986.)
in both equations (4.146) and (4.147).
sample N is also real. Finally, by use of equations
(4.148) and (4.150), this result can be proved:
Some Properties of the Discrete X ∗ (N/2) = X(N/2). (4.153)
Fourier Transform
Hence sample N/2 also is real. In general, equa-
1) Periodicity: By definition, the DFT is periodic, with tions (4.148) and (4.150) give X ∗ (k) = X(N − k).
a period N. Setting k = N + l in equation (4.146) Figure 4.20 summarizes these symmetries. Sam-
leads directly to ple N/2 corresponds to the so-called Nyquist fre-
quency, which is important in the discretization of
X(N + l) = X(l). (4.148)
continuous-time series, as discussed earlier.
2) Discrete real-time signal: Many signals in petroleum 3) No description of the DFT would be complete with-
seismology are real. Hence taking the complex con- out some mention of the fast Fourier transform, or
jugate of equation (4.146) gives FFT, as it is universally abbreviated. As its name
would suggest, the FFT is simply an elegant way of

1 performing DFTs efficiently. The existence of this
N−1
∗ 2πkn
X (k) = x(n) exp i algorithm makes the DFT a practical tool, as without
N N
n=0 it even very powerful computers would not be fast
enough to perform DFTs on large discrete-time sig-
1
N−1
2π(−k)n
= x(n) exp −i nals — such as the ones encountered in petroleum
N N seismology. For a discussion of the FFT algorithm,
n=0
= X(−k), (4.149) we refer the readers to a large number of books that
contain as much or as little as the reader could wish
from which one can deduce that to know on the subject (e.g., Bracewell, 1978, and
Brigham, 1974).
X ∗ (k) = X(−k). (4.150)
From equation (4.150) we can deduce that

CONVOLUTION
X ∗ (0) = X(0). (4.151)
Although the convolution of signals is a mathemat-
Hence the zero frequency value (also known as DC) ical relation, it is extremely important in petroleum
is real, and since from the periodicity property in seismology because it relates the source signature to
(4.148) seismic data. Basically, convolution of signals has three
X(N) = X(0), (4.152) components: the input signal (e.g., the source signature,
in the context of petroleum seismology), the impulse are written symbolically as follows:
response (e.g., the earth response to the delta-function
source signature), and the output (e.g., seismic data). δ(t) → h(t), (4.154)
Our objective in this section is to introduce the convo-
lution relation and to discuss some of its applications
to petroleum seismology. Before we define the convo- Aδ(t) → Ah(t), (4.155)

lution relation, it is useful to introduce the notion of the
impulse response of a system. Aδ(t − τ ) → Ah(t − τ ), (4.156)

Ak δ(t − τk ) → Ak h(t − τk ). (4.157)
Definition of the Impulse Response k k
of a Linear System
As described in Figure 4.21, as an input to a sys-
tem, a unit impulse δ(t) produces an output signal h(t),
which is called the “impulse response” of this system. Examples of the Impulse Response
If the system is linear, a weighted impulse, Aδ(t), proof a Linear System
duces an output waveform, Ah(t), which is identical
Example 1. Consider an example of an impulse
to h(t); however, the magnitude will be modified by
response in petroleum seismology — a layer of water
factor A, as shown in Figure 4.21. If the system is
of thickness zw and velocity Vw , which overlies sed-
time-invariant, the impulse-response waveform will be
imentary rock. In the discussion that follows, the
independent of the time at which the impulse response is
water surface is considered as being a perfect reflec-
applied. Thus a delayed impulse will produce a delayed
tor, R0 = −1, and the reflection coefficient at the base
impulse response, as shown in Figure 4.21. If the sys-
of the water is denoted by R. The shot and receiver are
tem is linear and time-invariant, the sum of weighted
located at the surface, as shown in Figure 4.22. Note
and delayed impulses will produce the sum of weighted
that the discussion will be limited to the case in which
and delayed impulse responses. That is, each impulse
source-and-receiver distance is zero (i.e., zero offset).
will produce its characteristic response independently
If an impulse is fed into such a system, an impulse
of all other impulses, and the output will be the alge-
response will be detected at the surface, just as it
braic sum of the individual responses. These properties
is in seismic acquisition at the surface. This impulse
response — denoted as rss (t) — results from energy
Input Output trapped within the layer; the energy simply rebounds
System between the surface and the bottom. The impulse
response and raypaths of wave propagation between
the surface and the bottom of the water layer are illus-
trated in Figure 4.23. The function rss (t) does not
h(t)
δ(t) enter the reflection path; it simply is superimposed
on the reflections. If we consider plane waves with
normal incidence according to the raypaths shown in
Figure 4.23, and if we take into account the surface
A h(t) reflection coefficient as being −1, the impulse response
A δ(t)
Shot Receiver
✸ Sea surface
A h(t – τ)
A δ(t – τ)
zw
τ τ
Sea bottom
FIGURE 4.21. Impulse responses. FIGURE 4.22. Water reverberation layer.

rss(t) The quantities rss and rob are examples of impulse

Impulse
✸ Sea surface
responses that correspond to two seismic experiments:
the surface streamer experiment, in which sources and
Tw (a) receivers are near the sea surface; and the ocean-bottom
experiment, in which sources are near the sea sur-
Sea bottom
face and receivers are at the seafloor. Again, note that
equation (4.159) is limited to zero offset.
R
(b) Example 3. Let us consider the third example
R3
. . . as the ghost response. Seismic ghosts are generated
4 t at both the source side and the receiver side, due
t=0 2 –R
–R to the sea surface. They are sometimes called “sec-
ondary reflections.” When the energy source is released,
FIGURE 4.23. Response at the surface from an impulse at
we are interested mainly in the initial downgoing sig-
the surface: (a) raypath, (b) impulse response. Notice rss (t)
in (b) is limited to zero offset (source-and-receiver distance nal. However, energy from the source is also traveling
is zero). upward to the sea surface, where it is reflected down-
ward. This downward-going signal is called the “source
rss (t) can be defined as follows: ghost.” When the source is close to the sea surface,
the source ghost joins with the initial downgoing wave,
and changes the effective wave shape. Correspondingly,
rss (t) = Rδ(t − Tw ) − R2 δ(t − 2Tw ) + R3 δ(t − 3Tw ) when a receiver measures an upgoing wave from the
− · · · − (−1)n Rn δ(t − nTw ) + · · · , (4.158) subsurface, this upgoing wave will travel to the sea sur-
face where it is reflected downward; it is picked up on
where Tw is two-way traveltime in the water layer; the receiver as a receiver ghost signal. When the receiver
only waves traveling vertically are considered (i.e., is close to the sea surface, the receiver ghost signal will
Tw = 2zw /Vw where zw is the water layer of thick- change the effective wave shape of the upgoing wave.
ness and Vw is the velocity of water). Notice that the As illustrated in Figure 4.25, we can see that for
impulse response, rss (t), is simply a superimposition of a zero-offset experiment, the impulse response of the
the reflections.
Example 2. Consider a second example of im- Impulse

pulse response for the same geological model. The ✸ Sea surface
function that penetrates the base of the water will be
denoted by rob (t). It is the response of a receiver ori- Tw
ented vertically on the seafloor (which corresponds
to the vertical component of the particle velocity), Sea bottom
resulting from an impulse at the surface (just as in
ocean-bottom seismic acquisition, to be described in
rob(t)
Chapter 7). Raypaths giving rise to rob (t), and rob (t)
itself are shown in Figure 4.24. From this figure, we
can deduce the mathematical description of rob (t): 1–R
(1–R)R2
. . .
1 3
rob (t) = (1 − R) δ t − Tw − Rδ t − Tw t=0
2 2 –(1–R)R3 t
–(1–R)R
5
+ R2 δ t − Tw − · · · − (−1)n Rn−1 δ FIGURE 4.24. Response below the sea bottom, resulting
2
from an impulse at the surface: (a) raypath, (b) impulse
2n − 1
×δ t− Tw + · · · . (4.159) response. Notice rob (t) in (b) is limited to zero offset
2 (source-and-receiver distance is zero).
where the impulse of the ghost distortion corresponding

to the pressure receiver is
1
Shot ✱ τ hp (t) = δ(t) − δ(t − τ ) (4.162)
Ghost t
0
– R0 for R0 = −1. Since the overall system response is the

product of the individual amplitude spectra, receiver
Direct pulse ghosts can be suppressed by summing the seismic trace
recorded by the pressure receiver and the seismic trace
(a) (b)
recorded by the particle velocity receiver. Thus a simul-
FIGURE 4.25. Generation of a source ghost: (a) raypath taneous recording of pressure and particle velocity can
and (b) ghost operator, h(t). Notice that (b) is limited to aid in the process of attenuating receiver ghosts, which
zero offset (source-and-receiver distance is zero). We also is known as “receiver-side deghosting.”
assume that the source and receiver depths are equal. Note
that we have defined R0 = −1 for perfect free surface.
Convolution Theorem
source-ghost distortion is
If the impulse response h(t) of a system is known —
h(t) = δ(t) + R0 δ(t − τ ), (4.160) that is, the response of the system to a delta function
input — the output of the system is the convolution of
where τ is the two-way traveltime from the source to the input i(t) by its impulse response. The convolution
the sea surface. It is a combination of two impulses, the is given by
initial downgoing signal and a second impulse (ghost +∞
impulse) of amplitude +R0 , where R0 is the effec- o(t) = i(t) ∗ h(t) = i(τ )h(t − τ )dτ . (4.163)
−∞
tive reflection coefficient at the sea surface. Recall
that R0 = −1 for a free surface. The initial downgo- The physical significance of each term in equation
ing impulse is a unit impulse at t = 0, designated (4.163) is as follows:
δ(t). The ghost impulse in this simple case is delayed,
1) τ is the time at which the impulse is applied.
inverted, and modified in amplitude with respect to the
2) i(τ )dτ is the strength of the impulse.
direct impulse and is given by +R0 δ(t−τ ). The impulse
3) t is the time at which the output is computed.
response of the source-ghost distortion filter h(t) is then
4) h(t − τ ) is the amplitude of the impulse response at
the sum of these two impulses, δ(t) and +R0 δ(t − τ ).
the time t − τ after the impulse is applied.
For a zero-offset experiment, the impulse response
of the receiver-ghost distortion is identical to that of Equation (4.163) is generally called the convolution
the source ghost. In this case, τ is the two-way travel- theorem.
time from the receiver to the sea surface. Notice that Convolution satisfies the commutative law,
the receiver-ghost distortion filter depends on the phys- +∞ +∞
ical quantity measured. If a geophone that measures the o(t) = i(τ )h(t − τ )dτ = i(t − τ )h(τ )dτ
vertical component of the particle velocity is employed, −∞ −∞
an impulse arriving at the receiver from below pro- (4.164)
duces an initial output that we may define as positive. or
When this pulse is reflected at the free surface, then o(t) = i(t) ∗ h(t) = h(t) ∗ i(t). (4.165)
boundary conditions show that the reflected pulse is also It also satisfies the associative law,
positive. If pressure receivers are employed, an initial
upgoing compressional signal will produce an output p(t) = i(t) ∗ [o(t) ∗ h(t)]
that we define as positive, and the reflected signal will = [i(t) ∗ o(t)] ∗ h(t), (4.166)
have negative polarity. Thus the impulse of the receiver-
ghost distortion corresponding to the particle velocity and the distributive law,
receiver is
p(t) = i(t) ∗ [o(t) + h(t)]
hv (t) = δ(t) + δ(t − τ ), (4.161) = [i(t) ∗ o(t)] + [i(t) ∗ h(t)]. (4.167)
Because convolution satisfies both commutative and Equation (4.176) indicates that the ghosted trace is pro-
associative laws, a sequence of convolutions can be per- duced by the additional filtering action of the ghost
formed in any order without changing the output. distortion operator h(t). We can consider the ghost as
Let us consider three examples of convolution: an additional time-domain filter in the reflection path
(Figure 4.26). Figure 4.26a shows the non-ghosting
Example 1. Suppose the input and impulse res- case. Here the source signature w(t) is generated, and
ponse are given by it alone enters the downgoing path; for this case h(t) =

δ(t). In Figure 4.26b, the source signature w(t) is gen-
A exp(−at) if t ≥ 0 erated at the shot, and after passing through the filter
h(t) = (4.168)
0 t<0 h(t), w(t) and +Ro w(t − τ ) enter the primary-reflection

path.
B exp(−bt) if t ≥ 0 Ideally, the simplest way to reduce the ghosts’ effect
i(t) = . (4.169) would be to shoot either at the surface or at a shal-
0 t<0
low depth, so that the direct source pulse and the ghost
The output is evaluated by means of the convolution would overlap. Figure 4.27 illustrates the net downgo-
integral, as follows: ing waveform for both a large and a small delay. When
+∞ τ is large, two separate pulses enter the primary path.
o(t) = B exp(−bτ )A exp[−a(t − τ )]dτ Consequently each reflector in the subsurface gives rise
0 to two events. If τ is small, the initial downgoing pulse
(4.170)
or is followed so closely by the ghost pulse that overlap
occurs, and for visual purposes, each reflector in the
+∞
subsurface gives rise to only one event. In the latter
o(t) = AB exp(−at) exp[(a − b)τ ]dτ .
0 case, ghosting effectively can be treated as a part of the
(4.171) seismic source signature.
Notice that ghosting can be analyzed further by
Using the well-known relation taking the Fourier transform of h(t); i.e.,

1
exp(kx)dx = exp(kx) (4.172)
k H(ω) = 1 + R0 exp{−iωτ }. (4.178)
1
o(t) = AB exp(−at) [exp(a − b)t − 1], If R0 = −1, the amplitude spectrum is given by
a−b
(4.173)
ωτ
the result is

|H(ω)| = 2 sin . (4.179)
2
a−b [exp(−bt) − exp(−at)] if t ≥ 0
AB
o(t) = .
0 t<0
(4.174)
Example 2. By ignoring the geometrical spread- 2
ing effect (see Chapter 2), a seismic trace can be ap- h(t)=δ(t)
1
0
(a)
proximated as the following form: 1
u(t) = w(t) ∗ r(t), (4.175) Direct pulse
where w(t) is the source signature and r(t) is the reflec-

Ghost
tivity. In the case of the simple ghost in Figure 4.25, the 2
h(t)=δ(t)-|R0| δ(t-τ)
1
ghosted seismic trace can be expressed as 0

(b)
1
ug (t) = w(t) ∗ h(t) ∗ r(t), (4.176)

where the ghost distortion, h(t), is FIGURE 4.26. Filter h(t) for two cases: (a) no ghosting and
(b) ghost cases. Notice that the geometric effect is included
h(t) = δ(t) + Ro δ(t − τ ). (4.177) in these traces.
Data Convolution Sum

Now consider a discrete input signal {in } and a dis-
(a) crete impulse response {hn }, where n = 0, . . . , N − 1.
The discrete output signal, denote {on }, is

N−1
on = ik hn−k . (4.180)
k=0
Therefore, the output can be calculated from samples

of both the input and the impulse response. If sampling
is done in accordance with the sampling theorem, no
information is lost, and the continuous output signal can
(b) be precisely obtained from the discrete output samples.
Remember that to satisfy the sampling theorem, τ
must be equal to or less than 1/2fmax , where fmax is the
highest frequency present in either the input waveform
or the impulse response, whichever is the higher.
Smoothness
Convolution is generally a smoothing operation.
(c) Experience shows that the output of a linear system is
smoother than either the input or the impulse response.
Let us illustrate the smoothing character of the convo-
lution by considering the repeated convolution of the
Heaviside function, H(t):
FIGURE 4.27. Comparison of large and small τ : (a) large
delay, (b) noticeable delay, and (c) very small delay. on (t) = H(t) ∗ H(t) ∗ · · · ∗ H(t) . (4.181)

n
When n = 1, the output o1 (t) is the discontinuous

|H(f)|
Heaviside function. When n = 2, the output becomes a
ramp function:
o2 (t) = H(t) ∗ H(t) = tH(t). (4.182)
As illustrated in Figure 4.29, we can see that o2 (t)

is continuous, but there is a discontinuous change of
f slope at t = 0; in other words, o2 (t) is continuous, but
0 1/τ 2/τ its derivative is not. For an arbitrary n, the output on (t)
can be written
FIGURE 4.28. Amplitude spectrum of ghost distortion filter.
t n−1
on (t) = H(t). (4.183)
(n − 1)!
As shown in Figure 4.29, on (t) is so smooth for a large
The amplitude spectrum shows notches at equidis- n that its onset at t = 0 is imperceptible.
tant frequencies, as illustrated in Figure 4.28. Since This example shows clearly that convolution is a
minima occur at f = 1/τ , 2/τ , 3/τ , etc., the ghost smoothing operation. It also suggests that the smooth-
delay time τ and thus the shot depth can be determined, ness and differentiability of the output signal are related.
because the velocity of water is known. Actually, the degree of smoothness of o(t) is defined
r(t) : earth’s impulse response

g(t) : geophone’s impulse response
I(t) : recording system’s impulse response
Because convolution satisfies the commutative and
associative laws, we can delete the brackets in equation

(4.185):
u(t) = w(t) ∗ r(t) ∗ g(t) ∗ I(t) (4.186)
or
u(t) = e(t) ∗ r(t), (4.187)
where all effects associated with the source, sensor, and
recording systems are included in e(t):
e(t) = w(t) ∗ g(t) ∗ I(t). (4.188)

FIGURE 4.29. The output of equation (4.183), showing that The signal e(t) can be approximated as the seismic
convolution is a smoothing operation. source signature.
The source signal w(t) is generally smooth. Based
on the smoothness theorem, the seismic trace u(t)
as the lowest-order derivative that becomes impulsive. will be smooth, irrespective of the discontinuities that
So o1 (t) = H(t) is a smooth signal of degree one, the impulse responses r(t), g(t), and I(t) might con-
o2 (t) = H(t) ∗ H(t) is a smooth signal of degree two, tain; in other words, the smoothness theorem provides
etc. We can notice that the degree of smoothness of on (t) the explanation of why seismic data are smooth (see
is additive under the operation of convolution. Actually, Figure 4.21 for an illustration).
this observation is true for any signal, and it consti-
tutes a fundamental theorem (the reader is referred to
Bracewell [1978] for proof of this theorem).
The seismic signal is actually the output of a number Seismic Resolution
of interacting systems. In Figure 4.30 the individual sys-
tems are represented by boxes. Each system is assumed Assume that the impulse response of the earth is
to be linear and time-invariant and is described com- a sequence of impulses (these sequences of impulses
pletely by its impulse response. The source system is are called “reflectivity sequences”). A convolution of
excited by an impulse. The output, this sequence by a source signature produces a seismic
trace, as illustrated in Figure 4.31. In some examples in
δ(t) ∗ w(t) = w(t), (4.184) this figure, we can associate seismic events contained
in the seismic traces with the specific reflector in the
is the earth motion generated by the source. The output impulse response of the earth. In other cases, it is not
from the source system is the input to the earth system. so obvious — to say the least — because events in the
The output from the earth system is the input to the seismic trace are close to one another.
sensing device (sensor), which converts ground motion When two events are shown to be separate and
into an electrical signal. The electrical signal is the input distinguishable, the events are said to be “resolved.”
to the recording system, which consists of the amplifiers However, if the two events reside close enough to
and filters. The seismic trace, u(t), is the output of the one another, their respective seismic signatures may
recording system; i.e., merge, thereby making the two events appear as one
u(t) = {[(δ(t) ∗ w(t)) ∗ r(t)] ∗ g(t)} ∗ I(t), (4.185)

Seismic Recording
Earth Geophone
with source system Seismic
signal
u(t) : seismic trace
w(t) : source signature FIGURE 4.30. A convolution model of the seismic signal.
included (the range of frequency components in a real

seismic trace is much greater). Because we can iden-
tify and isolate individual frequency components in a
dataset, we can filter out or remove undesirable com-
ponents. In this section, our objective is to define and
{
characterize some of the classical frequency filters used
Resolved Unresolved
in petroleum seismology.
Decreasing image separability In most cases, the filtering process in frequency
is simply the product of the filter response (i.e., the
FIGURE 4.31. When two events are clearly distinguishable, Fourier transform of its impulse response) and the
the events are considered to be resolvable. However, if the Fourier transform of the signal. The product of two sig-
events are close enough to one another, their respective
nals in frequency is a convolution in the time domain,
seismic responses may interfere; this makes the two events
according to the convolution theorem (4.163), discussed
appear as one event. In this case the events are said to be
unresolvable. earlier. Therefore we can describe the filtering process
as follows:
I(ω)H(ω) = O(ω), in the Fourier domain (4.189)

event. Then the events are said to be “unresolved”
(Figure 4.31). This problem is known as “vertical res- or
olution;” basically it deals with the minimal thickness
of a bed, so that reflections from the top and base of i(t) ∗ h(t) = o(t), in the time domain, (4.190)
the bed can be distinguished from a single reflecting
trace. The limit of resolution, known as the Rayleigh where i(t) is the input signal, h(t) is the impulse
limit, is that the bed thickness (i.e., the distance between response of the filter, and o(t) is the filtered signal.
two impulses) must be 1/4 of the dominant wavelength, The basic task of filtering is to select H(ω) [which
λ/4 (where λ = V /f , V is the velocity through the is the Fourier transform of h(t)] so that the undesir-
bed, and f is the dominant frequency of the source able components of the signal i(t) can be removed
signature). So, one way of improving vertical resolu-
tion is to shorten the source signature. This approach
is equivalent to increasing the frequency range of the Complete signal
source signature. The use of higher-order statistics can
also improve the resolution beyond the λ/4 limit. (For (a)
more details, see Srinivasan and Ikelle, 2000, 2001;
Wenkai and Ikelle, 2001; and Yung and Ikelle, 1997.)
The concept of higher-order statistics will be introduced
in the next chapter.
Note that when dealing with a set of traces instead Low-frequency
component
of a single trace, there also are problems with the lateral
resolution; essentially we are doing so in this chapter.
We will discuss the problem of lateral resolution in
Chapters 7, 8, and 11. (b)
High-frequency
(c) component
FILTERING
A seismic trace can be broken into sine-wave com-
Time
ponents, each at a different frequency. This makes it
possible to discriminate against undesirable frequen- FIGURE 4.32. Frequency components of the cartoon signal:
cies in the trace. Figure 4.32 shows the low- and (a) a complete signal with high- and low-frequency compo-
high-frequency components that make up a cartoon nents, (b) the low-frequency component of the signal, and
waveform. In this example, only two components are (c) the high-frequency component of the signal.
from o(t) [which is the inverse Fourier transform of (a)

F
O(ω)] by using equations (4.189) and (4.190). Clas- 0 db
sical choices generally are described as “low-pass,”
“high-pass,” “band-pass,” or “band-rejection” filters. –3 db
A
This description refers to the amplitude response with-
out regard to the phase response. These filters will be

described in more detail, including some of the basic f
terminology associated with their definitions. We will f1 f2
(b)
start with the definition of decibel scale. F
0 db
A
–3 db
Basic Terminology of Filtering
1) Decibels: The decibel, or db, unit of scale is a log-
arithmic measure of amplitude ratios. Suppose that f
f1
two numbers, X and Y , are of different magnitudes
but in the same units, and both are greater than 0. In (c)
F
this case the decibel is defined as
0 db
Y
n db = 20 log10 . (4.191) –3 db
X A
Then if Y is bigger than X, X is n db (decibels) down

in comparison to Y , and n is positive. An example: f
If Y = 2X, then n is approximately 6 (i.e., 6 db). f2
2) Band-pass filters: The spectrum of a typical band- (d)

F
pass filter is shown in Figure 4.33a. The filter has
an amplitude response between frequencies cor- 0 db
responding to f1 and f2 . This is known as “the
–3 db
band-pass.” The frequencies normally are defined by A
the points at which the amplitude of the filter reaches
A, where A is 3 db down in comparison to the level f
within the band-pass. On either side of the band- f2
pass, the response rapidly approaches zero. But for

FIGURE 4.33. Amplitude spectra of (a) the band-pass filter,
a filter whose impulse response has a finite time
(b) the high-pass filter, (c) the low-pass filter, and (d) the
duration, the amplitude in frequency of the filter can notch filter.
never reach zero. (The slopes of the filter response
are to be discussed later.) Obviously, multiplication
by such a filter will also restrict the band-pass of
the seismic data to f1 and f2 . In petroleum seismol- frequencies in the signal greater than that corre-
ogy, the choice of f1 and f2 is made by a processing sponding to f1 . Note again that frequencies below
seismologist, usually subjectively, and is based on that corresponding to f1 do not disappear; they are
the distribution of signal and noise in the data. For merely attenuated. The fact that they cannot dis-
example, for offshore seismic data, a filter with a appear is a function of the actuality that only an
band-pass of 5 to 70 Hz might be used in the shal- infinitely long-time domain signal can have a true
lower part of the section, corresponding to two-way cutoff frequency (that is, a frequency beyond which
times of less than 1 or 2 seconds. the spectrum is zero).
3) High-pass filters: The spectrum of a typical high- 4) Low-pass filters: The spectrum of a typical low-
pass filter (also known as a “low-cut”) is shown pass filter (also known as a “high-cut”) is shown in
in Figure 4.33a. Here f1 is the low-cut or cutoff Figure 4.33c. Here f2 is the high cutoff frequency.
frequency, and A is as defined for a band-pass fil- Again, A is as defined for the band-pass filter.
ter. Application of such a filter would attenuate all Application of this filter will reduce all frequencies
above f2 . Note that a band-pass filter can be con- Its inverse has a complex spectrum:
structed as the product of a suitable low-pass and
1 1
high-pass filter. H −1 (ω) ≡ = exp[−iφ(ω)]. (4.193)
5) Notch filter: This is a rather specialized filter; typ- H(ω) |H(ω)|
ically, its spectrum looks like that shown in Fig-
The amplitude characteristic of the inverse is the

ure 4.33d. Here fm is the notch frequency. Notch reciprocal of the amplitude characteristic of the origi-
filters often are used to remove a specific known nal filter. The phase characteristic of the inverse is the
source of noise that may be interfering with seismic negative of the phase characteristic of the original fil-
data. For example, interference due to a power line, ter. In the midband the two filters have a gain of unity.
which is a 60-Hz signal in the United States, can be For example, as the original filter drops to −18 db, the
removed from the seismic signal by a notch filter. inverse must have a gain of +18 db. In practice, to
6) Slopes of a filter: Slopes of a filter are important completely restore all frequencies by inverse filtering
in that it is essential to know how much a certain is impossible, because noise tends to increase in high
frequency will be reduced by application of the fil- frequencies. In the next subsection, we describe a prac-
ter. For example, in anti-alias filtering, frequencies tical example of an inverse filter and its usefulness in
greater than the Nyquist frequency corresponding to petroleum seismology.
the new sampling interval must be removed before
resampling at a coarser sample interval. The fil-
ter slopes are important insofar as they cannot be
An Example of Inverse Filters:
infinite, and so must start to act before the Nyquist
itself. So how should the slopes of filters be speci-
Multiple Attenuation
fied? One of the common methods is to specify the A layer of water overlying a given geologic section,
actual amplitude values at four frequencies, with the as described in Figure 4.22, has a high reflection coef-
inner two corresponding to the band-pass. ficient at the sea bottom in addition to the almost total
7) Ringing (ideal filters): A practical phenomenon to reflection at the sea surface. So, a significant amount of
be guarded against when designing filter slopes is the energy in seismic data is due to multiple bounces
that of ringing (Gibbs phenomenon; see Problem 8). between the sea surface and the seafloor. The energy in
Ideally, the amplitude spectrum of a band-pass filter seismic data that does not include any reflection at the
ought to look like the ones depicted in Figure 4.33a. sea surface is called “primaries,” whereas the energy in
Figure 4.15 shows an example of a filter with abrupt seismic data that includes reflections at the sea surface
slopes. These types of filters are generally known (i.e., several bounces in the water layer) is called “mul-
as “ideal filters.” We can notice oscillations in the tiples.” Many seismic-processing tools in petroleum
impulse responses of ideal filters. To avoid these seismology assume that seismic data contain only pri-
oscillations, ideal filters rarely are used in practice. maries. Because seismic data contain both primaries
and multiples, this requirement implies that tools for
removing multiples are available or that they must be
developed. Actually, the problem of multiples removal
can be posed as an inverse-filtering problem, at least for
Inverse Filtering the simple model in Figure 4.22. Our objective here is
Filtering usually causes reduction in the bandwidth to derive that inverse filter.
of the input signal. Inverse filtering counteracts this As discussed earlier, seismic data for the model
reduction and increases bandwidth. Suppose i(t) is in Figure 4.22 can be described as a convolution of
passed through a filter, the frequency response of which the source signature with the impulse response of the
is H(ω): The effect of this filter can be nullified by pass- model. This impulse response varies with the acqui-
ing the output through a second filter, with a steady-state sition geometry. We will limit our derivations here to
response of 1/H(ω). The original filter has a complex ocean-bottom acquisition, in which sources are near the
spectrum: surface and receiver at the seafloor.
The OBS data for the model in Figure 4.24 can be
written as follows:
H(ω) = |H(ω)| exp[iφ(ω)]. (4.192) u(t) = s(t) ∗ rob (t), (4.194)
where u(t) is the OBS data and s(t) is the source HM(f)
signature. By substituting equation (4.159) into equa- 4
R = 0.5
tion (4.194), we rewrite (4.194) in this form:
u(t) = s(t) ∗ rP (t) ∗ rM (t), (4.195) 3
where
1
rP (t) = −Rδ t − Tw (4.196) 2
2
∞ R = –0.25

rM (t) = (−1) R δ(t − nTw ),
n n
(4.197) 1
n=0
and where rP (t) is the impulse response of the primary
and rM (t) is the impulse response of multiples. Our 0
f
objective is to recover the primary, which is p(t) =
HM(f)
s(t) ∗ rP (t). To achieve this objective, it is useful to first
analyze the impulse response of multiples, i.e., rM (t). 4 R = –0.5
Let us start by deriving its Fourier transform, which we
denote as HM (ω) (Backus, 1959):
3
+∞ ∞
HM (ω) = (−1)n Rn δ(t − nTw ) exp(−iωt)dt
−∞ n=0
2
∞

R = –0.25
= n n
(−1) R exp(−inωTw ). (4.198)
n=0 1
The infinite series on the right side of equation (4.198)

is the Taylor expansion for (Backus, 1959)
0
f
1 1 1 3 2 5 3
HM (ω) = . (4.199)
1 + R exp(−iωTw ) 2Tw Tw 2Tw Tw 2Tw Tw
From equation (4.199), the power spectrum equation of FIGURE 4.34. The amplitude spectrum of a reverberation
HM (ω) is filter.
1
|HM (ω)|2 = , (4.200)
1 + R2 + 2R cos ωTw
Figure 4.35 is a plot of three resonant frequencies as a
and the phase spectrum is function of zw and Tw for R > 0. If R < 0, then |H(ω)|2
has a maximum when cos(ωTw ) = 1, or
−1 R sin(ωTw )
φM (ω) = tan . (4.201)
1 + R cos(ωTw ) 2nVw
fn = . (4.204)
The amplitude spectrum |HM (ω)| is displayed in 4zw
Figure 4.34. Since |H(ω)|2 has a maximum for R > 0
whenever cos(ωTw ) = −1, that means whenever Equations (4.203) and (4.204) show that as depth
2n − 1 of water increases, resonances become very closely
fn = , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . (4.202) spaced. In shallow water, resonance frequencies are
2Tw
widely spaced, and a recording filter can be used that
The resonant frequencies of the amplitude spectrum in is intermediate to the resonances. However, in deep
terms of the depth, zw , and velocity, Vw , of the water water these frequencies are close together, and to select
are given by a bandwidth that is free of reverberations is impossible.
(2n − 1)Vw Let us now turn to the problem of reconstructing
fn = . (4.203)
4zw p(t) = s(t) ∗ rP (t). We start by taking the Fourier
Thus, the inverse time-domain filter for removing rever-

berations is an operator consisting of two impulses
spaced Tw apart.
In Chapter 10, we will discuss a more nearly com-
prehensive way of attenuating multiples. Although the
algebra and interpretation are somewhat more complex

in Chapter 10, we still use the principle of inverse fil-
tering outlined here. Hence, this example of multiple
removal based on inverse filtering is very useful for
gaining an understanding of the phenomenon of mul-
tiple reflections and how we go about attenuating
them.
FIGURE 4.35. Reverberation frequencies. CLASSIFICATION

In petroleum seismology, the classification of sig-
transform of (4.195): nals in rather broad terms according to their frequency
content is common practice. Here we present a classifi-
U(ω) = S(ω)HP (ω)HM (ω), (4.205) cation of seismic signals as a function of their phase
spectrum. Classification as a function of bandwidth will
where U(ω) and HP (ω) are the Fourier transform of u(t) be introduced in the next chapter.
and rP (t), respectively. Because HM (ω) is responsible The term phase in seismic signals is often referred
for generating multiples, filtering multiples from the to as “minimum phase,” “maximum phase,” “mixed
data can be performed as an inverse filter, defined as phase,” or “zero phase.” Each term refers to characteris-
follows: tics of the signal shape and starting location in the
1 data. Figure 4.36 shows four signals, each of a different
JM (ω) = = 1 + R exp(−iωTw ). (4.206) phase. Each type of phase is described below:
HM (ω)
Filtering the data by JM (ω) produces 1) Minimum-phase signal: The minimum-phase sig-
nal, shown in Figure 4.36a, is described as a front-
P(ω) = JM (ω)U(ω) = S(ω)HP (ω), (4.207) loaded signal. This means that energy in the sig-
nal is concentrated in the front of the pulse; the
where P(ω) is the Fourier transform of the desired data
signal is not symmetrical. The phase of this sig-
p(t) without multiples.
nal will vary for each frequency component of
Notice that by transforming equation (4.207) back
the signal. Note that the convolution between two
into the time domain — that is,
minimum-phase signals is always minimum phase.
p(t) = jM (t) ∗ u(t), (4.208) However, convolution between one minimum-phase
and one nonminimum-phase signal does not produce
where jM (t) is the inverse Fourier transform of JM (ω) — a minimum-phase signal.
we can perform the inverse filtering operation for recon- For a group of signals with the same amplitude
structing p(t). We simply have to determine jM (t) by spectra, the minimum-phase signal has the smallest
taking the inverse Fourier transform of JM (ω): phase shift at all frequencies, causes the least time
+∞ delay, has the most front-loaded energy distribution,
1 and has the largest time-zero sample value.
jM (t) = JM (ω) exp(iωt)dt
2π −∞ 2) Mixed-phase signal: The mixed-phase signal,
+∞ shown in Figure 4.36b, is described as a signal with
1
= [1 + R exp(−iωTw )] exp(iωt)dt its energy concentrated in the center of the pulse.
2π −∞ The signal can be divided into minimum-phase and
= δ(t) + Rδ(t − Tw ). (4.209) maximum-phase signals. The signal generally is not
of its resolution capability. The phase of the zero-

phase signal is zero for all frequency components
contained within the signal.
Minimum phase
(a)
t=0
A LIMITATION OF THE
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE FOURIER
TRANSFORM ANALYSIS
Mixed phase
(b)
In the previous section, we derived the Fourier
t=0 transform for periodic and even nonperiodic time sig-
nals. Unfortunately, there is a class of signals — namely
nonstationary signals — for which the Fourier trans-
form analysis is not an effective representation. Our
goal in this section is to point out why Fourier analy-
Maximum phase sis is not an effective representation of nonstationary
(c)
signals, and to introduce the windowed Fourier trans-
t=0 form, wavelet transform, and Wigner-Ville transform
as alternative ways of representing nonstationary sig-
nals. We begin by recalling the concept of nonstationary
signals.
Examples of Nonstationary Signals

Zero phase
(d) The concept of nonstationarity is very important
t=0 in understanding the limitation of Fourier representa-
tion. An adaption of the famous analogy of Mallat
Time (ms)
(1999) might help one to grasp this concept: After a
FIGURE 4.36. (a) The minimum-phase signal, (b) the few minutes in a restaurant, we cease to notice the
mixed-phase signal, (c) the maximum-phase signal, and annoying hubbub of surrounding conversations and
(d) the zero-phase signal. even sometimes the background music (whose signal
is stationary), but a sudden noise — due, for instance,
to the accidental dropping of a ceramic plate on the
floor — reminds us of the presence of neighbors and
symmetrical. The phase of this signal will vary for
of our surroundings in general (the signal is no longer
each frequency component of the signal.
stationary).
3) Maximum-phase signal: The maximum-phase sig-
nal, shown in Figure 4.36c, is described as an Example: A signal with impulses. Consider
“end-loaded signal.” This means that energy in the the signal defined by the function
signal is concentrated toward the end of the pulse.
The signal is not symmetrical. The phase of this sig- u0 (t) = cos (2π f0 t) + cos (2π f1 t)
nal will vary for each frequency component of the
signal. Characteristics of the maximum-phase signal + 2δ (t − t0 ) + 2δ (t − t1 ) , (4.210)
are opposite those of the minimum-phase signal. where
4) Zero-phase signal: The zero-phase signal, shown in
Figure 4.36d, is symmetrical and centered on zero f0 = 25 Hz, f1 = 50 Hz,
time. The zero-phase signal has the shortest dura- t0 = 600 ms, t1 = 1200 ms. (4.211)
tion and largest peak amplitude of any signal with
the same amplitude spectrum. These characteristics The signal consists of a sum of two cosine waves and
make it the most desirable of all the signals, because two impulses. The graph of the signal and that of its
4.5 Now consider the Fourier transform of the signal

(a)
in equation (4.210). Note that the Fourier transform
detects the two cosine wave signals which correspond
to the two spikes in Figure 4.37b. And what about
the impulses? By replotting the Fourier transform at
a different scale (see Figure 4.38), we can see the

superposition of frequencies corresponding to the two
impulses. So, because of a scale problem the Fourier
transform does not provide clear information about the
two impulses.
0
In this example, the difficulty with the Fourier trans-
form is that cosine-wave signals are localized well in
–1.5
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Time (s) (a)
4
500 (b)
250
0
0
0 25 50 75 100
12
Frequency (Hz) (b)
FIGURE 4.37. A cosine signal with (a) two impulses (in the
time domain) and (b) its amplitude spectrum.
6
Fourier transform are shown in Figure 4.37. From 0
to 600 ms, the signal is a standard stationary signal
that corresponds to the sum of two cosine waves; at
600 ms there is a sharp peak in amplitude, followed by
a drop. After the sharp peak in amplitude, the signal
returns to stationary behavior of two cosine waves until
0
1200 ms, where another sharp peak in amplitude occurs;
0 25 50 75 100
then the signal returns to a standard stationary signal.
Frequency (Hz)
As in the analogy of restaurant noise, used to intro-
duce nonstationary signals, the cosine waves represent FIGURE 4.38. (a) The amplitude spectrum of the two
the classical restaurant background noise of music and impulses and (b) the amplitude spectrum of the signal in
conversations, whereas the impulses represent the acci- equation (4.210). Notice that the amplitude spectrum in (b)
dental dropping of a plate on the floor. So, the signal in is truncated, to show the small-scale features, which are
equation (4.210) is effectively nonstationary. readily visible in Figure 4.37b.
the Fourier domain, whereas impulses are spread over

all the frequencies. In other words, we need to sum all 1 (a)
frequencies, so that constructive and destructive inter-
ferences can allow us to reconstruct simple signals, such
as impulses. As was discussed earlier in this chapter, the
criterion for selecting cosine and sine functions as the

basis of the functions of the Fourier representation is
that cosine and sine functions are a set of simple func-
tions that can be used to describe complex functions.
There are exceptions to this statement: representing an
impulse by combining an infinite number of cosine and
sine functions is not an effective way of representing 0
such a simple signal.
In general, if a signal contains sudden changes (e.g., 0.0 0.2 4.0 6.0 8.0
discontinuities), the high frequencies relative to these Time (s)
changes are detected by the Fourier transform. How-
ever, their contributions are spread over all the Fourier 2000 (b)
domain because the modulating function exp(iωt) is
not limited in a specific interval. Therefore, the Fourier
analysis is more efficient in the study of signals that do
not suffer abrupt variations with time (or, if the abrupt
variations exist, they must exist at all times); i.e., the
signals must be stationary signals. 1000
Example: A quadratic chirp signal. In our

discussion of alternative solutions to the Fourier rep-
resentation, another example to be used is the quadratic
chirp signal. This signal can be defined as follows: 0
0 25 50
u1 (t) = sin2 (t 2 ). (4.212) Frequency (Hz)
The plot of this signal is shown in Figure 4.39, along FIGURE 4.39. (a) A quadratic chirp signal (in the time
with its amplitude spectrum. The Fourier transform sug- domain) and (b) its amplitude spectrum.
gests that the quadratic chirp signal has most of its
energy at zero frequency; but in actuality it does not.
If we divide this signal into small time intervals, we
can recognize that the frequencies of cosine waves vary another produces a sudden change in the signal, making
from one time window to another. Actually, frequen- the signal nonstationary. So with an appropriate selec-
cies of this signal have quadratic growth with time. tion of the speed of these radio-station changes, we
Therefore, the quadratic chirp signal is a nonstationary could produce frequency changes with time, such that
signal — because in a stationary signal, the frequency the resulting signal would behave as a quadratic chirp
content is relatively uniform with time. So to represent signal.
the quadratic chirp signal properly, we must represent
it simultaneously in frequency and time. Example: A signal with a shutdown period.
The signal in equation (4.212) and the issue of Consider a third example of a nonstationary signal:
studying with the radio on make an analogy that points
out the nonstationary behavior of the quadratic chirp
signal: Even the students who can study with the radio 

cos (2π f0 t) 0 ≤ t < t1
on find it difficult to concentrate or to carry on a decent
conversation in an environment where radio stations are u2 (t) = 0 t1 ≤ t < t2 . (4.213)


constantly changing. Each move from one station to cos (2πf1 t) t2 ≤ t ≤ t3
f0 = 25 Hz, f1 = 50 Hz, t1 = 600 ms, 1

(a)
t2 = 1200 ms, t3 = 3000 ms. (4.214)
Basically, this signal has a frequency f0 in the inter-

val between 0 and t1 , then it is shut off in the interval

between t1 and t2 , and is turned on again in the inter- 0
val between t2 and t3 , with a frequency f1 . This signal
is nonstationary because the intermediate period corre-
sponds to sudden onset. Again, consider the analogy of
a TV being on a specific channel, and then “poof,” it
goes off because of a power failure. Then the TV comes
on later, on a new channel. If we describe the interval
–1
between 0 and t1 as corresponding to the period before 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
the power failure, the interval between t1 and t2 as cor- Time (s)
responding to the period of the power failure, and the
interval between t2 and t3 as corresponding to the period
after the power failure, the similarity of this case and the (b)
signal in equation (4.213) becomes obvious. The sud- 200
den power failure and the sudden power recovery are
the two abrupt changes that cause the signal to become
nonstationary.
The graph of the signal u2 (t) in equation (4.213) and
that of its Fourier transform are shown in Figure 4.40. 100
Notice that the amplitude spectrum of the signal in equa-
tion (4.213) is almost identical to that of the signal u0 (t)
in equation (4.210); just like the signal u0 (t), the two
peaks corresponding to cosine waves are clearly identi-
fied, but there is almost no information about the shutoff 0
period. Due to the scaling problem described in the first 0 25 50 75 100
example of this subsection, the probability of misin- Frequency (Hz)
terpreting the signals u0 (t) and u2 (t) — based on their
Fourier representations alone — is significant. Again, FIGURE 4.40. (a) A cosine signal with a shutdown period
signals like the one in expression (4.213) are more (in the time domain) and (b) its amplitude spectrum.
suited to time-frequency representations that provide
the windowed Fourier transform, wavelet transform,
Wigner-Ville transform or any other time-frequency In summary, we emphasize that stationary signals
transform. generally do not contain sudden variations, but if they
Note that if we are concerned just with the steps do contain sudden variations, these variations must exist
of forward and inverse Fourier transform — without at all times, so that the signal can remain time invariant.
any processing (like filtering some unwanted features) So the periodic signals shown in Figures 4.6, 4.10, and
or interpretation between these two steps — the scale 4.12 are stationary, despite the fact that they contain
problem pointed out here will not be an issue. How- sudden variations.
ever, in petroleum seismology, we invoke the Fourier
representation for identifying features of signals that
are easily detectable in the time domain, and for pro- The Windowed Fourier Transform
cessing to remove unwanted energy or just to speed up
computations. In all these cases, we need to have the In analyzing signals, the major weakness of the
best possible Fourier representation of signals. For non- Fourier transform is in the difficulty of localizing fre-
stationary signals, such representation is possible only quencies in the time domain. When listening to a re-
in the time-frequency domain. cording, we hear the time variation of the sound
(i.e., frequencies). These localized frequency events are (a)

not pure tones, but are packets of close frequencies.
Properties of sounds are revealed by transforms that exp(iωτ)
decompose signals over elementary functions that are
limited in specific intervals of time and space. Win- τ
dowed Fourier transforms (WFTs) and wavelet trans-

forms are two important classes of local time-frequency
representations. In this subsection, we introduce the
WFT and discuss its effectiveness in representing three
examples of signals: quadratic chirp signals, cosine
waves with impulses, and cosine waves with a shut- (b)
down time for which the classical Fourier transform
analysis is not appropriate. g (τ)
One method of obtaining a localized modulating ω,t
function (in other words, one method of limiting the τ

exp{−2iπft} function in a small time internal) is to mul-
tiply it by a window function, like the ones described
in Table 4.1. If we denote this window function by g(t)
(e.g., g(t) = exp[−ax 2 ] for a convenient value a > 0),
the new localized modulating function can be written FIGURE 4.41. Illustration of a localized modulating func-
tion: (a) the modulating function used in the Fourier
as follows:
transform and (b) the localized modulating function used
gω,t (τ ) = g(τ − t) exp{−iωτ }, (4.215) in the windowed Fourier transform. The auxiliary function
used in (b) is the Gaussian window.
where g(t) is the window function which controls
the time interval in the windowed Fourier transform.
The example of gω,t (τ ) for the case in which g(t) =
exp[−ax 2 ] (with a > 0) is shown in Figure 4.41.
with
Let us now introduce the definition of the windowed
Fourier transform: WTF is defined as +∞
+∞ g2 = [g(u)]2 du . (4.218)
−∞
Ũ(ω, t) = g(τ − t)u(τ ) exp{−iωτ }dτ
−∞
+∞ So the transform u(t) → Ũ(ω, t) is called the WFT
= gω,t (τ )u(τ )dτ = gω,t , u. of u(t), and Ũ(ω, t) → u(t) is the IWFT (inverse
−∞
windowed Fourier transform). Proof that the transform
(4.216) Ũ(ω, t) is inversible and that its inverse is given by
Its inverse is defined as follows: equation (4.217) was shown by Mallat (1999).
+∞ +∞
1
u(τ ) = exp{iωτ }g(τ − t) Example: A signal with impulses. Let us con-
2πg2 −∞ −∞ sider examples of WFT representations. We will use
× Ũ(ω, t)dωdt, (4.217) the examples of cosine waves with impulses, cosine
waves with shutdown time, and quadratic chirp signals.
TABLE 4.1. Descriptions of window functions. We will start with the example of cosine waves with
impulses. As described in equation (4.210), this sig-
Name g(t)
nal consists of the sum of two cosine waves and two
Rectangle 1 impulses. Figure 4.42 shows the WFT of this signal for
Hamming 0.54 + 0.46 cos(2πt) various window widths [16 ms (i.e., 8 samples), 32 ms
Gaussian exp(−18t2 )
(16 samples), 64 ms (32 samples), 128 ms (64 samples),
Hanning cos2 (πt)
Blackman 0.42 + 0.5 cos(2π t) + 0.08 cos(4π t) 256 ms (128 samples), and 512 ms (256 samples)].
We have used the Gaussian window for the signal g(t)
100 100
(a) (d)
8-point window 64 point window
64-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 50 f1
25 25 f0
0 0
100 100
(b) (e)
16-point window 128-point window
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 Frequency (Hz) f1
50
25 f0 25 f0
0 0
100 100
(c) (f)
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
25 f0 25 f0
0 0
0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 4.42. The magnitude of the windowed Fourier transform of the signal shown in Figure 4.37a, using (a) a Gaussian
window of width 16 ms, (b) a Gaussian window of width 32 ms, (c) a Gaussian window of width 64 ms, (d) a Gaussian
window of width 128 ms, (e) a Gaussian window of width 256 ms, and (f) a Gaussian window of width 512 ms. The jet
colorscale introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value)].

(i.e., g(t) = exp −ax 2 for a convenient value a > 0) 1) In Figure 4.42a, we see that two impulses were de-
for computations of the WFT in these figures — actu- tected, with a good localization in time. The two
ally for all WFT figures in this chapter. The following cosine waves have also been detected, but localiza-
observations can be made from these figures: tion of their frequencies is not accurate.
2) In Figure 4.42(b), localization of the two cosine fre- Nevertheless, we must take into consideration the fact
quencies has been improved, but they are still not that the signal we have used is very simple: it contains
clearly distinguishable. only two separable and distinguishable frequencies of
3) Figures 4.42(c) and 4.42(d) show localization of the the cosine waves and the two impulses.
two impulses in time and a good localization of Now consider the quadratic chirp signal, which is
the cosine wave frequencies. Notice that if the two very difficult to analyze by using the windowed Fourier
impulses were close together, we would not be able transform: Figure 4.44 shows WFT representations of
to distinguish them, because a small time spread is this signal for four window widths [16 ms (i.e., 8 sam-
still visible around the locations of these impulses. ples), 32 ms (16 samples), 64 ms (32 samples), 128 ms
4) Figures 4.42(e) and 4.42(f), show that as the window (64 samples)]. Again we have used the Gaussian win-
g(t) gets wider, the WFT representation converges dow for the signal g(t) in
the computations of the WFTs
toward the classical Fourier transform representa- (i.e., g(t) = exp −ax 2 for a convenient value a > 0).
tion. First of all, contrary to the picture of standard Fourier
representation in Figure 4.39b, we can see that energy of
So the key conclusions we can draw from the ex- the quadratic chirp signal, u1 (t), is spread well beyond
amples are two: (1) time-frequency representations of f = 0 Hz. However, we do not see frequencies corre-
the signal in equation (4.210) using WFT allow us to lated along a parabola as expected, but we do see strong
detect both cosine waves and impulses simultaneously; concentration of amplitude in time windows. Notice
(2) however, precise and simultaneous identification that the partioning of energy of WTF with time sug-
of cosine waves and impulses is not possible in time gests clearly that variation of window width with time
and frequency. This second conclusion results from will be very suitable for representation of this signal.
the uncertainty principle, described in Box 4.5. So the Notice also that as the window width increases, the
uncertainty principle is an important limitation of WFT energy of WTF reduces to near f = 0; i.e., the WFT rep-
representation. This fact must be kept in mind when this resentation starts converging toward a standard Fourier
representation is being used. representation.
Note that similar conclusions can be drawn from Based on the experience of this example and many
Figure 4.43, which shows WFT of the cosine-wave others not described here, we have drawn the follow-
signal with a shut-down period. Also, in contrast to ing conclusions: If a signal has important frequency
the Fourier representations in Figures 4.37b and 4.40b, information outside the scale, we will have problems in
we notice that the WFT representation of the signal the WFT analysis. Namely:
with a shut-down period in equation (4.213) is very
different from that of the signal with impulses in equa-
tion (4.210). This observation confirms the importance
of frequency-time representations of nonstationary sig- 1) If the information that we are trying to represent is
nals. Observe this also: By gradually increasing the smaller than the width of the window, we may have a
window width in WFT computations, Figures 4.42 and problem similar to the one we faced with the Fourier
4.43 show that the WFT representation of the signal with transform: the information will be detected, but the
impulses in equation (4.210) converges to the standard transform will not localize it.
Fourier representation faster than the WFT representa- 2) If the information that we are trying to represent is
tion of the signal with a shut-down period in equation larger than the width of the window, it will not be
(4.213) — and that is why the signal with a shut- detected properly.
down period is generally considered as being highly
nonstationary.
Example: A quadratic chirp signal. The ex- The example above makes explicit the second limi-
ample above shows that by adjusting the size of the tation of the windowed Fourier transform: It uses a fixed
window adequately, we can obtain satisfactory results window size (the first limitation being the uncertainty
in the analysis of the signal by using the windowed principle pointed out in the previous example, and so
Fourier transform — or the results at least are much clearly visible in Figure 4.44). In the next subsection
better than those of the analysis described in the previ- we will introduce the wavelet transform, in an attempt
ous subsection wherein the Fourier transform was used. to remedy this second limitation.
100 100
(a) (d)
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
f0 f0
25 25
0 0
100 100
(b) (e)
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
f0 f0
25 25
0 0
100 100
(c) (f)
75 75
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
50 f1 50 f1
f0 f0
25 25
0 0
0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 4.43. The magnitude of the windowed Fourier transform of the signal in Figure 4.40a, using (a) a Gaussian window
of width 32 ms, (b) a Gaussian window of width 64 ms, (c) a Gaussian window of width 128 ms, (d) a Gaussian window
of width 256 ms. (e) a Gaussian window of width 512 ms, and (f) a Gaussian window of width 1024 ms. The jet colorscale
introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value)].
The Wavelet Transform in some instances the WFT representation is not good
enough for some signals, due to this constant scale
The windowed Fourier transform introduces a scale limitation. We can solve this problem by using the
(the width of the window) and analyzes the signal from windowed Fourier transform, with varied width of the
the point of view of this scale. As we discussed above, window (as illustrated in Figure 4.45). In other words,
60 60
(a) (c)
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
30 30
0 0
60 60
(b) 16-point window
(d) 64-point window
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
30 30
0 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 4.44. Magnitude of the windowed Fourier transform of the signal shown in Figure 4.39a, using (a) a Gaussian win-
dow of width 16 ms, (b) a Gaussian window of width 32 ms, (c) a Gaussian window of width 64 ms, and (d) a Gaussian
window of width 128 ms. The jet colorscale introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue (minimum value) to
red (maximum value)].
we have to introduce another transform, known as “the

wavelet transform,” for which the scale is a variable (the
scale is defined by the width of the modulation func-
tion). Therefore, we must use a modulation function
that does not have fixed width. Moreover, the function
Frequency
Frequency
must have good time localization. To achieve this goal,

we start from a function ψ(t) as a candidate for a mod-
ulation function, and we obtain a family of functions
from ψ by varying the scale. We fix p ≥ 0, and for all Time Time
nonzero real value s, we define
(a) (b)
1 τ
ψs (τ ) = p ψ . (4.219) FIGURE 4.45. Illustration of scales used in windowed
|s| s
Fourier transform and in the wavelet transform.
If ψ has “width” T , then the “width” of ψs is sT . Modu- (a) A fixed scale is used in the windowed Fourier trans-
lation of the function ψ by the factor 1/|s|p increases its form, and (b) a variable scale is used in the wavelet
amplitude when the scale s decreases, and vice versa. transform.
In terms of frequencies, we can state that for small s, Proof that the transform Ũ(ω, t) is inversible and that
the spectrum of ψs has high frequencies; as s increases, its inverse is given by (4.224) was demonstrated by
the spectrum of ψs decreases. This fact is illustrated in Mallat (1999). Note that computations in this chapter
Figure 4.46. are carried out for p = 1/2.
By analogy to our procedure with the windowed Now we will connect definitions of the wavelet-
Fourier transform of a function, we will localize each transform representation introduced above to the time-
function ψs in time. To do so, for each t we define the frequency analysis. First, let us remark that the wavelet
function in equations (4.229) and (4.224) can be either a real
or a complex function. Like a windowed Fourier trans-
1 τ −t
ψs,t (τ ) = ψs (τ − t) = p ψ . (4.220) form, a wavelet transform can be represented in a time-
|s| s frequency domain. Such representation requires using a
Note that if ψ is a square integrable function (i.e., a complex wavelet ψ, instead of a real wavelet. By using
function with finite energy), then ψs,t is also a square a complex wavelet ψ, we can separate the result of
integrable function, and the wavelet transform into amplitude and phase spectra
in a way similar to a Fourier transform and windowed
+∞
Fourier transform. Actually, as our interest is simply
ψs,t 2 = |s|1−2p ψ2 = 2
ψs,t (τ )dτ . (4.221) to make the width of the window of the WFT variable,
−∞
such a complex wavelet can be constructed with a fre-
If we take p = 1/2, we have quency modulation of a real and symmetric window of
WFT in the following form:
ψs,t 2 = ψ2 . (4.222)
ψ(t) = g(t) exp (iω0 t) , (4.226)
Now we can define a wavelet transform in a fashion
similar to the way in which we defined the windowed
Fourier transform — using functions from the family where g(t) is a real and symmetric window similar
ψs,t as modulating functions; i.e., to the ones shown in Table 4.1 [notice the simi-
larity between ψ(t) in equation (4.226) and gω,t in
+∞ equation (4.215)]. Observe that the Fourier transform
Û(s, t) = u(τ )ψs,t (τ )dτ . (4.223) of ψ(t) is
−∞
(ω) = G(ω − ω0 ), (4.227)
This transform is known as a wavelet transform.
The inverse wavelet transform is and that its central frequency is ω0 , (ω0 ) = G(0).
In petroleum seismology, we generally use the Gabor
1 +∞ +∞ 2p−3
u(τ ) = |s| Û(s, t)ψs,t (τ )dsdt, wavelet for time-frequency representation, which cor-
C −∞ −∞ responds to the Gaussian window in equation (4.227);
(4.224) i.e.,
with 2
1 −t
+∞ g(t) = 2 exp . (4.228)
|ψ̂(τ )|2 σ 2π 2σ 2
C= dτ < ∞. (4.225)
−∞ |τ |
Figure 4.47 illustrates the wavelet transform of the
quadratic chirp signal shown in Figure 4.39a. We know
(a) (b) (t) (c) that the windowed Fourier transform is not adequate for
detecting the various frequencies contained in the signal
t t t shown in Figure 4.39a, because variation in frequencies
with time is rapid. In Figure 4.47, we see that rapid vari-
ation of frequencies with time is represented adequately
s = 1/2 s=1 s=2
now; frequencies are correlated along a parabola, as one
would expect.
FIGURE 4.46. Scales of a function: (a) s = 1/2, (b) s = 1, The wavelet transform did not solve one limita-
(c) s = 2. tion of WFT: this limitation related to the uncertainty
50 An Example of the Wavelet Transform

of Seismic Data
Although most seismic signals are stationary, we
can end up dealing with nonstationary signals in a few
cases — such as surface waves. Figure 4.48 illustrates

an example of such data; the example was generated
by Kritski, Vincent and Yuen (2002). The model used
to generate these data is shown in Figure 4.49. Essen-
tially, these data are the result of simulation of surface
Time (ms)
waves (at the water/sediment interface) and shear-

wave propagation just below the seafloor. Although
the arrivals are not clearly visible in Figure 4.48,
these data are dominated by three events: the Scholte
wave, which has a speed of about 75 m/s, and the
two shear waves propagating at 130 m/s and 250 m/s.
(The Scholte wave is the surface wave; see Chap-
ter 3 for more details.) The direct-wave arrivals and
sea-floor reflections were not modeled; therefore they
are not included in Figure 4.48. This type of data is
0 mostly simulated or acquired for determining the physi-
0 1.2 cal properties of marine sediments, but is not acquired
Frequency (Hz)
directly for oil and gas exploration. Our interest in
FIGURE 4.47. Wavelet transforms of the signal shown in these data is of two kinds: (1) to point out an exam-
Figure 4.39a. ple of seismic data that are nonstationary, and (2) to
show the usefulness of time-frequency representation
principle. Figures 4.42, 4.43 and 4.47 show that there for analyzing such signals, by use of the wavelet
are limitations to how well we can resolve time and transformation.
frequency simultaneously. The next transform is an Before we proceed with the discussion of this
attempt to correct for this limitation. example, this is the form of the wavelet transform
FIGURE 4.48. Synthetic data corresponding 250 m/s Trace number

3
to the model in Figure 4.49. (Adapted from 130 m/s
Kritski et al., 2002.) 2.5 5
75 m/s
2 4
Range (km)
1.5 3
1 2
0.5 1
–0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Time (sec)
15 m Source VP=1.53 km/s Water source FIGURE 4.49. Acquisition geometry and
medium parameters used to generate the data
αs[dB/λs] 25 m Direct arrivals VS [m/s]
shown in Figure 4.48. Attenuation effect —
0.1 0.3 0.5 150 250 350
0.0 to be discussed in Chapter 12 — also was
Interface waves
taken into account when generating the data in
2.5
Figure 4.48. The attenuation here is described
Marine sediments by αS . (Adapted from Kritski et al., 2002.)
Depth (m)
VP=1.770 km/s
density=1870 kg/m3
αp = 0.1 dB/λp
10
VP~2.7km/s Substrate
Sedimentary rock 2
40
used in the calculation of Kritski, Vincent, and Yuen the various interferences, identification of these three
(2002): events with the standard Fourier representation would
be quite difficult.
1 +∞ τ −t Note that Herrmann (1998) described interesting
Û(t, ω) = u(τ )ψ dτ , (4.229)
f −∞ f applications of wavelet transform to seismic data.
with

1 1 2
ψ(t) = 4 exp (i2πf0 t) exp − t , (4.230)
π 2
Quadratic (Nonlinear) Time-Frequency
where again Û(t, ω) is the wavelet transform of u(t), Transforms
and ψ(t) is the complex modulation function of the
wavelet transform. Representation of signals in the time-frequency
As discussed in the earlier part of this section, domain by a windowed Fourier transform or wavelet
a signal is stationary if its wavelet transform repre- transform is limited by the uncertainty principle. For
sentation is almost time-invariant (the same statement cases in which we desire time-frequency locations more
holds for windowed Fourier transform); otherwise it precise than those permitted by the uncertainty prin-
is nonstationary. From results of the wavelet trans- ciple, one alternative approach is to use the so-called
form in Figure 4.50 we observe that the data are not quadratic time-frequency transforms, instead of a win-
time-invariant; therefore they are nonstationary, and dowed Fourier transform or wavelet transforms. The
are well suited for time-frequency analysis instead of classical example of quadratic time-frequency trans-
frequency-alone or time-alone analysis. We also notice forms is the Winger-Ville transform (Mallat, 1999):
how well the amplitude spectrum of the wavelet trans-
form of these data enables us to identify three dominant
events of these data; this identification is not obvious on +∞ τ τ
the time domain. One way to imagine representation of
Wu (t, ω) = u t+ u t− exp{−iτ ω}dτ ,
these data in the standard Fourier domain is to sum the −∞ 2 2
result in Figure 4.50 with respect to time. Because of (4.231)
FIGURE 4.50. Amplitude spec- Wavelet modulus. trace 5 Wavelet modulus. Signal 4
40 40
trum of the wavelet transform
35 Surface wave 35
of synthetic data shown in
First shear mode 30
Figure 4.48 (traces 5, 4, 3 and 2; 30
here, trace = signal). (Adapted 25 25
Time (sec)
Time (sec)
from Kritski et al., 2002.) 20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
Second shear mode
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Wavelet modulus. Signal 3 Wavelet modulus. Signal 2
40 40
35 35
30 30
25 25
Time (sec)
Time (sec)
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 0
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
where Wu (t, ω) is called the Winger-Ville distribution3 100
of u(t), t is the time, τ is the time-location parameter,

and ω is the angular frequency. The inverse Winger-
75
Ville transform is given by
Frequency (Hz)
+∞
1 1
u(t) = Wu t, ω exp{+itω}dω. 50 f1
u(0) −∞ 2
(4.232) (f0 + f1)/2
f0
25
So the inverse Winger-Ville transform can recover only
the signal u(t) up to a constant u(0). (f1 - f0)/2
Let us examine some examples of Winger-Ville 0
transforms. We will turn to the three examples used 0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6
Time (s)
within this section. Figure 4.51 shows the results of
the Winger-Ville transform of the signal with a shut- FIGURE 4.51. The Wigner-Ville transform of the cosine
down period, shown as equation (4.213). Observe that signal with a shutdown period (see Figure 4.40a). The jet
unlike the windowed Fourier and wavelet transforms, colorscale introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging
the Winger-Ville transform does not spread time and from blue (minimum value) to red (maximum value)].
frequency beyond t = 600 ms and t = 1200 ms, or
beyond f0 = 25 Hz and f1 = 50 Hz. In other words,
the Winger-Ville transform is not affected by the uncer-
tainty principle. However, Figure 4.51 illustrates that f = (f0 + f1 )/2 and along the line f = (f1 − f0 )/2.
besides the expected peaks at f = f0 and f = f1 , nonzero These lines of unexpected energy in the Winger-Ville
values of the Winger-Ville transform are along the line transforms, which are apparent in Figure 4.51, are
known as the “cross-terms.” This cross-term effect is
quite dominant when the signal is the sum of N cosine
3 Results of quadratic time-frequency transforms are known as “distri-
waves. In this case, there are 21 N(N + 1) terms that
butions,” because somehow they describe the energy or intensity of a signal
in the time domain and the frequency domain simultaneously. However, they show as cross-term effects. In regions where zero values
are not distributions in a probabilistic sense. would be expected, the presence of nonzero values of
the Winger-Ville transform is the main difficulty with Williams’s kernel shown in Table 4.2. Observe that
the Winger-Ville transform. for small values of σ , the cross-terms are reduced
Cohen (1989) introduced a general class of quad- significantly.
ratic time-frequency transforms that can be used to In summary, the quadratic time-frequency trans-
reduce the importance of the cross-terms. This class form is still an active area of research in mathematics
of quadratic time-frequency transforms can be written and signal processing. The outcome of the research
as follows: could be helpful in the study of nonstationary signals,
in petroleum seismology.
1
Wu (t, f ) = exp {−i(θt + ωτ − θx)} ψ(θ, τ )
4π 2
τ τ
×u x + u x− dxdτ dθ.
2 2 Time (s)
0 0.4 t0 0.8 t1 1.2 1.6
Variables and functions in this equation were defined in (a) 100
preceding discussions, except for two: θ is a shift fre-

quency parameter, and ψ(θ , τ ) is called the “kernel” 75
Frequency (Hz)
of the time-frequency distribution. The distribution
Wu (t, f ) is generally known as “Cohen’s class.” It can
50
be interpreted as a two-dimensional Fourier transform, f1
as follows:
f0 (f0+ f1)/2
25
1
Wu (t, f ) = Au (θ , τ )ψ(θ , τ )
2π (f1–f0)/2
× exp {−i(ωτ + θ t)} dτ dθ, (4.233) 0
(b) 100
where
τ τ 75
Au (θ, τ ) = exp {iθ x} u x + u x− dx
Frequency (Hz)
2 2
50 f1
is known as the “ambiguity function.” Note that the
Wigner-Ville distribution is a special case of equa-
f0
tion (4.233) for ψ(θ , τ ) = 1. Other well-known 25
distributions are the Rihaczek, Page, and Choi distri-
butions. Their mathematical expressions are given in
0
Table 4.2.
(c) 100
Figure 4.52 illustrates the quadratic time-frequency
transform of the Cohen’s class for the Choi and
75
Frequency (Hz)
TABLE 4.2. Some well-known kernels of Cohen’s class.

References are as follows. (1) Wigner-Ville: Cohen, 1989; 50 f1
Ville, 1948; Wigner, 1932. (2) Rihaczek: Cohen, 1989.
(3) Page: Cohen, 1989. (4) Choi and Williams: Choi and f0
25
Williams, 1989; Cohen, 1989.
Authors of kernels
of Cohen’s class Mathematical expression 0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
t0 t1
Wigner-Ville ψ(θ , τ ) = 1 Time (s)
Rihaczek ψ(θ , τ ) = exp i θτ

2 FIGURE 4.52. The Choi-Williams distribution of the cosine

| signal with a shutdown period (see Figure 4.40a) for (a)
Page ψ(θ , τ ) = exp i θ|τ
2
2 2
σ = 105 , (b) σ = 104 , and (c) σ = 103 . The jet colorscale
Choi and Williams ψ(θ , τ ) = exp − 2στ ,
θ σ is a constant introduced in Figure 2.1 is used here [ranging from blue
(minimum value) to red (maximum value)].
BOX 4.5: THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

As illustrated in Figure 4.53, the basic conse- This means that the signal g and its Fourier trans-
quence of the Fourier transform is that a narrow form Ĝ cannot both be very small. Another related
signal in time has a broad spectrum, and a nar- property of the Fourier transform is that if either of
row spectrum yields a broad time signal. In signal the functions g or Ĝ vanishes outside some finite
processing, the common observation is known as interval, then the other must trail on to infinity. In
“the uncertainty principle.” If we use the following other words, they can both vanish outside any finite
quantities, interval.
+∞ Note that in the definitions (4.234) and (4.235),
1
T2 = t 2 [g(t)]2 dt (4.234) we assume that g is differentiable and
g2 −∞
and lim tg2 (t) = 0 . (4.238)
|t|→∞
+∞
1
2 = ω2 |Ĝ(ω)|2 dω, (4.235)
Ĝ2 −∞ Like most physicists, petroleum seismologists are
first introduced to the uncertainty principle in
to measure the concepts of narrow and broad sig-
studies of quantum mechanics, by the following
nals and spectra, the uncertainty principle states
statement: to determine simultaneously the posi-
that
tion and the momentum of a particle is impossible.
4πT ≥ 1, (4.236)
Moreover, the better the position is known, the
or poorer the momentum is known (and vice versa).
1/2 1/2 The principle is sometimes referred to as the
+∞ +∞
“Heisenberg uncertainty principle,” which is stated
t 2 [g(t)]2 dt ω2 |Ĝ(ω)|2 dω
−∞ −∞ exactly as
+∞ 1
1 xpx ≥ ,
≥ [g(t)]2 dt. (4.237) 2
(4.239)
4π −∞
|g(t)|² |G(
ˆ )|² where x is the uncertainty in position, px is
the uncertainty in momentum, and is Planck’s
constant. Although the mathematical expressions
in equations (4.236) and (4.239) have numer-
ous similarities and the analogy between the two
Time Frequency principles is clear, the physical concepts behind
|g(t)|² |G(
ˆ )|² these two expressions are different. In quantum
mechanics, the uncertainty principle emerges in
a probabilistic context, in which the notion of
uncertainty is well defined. In signal processing,
the uncertainty principle is simply an expression
Time Frequency of the fact that both T and cannot be made
FIGURE 4.53. Illustration of the uncertainty relation arbitrarily small. For more discussion of the uncer-
for time and frequency analysis. A broad signal in tainty principle in signal processing and its relation
time gives a narrow frequency spectrum and vice to quantum mechanics, readers are referred to
versa. Cohen (1995).
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING 5) Consider the continuous-time signal given by
1) Compute the Fourier transform of this function: x(t) = A1 cos[50π(t − t0 )] + A2 cos(100πt)

+ A3 cos(150π t), (4.241)
f (t) = 5.0[H(t − t1 ) − H(t − t2 )]. (4.240) which is represented in Figure 4.57 for various
combinations of A1 , A2 , and A3 , and for a fixed
2) Figures 4.54a and 4.54b show amplitude spectra value of t0 .
corresponding to zero-phase functions. a) Estimate the frequencies contained in this
a) Find the analytic expressions of these func- signal.
tions. b) Draw the phase spectrum of this signal.
b) Plot these functions as a function of time for c) Figure 4.57 shows this signal for specific values
f1 = 10Hz and f2 = 20Hz. of amplitudes A1 , A2 , A3 , for four cases. Asso-
ciate each of these cases with its corresponding
3) Figure 4.55 shows time functions that describe plot in Figure 4.57, without performing any
widely used seismic source signatures. Are these calculation.
zero-phase signals?
Amplitudes Figures
4) a) Figure 4.56a describes the amplitude and phase A1 = 1.0, A2 = 1.0, A3 = 0.0
spectra in the frequency domain of a signal. Deter- A1 = 1.0, A2 = 1.0, A3 = 1.0
mine the mathematical expression of this signal in
the time domain. A1 = 1.0, A2 = 0.0, A3 = 1.0
b) Figure 4.56b describes the amplitude and A1 = 0.0, A2 = 1.0, A3 = 1.0
phase spectra in the frequency domain of a signal.
Determine the mathematical expression of this 6) Consider a source signature w(t) and a seismic
waveform in the time domain. trace p(t), which is given by
p(t) = w(t) + βw(t − τ ), (4.242)
(a) where β and τ are constants. Let P(ω) and W (ω) be
the Fourier transform of p(t) and w(t), respectively.
a) Show that
+1 |P(ω)| = |H(ω)| |W (ω)| ,
where

|H(ω)| = (1 + β cos ωτ )2 + (β sin ωτ )2 .
f
–f2 f2 b) Determine the phase spectrum of p(t) for the
case in which the source signature w(t) is zero
(b) phase.
+1 7) Compute the Fourier series of the following func-

tions:
a) u(t) = sin2 t,
b) u(t) = sin 3t + cos 4t,
c) u(t) = t 2 + 1 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
f
8) Consider these five periodic signals in the time
–f2 –f1 f1 f2
domain:
FIGURE 4.54. Amplitude spectra of zero-phase signals. x(t) = 2 cos4 (2π f1 t) , f1 = 2 Hz; (4.243)
FIGURE 4.55. Graph of (a) Gaussian and

1.0
(b) sombrero wavelets. 1.0 (a) (b)
0.8
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.0
0.2
0.0 –0.5
–2.0 –1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 –2.0 –1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0
FIGURE 4.56. Amplitude and phase spectra (a) (b)

of two signals, (a) and (b). Amplitude Amplitude
2 2
1 1
f 2f Frequency f 2f Frequency
Phase Phase
π/2 π/2
0 0
f 2f Frequency f 2f Frequency
– π /2 –π /2
y(t) = sin (3πf1 t) + sin (8πf1 t) , f1 = 2 Hz; 9) This problem explains the Gibbs phenomenon.
(4.244) Consider the following periodic function:

z(t) = 2 cos2 (2πf1 t) , f1 = 2 Hz; (4.245) π − t, 0≤t≤π

f (t) = (4.248)
−π − t, −π ≤ t ≤ 0
T T
v(t) = 2t, if − ≤ t ≤ , with the period T = 1 s;
2 2 on the period 2π.
(4.246) a) Show that the Fourier series of f (t) is

∞
1, if − T4 ≤ t ≤ T sin nt
w(t) = 4 , f (t) = 2 . (4.249)
0, otherwise n
n=1
with the period T = 2 s. (4.247)
b) Consider now the functions fN (t) and GN (t),
which are defined as follows:
a) Which of these five signals can be characterized
as zero-phase signals?
N
sin nt
b) Determine the Fourier series of each of the five fN (t) = 2 (4.250)
signals. n
n=1
3 just after the points of discontinuity of f (t). This

2 effect is called the Gibbs phenomenon.
1 c) Verify that the maximum value of GN is about
0 0.5 when N is large.
d) Show that
–1
–2 dGN (t) sin(N + 1/2)t
–3 = . (4.252)
dt sin(t/2)
3
2
1 10) Consider the case when the digital representation
0 of the source signature is w = {2, 1, 0} and the
–1 earth’s impulse response is h = {1, −1/2, 0, 0, 1,
–2
0, 0, −1, 0}; compute the seismic p = h ∗ w.
–3
3 11) Use the model in Figure 4.25: A shot is fired at a
2 depth of 8 meters in water, in which the velocity is
1 1600 m/s. Find the first frequency other than DC
at which the “ghost” spectrum is zero.
0
–1
12) Consider the following signal:
–2
α 1/4
–3 t2 βt 2
3 u(t) = exp −α + i + iω0 t ,
π 2 2
2
(4.253)
1
0 where α, β, and ω0 are constants. Establish the

–1 uncertainty principle in equation (4.236) for the
–2
signal u(t) as a function of α and β only.
–3
0.0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 13) Consider the following signal:
FIGURE 4.57. The plot of different combinations of cosine α 1/4 2
t2 βt
waves. u(t) = exp −α cos + ω0 t ,
π 2 2
(4.254)
and
where α, β, and ω0 are constants. Demonstrate
that u(t) is a nonstationary signal.

N
sin nt
GN (t) = 2 − (π − t). (4.251)
n 14) Consider the following signal:
n=1
u(t) = exp {iω0 t} + δ(t − t0 ). (4.255)

Notice that GN (t) is the difference between f (t)
and the Nth partial sum of the Fourier series of a) Compute the windowed Fourier transform of
fN (t). u(t) for a Gaussian window g(t); i.e.,
(i) Plot f (t),
(ii) Plot fN (t) for N = 10 and N = 50, and a 1/4
t2
(iii) Plot GN (t) for N = 10 and N = 50. g(t) = exp −a , (4.256)
π 2
Notice also that the accuracy of the approx-
imation f (t) by f10 (t) gets worse as t gets closer where a, t0 and ω0 are constants.
to a point of discontinuity, and notice the blips b) Show that the windowed Fourier transform of
in the graph of the Fourier series just before and u(t) can be expressed as a sum of two terms:
one term depends on a, and the other one 15) We consider two signals which differ in amplitude
depends on 1/a. by a factor of 4 (if Ax and Ay are the amplitudes of
these two signals, Ax = 4Ay ). Express the relative
This exercise illustrates again the fundamental
difference of these two signals in decibels.
difficulties with the WTF: with one window we
cannot have high resolution in time and frequency.

One term depends on the window size, and the 16) Repeat Problem 10.15 for the case in which
other depends on the inverse of window size. Ax = 64Ay .
5
CHARACTERIZATION OF SEISMIC SIGNALS
BY STATISTICAL AVERAGES
Weekday-morning television programming begins Uncertainties in seismic signals can be caused by
with meteorological reports on the day’s weather with erroneous measurements of physical quantities (e.g.,
statements such as: “There is a 60% chance of rain.” faulty sensors), but even “perfect” measurements,
Obviously, meteorologists are not the only scientists contain information that our mathematical models
using the word chance. For example, a petroleum seis- cannot account for. Therefore, we often use statistical
mologist may ask: “What is the chance that there are averages to analyze and characterize both deterministic
commercial accumulations of hydrocarbons in Lake and stochastic2 signals. In this chapter, we introduce
Victoria (East Africa)?” or “What is the chance that the statistical averages that one is likely to encounter in
misinterpretation of a multiple1 as a reflection from the petroleum seismology studies, namely, the first-order
top of the hydrocarbon reservoir will lead to drilling a through fourth-order cumulants and moments and their
dry hole?” spectral representation in the Fourier domain.
Scientists, including petroleum seismologists, in- By including third- and fourth-order moments and
voke the word chance when describing the outcome cumulants, we are going slightly beyond most classical
of their experiments because the mathematical mod- seismic studies, which have directly or indirectly used
els we use to describe phenomena that occur naturally only the first- and second-order moments and cumulants
or that include interactions with nature cannot take of seismic signals, even if the higher-order (greater than
into account all the complexities of these phenomena. second-order) moments and/or cumulants are nonnull.
Moreover, our understanding of these phenomena is Systems that use only the first two orders of moments
generally incomplete. Eugen Merzbacher (1961), in his or cumulants are characterized as either Gaussian or
well-known textbook on quantum mechanics, probably second-order statistics (SOS). Similarly, signals for
gives the best modern answer to this question: which higher-order cumulants are null are characterized
as Gaussian. More specifically, only minimum-phase
The probability doctrine of quantum mechan-
signals and linear systems are Gaussian. Unfortunately,
ics asserts that the indetermination . . . is a property
modern petroleum seismology depends heavily on non-
inherent in nature and not merely a profession of
linear systems and/or nonminimum phase signals —
our temporary ignorance from which we expect
i.e., non-Gaussian systems and signals. The techniques
to be relieved by a future better and more com-
based on SOS can recover only limited information
plete theory. The conventional interpretation thus
about non-Gaussian signals; information related to
denies the possibility of an ideal theory which
deviations from Gaussianity is not extracted. Tech-
would encompass the present quantum mechanics
niques based on higher-order statistics (HOS) allow
but would be free of its supposed defects, the most
us to properly process systems and signals that are
notorious “imperfection” of quantum mechanics
non-Gaussian. Therefore, we have included statistical
being the abandonment of strict classical determi-
averages of stochastic and deterministic signals in this
nation.
chapter: the third- and fourth-order statistics.
This statement also applies to petroleum seismo- Most signals representing seismic data are station-
logy. Regardless of improvement in our mathematical ary; i.e., they do not contain sudden variations, or if
models, they will always be incomplete. There will they do, these variations must exist at all times. For that
always be an element of uncertainty in the outcomes reason, we limit our derivations here to stationary sig-
of our experiments and systems. nals. The few cases in which seismic signals may be
1 Multiples are events in seismic signals caused by reverberations of 2 As defined in Chapter 3, a signal is characterized as stochastic when it
seismic energy, for instance, in the water column. Multiples often signifi- describes an unpredictable behavior. However, when it describes a perfectly
cantly resemble events related to reflections deep in the subsurface. predictable behavior, we qualify it as a deterministic signal.
181
nonstationary occur as a combination of two or more p(x)

data sets containing different frequencies. The deriva-
tions of statistical averages of nonstationary signals are
based on the window Fourier transform and wavelet 1/a
transform introduced in Chapter 4. These derivations
are illustrated in Nikias and Mendel (1990), Ionollosa

and Nikias (1993), and Nikias and Petropulu (1993). 0 a x
FIGURE 5.1. Uniform probability density function.

RANDOM VARIABLES
letters x, y, etc., for the range of values that random
Examples of Random Variables variables assume. Probability density functions are non-
If the outcome of an experiment has multiple pos- negative and normalized so that the area under the curve
sibilities, the proper description of the experiment will equals unity:
include different possible outcomes and the probability p(x) ≥ 0 for all x (5.3)
of each outcome. Suppose the experiment consists of
tossing a coin whose sides are marked −1 and 1. The +∞
possible outcomes form a random variable, X, which p(x)dx = 1. (5.4)
may take on either of these values with a probability of −∞
1/2. The probabilities are assigned by the experimenter, The probability that X takes on a value in the inter-
based upon the state of his knowledge. The coin con- val x ≤ X ≤ x + dx is defined by the incremental area
tains no deformation that could affect the outcome of p(x)dx.
the experiment. The possible values of X form a dis-
crete set of values, x1 = −1 and x2 = 1; therefore, X is
called a “discrete” random variable. A discrete random
variable is completely described by a listing of its pos-
Probability Density Functions and
sible values {x1 , x2 , . . .} and the associated probabilities Characteristic Functions
{p(x1 ), p(x2 ), . . .}. Each of the probabilities must lie in Probability density functions. As seen in the
a range between 0 → 1, and the sum of all probabilities above examples, not all random variables are discrete;
must equal 1. That is, some are continuous. When the random variable is con-
0 ≤ p(xi ) ≤ 1 for i = 1, 2, 3, . . . (5.1) tinuous, we characterize it by its pdf.
The Gaussian pdf is the most widely encountered
in seismic studies. Also called the normal density func-
p(xi ) = 1. (5.2) tion (see the central limit theorem in Box 5.1), it is
i defined by

As a second example of random variables, consider a 1 (x − η)2
roulette wheel that has a uniform scale 0 → a marked p(x) = √ exp − , (5.5)
2πσ 2 2σ 2
on the circumference. The experiment consists of spin-
ning the wheel and observing the value under the pointer with mean η and variance σ 2 (standard deviation). This
when it comes to rest. The outcome is a random vari- function, plotted in Figure 5.2, has a bell-shaped curve
able that may have any value between 0 → a with equal and is symmetrical about x = η. The peak value in-
probability, if we assume that the wheel is not unbal- creases and the width decreases as σ decreases. The
anced. It is impossible to list all the possible values of X meaning of η and σ will be discussed further in the next
and their probabilities. In this case, X is called a “con- subsection.
tinuous” random variable. It is completely described Notice that a random variable with a Gaussian pdf
by the probability density function (pdf) of the ran- can take any value, but the probability of values far
dom variable, which is written p(x) and is shown in away from η is very small. For example, with σ = 1
Figure 5.1. It is customary to use capital letters X, Y , and η = 0, the probability that the variable lies in the
etc., for random variables and corresponding lowercase range ±3 is 0.9973.
Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages 183
in equation (5.7). Therefore, discrete random variables

can be treated as a particular case of continuous random
variables.
Quite frequently the second characteristic function,
i.e.,
(ω) = ln(ω), (5.10)

is also used. Based on equations (5.2) and (5.4), we note
that (0) = 1, which implies that (0) = 0. We also
note that |(ω)| ≤ 1.
Let us look at characteristic functions of two exam-
ples of random variables — discrete and continuous.
Consider the coin-tossing experiment described earlier.
In this experiment, the possible values of X are x1 = −1
η and x2 = 1, with the probabilities p(x1 = 1) = 1/2 and
p(x2 = −1) = 1/2, so that
FIGURE 5.2. Gaussian density function.
p(x) = p(x1 )δ(x − x1 ) + p(x2 )δ(x − x2 )
1
The exponential pdf is also widely used in seismic = [δ(x − x1 ) + δ(x − x2 )]. (5.11)
studies. It is defined by 2
Using equation (5.7), we arrive at the following
p(x) = λH(x) exp[−λx], (5.6) characteristic function:
with λ > 0. The function H(x) is the unit step; that (ω) = P(x1 = 1) exp[iωx1 ] + P(x2 = −1) exp[iωx2 ]
is, H(x) = 1, x ≥ 0, and H(x) = 0, x < 0. Thus, (exp[iω] + exp[−iω])
p(x) = 0 for x < 0. = = cos(ω). (5.12)
2
Other pdfs encountered in seismic studies are
Consider a continuous random variable X with a
defined and illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Gaussian pdf given in equation (5.5), with η = 0. The
corresponding characteristic function is
Characteristic functions. Another useful func-
+∞
tion for characterizing random variables is the charac- 1 x2
teristic function. Contrary to the pdf, the characteristic (ω) = exp[iωx] × √ exp − 2 dx
−∞ σ 2π 2σ
function is not always a continuous random variable. It +∞ 2
can be defined for both continuous and discrete random 1 −x + 2iωxσ 2
= √ exp dx
variables. σ 2π −∞ 2σ 2
+∞
The characteristic function of a continuous random 1 (x − iωσ )2
variable X is defined by = √ exp −
σ 2π −∞ 2σ 2
+∞

(ω) = exp[iωx]p(x)dx, (5.7) ω2 σ 4 ω2 σ 2
−∞ × exp − dx = exp − ,
2σ 2 2
which is the Fourier transform of the pdf of X. For dis- (5.13)
crete random variables, we can define the characteristic
function as follows: and the second characteristic function is
ω2 σ 2 (iω)2
(ω) = exp[iωxk ]p(xk ). (5.8) (ω) = ln(ω) = − = σ2 . (5.14)
2 2!
k
Notice that equation (5.8) can be obtained from equa-

tion (5.7) by substituting Moments and Cumulants

p(x) = p(xk )δ(x − xk ) (5.9) Moments. It is often desirable to summarize cer-
k
tain properties of a random variable by numbers fur-
FIGURE 5.3. The first four moments and cumulants of the Gaussian, uniform, exponential, and Rayleigh probability density
functions.
nished by various averages or by expectations of the V1 , V2 , . . . , VJ occurring n1 , n2 , . . . , nJ times, respec-
random variable raised to some power. The broad tively (with n1 + n2 + · · · + nJ = N). The average
term used to describe this broad class of averages is velocity that we now denote V (a) can be computed as
“moments.” follows:
Let X be a random variable whose kth moment we

J
nk J
define as follows: V (a) = Vk = Vk Qk
∞ N
k=1 k=1
mk = E[X k ] = x k p(x)dx, (5.15)
−∞ where Qk = nk /N. The quantity Qk generally is known
where mk is the kth order moment with k = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . as the relative frequency of Vk . By comparing V (a) with
and the symbol E stands for expectation. The first five m1 , we can see that the first moment of a random vari-
moments are defined in Table 5.1. able can be defined as the average of the random variable
Let us connect the ordinary rules of averages to in which the relative frequency Qk is replaced by the
the statistical moment introduced in equation (5.15), probability density function p(xk ).
in particular to the first moment, m1 , in the case of a
discrete random variable. In this case, m1 is given by Central moments. Central moments are anoth-
er common way to summarize certain properties of a

N
random variable by few numbers. They are defined as
m1 = xk p(xk ), follows:
k=1
∞
assuming a discrete random variable with N admissible µk = E[(X − η) ] =
k
(x − η)k p(x)dx,
values. −∞
The average of, say, velocity V (a) from a set of if X is continuous; (5.16)
N velocity measurements, {V1 , V2 , . . . , VN }, can be
obtained by computing their sum and then dividing the and using equation (5.9), we obtain
sum by N; i.e.,
µk = E[(X − η)k ] = (xi − η)k p(xi ),
1
N
i
V (a) = Vk .
N if X is discrete, (5.17)
k=1
However, the velocities Vk may not be all different. Sup- where µk is the kth central moment with k = 0, 1,
pose that there are actually only J distinct velocities, 2, 3, . . . and η = m1 = E(X). Note that µ0 = 1,
TABLE 5.1. The first five moments and cumulants.

Cumulants (cn )
for zero mean
n Moments (mn ) Central moments (µn ) Cumulants (cn ) random variable
0 m0 =1 µ0 =1 c0 =0 c0 =0
1 m1 = E(X) µ1 =0 c1 = m1 c1 =0
2 m2 = E(X 2 ) µ2 = m2 − m12 c2 = m2 − m12 c2 = m2
3 m3 = E(X 3 ) µ3 = m3 − 3m1 m2 + 2m13 c3 = m3 − 3m2 m1 + 2m13 c3 = m3
4 m4 = E(X 4 ) µ4 = m4 − 4m1 m3 + 6m2 m12 − 3m14 c4 = m4 − 4m3 m1 − 3m22 + 12m2 m12 − 6m14 c4 = m4 − 3m22
The quantity m1 is the mean, µ2 is the variance, c3 is the skewness, and c4 is the kurtosis.
just as m0 , µ1 = 0. The first-order through fourth- defined in Figure 5.3. The Gaussian pdf is also defined
order moments are defined in Table 5.1. The classical in equation (5.5). Using these definitions, one can show
terminology associated with central moments, such as that
variance, is defined in this table.
The central moments can be determined directly 1 × 3 × 5 × · · · × (n − 1)σ n n even
mn =
from the moments in equation (5.15). From 0 n odd
k (5.22)
k
E[(X − η)k ] = E (−1)l ηl X k−l , (5.18) for the random variable with a Gaussian pdf, and
l
l=0

we have, by using the linearity of the expectation 1 × 3 × 5 × · · · × nα n π2 n odd
mn =
operator, 2k k!α 2k n = 2k, even
k
(5.23)
k
µk = (−1)l ηl mk−l , for the random variable with a Rayleigh pdf.
l
l=0
with Cumulants. Another set of numbers, called

“cumulants,” also can be used to characterize random
k k! variables. Cumulants allow us to discriminate between
= . (5.19)
l (k − l)!l! Gaussian and non-Gaussian random variables more eas-
ily than do moments.
Therefore, if the moments defined in equation (5.15)
To define cumulants, it is useful to rewrite the
and (5.16) are known, equation (5.19) allows us to
characteristic function of a random variable as follows:
directly calculate the central moments from these +∞
moments. Explicit forms of equation (5.19) for the first,
(ω) = exp[iωx]p(x)dx
second, third, and fourth central moments (i.e., k = 1, −∞
2, 3, and 4) are given in Table 5.1.
(i.e., (ω) = E[exp(iωx)])
Similarly, we can determine moments from the +∞
central moment according to (iωx)n
= p(x) 1 + iωx + · · · + + · · · dx,
−∞ n!
mk = E{X k } = E{[(X − η) + η]k }
k
(5.24)
k
=E (−1)l ηl (X − η)k−l (5.20) where we have expanded exp[iωx] as a Taylor series3 .
l
l=0 Using the definition of moments in equation (5.15) (i.e.,
or with mn = E[X n ]), we arrive at
k
(iω)n
mk =
k
ηl µk−l . (5.21) (ω) = 1 + iωm1 + · · · + mn + · · · . (5.25)
l n!
l=0
Look at the moments of two random variables cor- 3 Note that the function exp[iωx] has a valid Taylor series expansion
responding to Gaussian and Rayleigh pdfs, which are for −∞ < x < +∞.
Any moment can be computed by differentiation of the Gaussian random variables are nonnull, as are those
characteristic function; i.e., of the Rayleigh random variable [see equations (5.22)
and (5.23)].
n
−n d (ω)

mn = i . (5.26)
dω ω=0
n
We can now define cumulants: Joint Moments and Joint Cumulants

d n ln(ω) Often we must deal not with a single random vari-
cn = i n
. (5.27)
dωn ω=0 able but with a set of random variables, especially when
working with stochastic signals, which are ensembles
Cumulants and moments are different, although of random variables. Therefore, it is useful to generalize
clearly related. Cumulants are not determined directly the definitions of moments and cumulants for a set of
by summatory or integrative processes, as are moments. random variables.
Rather, they can be derived from the second character- Given a set of n real random variables {X1 , X2 , . . . ,
istic function, (ω) = ln(ω). Cumulants also can be Xn }, their joint moments of order r = k1 + k2 + · · · + kn
found by first estimating moments (see Table 5.1 for are given by Nikias and Mendel, 1990:
the first four cumulants). For zero mean distributions,

the first three central moments and the corresponding
mk1 ,k2 , ... ,kn = Mom X1k1 , X2k2 , . . . , Xnkn
cumulants are identical, but they begin to differ at the
fourth order (i.e., c1 = m1 = 0, c2 = m2 , c3 = m3 , and
c4 = m4 − 3m24 ). = E X1k1 X2k2 . . . Xnkn
Consider the case of the Gaussian random variable,
r (ω , ω , . . . ω )
X. We have derived the second characteristic function ∂ 1 2 n
= (−i)r k1 k2

kn
, (5.31)
of Gaussian random variables in equation (5.14). By ∂ω1 ∂ω2 . . . ∂ωn ω1 =ω2 =···=ωn =0
taking the derivatives of equation (5.14) with respect
to ω, as defined in equation (5.27), we can deduce the where
cumulants of X, which are
c1 = 0 (5.28) (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn ) = E{exp[i(ω1 x1 + ω2 x2

c2 = σ 2 (5.29) + · · · + ωn xn )]} (5.32)
ck = 0, for k > 2. (5.30) is their joint characteristic function. Let us expand

equation (5.31) by rewriting as follows:
Notice that, for Gaussian random variables, all
cumulants of orders higher than 2 (i.e., k ≥ 2) are null.
To put this result in perspective, we have computed (ω) = E{exp[i(ω · x)]} = dVx exp [i(ω · x)] p(x),
Vx
the cumulants cn , n = 1, 2, 3, 4 of the exponential,
Laplace, Rayleigh, and uniform pdfs, in addition to
where the frequencies ωk and values of random variable
that of the Gaussian pdf derived above. The results
xj are expressed in form of vectors:
are given in Figure 5.3. Also included in this figure
are the moments corresponding to these pdfs for orders
n = 1, 2, 3, 4. We clearly see that cumulants allow us ω = [ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn ]T and x = [x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ] ,
to distinguish Gaussian and non-Gaussian random vari-
ables: for Gaussian random variables, all cumulants of dVx = dx1 dx2 . . . dxn , and where p(x) is the n-variable
orders higher than 2 are null, whereas for non-Gaussian joint probability density of the random variables
random variables, at least one of the cumulants of orders {X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn }. When these random variables are
higher than 2 is nonnull. The exponential, Laplace, independent,
Rayleigh, and uniform random variables are all non-
Gaussian. Notice also that the higher moments of p(x) = p(x1 )p(x2 ) · · · p(xn ).
Notice that equation (5.32) is a generalization of equa- 2) Shift invariance: The first cumulant is shift-equi-
tion (5.24). Notice also that the first five moments de- variant, whereas the others cumulants are shift in-
fined in Table 5.1 also can be derived from the definition variant. Suppose that X is a random variable with
of joint moments in equation (5.31); for example, (X)
nth- order cumulant cn . For any constant a, the nth-
order cumulant of the random variable Y = X + a

m3 = Mom[X, X, X] = E X 3 . (5.33) (X) (Y )
can be obtained from cn : c1 = c1 + a, and
(X)
cn(Y ) = cn(X) for n ≥ 2. Note that the shift-invariance

Another form of the joint characteristic function is
property is not valid for the moments.
defined as follows:
3) Independence: A random variable is said to be inde-
pendent of another random variable if their joint
(ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn ) = ln(ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn ). (5.34)
cumulant is zero. If n random variables are the
same, then their joint cumulant and joint moment
The joint cumulant of order r, Cum[X1k1 , X2k2 , . . . ,
are the nth-order ordinary cumulant and moment, as
Xnkn ]of the same set of random variables, is defined as
described in equation (5.33) for n = 3.
the coefficients in the Taylor expansion of the second
4) Additivity: Suppose that X and Y are independent
characteristic function about zero (Shiryaev, 1960, 1963; (X)
Brillinger, 1965; Brillinger and Rosenblatt, 1967; random variables with nth-order cumulants cn and
(Y )
Nikias and Petropulu, 1993); i.e., cn , respectively. The nth-order moment and cumu-
lant of the random variable Z = X + Y can be
(X) (Y ) (Z) (X) (Y )
obtained from cn and cn : cn = cn + cn .
ck1 ,k2 ,...,kn This property is also valid for joint moments and

= Cum X1k1 , X2k2 , . . . , Xnkn joint cumulants; i.e.,

r ln(ω , ω , . . . , ω )
r∂ 1 2 n Cum[X1 + Y1 , X2 + Y2 , . . . , Xn + Yn ]
= (−i) k1 k2

kn
.
∂ω1 , ∂ω2 , . . . , ∂ωn ω1 =ω2 =···=ωn =0 = Cum[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] + Cum[Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yn ].
(5.38)
(5.35)
Note that the additivity property is not valid for the
Let us summarize the useful properties of moments
moments.
and cumulants [Shiryaev (1960, 1963), Brillinger
5) Gaussianity: The joint moment of an odd number of
(1965), Brillinger and Rosenblatt (1967), Nikias and
zero-mean Gaussian random variables is null; i.e.,
Petropulu (1993)].
1) Homogeneity: Suppose that X is a random variable Mom[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] = 0, (5.39)
with nth-order moment mn(X) and nth-order cumulant
(X) if n is an odd number. However, the joint moment is
cn . For any constant a, the nth-order moment and nonnull when n is an even number; e.g.,
cumulant of the random variable Y = aX can be
(X) (X) (Y )
obtained from mn and cn , respectively: mn =
an mn(X) , cn(Y ) = an cn(X) . This property is also valid Mom[X1 , X2 , X3 , X4 ] = E[X1 , X2 ]E[X3 , X4 ]
for joint moments and joint cumulants; i.e., + E[X1 , X3 ]E[X2 , X4 ] + E[X1 , X4 ]E[X2 , X3 ].
(5.40)
Mom[a1 X1 , a2 X2 , . . . , an Xn ]
= (a1 a2 . . . an )Mom[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ] (5.36)
Linear Regression: An Application
of Joint Moments
Cum[a1 X1 , a2 X2 , . . . , an Xn ] Suppose we are given two random variables, X and
= (a1 a2 . . . an )Cum[X1 , X2 , . . . , Xn ], (5.37) Y , and wish to measure how good a linear prediction
can be made of the value of, say, Y based on observ-
where a1 , a2 , a3 , etc., are constants. ing the value of X. At one extreme, if X and Y are
independent, observing X tells us nothing about Y . At the linear correlation between the two random variables
the other extreme, if, say, Y = aX + b, observing the X and Y . The quantity called the correlation coefficient
value of X immediately tells us the value of Y . However, offers us such a measure.
in many situations in petroleum seismology, two ran- We introduce the correlation coefficient through
dom variables are neither completely independent nor second-order joint central moments. Based on equa-
linearly dependent. For instance, the crossplot of poros- tions (5.16), (5.17), and (5.31), the ijth joint central
ity and shear modulus for gas-saturated, pure-quartz moment of X and Y is defined as follows:
sandstones, as illustrated in Chapter 2, suggests that j
µij = E (X − X) (Y −
i
the porosity and shear modulus are neither completely Y) , (5.41)
independent nor perfectly linearly dependent. Another
example in Figure 5.4 of square time (t 2 ) versus offset where X = E[X] and Y = E[Y ]. The order of
square (x 2 ) relationship shows an even less clear linear the moment is i + j. The following are second-order
trend, although the theory predicts a linear relationship moments:
between t 2 and x 2 . Given this state of affairs, it is nec- 2
µ02 = σY2 = E (Y − Y)
essary to quantify how much can be said about one
2
random variable by observing another, in addition to µ20 = σX2 = E (X − X) (5.42)
determining the coefficients a and b, which characterize
µ11 = E (X − X)(Y − Y ) = Cov[X, Y ].
As a measure of predictability and, in some cases, sta-

tistical dependence, the most important joint central
moment is µ11 ; it is known as the covariance of X and Y .
The correlation coefficient (also known as normalized
covariance) is defined by
µ11
ρ=√ , (5.43)
µ20 µ02
which satisfies |ρ| ≤ 1.

When µ211 = µ02 µ20 , i.e., when |ρ| = 1, it is easy
to establish that
2
µ11
E (X − X) − (Y −
Y) = 0 (5.44)
µ20
or, equivalently, that
N
N 2
µ11
(xk −
X) − (yl −
Y) p(xk , yl ) = 0
µ20
k=1 l=1
(5.45)
for discrete random variables (a similar equation

can be written for continuous random variables by
replacing the sums over k and l by integrals with
respect to x and y). Because p(xk , yl ) is never negative,
equation (5.45) implies that the term in brackets is zero
everywhere. Thus, we confirm from equation (5.45) that
when |ρ| = 1,
FIGURE 5.4. An observation of square time (top) versus µ11
offset square (bottom) in scatter diagrams. The relation- Y= (X − X) +
Y
ship between the square time and the square offset is
µ20
approximated here with straight lines: t 2 = a0 x 2 + b0 . = a0
X + b0 , (5.46)
with Thus, the best linear predictor is given by

µ11 µ11
a0 = , b0 = Ȳ − X̄; (5.47) σY
µ20 µ20 Ypred = ρ (X −
X) +
Y (5.54)
σX
i.e., Y is a linear function of X.

We now look at the case in which ρ = 1. First, and passes through the point (
X,
Y ). If we use a2 and b2
equation (5.44), which has led to the linear relationship in equation (5.54), we obtain the smallest mean-square
between X and Y , is no longer valid. Yet we can still see (min)
error, F2 , which is
a linear trend between X and Y , even when ρ = 1, as
illustrated in Figure 5.4. The question now is how can (min)
F2 = F2 (a2 , b2 ) = σY2 (1 − ρ 2 ). (5.55)
we measure this linear trend? One answer consists of
seeking a pair (a, b) for which the expectation value of
squared differences of the actual data Y and the linear By comparing equations (5.46) and (5.54), we see that
trend is minimum. In other words, we seek a pair (a, b) the formulae of the intercept b2 and the gradient a2 of the
that minimizes the function F2 (a, b): linear trend in the case in which ρ = 1 are identical to
those of the intercept b0 and the gradient a0 of the linear

F2 (a, b) = E (Y − Ypred )2 , (5.48) relationship between Y and X when ρ = 1. The only
difference between the two cases (ρ = 1 and ρ = 1)
(min)
with is in the values of F2 , which is a measure of the
dispersion of the actual values around the linear trend;
Ypred = aX + b, (5.49) F2
(min)
is the standard deviation. When ρ = 1, F2
(min)
is null, which is consistent with equation (5.44). Note

where Ypred describes the linear trend that available
also that when ρ = 0, Ypred = Y , regardless of X.
data (Figure 5.4) indicate. This optimization problem
Again, this means that observing X has no bearing on
is known in statistics as linear regression (e.g., Stark
our prediction of Y , and the best predictor is merely
and Woods, 2001). The reason we denote the optimiza-
Ypred = Y.
tion function in equation (5.48) as F2 will be made clear
in the next subsection.
The solution to the optimization problem in equa-
tion (5.48) can be described as follows. On expanding Statistics of the Optimization Criteria
equation (5.48), we obtain
Let us now elaborate on the assumption behind the
X + a2 X2 + b2 ,
F2 (a, b) = Y2 − 2aXY + 2ab solution just obtained in equation (5.54). In summary,
(5.50) the observed data Y can be described as
where Y2 = E[Y 2 ], X2 = E[X 2 ], and XY = E[XY ]. Y = Ypred + ε, (5.56)

To minimize F2 (a, b) with respect to a and b, we
solve the following equations: where ε is the additive noise. If the noise ε follows a
∂F2 ∂F2 Gaussian distribution, the pdf of Y can be written as
=0 and = 0. (5.51) follows:
∂a ∂b

N
This yields the best a and b, which we denote by a2 and 1 yi − (axi + b) 2

b2 , in the sense that they minimize F2 . Algebraically, p(y; a, b) = const × exp − .
2 σY
we establish that i=1
(5.57)
µ11 ρσY
a2 = = (5.52)
µ20 σX This pdf is the same as the pdfs previously discussed,
and but its notation is augmented with the arguments a and
b to emphasize the parameter to be estimated. As illus-
µ11 ρσY
b2 =
Y− X=Y− X. (5.53) trated in Figure 5.5, the optimal values for the pair
µ20 σX (a, b) correspond to the maximal value of p(y; a, b). So
FIGURE 5.5. (a) An observation of square time versus offset square in a scatter diagram. The experimental points in this
diagram have been used to estimate the best linear relationships between the square time and the offset square in the least-
squares sense (l2 norm) and in the least-absolute-values sense (l1 norm). (b) Gaussian pdf in equation (5.57) for various
values of the pair (a, b). The experimental values shown in (a) were used in these computations. (c) The exponential pdf in
equation (5.67) for various values of the pair (a, b). The experimental values shown in (a) were used in these computations.
(d) An observation of the square time versus the offset square in a scatter diagram similar to the diagram in Figures 5.4 and
5.5a. Note that in Figures 5.4 and 5.5a, all the experimental points are inliers, whereas here we have several outliers. Because
of these outliers, the best linear relationship between the square time and offset square in the least-squares sense (l2 norm)
differs from the relationship between the square time and offset square in the least-absolute-values sense (l1 norm). The lin-
ear relationship based on the l2 norm is erroneous, whereas the one based on the l1 norm is still quite close to the actual linear
relationship. (e) The Gaussian pdf in equation (5.57) for various values of the pair (a, b). The experimental values in (d) were
used in these computations. (f) The exponential pdf in equation (5.67) for various values of the pair (a, b). The experimental
values in (d) were used in these computations.
we obviously would like to estimate the pair (a, b) for respectively, because our estimates are themselves ran-
which p(y; a, b) is maximal by solving the following dom variables. Note that equations (5.64) and (5.65)
two equations: yield the same linear trend obtained in equation (5.54)
by minimizing F2 (a, b). In other words, by selecting
∂p(y; a, b) ∂ ln[p(y; a, b)]
= p(y; a, b) = 0 (5.58) the pair (a, b), which minimizes F2 (a, b), we implicitly
∂a ∂a have assumed that the error ε between the actual data

and and Ypred is a Gaussian random variable.
If the noise ε does not follow a Gaussian distribu-
∂p(y; a, b) ∂ ln[p(y; a, b)] tion, we can end up with a significantly erroneous esti-
= p(y; a, b) = 0, (5.59)
∂b ∂b mation of (a, b) by using the least-squares optimization
with [i.e., F2 (a, b)], as illustrated in Figure 5.5e. The non-
Gaussianity here is caused by the outliers (bad data
N
1 yi − (axi + b) 2 points such as those circled in Figure 5.5d). The most
ln[p(y; a, b)]const − . serious problem with least-squares regression is its non-
2 σY
i=1 robustness to outliers. These outliers have a strong
(5.60) influence on the means of Y and X and therefore on
Note that alternatively, we can write equation (5.60) the solution. One remedy is to assume that ε is a sym-
in the following form: metrical exponential random variable so that the pdf of
Y can be written as follows:
1
ln[p(y; a, b)] = const − E (Y − aX − b)2 N

2
2σY 1 yi − (axi + b)
p(y; a, b) = const × exp − .
2 σY
1 i=1
= const − F2 (a, b) (5.61) (5.66)
2σY2
by replacing xi and yi (the values the random variables Using the same derivation as in the previous two para-
take on) with random variables X and Y , respectively, graphs, the optimal values of a and b can be obtained
because ln[p(y; a, b)] is itself a random variable. Note by minimizing
also that we have used the definition in equation (5.48) F1 (a, b) = E{|Y − (aX + b)|}. (5.67)
in our derivation of equation (5.61).
Because p(y; a, b) = 0 does not maximize equa- As illustrated in Figure 5.5d and f, the solution
tion (5.57), maximizing equation (5.57) is equivalent to based on F1 (a, b) is affected less by the small num-
minimizing the negative of its logarithm, i.e., ber of outliers. It is affected more by the median of
the whole data. So for data containing some large erro-
1
N
∂ ln[p(y; a, b)] neous values, we should not seek the optimal solution
= 2 (yi − axi − b)xi = 0 (5.62)
∂a σY i=1 by least-squares optimization [i.e., F2 (a, b)].
In summary, if the noise ε is such that the pdf of Y
can be written as
∂ ln[p(y; a, b)] 1
N N
= 2 (yi − axi − b) = 0, (5.63) 1 yi − (axi + b) l

∂b σY i=1 p(y; a, b) = const × exp − ,
2 σY
i=1
which is equivalent to (5.68)
XY − aX2 − b
X = 0, (5.64) with l ≥ 0, then the optimal values of a and b can be
obtained by minimizing

Y − a
X − b = 0. (5.65) Fl (a, b) = E |Y − (aX + b)|l . (5.69)
Note again that when passing from equations (5.62) When l = 2, in most cases, we no longer can arrive at
and (5.63) to equations (5.64) and (5.65), respectively, an analytic solution by minimizing equation (5.69); we
we have replaced xi and yi (the values the random have to use a numerical algorithm (see Tarantola, 1987)
variables take on) with random variables X and Y , to search for the optimal solution.
BOX 5.1: THE CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

It is sometimes said by statisticians that the sum independent random variables with pdfs pX1 (x),
of a large number of random variables tends toward . . . , pXn (x), respectively, such that
the Gaussian pdf. Under what conditions is this
true? E[Xk ] = 0, E Xk2 = σk2 ,
The central limit theorem4 says that the normal-
ized sum of a large number of mutually independent and let
random variables X1 , . . . , Xn , with zero means and
finite variances σ12 , . . . , σn2 , tends to the Gaussian sn2 = σ12 + · · · + σn2 .
probability distribution function, provided that the
If, for a given 0 < < 1, and for n that is suffici-
individual variances σk2 , k = 1, . . . , n are small
n 2 ently large so that the σk2 satisfies
compared to i=1 σi . The constraints on the
variances are known as the Lindeberg conditions. σk2 < sn2 , k = 1, . . . , n,
The mathematical statement of the central
limit theorem is: Let X1 , . . . , Xn be n mutually then the pdf of the normalized sum,
X1 + · · · + Xn
4 First proved by Abraham De Moivre in 1733 for the special Zn = ,
case of Bernoulli random variables. A more general proof was fur- σn
nished by J. W. Lindeberg, 1922, in Mathematicsche Zeitschrift, v. 15,
211–225. converges to the standard Gaussian pdf.
Seismic Imaging and Random Variables R5 R4 R3 R2 R1S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
We now try to illustrate the relevance for petroleum θ

seismology of the statistical averages that we have just
introduced. Consider the problem of imaging a reflec-
tion point located at the interface of two homogeneous
half-spaces, as depicted in Figure 5.6. The data we want
to image consist of N time signals corresponding to
VP1 ; ρ1
N source-receiver pairs, known as offsets. The set of
N signals is known as the common-midpoint (CMP) VP2 ; ρ2
gather (see Chapter 7 for more details). Note that all Reflection point
the N source-receiver pairs share the same reflection
point we want to locate and characterize by using these Receiver position before NMO correction
Receiver position after NMO correction
N signals. Therefore, if we perform a traveltime cor- Source position before NMO correction
rection known as normal-moveout (NMO) correction Source position after NMO correction
(see Chapter 3) so that the traveltime from the source to
the reflection point and the traveltime from the reflec- FIGURE 5.6. An illustration of a CMP gather before and
tion point to the receiver become identical for all N after NMO correction. Here, the CMP gather consists of
five signals corresponding to five source-receiver pairs:
source-receiver pairs, we can consider the N signals as
(S1, R1), (S2, R2), (S3, R3), (S4, R4), and (S5, R5).
representing N repeated experiments. So for each time
Each source-receiver pair represents a seismic experi-
step, we have N outcomes that we will use to com- ment with a single source, say, S1, and a single receiver,
pute the mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis, as R1. Note that after NMO correction, the traveltime from
defined in Table 5.1. Do these cumulants capture the the source to the reflection point and the traveltime from
characteristics of the reflection point, such as ampli- the reflection point to the receiver become identical for
tude variations with angles (AVA)? That is the question all five source-receiver pairs. The angle θ is the incident
we try to answer in this section. We consider various angle.
CMP-gather data sets with and without non-Gaussian is Gaussian [i.e., for each time, t, (t, xi ) is a Gaussian
noise. The effect of linear and nonlinear AVA on CMP random variable] and A = 0.1. The time is obviously
gathers also is analyzed. denoted t, and xi = sin2 θi where θi is the incident angle,
We start with the CMP in Figure 5.7a, representing as defined in Figure 5.6. Each source-receiver pair is
data after the NMO correction. It contains 500 traces associated with a value xi . We define xi in terms of the
(i.e., N = 500), although only 10 are shown, for the angle instead of the source-and-receiver distance (off-
sake of clarity of the illustration. If s(t) is the source set) to facilitate the inclusion of the AVA effect in our
signature, the data in Figure 5.7a can be described as later examples. We compute the mean, variance, skew-
ness, and kurtosis for each time step using all 500
u(t, xi ) = A[s(t) + (t, xi )], (5.70) available values of xi . The results in Figure 5.7b show
where A is a constant representing the reflection coef- how clearly the mean is defined, hence the attractive-
ficient at normal incidence and (t, xi ) is the additive ness of using it in defining the location of the scattering
noise. For the data set in Figure 5.7a, the additive noise point. In fact, taking the mean of the CMP gather at
each time step is equivalent to a classical operation in
seismic imaging known as stack. However, the other
a) Data with Gaussian noise
three cumulants (the variance, skewness, and kurtosis)
are not directly used in current imaging. Figure 5.7c, d,
0.4
and e shows these three cumulants. For the data set in
0.3
Figure 5.7a, the plots confirm that these three cumu-
sin 2 θ
lants essentially characterize the additive noise (t, xi ).

0.2 The variance (Figure 5.7c) is simply that of the addi-
tive Gaussian noise. The skewness and kurtosis are
0.1 almost null because the random variables at each time
are Gaussian.
0.0
Let us now move to the data set in Figure 5.8a,
0.0 0.6 0.8 1.0
0.2 0.4
which also is based on equation (5.70), except that the
Time (s)
b) Mean
additive noise (t, xi ) is non-Gaussian — specifically,
0.2 exponential distribution. In other words, for each time
0.0 t, (t, xi ) is a non-Gaussian random variable exponen-
-0.2 tially distributed with a unit mean. Figure 5.8b, c, d,
-0.4
and e shows the mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis
c) Variance (x 0.1)
0.3 for each time step. We can now see a significant increase
0.2 in the values of skewness and kurtosis compared to the
0.1 case of Gaussian noise in Figure 5.7. Note that the mean
0.0
and variance in Figure 5.8 are almost identical to those
d) Skewness (x 0.01)
0.2 in Figure 5.7. Hence, for second-order statistics, the two
0.1
data sets in Figures 5.7a and 5.8a are the same, whereas
0.0
-0.1 with higher-order statistics (HOS), they are effectively
-0.2 different. These results confirm that when the classi-
e) Kurtosis (x 0.001)
0.4 cal stack is extended beyond the value of the mean to
0.2
include the variance, skewness, and kurtosis, we can
0.0
-0.2
retrieve information about the non-Gaussianity of the
-0.4 data.
Let us also look at an example of uniformly dis-
FIGURE 5.7. (a) A CMP gather after NMO correction. It
tributed added noise, because this is the most popular
contains 500 traces, but only 10 are shown, for the sake of
clarity. For time step t, we have added to the data Gaussian selection of additive noise in petroleum-seismology
noise with zero mean and 0.1 variance. We computed (b) papers that we have surveyed. Figure 5.9 shows the
the mean, (c) the variance, (d) the skewness, and (e) the data set obtained with the additive uniform noise at
kurtosis for each time step, using all 500 traces. Note that each time step and with the corresponding cumulants we
the skewness and kurtosis are almost null because the have computed for each time step. The key difference
random variables at each time step are Gaussian. between the results in Figure 5.9 and those in Figures 5.7
a) Data with exponential noise (a) Data with uniform noise
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
sin 2 θ
sin 2 θ
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Time (s) Time (s)
b) Mean (b) Mean
0.4
0.2
0.0 0.0
-0.2
-0.4
c) Variance (x 0.1) (c) Variance (x 0.01)
0.3
0.8
0.2
0.1 0.4
0.0 0.0
d) Skewness (x 0.01) (d) Skewness (x 0.001)
0.4
0.2
0.2 0.0
-0.2
0.0
e) Kurtosis (x 0.01) (e) Kurtosis (x 0.001)
0.4 0.2
0.0
0.2
-0.2
0.0
FIGURE 5.8. (a) A CMP gather after NMO correction. It FIGURE 5.9. The same as Figure 5.7, with uniformly dis-
contains 500 traces, but only 10 are shown, for the sake tributed added noise. The reason the skewness is almost
of clarity. For time step t, we have added to the data nonnull, despite the addition of non-Gaussian noise, is that the
Gaussian noise, specifically, exponential distribution with a uniform distribution is symmetrical.
0.1 mean. We computed (b) the mean, (c) the variance, (d)
the skewness, and (e) the kurtosis for each time step, using
all 500 traces. Note the significant increase in the values of with
skewness and kurtosis compared to the case of Gaussian
noise in Figure 5.7. R(xi ) = A + Bxi , (5.72)
where A and B (A = 0.1 and B = 0.4 for data in Fig-

and 5.8 is that the skewness is almost null, despite the
ure 5.10) are the AVA parameters characteristic of the
noise being non-Gaussian. The skewness is almost null
reflection coefficient at small angles, as described in
because the uniform distribution is symmetrical and, as
Chapter 3. The AVA effects in equation (5.72) are
we discussed earlier, the skewness is null for random
obviously linear, and we characterize them in this text
variables with symmetrical pdfs. So when the skewness
as linear AVA. Figure 5.10a shows the data in equa-
is null, we need to compute the kurtosis to determine
tion (5.71) for the case in which the additive noise
whether we are dealing with a Gaussian random variable
(t, xi ) is Gaussian; the corresponding cumulants are
or a non-Gaussian with a symmetrical pdf.
in blue in Figure 5.10b, c, d, and e. So the only differ-
We will now include the AVA effects in our data,
ence between the results in Figures 5.7 and 5.10 (blue
which are now defined as
curves) is the introduction of the linear AVA effect. The
1 skewness and kurtosis are almost null in both cases,
u(t, xi ) = R(xi )s(t) + A (t, xi ), (5.71)
2 which confirms that the data remain Gaussian, despite
a) Data with Gaussian noiseand linear AVA

effect in equation (5.72) is captured by the mean and
variance. Actually, A and B can be estimated directly
0.4 from the values of the mean and variance. Hence, the
value of the mean and variance potentially can be used
0.3
to improve current AVA analysis techniques. Even when
sin 2 θ
0.2
A is very small, leading to very small mean values, the
large variance values will indicate the presence of the
0.1 scattering point, which is another reason to produce
the other cumulants in addition to the mean.
0.0
Let us now consider the case of the nonlinear AVA
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 effect by using
Time (s)
b) Mean
0.4
R(xi ) = A + Bxi + Cxi2 (5.73)
0.0
-0.4
-0.8
c) Variance (x 0.1)
in equation (5.71). Again A, B, and C are the AVA
0.6 parameters characteristics of the reflection coefficient,
0.3
as described in Chapter 3. The CMP gather correspond-
0.0
ing to this case, in which A = 0.1, B = 0.4, and
C = 0.2, was computed with a Gaussian additive noise,
d) Skewness (x 0.01)
0.0
as in Figure 5.10a. We do not display the CMP gather
-0.1
with the nonlinear AVA here because it is quite simi-
-0.2
lar to Figure 5.10a. However, we use this CMP gather
to produce the values of the mean, variance, skewness,
e) Kurtosis (x 0.01)
and kurtosis, which are represented by red curves in
0.0
Figure 5.10b, c, d, and e, respectively. So we obtain
-0.2
the cumulants in blue curves in Figure 5.10 by using
-0.4
data computed from equations (5.71) and (5.73) with
FIGURE 5.10. (a) A CMP gather after NMO correction. It C = 0, whereas the cumulants in red curves were ob-
contains 500 traces, but only 10 are shown, for the sake of tained by using data computed from the same equation
clarity. For time step t, we have added to the data Gaus- with C = 0.2. Notice that skewness and kurtosis have
sian noise with a zero mean. The linear AVA effects in increased significantly, despite the additive noise being
equation (5.72) also were included in computation of the Gaussian. These increases show that the nonlinear AVA
CMP gather. We computed the mean, variance, skewness, has rendered non-Gaussian the data used to produce the
and kurtosis for each time step, using all 500 traces. These cumulants in red curves.
quantities are shown in blue curves in (b), (c), (d), and (e). In other words, we can simulate non-Gaussian data
Notice that the skewness and kurtosis are almost null in from equation (5.71) in two ways: (1) by selecting non-
both cases, which confirms that the data remain Gaussian, Gaussian additive noise and/or (2) by using a nonlinear
despite the introduction of linear AVA effects. We also have
AVA. Another conclusion we can draw from the large
computed the mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis for
values of skewness and kurtosis in red curves is that
the case in which the data contained the nonlinear AVA
effect in equation (5.73). These quantities are shown in red these two cumulants can be used to detect and charac-
curves in (b), (c), (d), and (e). Notice that the skewness and terize nonlinearities in our AVA responses. Because the
kurtosis have increased significantly, which shows that the values of the variance also have increased, the equations
nonlinear AVA has rendered non-Gaussian the data used to for estimating C also may involve the variance.
produce the cumulants in red curves. In summary, we have confirmed through the exam-
ples in Figures 5.7 through 5.10 that the mean and
variance allow us to capture the linear AVA effect and
the introduction of linear AVA effects. In addition, the Gaussianity of the random variables, whereas the skew-
mean remains well defined and relatively unchanged. ness and kurtosis allow us to capture the nonlinearities
However, notice how the variance has increased sig- of AVA effects and the non-Gaussianity of the random
nificantly in the second experiment; the linear AVA variables.
STOCHASTIC SIGNALS time difference t1 − t2 , rather than on the individual

times t1 and t2 ; i.e.,
A stochastic signal is a set (ensemble) of random
(X) (X)
variables {X(t1 ), X(t2 ), X(t3 ), . . .}. Each random vari- m2 (t1 , t2 ) = m2 (t1 − t2 , 0). (5.75)
able, say, X(tn ), represents the possible outcomes of a
In other words, for stationary stochastic signals, the

given experiment performed at time tn . More precisely,
probability function is the same for all instances; i.e.,
a discrete form of X(tn ) can be described by its possi-
p[x(t1 )] = p[x(t2 )] = p(x). Therefore, in the stationary
ble values {x1 (tn ), x2 (tn ), x3 (tn ), . . .} and the associated
case, the notation for the joint second-order moment
probabilities {p[x1 (tn )], p[x2 (tn )], p[x3 (tn )], . . .}.
can be simplified to a function of the shift τ = t1 − t2
Let us look at an example of stochastic signals.
between the two time instants. Thus, we can define the
We described earlier the experiment of tossing a coin
one-parameter joint second-order moment as
as a random variable with the values (possible out-
comes) {x1 = −1, x2 = 1} and the associated prob- (X) (X)
m2 (τ ) = m2 (τ , 0) = E[X(t1 )X(t1 + τ )], (5.76)
abilities {p(x1 ) = 1/2, p(x2 ) = 1/2}. By repeating
this experiment several times, we produce a stochas- which is functionally independent of the parameter t1 .
tic signal. In other words, at time tn , we can associate The generalization of this formula to joint higher-order
the random variable X(tn ), whose values (possible out- moments of a stochastic signal is given in the next
comes) are {x1 (tn ) = −1, x2 (tn ) = 1} and with proba- subsection.
bilities {p[x1 (tn )] = 1/2, p[x2 (tn )] = 1/2}. Therefore, To facilitate the subsequent notations in this chap-
the value of a stochastic signal at a given time tn is ter, we assume that the time instants are uniformly
not known exactly. This is the key difference between sampled; i.e.,
deterministic signals, whose values are known at every
tk = kt k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , ±n, (5.77)
instant of time (which we discuss in the next section)
and stochastic signals. However, the statistics (moments where t is the sample interval. The random variable
and cumulants) of stochastic signals, when they exist, X(tk ) can be denoted X(k); i.e.,
are deterministic functions of time.
The definitions of statistical averages introduced X(k) = X(kt) = X(tk ). (5.78)
for random variables apply with no modifications. For For the remainder of this chapter, we denote X(tk )
instance, the joint second-order moment of the two by X(k). We also assume that t = 1 to simplify the
random variables X(t1 ) and X(t2 ) is notations. To use any other sampling interval, we simply
(X) change π in the equation or figure to π/t.
m2 (t1 , t2 ) = E[X(t1 )X(t2 )] The reference we use for our definitions of moments

and cumulants in this section and in the one to follow
= x(t1 )x(t2 )p[x(t1 ), x(t2 )]dx(t1 )dx(t2 ) is Nikias and Petropulu (1993).
Dx

= x(t1 )x(t1 + τ )
Dx Moments and Cumulants
× p[x(t1 ), x(t1 + τ )]dx(t1 )dx(t1 + τ ),
Now consider {X(k)} with k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . to be
(5.74)
a stationary stochastic signal. Its moments, up to the
where τ = t2 −t1 and Dx covers the ranges of x(t1 ) and nth order, are given by
x(t2 ). Note that the joint second-order moment depends
on the time instants t1 and t2 . mn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
As discussed in the introduction to this chapter, = E[X(k)X(k + τ1 ) . . . X(k + τn−1 )]. (5.79)
we assume that our signals, including the stochas-
tic ones, are stationary. A stationary signal is defined Similarly, the nth-order cumulants of {X(k)} are (n−1)-
as one whose statistical properties are independent of dimensional functions, which can be written in the form
the time origin. Consequently, the joint second-order
moment of the two random variables X(t1 ) and X(t2 ), cn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
defined in equation (5.74), must depend only on the = Cum[X(k), X(k + τ1 ), . . . , X(k + τn−1 )]. (5.80)
TABLE 5.2. Cumulants of a stationary stochastic signal.

Cumulants (cn ) for zero-mean
n Cumulants (cn ) stochastic signals
1 c1 = m1 = E[X(k)] c1 = 0
2 c2 (τ1 ) = m2 (τ1 ) − m12 c2 (τ1 ) = m2 (τ1 )

= E[X(k)X(k + τ1 )]
3 c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = m3 (τ1 , τ2 ) − m1 [m2 (τ1 ) + m2 (τ2 ) + m2 (τ2 − τ1 )] + 2m13 c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = m3 (τ1 , τ2 )
= E[X(k)X(k + τ1 )X(k + τ2 )]
4 c4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = m4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) − m2 (τ1 )m2 (τ3 − τ2 ) − m2 (τ2 )m2 (τ3 − τ1 ) c4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = m4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 )
− m2 (τ3 )m2 (τ2 − τ1 ) − m1 [m3 (τ2 − τ1 , τ3 − τ1 ) − m2 (τ1 )m2 (τ3 − τ2 )
+ m3 (τ2 , τ3 ) + m3 (τ1 , τ3 ) + m3 (τ1 , τ2 )] − m2 (τ2 )m2 (τ3 − τ1 )
+ 2m12 [m2 (τ1 ) + m2 (τ2 ) + m2 (τ3 ) + m2 (τ3 − τ1 ) − m2 (τ3 )m2 (τ2 − τ1 )
+ m2 (τ3 − τ2 ) + m2 (τ2 − τ1 )] − 6m14 m4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = c4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 )
+ c2 (τ1 )c2 (τ3 − τ2 )
+ c2 (τ2 )c2 (τ3 − τ1 )
+ c2 (τ3 )c2 (τ2 − τ1 )
Note that the first-order cumulant is independent of time; in addition, if the signal is zero mean, the second- and third-order cumulants
are identical to the second- and third-order moments, respectively. However, to generate the fourth-order cumulant, we need to know the
fourth-order and second-order moments.
Combining equations (5.79) and (5.80) and the formulas nals from symmetrically distributed non-Gaussian
in Table 5.1, we obtain the moment and cumulant rela- signals.
tionships for n = 1, 2, 3, and 4, described in Table 5.2. 4) As we see in Table 5.3, cumulants contain sev-
Let us now summarize some of the key proper- eral symmetries. For instance, we can divide the
ties of moments and cumulants (Shiryaev, 1960, 1963; third-order cumulants into six symmetrical sectors,
Brillinger, 1965; Brillinger and Rosenblatt, 1967; Nik- I through VI, as illustrated in Figure 5.11a. The
ias and Petropulu, 1993). knowledge of third-order cumulants in any of the
six sectors allows us to reconstruct the entire third-
1) The first-order moment m1(X) is known as the mean, order cumulant sequence. These sectors include their
and the second-order moment m2(X) (τ ) is known as boundaries so that, for example, sector I is an infi-
the autocorrelation function. Note that if a stationary nite wedge bounded by the lines τ1 = 0 and τ1 =
stochastic signal has a zero mean, the second- and τ2 ; τ1 , τ2 ≥ 0. This information can be useful in
third-order cumulants are identical to the second- reducing the computation time and data storage for
and third-order moments, respectively. However, to operations involving third-order cumulant functions.
generate the fourth-order cumulant, we need knowl- 5) Selected slices or combinations of slices, or spe-
edge of the fourth-order and second-order moments cific points of the third- and fourth-order cumulant
(see Table 5.2). functions, can be used separately to identify certain
2) If {X(k)} is a Gaussian stationary stochastic sig- properties of the stochastic signals, as we see in later
(X)
nal, then cn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) = 0 for n > 2; all sections. For example, by taking τ1 = τ2 = τ3 = 0
the information about Gaussian stationary stochastic in Table 5.2 and assuming that {X(k)} is a zero-mean
signals is contained in their first- and second-order (X)
stationary stochastic signal [i.e., m1 = 0], we ob-
cumulants. tain the variance, the skewness, and the kurtosis,
3) If {X(k)} is non-Gaussian and symmetrically dis- which are defined as
tributed, then c3(X) (τ1 , τ2 ) = 0. In other words,
(X)
we cannot characterize a signal as Gaussian if our γ2 = E[X 2 (k)] = c2 (0) (variance)
only information about its higher-order (i.e., n ≥ 3) (X)
γ3 = E[X (k)] = c3 (0, 0) (skewness)
3
cumulant functions is that the third-order cumulant
(X)
function is null. We need to compute the fourth-order γ4 = E[X 4 (k)] − 3γ22 = c4 (0, 0, 0) (kurtosis).
cumulant function to differentiate Gaussian sig- (5.81)
TABLE 5.3. Definitions of polyspectra and some of their key properties.

Properties of cumulants
n Polyspectra and polyspectra
+∞

2 C2 (ω1 ) = c2 (τ1 ) exp[−iω1 τ1 ] c2 (τ1 ) = c2 (−τ1 )

τ1 =−∞
C2 (ω1 ) = C2 (−ω1 )
(Power spectrum)
C2 (ω1 ) ≥ 0 (real and nonnegative)
+∞
+∞

3 C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = c3 (τ2 , τ1 ) = c3 (−τ2 , τ1 − τ2 )
τ1 =−∞ τ2 =−∞
= c3 (τ2 − τ1 , −τ1 ) = c3 (τ1 − τ2 , −τ2 )
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 )]
(Bispectrum) = c3 (−τ1 , τ2 − τ1 )
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = C3 (ω2 , ω1 ) = C3∗ (−ω2 , −ω1 )
= C3 (−ω1 − ω2 , ω2 ) = C3 (ω1 , −ω1 − ω2 )
= C3 (−ω1 − ω2 , ω1 ) = C3 (ω2 , −ω1 − ω2 )
+∞
+∞
+∞

4 C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = c4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = C4 (ω2 , ω1 , ω3 ) = C4 (ω3 , ω2 , ω1 )
τ1 =−∞ τ2 =−∞ τ3 =−∞
= C4 (ω1 , ω3 , ω2 ) = C4 (ω2 , ω3 , ω1 )
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 + ω3 τ3 )]
= C4 (ω3 , ω1 , ω2 ) = etc.
(Trispectrum)
(a) τ2 (b) ω1 ω2
=
τ2
–ω
=
ω2
τ1
2
=
ω 1
II
III
I
–π π ω1
τ1
IV VI ω =
1
–2 ω
V
2
–2ω
1
=ω
2
FIGURE 5.11. (a) Symmetry regions of the third-order moments. We divide the third-order cumulants into six symmet-
rical sectors, I through VI. The knowledge of third-order cumulants in any of the six sectors allows us to reconstruct
the entire third-order cumulant sequence. (b) Symmetry regions of the bispectrum. Knowing the bispectrum in the
shaded triangular region is enough for a complete description of the bispectrum based on the symmetries described
in Table 5.3. We assume in this bispectrum plot that t = 1, as we have throughout this section. To interpret this plot
for other sampling intervals, we simply change π in this plot to π/t.
Normalized kurtosis is defined as γ4 /γ22 . The skew- Brillinger and Rosenblatt, 1967; Nikias and Petropulu,
ness is a measure of the asymmetry of the distri- 1993).
bution, and the kurtosis is a measure of the spread 1) Polyspectra are periodic functions with period 2π ;
of the distribution relative to normal (Gaussian) i.e.,
distribution.
6) The cumulants of non-Gaussian stationary white- Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )

noise signals are given by
= Cn(X) (ω1 + 2π, . . . , ωn−1 + 2π). (5.85)
cn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) = γn(X) δ(τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ),
(5.82) 2) The bispectrum C3(X) (ω1 , ω2 ) and the trispectrum
C4(X) (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) are not real functions, as is a
where δ(τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) is the (n − 1)-dimensional power spectrum, C2(X) (ω1 ). Both the bispectrum and
Kronecker delta function and γn(X) is constant. the trispectrum have a real and an imaginary part
(amplitude and phase).
3) Although the bispectrum contains some phase infor-
Polyspectra mation about {X(k)}, it does not preserve the linear
phase shift. In fact, for the signal {Y (k)} = {X(k −
Let us now introduce cumulant spectra, also known L)}, where L is constant, C2(Y ) (ω1 ) = C2(X) (ω1 ),
as polyspectra. Suppose that a stationary stochastic and C3(Y ) (ω1 , ω2 ) = C3(X) (ω1 , ω2 ), the power spec-
signal {X(k)} with an nth-order cumulant sequence trum and the bispectrum both suppress linear phase
(X)
cn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) is defined by equation (5.80). The information.
nth-order cumulant spectrum Cn(X) (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 ) 4) Figure 5.11b describes the symmetries of the bispec-
of {X(k)} is defined as the (n − 1)-dimensional Fourier trum. Knowing the bispectrum in the triangular
transform of the nth-order cumulants, as follows: region ω2 ≥ 0, ω1 ≥ ω2 , and (ω1 + ω2 ) ≤ π is
enough for a complete description of the bispec-
Cn(X) (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 ) trum based on the symmetries described in Table 5.3.
+∞ +∞ These symmetries in Figure 5.11b can be useful in

= ··· cn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) reducing the computation time and data storage for
τ1 =−∞ τn−1 =−∞ operations involving bispectrum functions.
5) Figure 5.12 shows the bispectrum in the domain
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 + · · · + ωn−1 τn−1 )], (5.83) ω2 ≥ 0 and ω1 ≥ 0. The bispectrum is defined
with in the triangular region ω2 ≥ 0, ω1 ≥ ω2 , and
(ω1 + ω2 ) ≤ π if the signal is stationary [i.e.,
|ωi | ≤ π and |ω1 + ω2 + · · · + ωn−1 | ≤ π (5.84) C3(X) (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0 outside the triangular region].
(X) This triangular region is generally known as the inner
for i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1. Cn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) is generally
triangle (IT). Although our focus in this chapter is
known either as the higher-order spectrum or polyspec-
on stationary signals, note that if the signal is non-
tra. A similar definition for moment spectra can be (X)
stationary, then C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0 in the triangular
obtained by replacing the cumulant by the moment in
region ω1 ≥ ω2 and π ≤ (ω1 + ω2 ) ≤ 2π − ω1 .
equation (5.83). The resulting moment spectrum will
This triangular region is known as the outer triangle
be denoted Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ).
(OT). The total domain occupied by IT and OT is
The notion of spectral representation for cumulant
known as the principal domain of the bispectrum.
functions is attributed to Kolmogorov (Shiryaev, 1960,
6) Variance, skewness, and kurtosis, defined in equa-
1963). The term higher-order spectrum is attributed to
tion (5.81), also can be obtained from the power
Brillinger (Brillinger, 1965; Brillinger and Rosenblatt,
spectrum, bispectrum, and trispectrum, respectively,
1967; Akaike, 1966). The term polyspectra is attributed
as follows:
to Brillinger (Brillinger and Rosenblatt, 1967). Three π
special cases of polyspectra are of interest in petroleum (X) 1 (X)
γ2 = c2 (0) = C (ω1 )dω1 , (5.86)
seismology: the power spectrum (n = 2), the bispec- 2π −π 2
trum (n = 3), and the trispectrum (n = 4). These three
1 π
cases are described in Table 5.3. (X)
γ3 = c3 (0, 0) =
(X)
C3 (ω1 , ω2 )dω1 dω2 ,
Let us now summarize some of the key properties (2π)2 −π
of polyspectra (Shiryaev, 1960, 1963; Brillinger, 1965; (5.87)
ω2 2) Third-order cross-cumulants:
π cX,Y ,Z (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), Z(k + τ2 )]

(X) (Y )
= E [X(k)−m1 ][Y (k + τ1 )−m1 ]
π/3
(Z)
[Z(k + τ2 ) − m1 ] , (5.92)
π/2 OT
(X) (Y )
where m1 = E[X(k)], m1 = E[Y (k)], and
IT
m1(Z) = E[Z(k)]. For zero-mean stochastic signals,
ω1
we have
π/2 π
cX,Y ,Z (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), Z(k + τ2 )]
FIGURE 5.12. The bispectrum domain. The bispectrum = E[X(k)Y (k + τ1 )Z(k + τ2 )].
is defined in the triangular region denoted IT (inner tri-
(5.93)
angle) if the signal is stationary [i.e., it is null outside the
IT region: C3(X) (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0.]. If the signal is nonstationary,
Additional cross-cumulants are, for example,
the bispectrum is nonnull in the triangular region denoted
OT (outer triangle). The total domain occupied by IT and
OT is known as the principal domain of the bispectrum. We cX,Y ,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), Y (k + τ2 )],
assume in this plot that t = 1, as we have throughout this (5.94)
section. To interpret this plot for other sampling intervals,
we simply change π in this plot to π/t.
cX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 ), X(k + τ2 )].
(X)
(5.95)
γ4 = c4 (0, 0, 0)
π So the nth-order cross-cumulant of stationary sto-
1 (X)
= C (ω1 , ω2 , ω2 )dω1 dω2 dω3 . chastic signals {Xi (k)}, with i = 1, 2, . . . , n, is de-
(2π)3 −π 4
(5.88) fined as
7) The polyspectra of a non-Gaussian stationary white- cX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
noise signal are given by = Cum[X1 (k), X2 (k + τ1 ), . . . , Xn (k + τn−1 )].
Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = γn(X) . (5.89) (5.96)
They are flat spectra for all frequencies. Note that if the stochastic signals {Xi (k)} are the
same, then their cross-cumulant becomes the nth-
order ordinary cumulant function in equation (5.80).
Note also that two stationary stochastic signals, say,
Cross-cumulants and their Spectra {X(k)} and {y(k)}, are statistically independent if
their cross-cumulant is null. Hence, if {Z(k)} =
Cross-cumulants. Suppose we are given station-
{X(k)} + {Y (k)}, then
ary real stochastic signals {X(k)}, {Y (k)}, and {Z(k)}.
Their cross-cumulants may be defined as follows:
cn(Z) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
1) Second-order cross-cumulants:
= cn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) + cn(Y ) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ).
cX,Y (τ1 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 )]. (5.90) (5.97)
Thus, if the stochastic signals are zero mean, then In other words, the cumulant of the sum of two
independent stationary stochastic signals equals the
cX,Y (τ1 ) = Cum[X(k), Y (k + τ1 )] sum of their individual cumulants. This additive re-
= E[X(k)Y (k + τ1 )]. (5.91) lationship does not hold for moments.
Cross-cumulant spectra. Cross-cumulant spec- Consider the following two stochastic signals:
tra are defined as the multidimensional Fourier trans-
forms of the corresponding cross-cumulants, i.e., Y (k) = A(λ1 ) cos(λ1 k + φ1 ) + A(λ2 ) cos(λ2 k + φ2 )
+ A(λ3 ) cos(λ3 k + φ3 ) (5.101)
CX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 )
+∞
+∞
and
= ··· cX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
τ1 =−∞ τn−1 =−∞ Z(k) = A(λ1 ) cos(λ1 k + φ1 ) + A(λ2 ) cos(λ2 k + φ2 )
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 + · · · + ωn−1 τn−1 )], (5.98) + A(λ3 ) cos(λ3 k + φ1 + φ2 ), (5.102)
which is the nth-order cross-cumulant spectrum of where A(λi ) are independent random coefficients, φi are
stochastic signals {Xi (k)}, with i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. independent random phases distributed over [−π , π ],
The summability of the cross-cumulant sequence is and λi are frequencies with i = 1, 2, 3. The frequency
assumed. For example, combining equations (5.92) λ3 is related to λ1 and λ2 as follows: λ3 = λ1 + λ2 . The
and (5.98), we get a cross-bispectrum of {X(k)} and difference between {Y (k)} and {Z(k)} is that in {Y (k)},
{Y (k)}, i.e., the three random phases of the three cosine waves
are independent random-phase variables, whereas in
+∞
+∞
{Z(k)}, the phase of the third cosine wave is related
CX,Y ,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) = cX,Y ,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) to those of the first two cosine waves [i.e., in {Z(k)},
τ1 =−∞ τ2 =−∞
φ3 = φ1 + φ2 ]. Moreover, the relationship between
× exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 )]. (5.99) the phase of the third cosine wave of {Z(k)} and those
of the first two cosine waves has the same form as the
On the other hand, combining equations (5.90) and relationship between the frequency of the third cosine
(5.98), we obtain wave (λ3 = λ1 + λ2 ) and the frequencies of the first
+∞
two cosine waves. This is the heart of the phenomenon
CX,Y (ω) = cX,Y (τ ) exp[−iωτ ], (5.100) of phase coupling, which we are about to introduce.
τ =−∞ Using a well-known formula of trigonometry,
which is the cross-spectrum (second order) between 1
{X(k)} and {Y (k)}. cos α cos β = [cos(α + β) + cos(α − β)], (5.103)
2
the definition of cumulant functions in Table 5.2, and
with λ3 = λ1 + λ2 , we show that
Examples of Calculations of Cumulants,
Cross-cumulants, Polyspectra, E[Y (k)] = E[Z(k)] = 0, (5.104)
and Cross-cumulant Spectra
Example 1: Quadratic phase coupling.5 Our 1 2
c2(Y ) (τ1 ) = c2(Z) (τ1 ) = [A (λ1 ) cos(λ1 τ1 )
goal in this example is to analyze outputs of nonlinear 2
systems for the case in which the input consists of cosine + A2 (λ2 ) cos(λ2 τ1 ) + A2 (λ3 ) cos(λ3 τ1 )], (5.105)
waves (see Chapter 4 for the definition and analysis
of cosine waves). In particular, we will show that the
(Y )
power spectrum of the output of a nonlinear system c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = 0, (5.106)
can include frequencies that are not contained in the
input signal. The phenomenon behind these apparent and
new frequencies in output signals of nonlinear systems
1
is known as phase coupling. We start by introducing c3(Z) (τ1 , τ2 ) = A(λ1 )A(λ2 )A(λ3 )[cos(λ2 τ1
this phenomenon, and then we describe examples of 4
nonlinear systems that can cause phase coupling. + λ1 τ2 ) + cos(λ1 τ1 + λ2 τ2 ) + cos(λ2 τ1 − λ3 τ2 )
+ cos(λ2 τ2 − λ3 τ1 ) + cos(λ1 τ1 − λ3 τ2 )
5 Phase coupling also is known as frequency mixing. + cos(λ1 τ2 − λ3 τ1 )]. (5.107)
Therefore, Why is the phase coupling detected by the bispec-

trum and not by the power spectrum? The answer is
(Y ) (Z)
C2 (ω) = C2 (ω), (5.108) that signals in the power spectrum are treated as a
superposition of statistically uncorrelated cosine waves.
Therefore, the power spectrum is not able to detect
(Y )
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0, (5.109) interactions between frequencies, which gives rise to
phase coupling. This weakness of the power spectrum
and can be generalized to the outputs of all linear time-
invariant systems when the inputs consist of cosine
(Z)
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0. (5.110) waves. Consider a linear time-invariant system with an
{ω1 =λ1 ,ω2 =λ2 }
input
We see that {Y (k)} and {Z(k)} have identical power

3
spectra consisting of impulses at λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 (see X(k) = A(λi ) cos(λi k + φi ), (5.111)
Figure 5.13). However, their bispectra are different. So
i=1
if all the phases of the cosine waves are independent, as
is the case with {Y (k)}, the bispectrum is null, whereas where A(λi ) are independent random coefficients and
if there is a linear relationship between the phases of φi are independent random phases distributed over
cosine waves (e.g., φ3 = φ1 + φ2 ) similar to the rela- [−π , π]. The output of the linear time-invariant system
tionship between the frequencies of cosine waves (e.g., can be written as
λ3 = λ1 +λ2 ), as is the case with {Z(k)}, the bispectrum
3
is nonnull, as depicted in Figure 5.13. The phenomenon Y (k) = B(λi ) cos(λi k + θi ), (5.112)
which gives rise to phase relationships of the same form i=1
as the frequency relationships is known as phase cou-
in which the phases θi are also independent random
pling (Kim and Powers, 1978; Nikias and Raghuveer,
phases distributed over [−π , π ]. Hence, the output sig-
1987; Nikias and Petropulu, 1993). The signal {Z(k)}
nal {Y (k)} of the linear time-invariant system remains a
has a phase coupling at λ3 = λ1 + λ2 , whereas the
superposition of statistically uncorrelated cosine waves,
signal {Y (k)} has no phase coupling.
just as does the input signal. No cosine wave with a new
As illustrated in Figure 5.13, we can detect the
frequency has been created by {X(k)} passing through
phase coupling in {Z(k)} by computing its bispectrum.
the linear system. Therefore, cumulant functions of
orders higher than 2 of {Y (k)} are null. In other words,
a linear system cannot cause an interaction between fre-
(a) C2(X)(ω) (Y) quencies. Thus, it cannot produce a phase coupling of
C2 (ω)
cosine waves. However, a nonlinear system can cause
phase coupling, which is why the phenomenon of phase
coupling can be used to detect nonlinear systems.
Now we pass the same input signal {X(k)} through a
quadratic (nonlinear) system such that the output signal
ω ω is, for instance, Z(k) = X(k) + βX 2 (k). In terms of
λ1 λ2 λ3 λ1 λ2 λ3
cosine waves, this output can be written in the following
form:
(b) C(X)(ω , ω ) ω2 (Y)
C3 (ω1, ω2) ω2
3 1 2

3
Z(k) = A(λi ) cos(λi k + φi )
i=1
Zero
λ2 λ2

3
3
ω1 ω1 + C(λi )C(λj ) cos[(λi + λj )k + φi + φj ].

λ1 π λ1 π i=1 j=1
(5.113)
FIGURE 5.13. Quadratic phase coupling; (a) power spectra
and (b) amplitude spectrum of bispectra. (Adapted from The output {Z(k)} contains quadratic interactions of
Nikias and Petropulu, 1993.) the original cosine waves. For example, one quadratic
interaction is located at the frequency λ1 + λ2 (with consideration. According to Kim and Powers (1978),
phase φ1 + φ2 ). Other locations of quadratic interac- bZZZ at (λ1 , λ2 ) frequency pairs is close to unity if a
tions include λ1 + λ3 (with phase φ1 + φ3 ), λ2 + λ3 quadratic interaction has occurred. When the value of
(with phase φ2 + φ3 ), and λ1 − λ2 (with phase φ1 − φ2 ), bZZZ is close to zero, no quadratic interaction has taken
etc. Note that the power spectrum of {Z(k)} will now place.
include 12 impulses, thus confirming why the power As we discussed in Chapter 2, the model of the
spectrum methods usually overestimate the number of earth can sometimes be considered nonlinear. One
frequencies, treating the colored noise as the additional of the sources of this nonlinear behavior is that the
cosine wave signals. The use of higher-order statistics stress-strain relationship can be nonlinear. For the 1D
(HOS) resolves this problem without ambiguity. model, the uniaxial nonlinear stress-strain relation can
If we pass the same input signal {X(k)} through be written as
a cubic (nonlinear) system such that the output is, for
instance, Z(k) = X(k) + βX 2 (k) + ηX 3 (k), we can 9Kµ
dσ = [1 + βdε] dε (5.116)
rewrite {Z(k)} in the following form: 3K + µ

3 where σ is the strain, ε is the stress, K is the bulk mod-
Z(k) = A(λi ) cos(λi k + φi ) ulus, µ is the Lamé parameter, and β is a higher-order
i=1 nonlinear modulus. Notice that the nonlinear stress-

3
3 strain relationship of equation (5.116) has the same
+ C(λi )C(λj ) cos[(λi + λj )k + φi + φj ] quadratic form as the nonlinear system discussed in
i=1 j=1 this example. Therefore, the detection of nonlinearities
based on quadratic phase coupling has some relevancy

3
3
3
for petroleum seismology.
+ D(λi )D(λj )D(λl ) cos[(λi + λj + λl )k
i=1 j=1 l=1
Example 2: Non-Gaussian signal applied to
+ φi + φj + φl ]. (5.114) a linear system. Let {X(k)} be a zero mean non-
Gaussian stationary signal with all the polyspectra up
The signal {Z(k)} now contains cubic frequency inter- (X)
actions, through its third term of {Z(k)}, in addition to order n [i.e., Cn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )]. In this example,
to quadratic frequency interactions. So the cubic phase we analyze the response of a linear time-invariant
coupling gives rise to phase relationships (e.g., φ4 = system to {X(k)}. In particular, we show that the
φ1 + φ2 + φ3 ) of the same form as the relationship response of a linear time-invariant system to {X(k)} is
among three frequencies (e.g., λ4 = λ1 + λ2 + λ3 ). The non-Gaussian.
tool for analyzing the cubic phase coupling is obviously Let {h(k)} be the impulse response of a linear sys-
the trispectrum. tem and let {Y (k)} be the output of this system, such
The numerical detection and quantification of quad- that
ratic phase coupling can be performed through the +∞

statistical average of the bispectrum. For a given fre- Y (k) = h(τ )X(τ − k) (time domain),
quency pair (λ1 , λ2 ), if λ1 + λ2 and/or λ1 − λ2 are τ =−∞
generated by some nonlinear interaction, then phase (5.117)
coherency exists and the bispectrum is nonnull. Other-
wise, the bispectrum will be null. More specifically, we with
can use the amplitude-squared bicoherence,
2 +π
(Z) 1
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) h(τ ) = H(ω) exp{iωτ }dω. (5.118)
2π −π
|bZZZ (ω1 , ω2 )| = (Z)
2
(Z) (Z)
,
C2 (ω1 )C2 (ω1 )C2 (ω1 + ω2 )
(5.115) H(ω) is the frequency-response function of h(τ ). Many
problems in petroleum seismology are described by
for the numerical detection and quantification of quad- equation (5.117), including the modeling of zero-
ratic phases. The symbol |.| in this formula corresponds offset data under the assumption that the earth is one-
to taking the amplitude spectrum of the quantity under dimensional.
Brillinger and Rosenblatt (1967) showed that the information about the phase spectrum of the impulse
nth-order cumulant spectra of the input X(k) and output response of the linear time-invariant system. So we
Y (k) are related by need to analyze the polyspectra of higher-order statistics
(n > 2) to obtain information about the phase spec-
Cn(Y ) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = H(ω1 )H(ω2 ) . . . H(ωn−1 ) trum of the impulse response of the linear time-invariant
system. We start by expressing the frequency response

× H ∗ (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 )Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ). of the linear system in terms of amplitude and phase
(5.119) spectra:
The particular cases of equation (5.119) for n = 2, 3, H(ω) = |H(ω)| exp[iφh (ω)],
and 4 (i.e., power spectrum, bispectrum, and trispec-
trum) are given in Table 5.4. We see that if the input with |H(ω)| = H ∗ (ω)H(ω). (5.120)
{X(k)} is Gaussian [i.e., the bispectrum and trispectrum
of {X(k)} are null], then the output {Y (k)} is also Gaus- Again, the symbol |.| in this formula corresponds
sian [i.e., the bispectrum and trispectrum of {Y (k)} are to taking the amplitude spectrum of the quantity under
null], irrespective of the form or shape of the impulse consideration. We also express the nth-order cumulant
response of the linear time-invariant system. spectrum of the input signal in terms of amplitude and
Another conclusion we can research from the par- phase spectra:
ticular case of equation (5.119), in which n = 2, given
in Table 5.4, is that the relationship between the power
Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )
spectrum of {Y (k)} and that of {X(k)} involves only
the amplitude spectrum of the impulse response of the × exp i(X) , ,
n (ω 1 . . . ωn−1 . (5.121)
)
linear time-invariant system. This case does not carry
TABLE 5.4. Definition of moments and moment spectra for the output of a linear system.
Non-Gaussian white noise
n Abitrary non-Gaussian input and properties
(Y ) (X) (Y ) (X)
2 C2 (ω) = |H(ω)|2 C2 (ω) C2 (ω) = γ2 |H(ω)|2
(Power spectrum)
C (ω1 , ω2 ) = H(ω1 )H(ω2 )H ∗ (ω1 + ω2 )C3 (ω1 + ω2 ) C (ω1 , ω2 ) = γ3 H(ω1 )H(ω2 )H ∗ (ω1 + ω2 )
(Y ) (X) (Y ) (X)
3
3 3
(Y ) (Y ) (X)
C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = |H(ω1 )||H(ω2 )||H(ω1 + ω2 )| C3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = γ3 |H(ω1 )||H(ω2 )||H(ω1 + ω2 )|

(X)
× C3 (ω1 , ω2 )
(Y ) (X) (Y )
3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) − φh (ω1 + ω2 ) + 3 (ω1 , ω2 ) 3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) − φh (ω1 + ω2 )
(X)
(Y ) (Y ) γ3
(Bispectrum) C3 (ω1 , 0) = C2 (ω1 )H(0) (X)
γ2
C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = H(ω1 )H(ω2 )H(ω3 )H ∗ (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )

(Y ) (X)
4 C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = γ4 H(ω1 )H(ω2 )H(ω3 )
(X) ×H ∗ (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
×C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )
(Y ) (Y ) (X)
C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = |H(ω1 )||H(ω2 )||H(ω3 )| C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = γ4 |H(ω1 )||H(ω2 )||H(ω3 )|
×|H(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )| ×|H(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )|

(Y )
× C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )
(Y ) (X)
4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) + φh (ω3 ) 4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) + φh (ω3 )
(Y )
−φh (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 ) + 4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) −φh (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
(X)
(Y ) (Y ) γ4
(Trispectrum) C4 (ω1 , ω2 , 0) = C3 (ω1 , ω2 )H(0) (X)
γ3
In one case, the input is an arbitrary non-Gaussian signal, and in the other, the input is a non-Gaussian white-noise signal (with
(X) (X) (X) (X) 2
E[X(k)] = 0, γ2 = E[X 2 (k)], γ3 = E[X 3 (k)], and γ4 = E[X 4 (k)] − 3 γ2 ).
By substituting equations (5.120) and (5.121) into Example 3: Gaussian signal applied to a
equation (5.119), the amplitude and phase spectra of nonlinear Volterra system. Our objective in this
the nth-order cumulant spectrum of the output signal example is to analyze the response of a nonlinear sys-
can be expressed as tem, known as the Volterra system, to a stochastic
Gaussian input signal. If {X(k)} is a stationary signal

(Y ) passing through this system, then the output signal can
Cn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = |H(ω1 )| |H(ω2 )| . . . |H(ωn−1 )| be described as

× |H(ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 )| Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) Y (k) = h1 (τ1 )X(k − τ1 )
(5.122) τ1

+ h2 (τ1 , τ2 )X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 )
and τ1 τ2

(Y )
n (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) + h3 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 )X(k − τ1 )
τ1 τ2 τ3
= φh (ω1 ) + φh (ω2 ) + · · · + φh (ωn−1 )
× X(k − τ2 )X(k − τ3 ) + · · · , (5.127)
− φh (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ) + (X)
n (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ).
(5.123) in which h1 (τ1 ), h2 (τ1 , τ2 ), and h3 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ), and so
on, are known as the Volterra kernels, and equation
(Y ) (X)
Note that if n = 2, then 2 (ω1 ) = 2 (ω1 ). This (5.127) is known as the Volterra series. So a nonlinear
observation confirms that when n = 2, the output car- system that can be represented by a Volterra series is
ries no information about the phase of the linear system. completely characterized by its Volterra kernels, just as
However, the output cumulant spectra of orders greater a linear system is completely represented by its impulse
than 2 (n > 2) effectively carry phase information about response. When the Volterra series is truncated to its first
the linear system, as we see in equation (5.123). Table term, it reduces to the linear system we discussed in the
5.4 shows the specific expressions of the amplitude and previous example. When the Volterra series is truncated
phase spectra of the polyspectra of the output signal of to its linear and quadratic terms, it becomes a nonlinear
the linear system for the cases when n = 2, 3, and 4. system, which is generally known as the second-order
We now look at the particular case in which the input Volterra model. When the Volterra series is truncated
signal {X(k)} passing through the linear time-invariant to its cubic term, it is known as the third-order Volterra
system is a non-Gaussian white-noise signal, i.e., model, and so on.
Just as for the linear system, the Volterra systems
Cn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = γn(X) ., (5.124) can be used to simulate seismic data, but this time the
earth is considered to be a nonlinear system. For such
(X) simulations, we generally will limit the Volterra series
where γn is constant for a given order n. From equa-
tion (5.119) we can deduce the polyspectrum of the to its quadratic term, i.e.,
output signal:
Y (k) = h1 (τ1 )X(k − τ1 )
τ1
Cn(Y ) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = γn(X) H(ω1 )H(ω2 ) . . . H(ωn−1 )
∗ + h2 (τ1 , τ2 )X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 ).
× H (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ). (5.125)
τ1 τ2
The expressions of equation (5.125) for n = 2, 3, and 4 (5.128)

are given in Table 5.4. Note that the cumulant spectrum
Our first task in this example is to show that the
of order n described in equation (5.125) is related to
output signal of a Volterra system can be non-Gaussian
that of order (n − 1) by the following simple identity:
and nonzero mean, even when the input is zero phase
and Gaussian. We can prove this assertion by comput-
Cn(Y ) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−2 , 0) ing the mean and the third-order cumulant function of
γn
(X) the output signal. If both the mean and the third-order
(Y )
= Cn−1 (ω1 , . . . , ωn−2 )H(0) (X)
. (5.126) cumulant function are nonnull, then the output signal of
γn−1 the Volterra system is non-Gaussian and nonzero mean.
For completeness, we also compute the autocorrela- The autocorrelation function of {Y (k)} is
tion function as an intermediate step before computing
(Y )
the third-order cumulant function. We limit our deriva- m2 (τ ) = E[Y (k)Y (k + τ )]
tions to the case in which the input signal is a zero-mean
= h1 (n1 )E[X(k − n1 )Y (k + τ )]
white Gaussian signal. For the computation of the
n1
third-order cumulant function, we further limit our
derivations to the particular case in which the Volterra + h2 (n1 , n2 )E[X(k − n1 )
kernel h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is diagonal [i.e., h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is null if n1 n2
τ1 = τ2 ], because we need only one particular form × X(k − n2 )Y (k + τ )]. (5.134)
of the Volterra system to prove that its output can be
non-Gaussian. Thus, we avoid some unnecessarily long This equation involves joint moments of two, three, and
algebra involved in computing the third-order cumu- even four Gaussian stochastic signals. As we discussed
lant function when an arbitrary form of h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is in the section on random variables, the joint moments
considered. of an odd number of zero-mean Gaussian random vari-
Let us start by rewriting equation (5.128) in the ables are identical to zero, irrespective of their mutual
following form: correlations. We also gave the formula for the joint
moment of four zero-mean Gaussian random variables
Y (k) = Y1 (k) + Y2 (k), (5.129) in equation (5.40). By using equations (5.39) and (5.40),
we obtain the following autocorrelation function:
where
(Y ) (X)

Y1 (k) = h1 (τ1 )X(k − τ1 ) (5.130) m2 (τ ) = γ2 h1 (n1 )h1 (n1 + τ )
n1
τ1

(X) 2
and + 2 γ2 h2 (n1 , n2 )
n1 n2
Y2 (k) = h2 (τ1 , τ2 )X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 ). × h2 (n1 + τ , n2 + τ ), (5.135)
τ1 τ2
(5.131) (X)
where γ2 is the variance of the white-noise Gaus-
The mean value of the output is given by sian input. Note that the autocorrelation in equation
(5.135) is not sufficient to solve the problem of recon-
(Y ) (Y ) structing the linear and quadratic kernels because the
c1 = m1 = E[Y (k)] = E[Y1 (k)] + E[Y2 (k)].
(5.132) number of unknowns in these equations is greater
(Y )
than the number of samples of m2 (τ ). For exam-
Because we have assumed that {X(k)} is a zero-mean ple, if the number of equations is L and if we assume
Gaussian stationary signal, E{Y1 (k)} = 0. Equation that the quadratic Volterra kernel is symmetrical, then
(5.132) becomes the number of unknowns is L(L + 3)/2 + 1. There-
(Y ) (Y ) fore, additional information is needed to reconstruct the
c1 = m1 = E[Y2 (k)] quadratic Volterra kernel. The higher-order cumulants

= h2 (τ1 , τ2 )E[X(k − τ1 )X(k − τ2 )] provide this information.
τ1 τ2 Derivations similar to the ones we just performed
(X)
for the mean and for the autocorrelation function lead to
= h2 (τ1 , τ2 )c2 (τ1 − τ2 )., (5.133) the following expressions of the third-order cumulant:
τ1 τ2

(Y ) (X) 2
(X) c3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = 2 γ2 h1 (n1 )h1 (n1 + τ1 )
where c2 (τ ) is the autocorrelation of {X(k)}. We see n1
that the assumption that the input signal is zero phase
does not imply that the output of a nonlinear system is × h2 (n1 + τ2 , n1 + τ2 )
zero mean. Note that if the
quadratic kernel is symmet- + 2 γ2
(X) 2
h1 (n1 )h1 (n1 + τ2 )
rical and if the condition τ1 h2 (τ1 , τ1 ) = 0 holds, then
n1
the mean of the output signal of the quadratic Volterra
system becomes null. × h2 (n1 + τ1 , n1 + τ1 )

(X) 2 four zero-mean Gaussian random variables in equation
+ 2 γ2 h1 (n1 + τ1 )h1 (n1 + τ2 )
n1 (5.40). By using equations (5.39) and (5.40), equation
(5.137) reduces to
× h2 (n1 , n1 )
+∞

(X) 3
+ 8 γ2 h2 (n1 , n1 ) cX,Y (τ ) = h1 (n1 )cX,X (τ − n1 ). (5.138)

n1 n1 =−∞
× h2 (n1 + τ1 , n1 + τ1 ) By taking the Fourier transform of equation (5.138), we

× h2 (n1 + τ2 , n1 + τ2 ) (5.136) arrive at
for the particular case in which the Volterra kernel is CX,Y (ω) = H1 (ω)CX,X (ω), (5.139)
assumed to be diagonal [i.e., h2 (τ1 , τ2 ) is null if τ1 =
τ2 ]. We see that the third-order cumulant function of the and then at
output signal of the quadratic Volterra model is nonnull;
therefore, the output signal of the quadratic Volterra CX,Y (ω)
H1 (ω) = . (5.140)
model is effectively non-Gaussian. CX,X (ω)
As mentioned earlier, a number of seismic pro-
Note that if a Gaussian signal is input to a quadratic
cesses can be described by the quadratic Volterra model
Volterra system, the linear Volterra kernel can be accu-
in equation (5.128). The fundamental problem for pe-
rately reconstructed from the second-order statistics
troleum seismologists is that of reconstructing the two
alone (i.e., the power spectrum of the input and the
Volterra kernels h1 (k) and h2 (k1 , k2 ) for a given input
cross-spectrum between input and output). This is a
signal {X(k)} and output signal {Y (k)}. This type of
very reassuring result, in that the second-order statis-
reconstruction is generally done by computing cross-
tics effectively suppress the effect the quadratic Volterra
cumulants of the input and output and cumulants of
kernel may have on the output signal while leaving
the input; this is the approach we use in this example.
intact the contribution of the linear kernel to the output
Note that our derivations for the Volterra kernels will
signal.
be based on equation (5.128) with no assumption about
To reconstruct the quadratic Volterra kernel, we
the structure or form of the quadratic Volterra kernel.
compute the third-order cross-cumulant between input
The only assumption we make is that our input signal
and output. It is given by
is a zero-mean stochastic Gaussian signal.
Under the assumption that {X(k)} a zero-mean cX,X,Y (τ1 , τ2 )
Gaussian signal, the crosscorrelation between the input
(Y )
and output is = E [X(k)] [X(k + τ1 )] Y (k + τ2 ) − m1
cX,Y (τ ) = E[X(k)Y (k + τ )] = E {[X(k)] [X(k + τ1 )] [Y2 (k + τ2 )]}
= E[X(k)Y1 (k + τ )] + E[X(k)Y2 (k + τ )]
− m1(Y ) E {[X(k)] [X(k + τ1 )]} . (5.141)
+∞

= h1 (n1 )E[X(k)X(k + τ − n1 )] By again using the properties of joint moments of Gaus-
n1 =−∞ sian stochastic signals in equations (5.39) and (5.40), we
+∞
+∞
obtain
+ h2 (n1 , n2 )
n1 =−∞ n2 =−∞ +∞
+∞

cX,X,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) = 2 h2 (n1 , n2 )
× E[X(k)X(k + τ − n1 )X(k + τ − n2 )]. n1 =−∞ n2 =−∞
(5.137)
× E[X(k)X(k + τ1 − n1 )X(k + τ2 − n2 )]. (5.142)
This equation involves joint moments of two, three, and
even four Gaussian stochastic signals. As discussed in By taking the 2D Fourier transform of equation (5.142)
the section on random variables, the joint moments of an with respect to τ1 and τ2 , we arrive at
odd number of zero-mean Gaussian random variables
are identical to zero, irrespective of their mutual correla- CX,X,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) = 2H2 (ω1 , ω2 )CX,X (ω1 )CX,X (ω2 ),
tions. We also gave the formula for the joint moment of (5.143)
where H2 (ω1 , ω2 ) is the Fourier transform h2 (n, m) with is expected to be constant at all frequencies if the non-
respect to τ1 and τ2 . This equation clearly shows that we Gaussian output signal is the output of a linear system.
can reconstruct the frequency response of the quadratic For example, if white non-Gaussian noise is input to a
Volterra kernel from the cross-bispectrum of the input linear system, the amplitude spectrum of the normalized
and output: bispectrum of the output must be constant; i.e.,
(X)
CX,X,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) γ3
H2 (ω1 , ω2 ) = . (5.144) |bYYY (ω1 , ω2 )| = (5.145)
2CX,X (ω1 )CX,X (ω2 ) (X) 3/2
γ2
This result is another proof that the higher-order (n > 2)
statistics allow us to detect and characterize nonlinear is constant at all frequencies. Equation (5.145) can be
systems. obtained easily by combining equation (5.115) and the
Figure 5.14 summarizes the results obtained in expression of the bispectrum given in Table 5.4 for a
examples 1, 2, and 3 by describing scenarios for which linear system whose input is non-Gaussian white noise.
the outputs of a given system can be non-Gaussian. Note If |bYYY | varies with frequencies, then {Y (k)} is very
that a non-Gaussian output can be caused by either a likely to be the output of a nonlinear system. For cases
nonlinear system or non-Gaussian input. Because both in which the bispectrum is not available or is simply
the system and the input signal generally are not known null, we use the amplitude spectrum of the normal-
in petroleum seismology, it is important to be able to ized trispectrum to perform a similar test. The ampli-
differentiate the non-Gaussian output caused by a non- tude spectrum of the normalized trispectrum is given by
linear system that may be the result of non-Gaussian
noise in the input signal. Hinich (1982) proposed to |bYYYY (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )|2
use the amplitude spectrum of the normalized bispec- 2
(Y )
trum (also known as the third-order coherency index) C4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 )
of the output signal |bYYY | defined in equation (5.115). = (Y ) (Y ) (Y ) (Y )
.
C2 (ω1 )C2 (ω2 )C2 (ω3 )C2 (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
The amplitude spectrum of the normalized bispectrum
(5.146)
DETERMINISTIC SIGNALS
Linear system
Guassian input Guassian output
In the previous section, we described a stochas-
tic signal as a set of random variables {X(t1 ), X(t2 ),
X(t3 ), . . .} in which each random variable, say, X(tn ),
is described by its possible values {x1 (tn ), x2 (tn ),
Non-Guassian input
Linear system
Non-Guassian output
x3 (tn ), . . .} and the associated probabilities {p[x1 (tn )],
p[x2 (tn )], p[x3 (tn )], . . .}. In this section, we are inter-
ested in the particular class of signals for which X(tn )
has only one possible outcome (one possible value), and
the probability associated with this outcome is 1. This
Nonlinear system
Guassian input Non-Guassian output class of signals is said to be deterministic (i.e., the value
of a signal is known at every instant of time), in contrast
to stochastic signals, whose value is not known exactly
at each instant of time. Examples of deterministic sig-
nals include seismic data whose values are considered
Nonlinear system
Non-Guassian input Non-Guassian output to be zero outside the recording duration interval.
The definitions and properties of moments, cumu-
FIGURE 5.14. The output of a linear system can be either lants, and cumulant spectra of stochastic signals were
Gaussian or non-Gaussian, depending on the input signal. discussed in the previous section. In this section, we
However, the output of a nonlinear system is always non- introduce the definitions and properties of moments and
Gaussian. moment spectra of deterministic signals. Our discussion
will be brief because these definitions are almost iden- cross-moment mX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ), the nth-
tical to those of stochastic signals given in the previous order cross-moment spectrum is defined as
section. The key differences between the definitions of
moments and moment spectra of deterministic signals MX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (ω1 , ω2 , . . . , ωn−1 )
and those of stochastic signals are that (1) the notion of
+∞
+∞

expectation is no longer needed; i.e., E[X(k)] is now = ... mX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 )
replaced by X(k), and (2) polyspectra can be computed τ1 =−∞ τn−1 =−∞
directly from the Fourier transform of the signals rather
than as a Fourier transform of moments and cumulants, exp[−i(ω1 τ1 + ω2 τ2 + · · · + ωn−1 τn−1 )], (5.149)
as we did in the previous section. where |ωi | ≤ π for i = 1, 2, . . . , n − 1, and |ω1 +
Now that the notion of expectation is no longer ω2 + · · · + ωn−1 | ≤ π. The moment spectra of energy
needed, we limit our discussion in this section to mo- signals are continuous in frequencies ω1 ,…, ωn−1 . If
ments only because there is no clear advantage to using {X̂i (ω)} corresponds to the Fourier transform of the ith
cumulants for the analysis in deterministic signals. In deterministic signal, an alternative way of defining the
addition, we take advantage of the remark made in nth-order cross-moment spectrum is
the previous section — that moments and their spec-
tra are particular cases of cross-moments and their MX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )
spectra — to start our discussion of the definitions of
cross-moments and their spectra and then deduce those = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂3 (ω2 ) . . . X̂n (ωn−1 )X̂1∗ (ω1 +· · ·+ωn−1 ).
of moments and their spectra. (5.150)
As we indicated previously, the reference we use We obtained equation (5.150) by substituting equation
for our definitions of moments of deterministic signals (5.147) for equation (5.149). Thus, the nth-order cross-
is Nikias and Petropulu (1993). moment spectrum can be obtained directly from the
Fourier transform, X̂(ω), of the deterministic signal. So
we start the process of computing cross-moments (or
Moments, Cross-moments, moments) by computing the cross-moment spectrum
and their Spectra (or moment spectrum) and deduce the cross-monent
(or moments) as the inverse Fourier transform of the
Suppose we have n deterministic signals, i.e., cross-moment spectrum (or moment spectrum). Note
{Xi (k)}, i = 1, 2, . . . , n. Their nth-order cross-moments that such an approach is not possible with stochastic
are defined as signals; in that case, we have to use equation (5.149).
We also can deduce the nth-order moment spectrum
mX1 ,X2 ,...,Xn (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) of a deterministic signal {X(k)} as a particular case of
+∞ either equation (5.149) or equation (5.150), in which

= X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 ) . . . Xn (k + τn−1 ). (5.147) all the n deterministic signals are identical. From equa-
k=−∞
tion (5.150), we can show that the nth-order moment
spectrum of a deterministic signal {X(k)} is
The nth-order moment of a deterministic signal {X(k)}
can be deduced as a particular case of equation (5.147) Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = MX,X, ...,X (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )
in which all the n deterministic signals are identical. So = X̂(ω1 )X̂(ω2 ) . . . X̂(ωn−1 )
the nth-order moment of a deterministic signal {X(k)} is
× X̂ ∗ (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ).
mn(X) (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) (5.151)
= mX,X,...,X (τ1 , τ2 , . . . , τn−1 ) We often work with the amplitude and phase spectra of
+∞
the nth-order moment spectrum rather than with its real
= X(k)X(k + τ1 ) . . . X(k + τn−1 ). (5.148) and imaginary parts. Then,
k=−∞
Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = |Mn(X) (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )|
We now turn to the definitions of moment and
cross-moment spectra. Given the deterministic sig- × exp i(X) n (ω 1 , . . . , ωn−1 ,
)
nals {Xi (k)} with i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n and their nth-order (5.152)
with several authors also have used the term bispectrum

(trispectrum) in the case of deterministic signals to
(X) denote a third-order (fourth-order) moment spectrum
Mn (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 )
because of the equivalence between the definitions

= X̂(ω1 ) . . . X̂(ωn−1 ) X̂(ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ) equations (5.125) and (5.151) (e.g., Nikias and Petrop-
ulu, 1993). We use the same convention in Tables 5.5

(5.153)
and 5.6 throughout the remainder of this text.
and
Examples of Calculations of Moments,
(X)
n (ω1 , . . . , ωn−1 ) = φX (ω1 ) + φX (ω2 ) Cross-moments, and their Spectra
+ · · · + φX (ωn−1 ) − φX (ω1 + · · · + ωn−1 ), (5.154) Example 4: Time delay. Time-delay estimation
is a basic problem in petroleum seismology. It arises
where φX (ω) is the phase of X̂(ω). in the design of seismic arrays for data acquisition, in
Special cases of these definitions (n = 2, 3, and 4) seismic imaging, in 4D seismic processing, and so on.
widely used in practice are described in Tables 5.5 Basically, data from two spatially located receivers are
and 5.6. The term bispectrum (trispectrum) was used in modeled as
Section 2 to denote a third-order (fourth-order) cumu-
lant spectrum of a stationary stochastic signal. However, X(k) = S(k) + NX (k) (5.155)
TABLE 5.5. Definition of moments and moment spectra for deterministic signals.
n Moments Moment spectra
+∞

1 m1 = X(k)
k=−∞
+∞

2 m2 (τ1 ) = X(k)X(k + τ1 ) M2 (ω1 ) = X̂(ω1 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 ) ← Energy spectrum
k=−∞
2

|M2 (ω1 )| = X̂(ω1 ) ← Amplitude spectrum
2 (ω1 ) = 0 for all ω1 ← Phase spectrum
+∞

3 m3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = X(k)X(k + τ1 )X(k + τ2 ) M3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = X̂(ω1 )X̂(ω2 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 + ω2 )
k=−∞

|M3 (ω1 , ω2 )| = X̂(ω1 ) X̂(ω2 ) X̂(ω1 + ω2 )
3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = φ(ω1 ) + φ(ω2 ) − φ(ω1 + ω2 )
+∞

4 m4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = X(k)X(k + τ1 )X(k + τ2 )X(k + τ3 ) M4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = X̂(ω1 )X̂(ω2 )X̂(ω3 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
k=−∞

|M4 (ω1 , ω2 )| = X̂(ω1 ) X̂(ω2 ) X̂(ω3 ) X̂(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = φ(ω1 ) + φ(ω2 ) + φ(ω3 ) − φ(ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
TABLE 5.6. Definition of cross-moments and cross-moment spectra for deterministic signals.
n Cross-moments Cross-moment spectra
+∞

2 mX1 ,X2 (τ1 ) = X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 ) MX1 ,X2 (ω1 ) = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂1∗ (ω1 )
k=−∞
(Crosscorrelation) (Cross-spectrum)
+∞

3 mX1 ,X2 ,X3 (τ1 , τ2 ) = X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 )X3 (k + τ2 ) MX1 ,X2 ,X3 (ω1 , ω2 ) = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂3 (ω2 )X̂1∗ (ω1 + ω2 )
k=−∞
+∞

4 mX1 ,X2 ,X3 ,X4 (τ1 , τ2 , τ3 ) = X1 (k)X2 (k + τ1 ) MX1 ,X2 ,X3 ,X4 (ω1 , ω2 , ω3 ) = X̂2 (ω1 )X̂3 (ω2 )X̂4 (ω3 )
k=−∞
× X3 (k + τ2 )X4 (k + τ3 ) × X̂1∗ (ω1 + ω2 + ω3 )
and mX,Y ,Y (τ1 , τ2 )

+∞

Y (k) = S(k − τ0 ) + NY (k), (5.156)
= δ(k)δ(k − τ0 + τ1 )δ(k − τ0 + τ2 )
where X(k) and Y (k) are data at the two receivers, S(k) k=−∞
is the source signal (i.e., input signal), NX (k) and NY (k)

= δ(τ1 − τ0 )δ(τ2 − τ0 ). (5.161)
are additive noises, and τ0 is the time delay between the
signals at the two receivers. The problem is to find the
We see that the time delay τ0 between X(k) and Y (k)
delay τ0 for X(k) and Y (k). The data model in equa-
can be estimated not only from the crosscorrelation but
tions (5.155) and (5.156) assumes that receivers are very
also from the third-order cross-moments. Using the fact
close to each other. A more general formulation of this
that the Fourier transform of X(k) is X̂(ω) = 1 and that
problem requires modifying equation (5.156) to
the Fourier transform of Y (k) is Ŷ (ω) = exp [−iωτ0 ],

L we obtain the following cross-moment spectra:
Y (k) = ai S(k − τ0i ) + NY (k), (5.157)
i=1 MX,Y (ω) = exp [−iωτ0 ] , (5.162)
to take into account spatial variations between receivers
and the fact that there may not be a single time delay
between X(k) and Y (k). The index L is the number of MX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = exp [−iω1 τ0 ] , (5.163)
multipaths, and ai and τ0i describe amplitude variation
and delays (or advances) between X(k) and Y (k). The
problem of estimating all the τ0i from X(k) and Y (k) MX,X,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) = exp [−iω2 τ0 ] , (5.164)
is known as multipath time-delay estimation. Liang et
al. (1997) propose a numerical solution to the multipath and
time-delay estimation.
Our goal in this example is to describe an analytic MX,Y ,Y (ω1 , ω2 ) = exp [−iω1 τ0 ] exp [−iωτ0 ] .
solution to the time-delay problem in equations (5.155) (5.165)
and (5.156) for the particular case in which the source is
a delta function and X(k) and Y (k) are noise free. More Note that we also can determine analytically the time
complex cases with arbitrary sources and noise signals delay τ0 for the arbitrary source [i.e., for X(k) =
are discussed in the next three sections. S(k) and Y (k) = S(k − τ0 )] by using normalized
Let us compute the crosscorrelation, mX,Y (τ ), cross-spectrum or the normalized third-order moment
and the third-order cross-moments, mX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ), spectrum, i.e.,
mX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ), and mX,Y ,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) of the signals X(k) =
δ(k) and Y (k) = δ(k − τ0 ), where δ(k) is the delta MX,Y (ω)
= exp [−iωτ0 ] ,
function. Applying equation (5.147) to this example, MX,X (ω)
we obtain MX,X,Y (ω1 , ω2 )
+∞ = exp [−iω2 τ0 ] . (5.166)
MX,X,X (ω1 , ω2 )
mX,Y (τ ) = δ(k)δ(k − τ0 + τ ) = δ(τ − τ0 ),
k=−∞
(5.158) Example 5: Minimum-, maximum-, and
mixed-phase signals. Figure 5.15 shows four sig-
+∞
nals similar to those used by Yilmaz (1987) in his
mX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ) = δ(k)δ(k − τ0 + τ1 )δ(k + τ2 ) description of the deconvolution. The expressions of
k=−∞ these signals in the time domain are
= δ(τ2 )δ(τ1 − τ0 ), (5.159)
X(k) = δ(k) − 41 δ(k − 2),
and
+∞
V (k) = 21 δ(k) + 43 δ(k − 1) − 21 δ(k − 2),
mX,X,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) = δ(k)δ(k + τ1 )δ(k − τ0 + τ2 )
W (k) = − 21 δ(k) + 43 δ(k − 1) + 21 δ(k − 2),
k=−∞
= δ(τ1 )δ(τ2 − τ0 ), (5.160) Z(k) = − 41 δ(k) + δ(k − 2), (5.167)
(a)
(e)
1.0
1.0 1
X(k)
X(k)
0.5 0.8
0.6
0.0
V(k) and W(k)
0.4
–0.5
0.2
(b) Z(k)
00 001 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
2
1.0 1
V(k) Samples
(f)
0.5 1.51.5
1.4
|X(ω)| = |V(ω)| = |W(ω)| = |Z(ω)|
1.3
0.0
1.2
1.1
–0.5
1.01
0.9
(c)
0.8
1.0 0.7
W(k) 0.6
0.5 0.50.50
0
10 20 30
π/2
40 50 60 70 80 90
π100
Angular frequency (ω)
0.0
(g)
–0.5 0.0
(d) V(k) X(k)

–2.0
Phase (rad)
1.0
Z(k)
0.5 –4.0
W(k)
0.0 Z(k)
–6.0
0
0
10 20 30
π/2
40 50 60 70 80 90
π
100
–0.5
Angular frequency (ω)
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Samples
FIGURE 5.15. Four examples of deterministic signals with the same amplitude spectrum and different phase spectra: (a) is
a minimum-phase signal because its energy is maximally front-loaded, (b) is a mixed-phase signal because its energy is
concentrated predominantly in the middle, (c) is also a mixed-phase signal, and (d) is a maximum-phase signal because its
energy is end-loaded. (e) Energy concentrations of the four signals just introduced. Energy concentrations describe the rate
of energy buildup. The fastest rate occurs when the signal is minimum phase, and the slowest rate occurs when the signal is
maximum phase. (f) Amplitude spectra of the deterministic signals. (g) Phase spectra of the deterministic signals.
and their Fourier transforms can be expressed as of Z(k) having the slowest growth rate. So we have the
following relationships among concentration energies
X̂(ω) = 1 − 21 exp(−iω) of X(k), V (k), W (k), and Z(k):

× 1 + 21 exp(−iω) (minimum phase), (Z) (V ) (W )
PC (L) ≤ PC (L) = PC (L) ≤ PC (L).
(X)
(5.172)

V̂ (ω) = exp(−iω) − 21 Add to this discussion the amplitude and phase

spectra (Figure 5.15f and g) of these four signals. We
× 1 + 21 exp(−iω) (mixed phase),
see that all four signals have the same amplitude spec-
Ŵ (ω) = exp(−iω) + 21 trum but different phases. The minimum-phase signal
X(k) has the least energy decay and the least phase
× 1 − 21 exp(−iω) (mixed phase), change, whereas the maximum-phase signal Z(k) has

Ẑ(ω) = exp(−iω) − 21 the largest energy decay and the largest phase change
with frequency. Yet the four signals have identical auto-
× exp(−iω) + 21 (maximum phase). correlation functions, as defined by equation (5.148):
(5.168) (X) (V ) (W ) (Z)
c2 (0) = c2 (0) = c2 (0) = c2 (0) = 17
16 ,
As described in Chapter 4, the signal X(k) is character- c2(X) (1) = c2(V ) (1) = c2(W ) (1) = c2(Z) (1) = 0,
ized as minimum phase because its energy is maximally
concentrated at its onset. Similarly, the signal Z(k) c2(X) (2) = c2(V ) (2) = c2(W ) (2) = c2(Z) (2) = − 41 ,
is maximum phase because its energy is maximally (X) (V ) (W ) (Z)
concentrated at its end. Finally, the signals V (k) and c2 (3) = c2 (3) = c2 (3) = c2 (3) = 0. . . .
W (k) are mixed phase because they describe situations (5.173)
between minimum-phase signals and maximum-phase (X) (V ) (W ) (Z)
[c2 (n) = c2 (n) = c2 (n) = c2 (n) = 0 for
signals.
n > 2]; therefore, they have the same power spec-
To completely characterize these signals, we com-
trum (Figure 5.15f). In other words, we cannot dis-
pute their total energy, their concentration energy, and
tinguish minimum-phase signal from a mixed-phase
the amplitude and phase spectra. Recall that the total
or maximum-phase signal based on their autocorrela-
energy of a deterministic X(k) is given by
tions only. Actually, this is the genesis of the classical
+∞
+∞ 2 assumption encountered in seismic deconvolution that
(X) 1
PT = X (k) =
2
X̂(ω) dω, seismic signals must be minimum phase (see Yilmaz,
2π −∞ 1987, for more details).
k=−∞
(5.169) Let us now look at the third-order cumulant, for
example, at (τ1 , τ2 ) = (0, 0) and at (τ1 , τ2 ) = (0, 2):
where X̂(ω) is the Fourier transform of X(k). The (X) (X)
concentration energy at time t = Lt is defined as c3 (0, 0) = 65
64 c3 (0, 2) = − 41
3
(V ) (V )

L c3 (0, 0) = 3
4 c3 (0, 2) = − 18
(X)
PC (L) = 2
X (k). (5.170) 3
(W ) (W )
k=0 c3 (0, 0) = 3
4 c3 (0, 2) = 1
8
Note that all four signals have the same amount of total (Z) (Z)
energy, i.e., c3 (0, 0) = 65
64 , c3 (0, 2) = 1
16 . (5.174)
17 These calculations are based on equation (5.148).

(X) (V ) (W ) (Z)
PT = PT = PT = PT = . (5.171) Hence, by using the third-order cumulants, we can now
16 differentiate among the minimum, mixed-phase, and
However, concentration energy, illustrated in Fig- maximum signals. We can even differentiate between
ure 5.15e, is significantly different among signals X(k), the two mixed-phase signals. From equations (5.153)
V (k), and Z(k), whereas the concentration energy of and (5.154), we see that the amplitude spectra of the
W (k) and V (k) is equal. The energy of X(k) concen- bispectra of all four signals are identical because their
trates near its total energy value at the very first lag, power spectra are identical. However, the phase spectra
whereas the energy of V (k), W (k), and Z(k) grows of their bispectra are different because the four signals
progressively to their total energy value, with the energy have different phases, as we see in Figure 5.15g.
BOX 5.2: SIMILARITIES BETWEEN

CROSSCORRELATION AND CONVOLUTION
Suppose we have two deterministic signals, The similarities between the computation of the
{X(k)} and {Y (k)}. The convolution of these two crosscorrelation and that of the convolution are ap-
signals is defined as parent. Note that the convolution of {X(k)} and
+∞ {Y (−k)} yields the crosscorrelation mX,Y (k);

Z(k) = X(i)Y (k − i) that is,
i=−∞
mX,Y (k) = X(k) ∗ Y (−k). (5.178)
= X(k) ∗ Y (k), (5.175)
whereas the crosscorrelation between these two In the special case where Y (k) = X(k), we have
signals is defined as the autocorrelation of {X(k)}, which is defined as
+∞

mX,Y (k) = X(i)Y (i − k) (5.176) mX,X (k) = X(k) ∗ X(−k) (5.179)
i=−∞
or, equivalently, as
or, equivalently, as
+∞
+∞

mX,Y (k) = X(i + k)Y (i). (5.177) mX,X (k) = X(i + k)X(i). (5.180)
i=−∞ i=−∞
APPLICATION OF to t = 0 and have their maximum values at t = 0.

AUTOCORRELATION TO Actually, these properties are valid for any autocorrela-
GHOST IDENTIFICATION tion, irrespective of the input signal.
As described in Chapter 4, a signal symmetrical
The autocorrelation function (see Table 5.5 for a with respect to t = 0, which has its maximum value at
definition) is useful in detecting periodicities within a t = 0, is a zero-phase signal. Therefore, autocorrelation
given time function, such as a seismic trace. As dis- functions are zero-phase signals.
cussed in Chapter 4, ghost reflections resulting from Also notice that the autocorrelation functions of the
energy that initially travels upward from the shot also ghosted seismic traces show negative correlation peaks
produce sets of reflections that are delayed with respect at ±τ , which allows us to determine τ and thus identify
to the primary reflections. It is possible through auto- ghosts.
correlation to estimate the time delays and relative If seismic traces were as simple as those in
amplitudes of these sets of reflections (ghosts). We here Figure 5.16, we would not need to compute the auto-
describe the use of autocorrelation for the purpose of correlation function to estimate τ , as it is readily visible
identifying ghost reflections in seismic traces. A similar from the traces, especially for the cases in which τ
discussion can be conducted for multiple reflections. is large. Actually, traces generally are corrupted by
noise such that the periodicity of the ghost is invisible,
as illustrated in Figure 5.17. However, the autocorre-
Ghost Identification lation functions are still able to show the underlying
periodicity; in other words, we can still clearly esti-
We start by examining the autocorrelation func- mate τ , especially when the noise is Gaussian (we
tions of the ghosted seismic traces for different values will revisit this issue in the section titled “Application
of τ (see Figure 5.16). Notice that the autocorrelation of Crosscorrelation and Bicoherence Correlation to
functions in this figure are all symmetrical with respect Moveout Correction,” later in this chapter).
FIGURE 5.17. Comparison of large and small τ for data

containing noise. (a) Large delay, (b) noticeable delay, and
(c) very small delay.
FIGURE 5.16. Comparison of large and small τ . (a) Large
delay, (b) noticeable delay, and (c) very small delay.
In practice, this property of the autocorrelation earth’s surface. The autocorrelation of the ghosted trace
functions is often exploited when correcting for ghosts ug (t) may be expressed as
and the attenuation of multiples (see Yilmaz, 1987, for
more details). Note also that autocorrelation functions mug ,ug (τ ) = ug (t) ∗ ug (−t), (5.183)
generally are displayed only for positive lag because
they are symmetrical with respect to zero lag. based on the relationship of the autocorrelation and au-
toconvolution described in Box 5.1.
The ghosted seismogram ug (t) of equation (5.181)
can be rewritten as
A Mathematical Derivation of
the Autocorrelation Function ug (t) = u(t) ∗ h(t), (5.184)
As discussed in Chapter 4, the simple source- with
ghosted seismic trace can be described mathematically
as follows: u(t) = w(t) ∗ r(t). (5.185)
ug (t) = w(t) ∗ h(t) ∗ r(t), (5.181) Equation (5.183) can now be expanded in terms of
u(t) and h(t):
with
h(t) = δ(t) + R0 δ(t − τ ), (5.182) mug ,ug (τ ) = u(t) ∗ h(t) ∗ u(−t) ∗ h(−t). (5.186)
where w(t) is the source signature, h(t) is the ghost Since the order of convolution is immaterial,
distortion impulse response, r(t) is the reflectivity func-
tion, R0 is the effective surface reflection coefficient, mug ,ug (τ ) = u(t) ∗ u(−t) ∗ h(t) ∗ h(−t)
and τ is the two-way traveltime from the source to the = mu,u (τ ) ∗ mh,h (τ ). (5.187)
coefficient. The autocorrelation of a typical trace from

a ghosted seismogram is shown in Figure 5.18d.
APPLICATION OF
CROSSCORRELATION AND
BICOHERENCE CORRELATION
TO MOVEOUT CORRECTION
As we saw in the previous section, autocorrelation
is useful in detecting periodicities within a given time
signal such as a seismic trace. As multiples and ghosts
produce sets of reflections that are delayed with respect
to the primary reflections, autocorrelation can be used
to detect ghosts, as discussed in the previous section,
and multiples, as described in Yilmaz, 1987.
Crosscorrelation indicates the degree of similar-
ity between two signals. One naturally expects a good
correlation between two signals if a relationship exists
between the functions, whereas no correlation is ex-
pected if such a relationship does not exist.
Figure 5.19 shows an example of crosscorrelation
between two discrete seismic traces. The maximum
FIGURE 5.18. Ghost identification by autocorrelation:
(a) the filter h(t), (b) autocorrelation of h(t), (c) auto-
correlation of the ghost-free trace, and (d) autocorrelation
of the trace containing simple ghosts.
Thus, the autocorrelation of the ghosted trace is

equal to the autocorrelation of the unghosted trace
convolved with the autocorrelation of the distortion
function, h(t). In the case of the simple ghost, h(t) =
δ(t) + Ro δ(t − τ ), mh,h (τ ) consists of three pulses, as
shown in Figure 5.18:
mh,h (τ ) = (1 + Ro2 )δ(τ ) + Ro δ(τ − τg )

+ Ro δ(τ + τg ), (5.188)
where τg is a specific value of the ghost delay time.

Autocorrelation of the ghost-free seismogram u(t)
will produce an autocorrelation function mu,u (τ ) similar
to that shown in Figure 5.18c. The autocorrelation of
the ghosted seismogram ug (t) can be obtained by
convolving mu,u (τ ) of Figure 5.18c with mh,h (τ ) of
Figure 5.18b. The result, shown in Figure 5.18d, is
mug ,ug (τ ). Thus, the autocorrelation of the field seis-
mogram provides a measure of the ghost delay time,
τg . If the noise level is low, this method provides at FIGURE 5.19. (a) Crosscorrelation of seismic traces and
least an estimate of Ro , the effective surface-reflection (b) autocorrelation of shot pulses.
value of the crosscorrelation mX,Y (n) occurs when propagation through random media. A two-dimensional
n = 2. The shift associated with maximum amplitude model of the earth is used. It consists of large- and
indicates the time shift between the two traces. A similar small-scale inhomogeneities. The large-scale inhomo-
result can be obtained using third-order statistics such geneities represent the mean properties of the earth
as the bicoherence correlation defined in Box 5.3. The that are overlain by random variations character-
crosscorrelation procedure described in this example is ized by an ellipsoidal autocorrelation function. Finite-
useful in correcting for the time shift between seismic difference modeling techniques with an explosive
traces (seismic records) so that reflection events can source were employed to simulate seismic wave propa-
line up. This alignment of seismic events is known as gation through this model. The wavefield was recorded
moveout correction. with 91 receivers uniformly distributed along a quar-
ter of a circle centered at the explosive source. An
important and interesting issue for study in this sim-
ulation is the anisotropic behavior caused by random
Data Set variations — in other words, the dependence of relative
Figure 5.20 shows one of the synthetic data sets arrival times as a function of source-receiver directions.
computed by Ikelle et al. (1993) in their study of wave Accurate time picking from such data sets is an essential
prerequisite of this study.
Three signal characteristics that introduce com-
plications in picking arrival times in the data set in
Figure 5.20 are as follows:
• Signal bandwidth: The explosive source signature is

band-limited to the first 600 Hz, which covers only
2% of the sampling frequency at 30 kHz.
• The pulse-broadening effect: The seismic pulse is
broadened when propagating through the dispersive
random medium.
• The seismic coda: Multiple scattering in the ran-
dom medium during wave propagation generates a
coda (i.e., the incoherent energy behind the main
pulse), which acts as a correlated noise source in
first-arrival-time estimation.
Moveout Correction
Figure 5.21 shows the cross- and bicoherence cor-
relations between adjacent traces of the data in Fig-
ure 5.20. The increase in resolution of the delay peaks
in bicoherence correlation is phenomenal; the crosscor-
relation has suffered from the narrow-band source sig-
nature. The incremental delays between adjacent traces
are then combined and accumulated. The resulting rel-
ative delays are shown in Figure 5.22. These predicted
moveouts from crosscorrelation and bicoherence cor-
relation are overlain individually on the original data
in Figure 5.23. Unlike the bicoherence ratio approach,
FIGURE 5.20. Seismograms corresponding to wave propa- the predicted moveout computed via crosscorrelation
gation through a 2D random medium. clearly fails to follow the trajectory of the first arrivals.
FIGURE 5.21. Cross- and bico-

herence correlations between
adjacent receivers of the data in
Figure 5.20.
FIGURE 5.22. Relative delays

obtained from the cross- and
bicoherence correlations
displayed in Figure 5.21.
FIGURE 5.23. Moveout predict-

ed by crosscorrelation and
bicoherence correlation overlying
the original data.
BOX 5.3: DEFINITION OF BICOHERENCE CORRELATION

Given three zero mean real signals, X(t), Y (t), One approach to estimating the delay between
and Z(t), and their respective Fourier transforms, two signals, X(t) and Y (t), in the third-order
X̂(ω), Ŷ (ω) and Ẑ(ω), the cross-bispectrum in the domain is to evaluate the bicoherence ratio,
third-order domain is defined (see Table 5.5) as X,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ), and the bicoherence correlation,
λX,Y (τ1 ). The bicoherence ratio is defined as
MX,Y ,Z (ω1 , ω2 ) = Ŷ (ω1 )Ẑ(ω2 )X̂ ∗ (ω1 + ω2 ),
(5.189) bX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 )
X,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = . (5.192)
where X̂ ∗ is the complex conjugate of X̂. In addi- bX, X, X (ω1 , ω2 )
tion, the bicoherence, which is a normalized cross-
bispectrum, is given by The bicoherence correlation is obtained by sum-
ming up along the frequencies ω2 and taking the
bX,Y ,Z (ω1 , ω2 ) one-dimensional inverse Fourier transform
MX,Y ,Z (ω1 , ω2 )
= , λX,Y (τ1 ) = F −1 [X,Y (ω1 )], (5.193)
MY ,Y (ω1 )MZ,Z (ω2 )MX,X (ω1 + ω2 )
(5.190)
where
where
∗ X,Y (ω1 ) = X,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ), (5.194)
MX,X (ω) = X̂(ω)X̂ (ω),
ω2
MY ,Y (ω) = Ŷ (ω)Ŷ ∗ (ω),
and F −1 is the inverse Fourier transform operator.
MZ,Z (ω) = Ẑ(ω)Ẑ ∗ (ω), (5.191)
The delay is then estimated by locating the lag at
are the power spectra of the signals. the peak of the bicoherence correlation.
The crosscorrelation has suffered not only from into several components:
the narrow-band source signature, but from the cor-
ruption of correlated coda as well. On the other hand, MX,Y (ω) = F ∗ (ω)H(ω) MS,S (ω)

the combination of inherent signal prewhitening and media source
Gaussian noise annulation capability in the bicoher-
ence correlation (see next subsection for a discussion × e−iωτ0 + MN1 ,N2 (ω) . (5.196)

of these properties of the bicoherence correlation) has delay noise
produced high-resolution correlation peaks that track
the first-arrival times. The term e−iωτ0 , with a unit amplitude and a linear
Notice that, similar to crosscorrelation, tests based phase relationship (slope −τ0 ), corresponds to a delta
on coherence correlation (see Yung and Ikelle, 1997) function at τ0 [i.e., δ(t − τ0 )] in the time domain. This
have failed to suppress the correlated coda effects and ideal delay contribution is nevertheless colored by the
result in erroneous time-delay estimates. propagation media [F ∗ (ω)H(ω)], the source signature
In conclusion, bicoherence correlation in the third- [MS,S (ω)], and the correlated noises [MN1 ,N2 (ω)].
order domain allows us to pick arrival times in a seismic
data set affected by pulse-broadening effects and a con- Second-order statistics: Coherence corre-
siderable correlated coda. Unlike crosscorrelation, it lation. In order to suppress the effects caused by the
has succeeded in tracking the moveout of the first transmission media and the source signal, the cross-
arrivals. spectrum is normalized by the individual autospectra,
which results in the complex coherence function:
Some Differences between Second- MX,Y (ω)

MX,Y (ω) = . (5.197)
and Third-order Cumulants MX,X (ω)MY ,Y (ω)
To analyze in more detail the differences between Combining equations (5.195), (5.196), and (5.197),
second- and third-order cumulants highlighted in the (ω) can be expressed as
MX,Y
previous subsection, we consider the problem of esti-
mating time delay between measurements X(t) and G(ω)

MX,Y (ω) = R(ω) e−iωτ0
Y (t) from two spatially distributed receivers. These two |G(ω)|
measurements can be formulated mathematically as S/N ratio delay
media
X(t) = F(t) ∗ S(t) + N1 (t), MN1 ,N2 (ω)
+ , (5.198)
Y (t) = H(t) ∗ S(t − τ0 ) + N2 (t), (5.195) MX,X (ω)MY ,Y (ω)

noise
where ∗ denotes time convolution. In the arrival-time-
picking application, X(t) and Y (t) are the receiver where
signals, S(t) is the source wavelet, and F(t) and H(t)
represent the impulse-response functions of the random H(ω)
G(ω) = (5.199)
medium. N1 (t) and N2 (t) are corrupting noise assumed F(ω)
to be uncorrelated with the signal S(t), although the two
noise sources may be mutually correlated. and R(ω) is a combined measure of the signal-to-noise
The objective is to estimate the delay τ0 with limited ratios RX (ω) [in X(t)] and RY (ω) [in Y (t)]
knowledge of both the signal, S(t), and the propagation
media, F(t) and H(t), and in the presence of corrupting, 1
R(ω) = . (5.200)
possibly correlated, noises.
1+ 1
RX (ω) 1+ 1
RY (ω)
Second-order statistics: Crosscorrelation.
Again, the time delay τ0 can be determined through As in the cross-spectrum, the complex coherence func-
the crosscorrelation function, mX,Y (τ ), or the cross- tion embodies the delay information, e−iωτ0 . A coher-
spectrum, MX,Y (ω). Based on the model described in ence correlation can be obtained by taking the inverse
(ω).
Fourier transform of MX,Y
equation (5.195), the cross-spectrum can be partitioned
The coherence-correlation approach has two attrac- The bispectral correlation is obtained by sum-
tive properties missing in crosscorrelation: ming βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) along ω2 and taking the one-
•
dimensional inverse Fourier transform.
The amplitude effects of the propagation media are
normalized.
Third-order techniques: Bicoherence cor-
• M (ω) depends on the signal-to-noise ratio R(ω)

X,Y relation. Pursuing the same tactics as in the second-
rather than directly on the signal spectrum MS,S (ω).
order coherence correlation, the filtering effects of the
In the limit, when the corrupting noises are negli-
propagation media in a bispectral correlation can be
gible, R(ω) will become unity, irrespective of the
moderated by using the bicoherence ratio X,Y ,X (ω1 ,
spectral contents of the source signature, and the
ω2 ) [equation (5.192)]. The corresponding bicoher-
delay impulse δ(t − τ0 ) can be reconstructed.
ence correlation λxy (τ1 ) in the time domain is given
However, the coherence correlation is incapable of in equation (5.193).
eliminating the noise-correlation term. Combining equations (5.192) and (5.195), the
bicoherence ratio can be represented as
Third-order techniques: Bispectral correla-
G(ω1 )
tion. Third-order statistics have one important advan- X,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) R̄(ω1 ) e−iω1 τ0 . (5.204)
tage over conventional second-order approaches. If the |G(ω1 )|
S/N ratio delay
signals X(t) and Y (t) are Gaussian or symmetrically media
distributed (independently of their correlations),
Not only has the correlated Gaussian noise been sub-
MX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = 0 for all ω1 and ω2 , (5.201) dued, but the amplitude effects of the propagation paths
also have been suppressed.
where MX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) is the cross-bispectrum. R̄(ω1 ) can be expressed in terms of the
Corrupting measurement noise is often comprised signal-to-noise ratios RX (ω1 ) and RY (ω1 ) in the mea-
of multiple independent sources and is generally con- surements X(t) and Y (t), respectively, as
sidered to be Gaussian by the central-limit theorem

(see Box 5.1). Therefore, contrary to the second-order
1 + R 1(ω )
domain, the Gaussian noises do not “color” the cor- R̄(ω1 ) = X 1
. (5.205)
relation peak in the third-order domain. However, 1 + RY 1(ω1 )
the signal contained in the measurement must be
non-Gaussian with an asymmetrical probability dis- If the two measurements are subject to a similar noise
tribution. Although most seismic-source wavelets are environment [i.e., RX (ω1 ) ≈ RY (ω1 )], as in seismic
non-Gaussian, if there is good reason to believe that time picking, then R̄(ω1 ) ≈ 1 and the delay impulse
the source wavelet is indeed symmetrically distributed, will be preserved in the bicoherence correlation.
the following proposed algorithms can be extended
to higher orders (e.g., fourth-order cumulants and tri- An example. To highlight the effects of correlated
spectra). noise as well as the narrow-band source signature and
One procedure is to form a ratio between the cross- the propagation medium on second-order time-delay
bispectrum MX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) and the autobispectrum estimation methods, two measurements, X(t) and Y (t)
MX,X,X (ω1 , ω2 ), (Figures 5.24a and b), are simulated under the follow-
ing specifications (all frequencies are normalized with
MX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) respect to the Nyquist frequency, ωN ):
βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = . (5.202)
MX,X,X (ω1 , ω2 )
X(t) = S(t) + N1 (t),
Combining equations (5.195) and (5.202), the bispec-
tral ratio can be rewritten as Y (t) = H(t) ∗ S(t − τ0 ) + N2 (t). (5.206)
βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = G(ω1 ) e−iω1 τ0 , (5.203) The signal S(t) is an exponentially distributed ran-
dom signal with a bandwidth between 0.1ωN and
media delay
0.2ωN . Function H(t) is a realization of a low-passed
which completely eliminates the correlation of the finite-impulse response filter with a cutoff frequency at
Gaussian noise but is still colored by the medium 0.15ωN . The functions N1 (t) and N2 (t) are low-passed
transfer function. Gaussian random noise with a bandwidth of 0.35ωN .
N2 (t) is selected to be a delayed version of N1 (t) [i.e.,

N2 (t) = N1 (t − τ12 )], and the signal-to-noise ratio is
–3dB (i.e., the power of the signal is half that of the
noise).
Ten thousand samples are simulated for each mea-
surement. The true signal delay, τ0 , is 10 samples, and

the chosen noise delay is 5 samples.
The crosscorrelation and coherence correlation
between X(t) and Y (t) are displayed in Figures 5.24c
and d, respectively. As a result of the low-passed nature
of the signal, the medium, and the noise, both the
signal-delay peak (at 10 samples lagged) and the noise-
delay peak (at 5 samples lagged) in the crosscorrelation
are substantially broadened and are intermingled. The
coherence correlation isolates and sharpens the two
peaks, but the noise delay still predominates because
of the poor signal-to-noise ratio. Hence, in the pres-
ence of correlated noise, both second-order approaches
provide a biased estimate of the signal delay, τ0 .
The bispectral correlation and bicoherence cor-
relation between X(t) and Y (t) are displayed in
Figures 5.24e and f, respectively. Comparing these re-
sults with the correlations in the second-order domain
(Figures 5.24c and d), the third-order techniques are
shown to be less sensitive to the correlated Gaussian
noise (relatively delayed by five samples) and yield an
unbiased representation of the signal delay. In addi-
tion, the bicoherence approach is able to counteract the
low-passed effects of the transmission medium h(t) and
returns a better-defined impulse, which then leads to a
more precise estimate of τ0 .
MORE INSIGHT INTO SECOND-

AND THIRD-ORDER STATISTICS
To focus our discussion in this section, we use
crosscorrelation to describe second-order statistics and
crossbicorrelation to describe third-order statistics. The
definition of crosscorrelation is given in Table 5.5. The
crossbicorrelation is simply mX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ), as notated
in equation (5.147)
Time Delays
FIGURE 5.24. Crosscorrelation, coherence correlation,
bispectral correlation, and bicoherence correlation One useful way to gain insight into the difference
between two measurements [X(t) and Y (t)] corrupted between crosscorrelation and crossbicorrelation is to
by Gaussian noises: (a) measurement X(t), (b) mea- analyze the time delay between signals. Consider the
surement Y (t), (c) crosscorrelation, (d) coherence cor- two signals, X(t) and Y (t), shown in Figure 5.25. These
relation, (e) bispectral correlation, and (f) bicoherence two signals represent seismic responses obtained by
correlation. finite-difference modeling from a simple 1D model
X(t) and event a of signal Y (t) is identical to the time

delay between event 3 of signal X(t) and event c of
signal Y (t). Actually, these time delays are different.
The delay between event 1 and event a is 4 ms, and the
delay between event 3 and event c is 12 ms. Although
the crossbicorrelation contains similar interferences,

notice that it contains many other correlations that can
be used to estimate the delay between event 3 and event
c without the interference of correlation 1a. As illus-
trated in Figure 5.27, correlations 31c and 32c can be
used to estimate the time delay between event 3 and
FIGURE 5.25. The signals X(t) and Y (t) represent seismic event c. Similarly, correlations 11c and 12c can be used
responses obtained by finite-difference modeling from a to estimate the time delay between event 1 and event a.
simple 1D model containing four layers. The distance In other words, the increase in the number of correla-
between the receiver points of these two signals is 150 m. tions in the crossbicorrelation plot compares to those in
We identify three events in the signal X(t) by the numbers
1, 2, and 3 and the corresponding three events in signal Y (t)
by the letters a, b, and c.
containing four layers. The distance between the re-

ceiver points of these two signals is 150 m. To facilitate
our later discussion, we identify three events in the
signal X(t) by the numbers 1, 2, and 3 and the cor-
responding three events in the signal Y (t) by the letters
a, b, and c.
We compute the crosscorrelation and the crossbi-
correlation of these two signals shown in Figure 5.25.
Figure 5.26a shows the crosscorrelation, and Figure
5.26b shows the crossbicorrelation. Event 1a in the cross-
correlation plot corresponds to a correlation between
event 1 of X(t) and event a of signal Y (t). A similar
correlation can be found in the crossbicorrelation map
in the form of 11a; event 11a corresponds to the cor-
relation of event 1, first by itself, then followed by the
correlation with event a of Y (t). Such similarities can be
established between each event of the crosscorrelation
plot and an event in the crossbicorrelation plot.
Because these signals are very simple, we can iden-
tify all correlations between the events contained in
these two signals, as illustrated in Figures 5.26a and b. FIGURE 5.26. (a) The crosscorrelation of the two sig-
Moreover, we can see that all correlations contained in nals, X(t) and Y (t), in Figure 5.25. Notice that we have
the crosscorrelation plot are contained also in the cross- indicated the correlation between the events in X(t) and
bicorrelation plot along the time delay slice τ2 = 0. Y (t) corresponding to each amplitude peak in the cross-
However, the crossbicorrelation contains many more correlation plot. For instance, event 1a corresponds to a
correlation between event 1 of X(t) and event a of signal
correlations not present in the crosscorrelation; e.g.,
Y (t). (b) The crossbicorrelation of the two signals, X(t)
correlations between events contained in the signal Y (t). and Y (t), in Figure 5.25. Notice that we have indicated
One difficulty in using crosscorrelation is the inter- the correlation between events in X(t) and Y (t) corre-
ferences between correlations in the crosscorrelation sponding to each amplitude peak in the crossbicorrelation
plot. For instance, correlations 1a and 3c are in the map. For instance, event 11a corresponds to the corre-
same location on the crosscorrelation map, thus sug- lation of event 1, first by itself and second by event a
gesting that the time delay between event 1 of signal of Y (t).
FIGURE 5.27. Illustration of use of the crossbicorrelation

map to estimate time delays that cannot be estimated by the
crosscorrelation plot. For instance, in Figure 5.25, correla-
tions 31c and 32c can be used to estimate the time delay
between event 3 and event c, which is τ3 in this case,
whereas this correlation is obscured in the crosscorrelation
plot by 1a and 2b. τ1 is the time delay between events 3
and 1 of signal X(t), τ2 is the time delay between events
3 and 2 of signal X(t), and τ3 is the time delay between
event 3 and c of signal X(t).
the crosscorrelation map because crossbicorrelation is a

two-dimensional function. This increase in the number FIGURE 5.28. (a) The two signals, X(t) and Y (t), in
of correlations provides us extra information that can Figure 5.25, to which we have added non-Gaussian noise.
(b) The crosscorrelation of the two signals, X(t) and Y (t),
be used to distinguish various correlations between
in Figure 5.28a. (c) The slice τ2 = 0 of the crossbicorre-
signals.
lation of the two signals, X(t) and Y (t), in Figure 5.28a.
Notice that although the peaks of the crossbicor- Notice that the erroneous correlation indicated by an arrow
relation plot along slice τ2 = 0 are located at the in the crosscorrelation plot is negligible in the cross-
same position in the time delay as the peaks of the bicorrelation. This erroneous correlation is caused by
crosscorrelation, this slice is not equivalent to that non-Gaussian noise.
of the crosscorrelation. Actually, this slice and the
coherence correlation are so different they can yield
different time delays in the presence of non-Gaussian
noise. To illustrate this point, we have added 5dB of is negligible. A detailed analysis of the robustness
non-Gaussian noise to the signals in Figure 5.25 (see of crossbicorrelation and other third-order cumulants,
Figure 5.28a). Although this noise is quite small, the such as bispectral and bicoherence correlations, can be
crosscorrelation plot, as illustrated in Figure 5.28b, found in Srinivasan and Ikelle (2000) and Yung and
contains erroneous amplitude peaks, leading to an erro- Ikelle (1997).
neous time-delay estimation, whereas slice τ2 = 0 of Finally, whereas mX,Y (τ ) and mY ,X (τ ) [see equa-
the crossbicorrelation plot in Figure 5.28c does not con- tion (5.147)] contain exactly the same information
tain these erroneous correlations. Also, the full maps in terms of amplitude and delays, mX,Y ,X (τ1 , τ2 ) and
of the crossbicorrelation in Figure 5.29 corresponding mY ,X,Y (τ1 , τ2 ) [see equation (5.147)] can contain dif-
to the noisy signals in Figure 5.28a and with that of ferent information. These differences provide more op-
the noise-free signals in Figure 5.26b suggest that the portunities to discriminate between the correlations of
effect of non-Gaussian noise on the crossbicorrelation events contained in these two signals, X(t) and Y (t).
(a)
FIGURE 5.29. Crossbicorrelation map of the two signals, (b)

X(t) and Y (t), in Figure 5.28a. Compared to the crossbi-
correlation map in Figure 5.26b of the same two signals
without non-Gaussian noise, notice that the effect of noise
on the crossbicorrelation is quite small, even negligible in FIGURE 5.30. (a) Coherence correlation of the two sig-
this case. nals, X(t) and Y (t), in Figure 5.28a. (b) Slice τ2 = 0
of the bispectral correlation of the two signals, X(t) and
Y (t), in Figure 5.28(a). When compared to Figures 5.28b
and 5.28c, we see that the amplitude peaks are sharper
Normalized Third-order Cumulants in coherence-correlation and bispectral-correlation plots
than the corresponding peaks in the crosscorrelation and
As described in Yung and Ikelle (1997), it is use- crossbicorrelation plots, respectively. Therefore, the nor-
ful to work with normalized moments instead of the malized cumulants can yield a better estimation of the time
moments themselves. Normalized moments tend to sup- delay than the cumulants themselves. However, the nor-
press the effects of the source signature (i.e., the effect of malized cumulants also tend to increase the amplitudes of
the bandwidth on the source) and can thereby improve erroneous correlations caused by non-Gaussian noise, as we
the time-delay estimation. can see more particularly in the coherence-correlation plot.
Standard normalized moments are the coherence Some of the correlations are indicated by arrows.
correlation for second-order statistics; bispectral and
bicoherence correlation are for third-order statistics.
Bispectral correlation. The bispectral correla-
They can be defined as follows:
tion is the ratio between the cross-bispectrum MX,Y ,X
(ω1 , ω2 ) and the autobispectrum MX,X,X (ω1 , ω2 ),
Coherence correlation. The cross-spectrum is
normalized by the individual autospectrum of each MX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 )
βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) = , (5.209)
of two signals, resulting in the complex coherence MX,X,X (ω1 , ω2 )
function
and in the time domain,
MX,Y (ω) −1
,X (τ1 , τ2 ) = F2D [βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 )], (5.210)
mX,Y
MX,Y (ω) = , (5.207)
MX,X (ω)MY ,Y (ω)
−1
where F2D is the 2D inverse Fourier transform.
and in the coherence correlation Figure 5.30 shows the coherence correlation and
the slice τ2 = 0 of the bispectral correlation for the two

signals containing non-Gaussian noise in Figure 5.28a.
mX,Y (τ ) = F −1 MX,Y (ω) , (5.208)
When compared to Figures 5.28b and c, we see that
the amplitude peaks in Figure 5.30 are sharper in the
where F −1 represents the inverse Fourier transform. coherence-correlation and bispectral-correlation plots
FIGURE 5.31. A Ricker wavelet source

signature convolved by two reflector
models. This Ricker wavelet is band-
limited between 10 and 60 Hz. The
interference of the two events that con-
stitute the data depends on the time

interval, t, between the two reflectors.
than are the corresponding peaks in the crosscorrelation we extract the correlation between the source signature
and crossbicorrelation plots, respectively. Therefore, and each of the two events constituting the data with-
the normalized cumulants can yield a better estimation out interference by selecting slices along axis τ2 , as
of time delay than the cumulants themselves. illustrated in Figure 5.33.
Notice that these normalized cumulants do not An interesting result is that one can avoid inter-
remove erroneous correlations. Thus, the erroneous cor- fering signals by using an appropriate slice of the
relation highlighted in the crosscorrelation plot is also crossbicorrelation. To further validate the accuracy of
present in the coherence correlation with even more this result, we compute the response of each reflec-
strength. Although still small, this erroneous correla- tor separately. The crossbicorrelations of each of the
tion is more apparent in the bispectral-correlation map two data sets with the source signature allow us to esti-
than in the cross-bispectral map. This erroneous cor- mate the crossbicorrelation slices along axis τ2 in the
relation can be eliminated totally from the bispectral absence of interference. We have overlain the slices
correlation map by summing βX,Y ,X (ω1 , ω2 ) over one extracted from the crossbicorrelation of the data without
of the frequency variables, say, ω2 , before applying the interference from those slices extracted from the cross-
inverse Fourier transform, as described by Yung and bicorrelation of data with interference. As we see in
Ikelle (1997). Figure 5.33, the slices along axis τ2 are almost identical
in both cases. This result confirms that we can avoid
interference by selecting the slice along axis τ2 .
Seismic Resolution
We consider a Ricker-wavelet source signature
convolved by two reflector models, as illustrated in
Figure 5.31. This Ricker wavelet is band-limited be-
SL2
tween 10 and 60 Hz. The interference of the two events
that constitute the data resulting from this simple convo-
lution model depends on the time interval, t, between
the two reflectors. We discuss how the usage of the
slices of the crossbicorrelation of the source signature
100
SL1
and the data allows us to extract an event corresponding
SL1
to each reflector while avoiding the interfering event.
Time delay, τ2 (ms)
50
We start by examining the autobicorrelation of

the source signature in Figure 5.32. We see that the SL2
0
slices τ1 = 0 and τ2 = 0 of the autobicorrelation are

identical. Therefore, either can be used to represent the
–50
autocorrelation of the source signature.

Note the crossbicorrelation of the source signa-
–100
ture with the data corresponding to the two-reflector

model. The time interval, t, between the two reflec-
–100 –50 0 50 100
tors in this case is 40 ms. Because this time interval is
smaller than the length of the wavelet, which is about
80 ms, the data resulting from the convolution model in FIGURE 5.32. The autobicorrelation map of the source sig-
Figure 5.31 contain interference, which is shown clearly nature and its two slices along τ1 = 0 and τ2 = 0. Notice
on slice τ1 = 0 of the crossbicorrelation plot. However, that the two slices yield identical results.
Slices based Slices based

on data with SL1 on data with
SL1 interference interference
Slices based Slices based
on data without on data without
interference interference
SL2
SL2
SL3 SL3 SL3
100
100
100

SL3
50
Time delay, τ2(ms)
50
50
SL1
SL1
0
SL2 0 SL2
0
–50
?50
–50
–100
?100
–100
–100
?100
–50
?50
00 50
50
100
100
–100 –50 0 50 100 Time delay, τ1 (ms)

Time delay, τ1(ms)
FIGURE 5.35. Same as Figure 5.33, with t = 15 ms.
FIGURE 5.33. The crossbicorrelation map between the
source signature and data and its three slices: two slices
(SL1 and 2) along τ1 for two fixed values of τ2 and one
We repeat similar tests for several values of t;
slice (SL3) along τ1 = 0. The time interval, t, is 40 ms.
We have superimposed the two slices along τ1 for two fixed
Figures 5.34 and 5.35 show two other examples, for
values of τ2 on the actual slices in the absence of interfer- t = 20 ms and t = 15 ms. We conclude that
ence. Notice that the slices with and without interference the interference of the signals can be resolved quite
yield identical results. accurately for signals separated by 18 ms or more
for a 50-Hz bandwidth by using slices of the crossbi-
correlation along axis τ2 instead of axis τ1 . Actually,
Slices based
this interval of 18 ms can be reduced to 8 ms or
SL1
on data with
interference even less if the normalized third-order cumulants, such
Slices based
on data without
as the bispectral correlation, are used instead of the
interference crossbicorrelation.
SL2
WIENER-HOPF EQUATIONS AND

THE QUADRATIC VOLTERRA MODEL
100
In the section on stochastic signals, we introduced

SL3
SL3
the Volterra system, which is a nonlinear system equa-
50
tion (5.127). We also learned that the output of the

SL1
Volterra system is related nonlinearly to the input signal
0
SL2
in the form known as the Volterra series. When the
Volterra series is limited to its first term, the relation-
-50
ship between the output and input reduces to a linear

convolution between the input signal and the linear
-100
impulse response of the Volterra (also known as the

-100 -50 0 50 100
linear Volterra kernel). The reconstruction of this lin-
ear impulse response for discrete data generally is
through the Wiener-Hopf equations. These equations
FIGURE 5.34. Same as Figure 5.33, with t = 20 ms. are used widely in petroleum seismology for noise
attenuation, for time-delay estimation, for improving The Method of Least Squares
the temporal resolution of seismic data through com-
pression of the source signature (Hatton et al., 1986), The method-of-least-squares technique is extremely
and so on. Our objective in this section is to derive these common throughout seismology, as we discussed ear-
equations. lier in the section titled “Random Variables.” Its first
When the Volterra series in equation (5.127) is principle is based on the following problem: Suppose a
limited to its second term, the relationship between filter h is required which, when convolved with a given
the output and input includes the quadratic Volterra input x, produces a desired output d.
kernel. This quadratic term renders the relationship In practice, for a discrete signal, there is generally
between the output signal and the input signal non- no such filter, and the question must be refined to ask
linear. Hence, introduction of the quadratic term can what filter comes closest in some sense to producing
be used to take into account, for example, some of the desired effect.
the nonlinearities between the stress and strain in our The least-squares solution to our problem may be
modeling and inversion of seismic data. So our second stated as that filter that minimizes
objective in this section is to describe a generalization Ly

of the Wiener-Hopf equations to the quadratic Volterra I= (dk − yk )2 , (5.215)
model. k=0
i.e., the sum of squared differences of desired and actual
outputs. This least-squared minimization criterion also
Convolution as a Matrix Equation is known as minimizing by using the l2 norm. Note that
as discussed in the section on random variables, there is
As we saw in Chapter 4, the discrete linear convo- an infinite number of other ways of minimizing the error
lution of two discrete signals, say, h and x, is defined by in some sense. For example, we could choose a filter

Lh which minimizes the sum of the absolute differences in
yk = hj xk−j (5.211) amplitude:
j=0 Ly

I= |dk − yk |. (5.216)
k = 0, . . . , Ly , (Ly = Lh + Lx ). (5.212) k=0
Here, Lh is the length of the filter h, Lx is the length of The criterion in equation (5.216) is known as the l1
the input x, and Ly is the length of the actual output y. norm. For our derivation here, we consider only the
We demonstrate that equation (5.211) can be problem of minimizing equation (5.215), which also
written as a matrix, thus allowing the power of matrix can be written as
algebra to be applied to the understanding of this  2
Ly
Lh
fundamental equation. The appropriate form is I= dk − hi xk−i  . (5.217)
   
y0 x0 0 ... 0   k=0 i=0
 .   x 1 x0 0 . . . .  h0
     Now we expand equation (5.217) as follows:
 .   x2 x1 x0 . . . .   .   2
    . 
 .  =  x3 x2 x1 . . . .    Ly Ly

Lh Ly

Lh
    . . 
 .   . . . . . . .   I= dk2 − 2 dk hi xk−i + hixk−i  .
    . 
 .   . . . ... .  k=0 k=0 i=0 k=0 i=0
hLh
yLy 0 0 0 xLx (5.218)
(5.213) Employing the standard technique of taking the partial
Equation (5.213) also can be written as derivative of I with respect to hi for all i and setting this
derivative to be equal to 0, gives
Y = XH, (5.214)  
Ly Ly
∂I Lh
where Y is the column vector [y0 , . . . ..yLy ]T , X is the = −2 dk xk−j + 2  hi xk−i  xk−j = 0.
∂hj
matrix shown in the equation (5.213), and H is the k=0 k=0 i=0
column vector [h0 , . . . ..hLh ]. (5.219)
Interchanging the orders of summation and rewriting where hij is the quadratic Volterra kernel, also known
finally yields as the quadratic Volterra filter.
Despite the fact that equation (5.222) is a nonlinear

Lh Ly
Ly
equation, we still can write it in a matrix form, just as we
xk−i xk−j = did in the linear case. If we take, for example, Lh = 1
hi dk xk−j (5.220)
i=0 k=0 k=0 and Lx = 3, equation (5.222) can be written as follows:
for j = 0, . . . , Lh .     
This equation is known as the discrete Wiener-Hopf y0 x0 0 x02 0 0 h0
equation, after the pioneering work of the mathemati-  y1   x1 x0 x12 x0 x1 x02  h1 
    
cian Norbert Wiener. The first term on the left-hand  y2 = x2 x1 x22 x1 x2 x12 
h00 .
    
side of this equation is the filter coefficients, which  y3   x3 x2 x32 x2 x3 x22  2h01 

are unknown; the second term is the autocorrelation y4 0 x3 0 0 x32 h11
of the input, which is known; and the right-hand side (5.224)
is the crosscorrelation of the input with the desired out-
put, which also is known. Although we did not assume
that these signals were Gaussian, we observe that the We have assumed that the quadratic Volterra filter is
least-squares solution in equation (5.220) uses only the symmetrical (i.e., hij = hji ), as is classically the case
second moments of these signals, namely, the autocor- in practice. Hence, the optimal Volterra filter (made of
relation and crosscorrelation functions. This surprising hi and hij ), in the least-squares sense, can be obtained
result is actually quite general; by using the least- −1
by computing (XT X) XT Y. The drawback of this
squares optimization criterion, we implicitly invoke the method is that the length of the Volterra filter must be
Gaussian hypothesis. very small compared to the length of the data (i.e., Lh
Note that the solution in equation (5.220) also can must be very small compared to Lx ); otherwise, we can
be written in matrix form as end up with more unknowns than equations. For exam-
* + * +−1 ple, if we increase Lh in equation (5.224) from 1 to 2,
XT X H = XT D, or H = XT X XT D. the result is six equations and nine unknowns, i.e.,
(5.221)
The matrix form of the Wiener-Hopf equations in    

y0 x0 0 0 x02 0 0 0 0 0
equation (5.213) is quite interesting for the nonlin-  y1   x12 x02 0
  x1 x0 0 x0 x1 0 0 
ear Volterra system we discuss in the next subsection    
 y2   x22 x12 x02 
because, as long as we can write our problem in the   = x2 x1 x0 x1 x2 x0 x2 x 0 x1 
 y3  
 x32 x22 x12 
  x3 x2 x1 x2 x3 x1 x3 x 1 x2 
matrix form, as in equation (5.213), we can use the    
 y4   0 x3 x2 0 0 0 x32 x 3 x2 x22 
solution in (5.221).
y5 0 0 x3 0 0 0 0 0 x32
 h0 
 h1 
 
Quadratic Volterra Model  
 h00 
 
 
 2h01 
As we saw in the section on stochastic signals, ×

.
 (5.225)
in discrete form, the quadratic Volterra model can be  2h20 
 

h11 
expressed as follows:  
 
 2h12 

Lh
Lh
Lh h22
yk = hj xk−j + hij xk−i xk−j , (5.222)
j=0 i=0 j=0
Fortunately, in most petroleum-seismology problems,
with Lh is very small compared to Lx . So in a significant
number of problems, we can use equation (5.221) to
k = 0, . . . , Ly , (Ly = Lh + Lx ), (5.223) obtain the optimal Volterra filter.
BOX 5.4: THE CONCEPT OF SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is a particularly In addition, we define the continuous-time cross-
abused concept, not only in petroleum seismology correlation of traces u(t, k) and u(t, l) as a function
but in other disciplines as well. It is an attempt of lag, τ , as
to compare the “size” of a signal embedded in
noise with the size of that noise. The problem is ruk ,ul (τ ) = E [u(t, k)u(t + τ , l)] . (5.231)
that there is no unique definition of signal-to-noise
Then, using equations (5.228), (5.229), and (5.230),
ratio. Here are the two definitions generally cited in
we arrive at
petroleum-seismology literature (e.g., Hatton et al.,
1986): ruk ,ul (τ ) = a(k)a(l)E[w(t − τk )w(t − τl + τ )]
rms of the signal = a(k)a(l)rw,w [τ − (τl − τk )] , (5.232)
R= (5.226)
rms of the noise
where rw,w (τ ) is the autocorrelation function of the
and time-reflection signal, w, at τ .
average absolute amplitude of the signal Similarly, from equation (5.228), the autocor-
R= . relation of trace u(t, k) is
average absolute amplitude of the noise
(5.227) ruk ,uk (τ ) = E[u(t, k)u(t + τ , k)]
These two ratios can differ markedly, depending on = a2 (k)rw,w (τ ) + rnk ,nk (τ ), (5.233)
the spectrum and distribution of the noise.
The practical problem with the definitions in where rnk ,nk (τ ) is the autocorrelation of the noise
equations (5.226) and (5.227) is that they assume, at lag τ .
for their computation, that signal and noise can be The continuous-time normalized crosscorrela-
tion (coherence correlation) may be defined using
separated, whereas the seismic trace contains a sig-
equations (5.232) and (5.233) as
nal plus noise. Fortunately, we can show that under
reasonable assumptions, signal-to-noise ratios can
γuk ,ul (τ )
be related to correlation functions.
Assume that there are at least M seismic traces ruk ,ul (τ )
=
that contain the same source signature, perhaps ruk ,uk (0)rul ,ul (0)
with some relative time shifts and different realiza- a(k)a(l)rw,w [τ − (τl − τk )]
= , .
tions of additive noise. The general composite trace, [a2 (k)rw,w (0) + rnk ,nk (0)][a2 (l)rw,w (0) + rnl ,nl (0)]
time-reflection signal plus noise, can be written (5.234)
u(t, k) = a(k)w(t − τk ) + n(t, k), k = 1, . . . , M,
(5.228) As we already have noted, the autocorrelation has
its maximum value when the lag is zero; hence,
where w(t) is the (noise-free) time-reflection sig- γuk ,ul is a maximum for τ = τl − τk , and the
nal, τk is the time shift on trace k, a(k) is the weight maximum value is given by
of the time-reflection signal on trace k, and n(t, k)
[γuk ,ul ]M
is the additive noise on trace k.
For the case in which the noise is zero mean and a(k)a(l)rw,w (0)
= , .
uncorrelated with the signal, we have the following [a (k)rw,w (0) + rnk ,nk (0)][a2 (l)rw,w (0) + rnl ,nl (0)]
2
properties: (5.235)
E[n(t, k)n(t + τ , l)] = 0, k = l (5.229) This is the desired result, but there remains the
question of how it can be used. Recall that our
E[a(k)w(t)n(t + τ , l)] = 0. all k and l (5.230) objective is to relate the crosscorrelation to a signal-
(continued)
Box 5.4 continued
to-noise ratio, R. Consider the choice of equation Note that because

(5.227). Because the zero-lag value of the auto- 0 ≤ [R]k,l ≤ +∞,
(5.238)
correlation is no more than the sum of squared then
magnitudes, it follows that 0 ≤ γuk ,ul ≤ 1, (5.239)
rms of signal
[R]k = as before.
rms of noise
- As it stands, equation (5.237) gives one equa-
rww (0) tion and two unknowns, the two signal-to-noise
= a(k) (5.236)
rnk ,nk (0) ratios. One solution is that
for trace k. Combining equations (5.235) and [R] = [R]k = [R]l ; (5.240)
(5.236) gives that is, if the signal-to-noise ratios on traces k and
1 l are assumed to be identical, then
γuk ,ul M = - . (5.237) -
[γuk ,ul ]M
1+ 12 1+ 12 [R] = . (5.241)
[R]k [R]l 1 − γuk ,ul M
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING Estimate the n-order moment and cumulant of

this distribution.
1) Use the least-squares technique to derive formulae
for fitting a second-order polynomial for a given
experimental data set: 4) Consider {X(n)} and {Y (n)} to be two sensor mea-
surements such that
y = ax 2 + bx + c, (5.242)
X(n) = S(n) + E(n) (5.245)
where a, b, and c are constants.
and
2) The pdf of the Maxwell distribution is
Y (n) = S(n − D) + G(n), (5.246)
√
2 2 x2
p(x) = 3 √ x exp − 2 , (5.243) where {S(n)} is an unknown signal, {S(n − D)} is
α π 2α the same signal delayed by D, and {E(n)} and {G(n)}
where α is constant. are unknown noise sources.
Estimate the n-order moment and cumulant of From records of {X(n)} and {Y (n)}, find an
this distribution. estimate of D.
3) The pdf of the Poisson distribution is 5) Consider the deterministic signal

ak 
p(k) = exp[−a] (5.244) 
1, k=0
k!
X(k) = −1, k = 1 , (5.247)
with 

0, otherwise
k = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
where a is constant. and compute its moments of orders one through four.
6) Suppose that mX,Y (τ ) is the crosscorrelation at lag (a) Determine the impulse response of the filter
τ between two signals X(t) and Y (t), and show that
h0
h= (5.252)
mY ,X (τ ) = mX,Y (−τ ). (5.248) h1
7) Determine (analytically) and plot, for −4 < τ < 4, using the least-squares minimization criterion.
the autocorrelation of (b) Compute the autocorrelation of x.
(c) Compute the crosscorrelation of x and s.
cos(πt); −1.5 ≤ t ≤ 1.5
X(t) = (5.249) (d) Determine h using equation (5.220) and com-
0; |t| > 1.5 . pare it to the result in (a).
8) Determine the autocorrelation functions of 11) Repeat Problem 10 using
(a) X(t) = sin(2πt); −∞ < t < ∞,
−1/2
(b) X(t) = cos(2πt); −∞ < t < ∞, x= (5.253)
1
(c) X(t) = sin(2πt + θ ); −∞ < t < ∞ (θ is con-
stant). as input.
9) Show that, if a time signal is periodic with a period 12) The predictive deconvolution is a special solution of
T , then its autocorrelation is also periodic with the the problem addressed in the section on the Wiener-
same period T . Hopf equation. Given the input signal x(t), we want
to predict its values at some future time (t + α),
10) If the input to a linear filter is where α is the prediction lag.
Rewrite equation (5.220) for an input signal
1
x= (5.250)  
−1/2 x0
 x1 
and the desired output is  
x=
 x2 ,
 (5.254)
   
1 x3
  x4
s =  0 , (5.251)
0 with α = 2.
6
THE CONCEPTS OF RECIPROCITY
AND GREEN’S FUNCTIONS

The reciprocity theorem gives us the conditions for seismology, and also to point out some of its restric-
interchanging source and receiver without affecting the tions. An important application is that of the two integral
recorded seismic trace. This theorem is widely used in equation representations of seismic wavefields, namely
petroleum seismology. It can be stated as follows: the Lippmann-Schwinger equation and the representa-
If, in a bounded, inhomogeneous, anisotropic, tion theorem, which can be derived from the reciprocity
elastic medium, a transient force f (t) applied in theorem.
some particular direction α at some point P cre- Another important concept introduced in this chap-
ates at a second point Q a transient displacement ter is that of Green’s functions, which is very impor-
whose component in some direction β is u(t), then tant for deriving solutions of the equations of wave
the application of the same force f (t) at point Q in motions and for algorithms that allow us to image the
the direction β will cause a displacement at point subsurface.
P whose component in the direction α is u(t).
Note that the statement applies to the whole
disturbance, whether it be body waves, surface
waves, or whatever.
This statement is taken from White (1960, p. 615). TIME-DOMAIN GREEN’S FUNCTIONS
The actual demonstration of the reciprocity theorem IN UNBOUNDED SPACE
was made by Knopoff and Gangi (1959).
Actually, contribution to the reciprocity principle In this section, we define Green’s functions for un-
can be traced back to Betti (1872), who derived the bounded acoustic and elastic media and establish their
reciprocity principle for elastostatic fields. Rayleigh symmetries. We show that the solution for the wave-
(1873) extended the principle to time-harmonic acous- field (pressure or displacement) can be expressed in
tic fields. In electromagnetic wave theory, reciprocity terms of the Green’s functions. Finally, we give analytic
was introduced by Lorentz in 1896. Graffi (1939) de- solutions for Green’s functions for the special case of
rived the reciprocity theorem for a homogeneous, homogeneous media.
isotropic, elastic solid, with the extension to inhomoge- In this chapter, we use the following notation con-
neous, elastic, anisotropic media achieved by Knopoff ventions. Position is specified by the coordinates {x, y,
and Gangi (1959). De Hoop (1966) showed that reci- z} = {x1 , x2 , x3 } with respect to a fixed Cartesian ref-
procity holds in inhomogeneous, linearly anelastic, ani- erence frame with the origin O and to three mutu-
sotropic media. Arntsen and Carcione (2001) tested ally perpendicular unit-base vectors {i1 , i2 , i3 }; i3 points
reciprocity relations with a full-wave numerical mod- vertically downward (see Figure 2.4). The length of
eling algorithm. Today, the reciprocity principle for each of these three vectors is 1. We adopt the sub-
elastodynamic fields occasionally is referred to as script notation for vectors and tensors, as well as
Betti’s reciprocity theorem (Aki and Richards, 1980) the Einstein summation convention (see Chapter 2).
or the Betti-Rayleigh reciprocity theorem (Achenbach, Lowercase Latin subscripts are employed for this pur-
1984). For acoustic fields, the reciprocity principle is pose (e.g., vi , τij ); they are to be assigned the values 1,
also known as the Rayleigh reciprocity theorem (Aki 2, and 3 unless specified otherwise. Boldface symbols
and Richards, 1980). (e.g., v) are used to indicate vectors.
Our objective in this chapter is to derive the Partial differentiation with respect to xm is denoted
reciprocity theorem for acoustic and elastic media, by ∂m ; ∂t is a symbol reserved for partial differentiation
to describe some of its applications to petroleum with respect to time t. The “del” (gradient operator)
233
vector is defined as follows: A corollary of equation (6.7) is

 ∂  ∂
∂x1 ∂x g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x, −t ; x , −t). (6.9)
  ∂
∇ =  ∂x∂ 2  =  ∂y . (6.1)
∂ ∂ Furthermore, g obeys the symmetry relationship1
∂x3 ∂z
g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x , t; x, t ). (6.10)
This equation implies that if a unit fluid volume is intro-

Acoustic Medium
duced in an unbounded medium instantaneously at x,
As shown in Chapter 2, the constant-density wave then after a time lapse τ = t − t , it produces at x the
equation for the pressure field is same signal that would be produced at x, after the same
time lapse τ , by introducing the unit fluid volume at
1 ∂2 x . Time-translation invariance equation (6.7) and sym-
∇ − 2 2 p(x, t) = −s(x, t),
2
(6.2)
V ∂t metry equation (6.10) together imply the time-space
reciprocity relationship
with source distribution s = s(x, t),
∂ 2 iv g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x , −t ; x, −t). (6.11)
s = ρ 2 − ∇ · f, (6.3)
∂t To interpret the time-space reciprocity relationship,
where ρ is the fluid-volume density of mass, V = V (x) assume without loss of generality that t = 0. Then
is the acoustic velocity, f = f(x, t) is the volume density g(x, t; x , 0) = g(x , 0; x, −t). This relationship shows
of external force, and iv = iv (x, t) is the volume density that the signal at x at a later time t, caused by an
of volume injection. We assume zero initial conditions impulse started at x , equals the signal at x at time
for the pressure; i.e., zero of an impulse started at x at an earlier time −t.
 Notice that, in the time-space reciprocity relationship,
p(x, t) = 0
one cannot merely interchange the time-space coordi-
t ≤ 0. (6.4)
∂p(x, t)
= 0 nates; i.e., g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x , t ; x, t). Either the signs
∂t of t and t must be reversed, or the position must be
The acoustic Green’s function g being a scalar, is reversed. Were this step not taken, the signal started at
defined by (x, t) would be observed at (x , t ) when t is less than
t. This would violate causality: the signal was detected
1 ∂2
∇ − 2 2 g(x, t; x , t ) = −δ(x − x )δ(t − t )
2 before it occurred!
V ∂t
(6.5) Solving for pressure. The problem is to solve
and satisfies the causality condition equation (6.2) with a given source and zero initial con-
g(x, t; x , t ) = 0 for t < t. (6.6) ditions. The acoustic Green’s function is designed to
deliver this solution:
Causality implies that if an impulse occurs at time t ,
then no effects of the impulse could have been present p(x, t) = d 3 x g(x, t; x , 0) ∗ s(x , t), (6.12)
at an earlier time. Obviously, g describes the effect
at location and time (x, t) of injecting unit volume of where the asterisk denotes time convolution. In other
fluid at location and time (x , t ) into a medium that is words, p is the linear combination of the contributions
everywhere quiescent before time t . from all the elementary sources [s(x , t )d 3 x dt ] that
The acoustic Green’s function g is invariant under have been excited. Equation (6.12) is easily verified by
(unaffected by) time translation (medium parameters substitution into equation (6.2). Observe that once g
are independent of time): has been calculated, numerically if necessary, we need
not solve the differential equation (6.2) for pressure.
g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x, t + τ ; x , t + τ ). (6.7)
Given any source, one needs merely to evaluate the
Therefore, g depends on t and t only through the
combination of t − t :
1 This symmetry is one of the reciprocity relationships discussed in the
g(x, t; x , t ) = g(x, t − t ; x , 0). (6.8) third section of this chapter, “Rayleigh’s Reciprocity Theorem.”
The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions 235
integral in (6.12), numerically if necessary, to deter- τ = 0. Therefore, g(1D) is simply the sum of the signals
mine the pressure field. The convolution operator (∗) is from all the 3D point sources constituting the plane
defined as source:
t ∞ ∞
dt b1 (t − t )b2 (t ). (6.13) (Z, τ ) =
(1D)
b1 (t) ∗ b2 (t) = g dxdyg(3D) (R, τ ), (6.20)
−∞ −∞ −∞
For a monopole point source of volume injection at xs , where Z = |z − z |. The 1D Green’s function becomes
represented by V
g(1D) (Z, τ ) = θ(τ − Z/V ). (6.21)
∂ 2i
v (x, t)
2
s(x, t) = ρ = δ(x − xs )a(t), (6.14)
∂t 2 Observe that all Green’s functions, regardless of dimen-
sion, are causal. For a given distance away from the
where a(t) is the source signature, the pressure is simply
impulsive point source, the 3D signal rises abruptly
the acoustic Green’s function convolved with the source
from zero to infinity at τ = R/V . Likewise, the 2D sig-
signature:
nal rises abruptly from zero to infinity at τ = P/V . The
p(x, t) = a(t) ∗ g(x, t; xs , 0). (6.15) 1D signal rises abruptly from zero to a finite amplitude
at τ = Z/V . One difference between the 3D Green’s
Hence, g(x, t; xs , 0) is the pressure when a(t) = δ(t). function and the 2D and 1D Green’s functions is note-
worthy. Whereas the 3D wave disturbance at time τ
Analytic solutions for a homogeneous me- is confined to a spherical shell of radius V τ — there is
dium. In a homogeneous unbounded medium, g obvi- no signal behind τ — this is not so in 2D and 1D. In
ously depends on x and x only through R = |R| = 2D, an indefinitely continued decaying signal follows
|x − x |. In 3D, the causal Green’s function becomes the initial disturbance. Eventually, when τ P/V ,
the amplitude is approximated by 1/(2πτ ). In 1D, the
1
g(3D) (R, τ ) = δ(τ − R/V ). (6.16) signal remains forever unchanged after τ = Z/V .
4πR
We can obtain the 2D Green’s function g(2D) from the
3D function by regarding g(2D) as the signal in three Elastic Medium
dimensions from an infinitely long line source along the
y-axis, exploding instantaneously at τ = 0. Therefore, As described in Chapter 2, the wave equation for
g(2D) is simply the sum of the signals from all the 3D the displacement field is
point sources constituting the line source:
∞ ρ(x)∂t2 ui (x, t) − ∂j cijkl (x)∂k ul (x, t) = Fi (x, t), (6.22)
g (2D)
(P, τ ) = dyg(3D) (R, τ ), (6.17) with source term
−∞
Fi = fi + ∂j Iij , (6.23)
where P = (x − x )2 + (z − z )2 . We find
1 θ (τ − P/V ) where ui = ui (x, t) is the ith component of the dis-
g(2D) (P, τ ) = , (6.18) placement, ρ = ρ(x) is the volume density of mass,
2π τ 2 − P2 /V 2 fi = fi (x, t) is the ith component volume density of
where θ(x) is the step function (sometimes called the external force, Iij = Iij (x, t) represents the source stress
Heaviside function): tensor, and cijkl = cijkl (x) represents the stiffness tensor.
We assume zero initial conditions for the displacement.

0 if x < 0 The elastodynamic Green’s function, being a tensor,
θ(x) = . (6.19) defines the impulse response of the solid medium. For
1 if x ≥ 0
a unit impulse at t = t in direction n at x , the elasto-
dynamic Green’s function is defined by
The 1D Green’s function g(1D) can be obtained from
the 3D Green’s function by regarding g(1D) as the signal
ρ(x)∂t2 Gin (x, t; x , t ) − ∂j ijn (x, t; x , t )
in three dimensions from an infinitely extended plane
source in the (xy) plane, exploding instantaneously at = δin δ(x − x )δ(t − t ), (6.24)
where For a point-force source in direction m (m is the

direction of one of the coordinate axes) at xs , repre-
ijn (x, t; x , t ) = cijkl (x)∂k Gln (x, t; x , t ). (6.25) sented by
The elastodynamic Green’s function must have the Fi = fi = δim δ(x − xs )a(t); Iij = 0, (6.31)
same general properties we enumerated for the acous- where a(t) is the source signature, the displacement is
tic Green’s function. The elastodynamic Green’s tensor simply the elastodynamic Green’s function convolved
satisfies the causality condition with the source signature
Gin (x, t; x , t ) = 0 for t < t, (6.26) un (x, t) = a(t) ∗ Gnm (x, t; xs , 0). (6.32)
is invariant with respect to time translation For a delta-function source signature, a(t) = δ(t), Gnm
(x, t; xs , 0) is the displacement at (x, t) in the n-direction
Gin (x, t; x , t ) = Gin (x, t + τ ; x , t + τ ), (6.27) for the point-force source in direction m.
satisfies spatial reciprocity Analytic solutions for a homogeneous me-

dium. In a homogeneous medium, the elastodynamic
Gin (x, t; x , t ) = Gni (x , t; x, t ), (6.28) Green’s function for displacement may be represented
by its second time derivative as
and satisfies time-space reciprocity
1
∂t2 Gin (x, t; x , 0) = δin ∂t2 gS (x, t; x , 0)

Gin (x, t; x , t ) = Gni (x , −t; x, −t ). (6.29) µ
1
(The proofs of these reciprocal relationships follow + ∂i ∂n [gP (x, t; x , 0)
ρ
from the theory in the fourth section of this chapter,
“Betti-Rayleigh’s Reciprocity Theorem.”) To interpret − gS (x, t; x , 0)], (6.33)
the time-space reciprocity relationship, assume, with- where g is the scalar Green’s function for unbounded
out loss of generality, that t = 0. Then Gin (x, t; x , 0) = space obeying the following equations: for P-waves
Gni (x , 0; x, −t). This relationship shows that the i-
component of the signal at x at a later time t caused 1 ∂ 2
by a unit impulse applied in n-direction at x , equals ∇ 2 − 2 2 gP (R, t) = −δ(R)δ(t), (6.34)

VP ∂t
the n-component of the signal at x at time zero of a
unit impulse applied in i-direction at x and at an earlier and for S-waves
time −t.
1 ∂2
∇2 − 2 2 gS (R, t) = −δ(R)δ(t), (6.35)
VS ∂t
Solving for displacement. The problem is to
solve equation (6.22) with a given source and zero ini- where R = |R| = |x − x |. In 3D,
tial conditions. The elastodynamic Green’s function is
designed to deliver this solution: 1
gP (R, t) = δ(t − R/VP );
4πR
1
un (x, t) = d 3 x Gni (x, t; x , 0) ∗ Fi (x , t). (6.30) gS (R, t) = δ(t − R/VS ). (6.36)
4πR
In other words, un is the linear combination of the For a homogeneous medium, note the symmetry rela-
contributions from all the elementary sources Fi (x , t ) tionship, Gin (x, t; x , t ) = Gni (x, t; x , t ).
d 3 x dt that have been excited. Solution (6.30) is easily
verified by substitution into equation (6.22). Observe
that once Gni has been calculated, numerically if nec- FREQUENCY-DOMAIN GREEN’S
essary, then we need not solve the differential equation FUNCTIONS IN UNBOUNDED SPACE
(6.22) for displacement. Given any source, one needs
merely to evaluate the integral (6.30), numerically if In this section, we define Green’s functions in the
necessary, to determine the displacement field. frequency domain for unbounded acoustic and elastic
media. We show that the solution for the wavefield (6.18), and (6.21). In 3D, the calculation is elementary:
(pressure or displacement) can be expressed in terms ∞
δ(t − R/V )
of the Green’s functions. Finally, we give analytic solu- g (3D)
(R, ω) = dt exp[iωt]
tions for Green’s functions for the special case of homo- −∞ 4πR
geneous media.
exp[ikR]
= . (6.44)
4πR
In 2D, one obtains
Acoustic Medium ∞
θ(τ − P/V )
g (2D)
(P, ω) = dτ exp(iωτ ) .
By Fourier transforming the constant-density wave −∞ 2π τ 2 − P2 /V 2
equation (6.2) for the pressure field, we obtain the
Helmholtz equation Letting τ = Px/V , we obtain
∞
1 exp[ixkP]
∇ 2 + k 2 p(x, ω) = −s(x, ω), (6.37) g (2D)
(P, ω) = dx √
2π 1 x2 − 1
with source term i (1)
= H0 (kP), (6.45)
4
s = −ω2 ρiv − ∇ · f, (6.38) where the x-integral is one of the standard representa-
tions of the zero-order Hankel function of the first kind,
where k 2 = ω2 /V 2 . Likewise, by Fourier transforming (1)
H0 , with asymptotic
equation (6.5) for the acoustic Green’s function, we
obtain 2i
H0(1) (x → 0) ∼log x,
π
∇ 2 + k 2 g(x, ω; x ) = −δ(x − x ). (6.39)
(1) 2
H0 (x → ∞) ∼ exp[i(x − π/4)]. (6.46)
The acoustic Green’s function obeys reciprocity: πx
In 1D, the Green’s function follows from
g(x, ω; x ) = g(x , ω; x). (6.40)
V ∞
g (1D)
(Z, ω) = dt exp[iωt]. (6.47)
Solving for pressure. The acoustic Green’s func- 2 Z/V
tion is designed to solve equation (6.37) with a given
source: As the integral fails to converge at its upper limit, we
use the standard trick of multiplying under the integral
p(x, ω) = d 3 x g(x, ω; x )s(x , ω). (6.41) the exponential function by exp[−ηt] and then taking
the limit η → 0+ at the end of the calculation. Thus
∞
For a monopole point source of volume injection at xs , V
represented by g (1D)
(Z, ω) = lim dt exp[i(ω + iη)t]
2 η→0 Z/V
s(x, ω) = −ω2 ρiv (x, ω) = a(ω)δ(x − xs ), (6.42) exp[ikZ]
=− . (6.48)
2ik
where a(ω) is the source signature, the pressure is
simply the acoustic Green’s function multiplied by the
source signature Elastic Medium
p(x, ω) = a(ω)g(x, ω; xs ). (6.43) By Fourier transforming equation (6.22) for the
displacement field, we obtain
Analytic solutions for a homogeneous me-
dium. Consider a homogeneous unbounded medium. ω2 ρ(x)ui (x, ω) + ∂j cijkl (x)∂k ul (x, ω) = −Fi (x, ω),
The quickest way to the acoustic Green’s functions in (6.49)
any number of dimensions is obtained by Fourier trans-
forming Green’s function solution equations (6.16), with source term Fi = fi + ∂j Iij .
Likewise, by Fourier transforming equation (6.24) interchange of its arguments, as well as obeying the
for the elastodynamic Green’s function, we obtain more general law of reciprocity.
ω2 ρ(x)Gin (x, ω; x ) + ∂j ijn (x, ω; x )=−δin δ(x − x ),

RAYLEIGH’S RECIPROCITY THEOREM
(6.50)
Reciprocity is an important property of wavefields.
where In its most elementary form, the acoustic reciprocity
principle states that the acoustic pressure field remains
ijn (x, ω; x ) = cijkl (x)∂k Gln (x, ω; x ). (6.51) the same when its source and receiver positions are
interchanged. In its general form, the acoustic principle
The elastodynamic Green’s function obeys the reci- of reciprocity interrelates the field or wave quantities
procity relationship that characterize two admissible “states” that could
occur in the same domain in space. One of these states
Gin (x, ω; x ) = Gni (x , ω; x). (6.52) can be the physical (actual) acoustic experiment. The
other can typically be either another physical state or a
computational state (e.g., a wavefield propagator) or
Solving for displacement. The elastodynamic
a desired (hypothetical) state (e.g., representing a
Green’s function is designed to solve equation (6.49)
multiple-free seismic experiment).
with a given source:
The general form of the acoustic reciprocity prin-
ciple, also known as Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem,
un (x, ω) = d 3 x Gni (x, ω; x )Fi (x , ω). (6.53) thus gives the relationship between two independent
acoustic states defined in the same domain, or volume
D in space enclosed by a surface ∂D. The relationship
For a source of point force in direction m at xs , between the wavefields of the two states is governed by
represented by possible differences in medium parameters, in source
distributions, and in external boundary conditions on
Fi = fi = δim δ(x − xs )a(ω), (6.54) ∂D. In this section, we first derive the acoustic reci-
procity theorem. Then we discuss special forms of
where a(ω) is the source signature, the displacement is the reciprocity theorem, in particular the Kirchhoff-
the elastodynamic Green’s function multiplied by the Helmholtz integral representation and the Lippmann-
source signature: Schwinger equation. As a simple application of the
acoustic reciprocity theorem, we show how a scheme
un (x, ω) = a(ω)Gnm (x, ω; xs ). (6.55) for estimating the marine-source radiation pattern can
be derived.
Analytic solution for a homogeneous me-
dium. In a homogeneous medium, the elastodynamic
Green’s function for displacement becomes
General Theory
We introduce the basic acoustic equations that
1
Gin (x, ω; x ) = δin gS (x, ω; x )
describe wave motion in an inhomogeneous medium.
µ The material parameters, wavefields, and sources are
1 defined by the following symbols:
− 2 ∂i ∂n [gP (x, ω; x )
ω ρ
κ = κ(x) compressibility (reciprocal of bulk
− gS (x, ω; x )], (6.56) modulus)
σ = σ (x) specific volume (reciprocal of
where gP and gS are the scalar Green’s functions for an density)
unbounded space for P- and S-waves, respectively. v = v(x, ω) particle velocity
Remember that this is a special case. The Green’s p = p(x, ω) acoustic pressure
function of a homogeneous medium is symmetric with f = f(x, ω) volume density of external force
respect to the interchange of its subscripts and to the iv = iv (x, ω) volume density of volume injection
BOX 6.1: DIVERGENCE THEOREM (GAUSS’S THEOREM)
We consider a 3D model of the earth, D, bound- where n = [n1 , n2 , n3 ]T is the outward-pointing

ed by a closed surface, ∂D. normal vector to ∂D. The divergence theorem is

The divergence of a vector field, w, is also known as Gauss’s theorem.
Notice that the divergence theorem relates the
∇ · w = ∂i wi . (6.57)
behavior of a vector field along a closed surface,
Note that in equation (6.57), we have used the ∂D, to the field’s behavior in the region inside this
Einstein summation convention. If w is defined in surface. The assumptions of the divergence theo-
D, the divergence theorem states that in D, rem are that (1) the divergence of w is integrable
and (2) the values and slope of w are not discon-
[∇ · w(x)] dV (x) tinuous along the surface, ∂D. The ground motion
x∈D and pressure changes, which are the two quantities
= [n(x) · w(x)] dS(x), (6.58) representing most seismic wavefields, satisfy these
x∈∂D two assumptions.
The equation of motion states that This theorem gives the relationship between the wave-
field variables characterizing the two states that could
σ ∇p = iωv + σ f, (6.59) occur in the same domain or volume D. Each of the
states may be associated with its own medium parame-
and the constitutive relationship is
ters and distribution of sources. On the right-hand side
iωκp = ∇ · v + iωiv . (6.60) of equation (6.63), the first two terms represent the
action of possible sources in D in the two states. These
The acoustic pressure field satisfies the wave equation two terms vanish if no sources are present in D. The last
four terms under the volume integral represent possible
(∇ · σ ∇ + ω2 κ)p = −s, (6.61) differences in acoustic properties of the media present
with source distribution in the two states. If the media are identical, these terms
vanish. On the left-hand side of equation (6.63), the
s = −ω2 iv − ∇ · σ f. (6.62) surface integral takes into account possible differences
in external boundary conditions.
Consider a domain or volume D enclosed by sur-
face ∂D with an outward-pointing normal vector n. In
this volume, two nonidentical acoustic wavefields are
denoted by the wavefields for “state A” and “state B,”
respectively. For the moment, we do not specify bound- Special Cases of Acoustic Reciprocity
ary conditions for the wavefields. By introducing the for Identical Media
vector [pA σ B ∇pB − pB σ A ∇pA ], applying Gauss’s the-
orem to its divergence ∇ · [pA σ B ∇pB − pB σ A ∇pA ], The best-known formulation of the reciprocity
and using the wave equation (6.46), one readily obtains theorem is obtained (1) when the surface integral in
Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem: equation (6.63) is zero, (2) when the medium parame-
ters for state A and state B are identical in volume D,
and (3) when the sources are chosen as monopole point
dS n · pA σ B ∇pB − pB σ A ∇pA sources at locations xA and xB . The surface integral can
∂D
be equal to zero for several reasons. First, if the fields
= dV pA sB − pB sA + ω2 (κ A − κ B )pA pB die off rapidly enough as the surface recedes to infinity,
D then the Sommerfeld radiation condition ensures that

the surface integral will vanish. Second, the boundary
−(σ A − σ B )(∇pA ) · (∇pB ) . (6.63)
conditions may specify that either the pressure field or
its normal derivative vanishes at every point on the sur- In state B, as above, let
face. This is the case when ∂D is a free boundary with
vanishing pressure in both states or a rigid boundary κ B = κ(x),
with a vanishing normal derivative of pressure in both σ B = σ (x),
states. In state A, let
sB = −aB (ω)δ(x − xB ), and

κ = κ(x),
A
pB = p(x, ω; xB ).
σ = σ (x),
A
Subscript 3 in the parentheses on the pressure field
sA = −aA (ω)δ(x − xA ), and of state A denotes pressure generated from a vertically
pA = p(x, ω; xA ). oriented point force. Inserting the above parameters of
states A and B into Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem of
In state B, let equation (6.63) yields
κ B = κ(x), (A)
aA (ω)σ (xA )∂3 p(xA , ω; xB )
σ B = σ (x),
= aB (ω)p(3) (xB , ω; xA ), (6.66)
sB = −aB (ω)δ(x − xB ), and
(A)
where ∂3 denotes the derivative with respect to xA .
p = p(x, ω; xB ).
B
Using the equation of motion (6.59), we introduce the
Thus, Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem (6.63) sim- vertical component of particle velocity and obtain
plifies to
iωaA (ω)v3 (xA , ω; xB ) = aB (ω)p(3) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.67)
a (ω)p(xA , ω; xB ) = a (ω)p(xB , ω; xA ).
A B
(6.64)
In the special case in which the source signatures are
In the special case in which the source signatures identical, [aA (ω) = aB (ω)], equation (6.67) reduces to
are identical, aA (ω) = aB (ω) = a(ω), this equation the reciprocity relationship
reduces to the well-known relationship
iωv3 (xA , ω; xB ) = p(3) (xB , ω; xA ), (6.68)
p(xA , ω; xB ) = p(xB , ω; xA ), (6.65)
stating that iω times the vertical component of the par-
stating that the pressure at xA caused by a monopole ticle velocity at location xA caused by a monopole point
point source with source signature a(ω) at xB is identical source of volume injection at xB is identical to the pres-
to the pressure at xB caused by a monopole point source sure field at location xB from a point force in the vertical
with the same source signature a(ω) at xA . In the case direction at xA .
where the source signature a(ω) = 1, the pressure is Finally, it is straightforward to derive the reciproc-
the Green’s function of the medium. For a monopole ity relationship between the vertical components of
point source, reciprocity of the Green’s function for particle velocity for vertical point forces. In state A, let
the constant-density wave equation was established in
equation (6.40). ivA = 0,
Next, we consider the reciprocity relationship of fiA = aA (ω)δi3 δ(x − xA ),
data from a monopole point source and a vertically
oriented force. In state A, let sA = aA (ω)σ ∂3 δ(x − xA ), and
κ A = κ(x), pA = p(3) (x, ω; xA ).
σ A = σ (x), In state B, let

ivA = 0, ivB = 0,
fiA = aA (ω)δi3 δ(x − xA ), fiB = aB (ω)δi3 δ(x − xB ),
sA = aA (ω)σ ∂3 δ(x − xA ), and sB = aB (ω)σ ∂3 δ(x − xB ), and
pA = p(3) (x, ω; xA ), pB = p(3) (x, ω; xB ).
BOX 6.2: APPLICATION OF EQUATION (6.68)

TO TOWED-STREAMER ACQUISITION
In addition to pressure recordings, some pro- directly measure the vertical gradient of pressure
posed seismic-data-processing schemes, such as de- along with the pressure field itself. An alterna-
ghosting, up/down separation, free-surface mul- tive technique is to record the pressure field data
tiple attenuation, and estimation of the marine on hydrophones in dual streamers at two different
source radiation pattern, require information about depth levels. To avoid complex towing of a dual
the vertical component of particle velocity, or vertical streamer, one may tow dual sources at dif-
equivalently, the vertical pressure gradient.2 These ferent depths in front of the seismic streamer. The
additional data are recorded routinely in ocean- reciprocity principle (6.68) suggests that the verti-
bottom-seismic (OBS) surveys that deploy hydro- cal component of particle velocity can be obtained
phones on the seafloor to record the pressure field as a pressure recording from a source of vertical
and geophones to record the particle velocity field. force. As suggested by Moldoveanu (2000), one
However, in towed-streamer data acquisition, the practical implementation of a vertical force in the
additional data are not readily available. How, then, water column is achieved by separate firing of
can we obtain the required vertical pressure gra- sources towed at different depths. Figure 6.1 illus-
dient? Obviously, the best solution, if feasible, is trates hypothetical experiments (source of vertical
to develop technology to record this data compo- force or vertically oriented geophone) and their
nent. Preferred is a recording technique that would possible practical realizations.
2 Deghosting, up/down separation, and free-surface multiple attenuation are discussed in Chapters 9 and 10.
q✷
(a) x x x x
fz p wz
z z z z
Source Receiver Receiver Source
Experiment Reciprocal experiment
(b)
q✷ x x p x ✷ x
fz ≈ -q ✷
p wz ≈ q
-p
z z z z
Source Receiver Receiver Source
Experiment Reciprocal experiment
FIGURE 6.1. Reciprocal experiments in marine configuration: (a) theoretical experiments

and (b) one possible practical realization of (a).
Using the equation of motion (6.59) to introduce the This formula represents the physical acoustic pres-
vertical component of particle velocity, with identical sure at any point xA in the physical medium in terms of
source signatures aA (ω) = aB (ω) for the point forces a closed surface integral and a volume integral over the
at locations xB and xA , we obtain same physical field and its derivative.
Equation (6.70) can be simplified further when the
v3(3) (xA , ω; xB ) = v3(3) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.69) source s is outside ∂D and when the reference medium
is identical or very close to the physical medium inside
Thus, for vertical point forces, vertical components of and on ∂D. In this case the parameters (δκ, δσ ) can be
particle velocities are unchanged when the source and ignored, and we obtain the expression
receiver are interchanged.

p(xA , ω) ≈ dS σ (x) n · [g(x, ω; xA )∇p(x, ω)
∂D
Representation Theorem
− p(x, ω)∇g(x, ω; xA )]. (6.71)
When one of the wavefields is chosen as the acous-
tic Green’s function (impulse response) of a reference
Equation (6.71) shows that when there is no source in D,
medium [κ0 (x), σ0 (x)] and the other wavefield repre-
and when the medium is well known, then the pressure
sents the physical wavefield in the physical medium
field at any point xA in D is represented by the pressure
[κ(x), σ (x)] under consideration, the reciprocity theo-
itself and its gradient on ∂D.
rem is commonly referred to as the acoustic Kirchhoff-
The Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral representation
Helmholtz integral representation. In Rayleigh’s reci-
(6.71) is widely used in various petroleum seismology
procity theorem (6.63), we make substitutions for
problems, including that of multiple attenuation and of
state A,
imaging, as we see in Chapters 10 and 11.
κ A = κ0 (x),
σ A = σ0 (x),
sA = −δ(x − xA ), and Lippmann-Schwinger Equation
pA = g(x, ω; xA ). The Lippmann-Schwinger equation is a special
case of the Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral representa-
For state B, tion (6.70) in the presence of homogeneous boundary
conditions or the Sommerfeld radiation condition on
κ B = κ(x) = κ0 (x) + δκ(x),
∂D, leading to vanishing of the surface integral. Fur-
σ B = σ (x) = σ0 (x) + δσ (x), thermore, one assumes that the physical source is a
monopole point source with source signature a at xB .
sB = s(x, ω), and For state B, sB = a(ω)δ(x − xB ) and pB = p(x, ω; xB ).
pB = p(x, ω). Using the reciprocity relationship of equation
(6.65) for the acoustic Green’s function, we obtain the
Assuming that xA is in D, we obtain the acoustic Lippmann-Schwinger equation:
Kirchhoff-Helmholtz integral representation:
p(xA , ω; xB ) = a(ω)g(xA , ω; xB )
p(xA , ω) = dS n · [g(x, ω; xA )σ (x)∇p(x, ω)
∂D
+ dV [ω2 δκ(x)g(x, ω; xA )p(x, ω; xB )
− p(x, ω)σ0 (x)∇g(x, ω; xA )] D
− δσ (x)∇g(x, ω; xA ) · ∇p(x, ω; xB )]. (6.72)
+ dVg(x, ω; xA )s(x, t)
D
In the last term of the volume integral, using the
+ dV [ω2 δκ(x)g(x, ω; xA )p(x, ω) identity b(∇g) · (∇p) = ∇ · (bg∇p) − g∇ · (b∇p),
D
where b = δσ , together with Gauss’s theorem and the
− δσ (x)∇g(x, ω; xA ) · ∇p(x, ω)]. (6.70) assumption that δσ equals zero at spatial infinity, the
Lippmann-Schwinger equation can be written as
p(xA , ω; xB ) = a(ω)g(xA , ω; xB )

+ dVg(x, ω; xA )W (x, ω)p(x, ω; xB ), (6.73)

D
where the scattering operator W is
W (x, ω) = ω2 δκ(x) + ∇ · δσ (x)∇. (6.74)
The Lippmann-Schwinger equation is the basis for

inverse scattering techniques (Chapters 10 and 11) when
the goal is to determine the unknown medium parame-
ters from seismic data acquired above the medium. In FIGURE 6.2. Geometry in Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem
general, one cannot analytically determine the Green’s for marine-source radiation-pattern estimation. The surface
function for arbitrary inhomogeneous media. There- ∂D enclosing volume D consists of ∂D = ∂Dr + ∂DR ,
fore, solutions are cast as a perturbation about a simpler where ∂Dr is the data-recording plane and ∂DR is a hemi-
spherical cap. ∂D0 is the free surface with vanishing
reference problem for which analytic solutions for
pressure. Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem gives a procedure
Green’s functions are available, or at least can be easily
to estimate the radiation pattern from the marine source at
computed. any point x0 below ∂Dr and without prior knowledge of the
number of source elements, their locations, or their charac-
ter. The radiation pattern can be determined by evaluating
equation (6.77) for various x0 on a semicircle below the
Marine-source Radiation-pattern receiver plane.
Determination
Another possible choice of states in Rayleigh’s reci-
procity theorem is to let one of the wavefields represent the closed volume D, the medium parameters for the
the physical marine seismic wavefield but choose the Green’s function are identical to the physical medium
other wavefield as the acoustic Green’s function of a parameters. State A now represents the physical ma-
homogeneous water half-space bounded above by the rine seismic wavefield, in which sA = σ s(x, ω), and
sea surface. Such a Green’s function is known analyti- pA = p(x, ω).
cally. The first state thus represents a physical situation, State B, because of an impulsive source at some
whereas the second represents a computational state. As arbitrary location x0 below the recording plane in the
long as the marine source is located above the record- water half-space (e.g., outside the volume under con-
ing plane (i.e., ∂Dr in Figure 6.2), this choice of states sideration), represents the acoustic Green’s function
leads to a procedure for estimating the radiation pattern g0 in which sB = −δ(x − x0 ); (x0 is not in D) and
of the marine source (see Amundsen et al., 1995; Osen pB = g0 (x, ω; x0 ).
et al., 1995; Weglein and Secrest, 1990). The scheme At the sea surface, both p and g0 are zero:
requires measurements of pressure and the vertical pres-
sure derivative (or the vertical component of particle p(x, y, z = 0, ω) = 0;
velocity) on the recording plane. (6.75)
g0 (x, y, z = 0, ω; x0 ) = 0.
To determine the radiation pattern, in Rayleigh’s
reciprocity theorem the surface ∂D is chosen, consist-
ing of the data-recording plane ∂Dr and an upward- Letting the radius R of the hemispherical cap ∂DR tend
closing hemispherical cap ∂DR of radius R (see to infinity so that ∂DR approaches an infinite hemi-
Figure 6.2). In the water, the sound velocity is assumed spherical shell, its contribution to the surface integral
to be constant. We consider the sea surface ∂D0 at in Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem (6.63) vanishes, in
depth z = 0 to be a free surface. Thus, throughout accordance with the Sommerfeld radiation condition.
Hence, Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem yields The principle of elastodynamic reciprocity holds
for the very general case of an inhomogeneous

anisotropic viscoelastic solid. In a volume D enclosed
dV (x)s(x, ω)g0 (x, ω; x0 ) by a surface ∂D, however, reciprocity takes a simple
V
form if the wavefields involved satisfy on the sur-
∂p(xr , ω)
= dS(xr , yr ) g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) face homogeneous boundary conditions or the radiation
∂Dr ∂zr condition (Pao and Varatharajulu, 1976). In the case

∂g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) in which wavefields do not obey such conditions, the
− p(xr , ω) . (6.76) boundary conditions explicitly enter the reciprocity
∂zr
relationship.
Recall that g0 describes wave propagation in the water In this section, we derive the elastodynamic reci-
layer half-space. Therefore, the volume integral on the procity theorem, also referred to as Betti’s reciprocity
left side of equation (6.76) must represent the incident theorem.3 The theorem gives an integral equation rela-
wavefield (direct wave and its associated ghost) from the tionship between two independent wavefields defined
physical source to x0 . The incident wavefield denoted in the volume D enclosed by the surface ∂D. The rela-
by p(inc) is the linear combination of the contribution tionship is governed by possible differences in medium
from all elementary sources s(x, ω)dx. Thus, evaluation parameters, source distributions, and external bound-
of the integral ary conditions on ∂D. Finally, we discuss special forms
of Betti’s reciprocity theorem. The acoustic Kirchhoff-
Helmholtz integral representation and the Lippmann-
∂p(xr , ω)
p (inc)
(x0 , ω) = dS g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) Schwinger equation are not extended here to the
∂Dr ∂zr
elastodynamic case but can be derived by following a
∂g0 (xr , ω; x0 ) procedure similar to that used in the previous section.
− p(xr , ω) (6.77)
∂zr
directly outputs the source wavefield at any point

x0 below the receiver surface for any unknown and General Theory
distributed source with an anisotropic radiation pat-
tern. The source radiation pattern is directly computed We introduce the basic elastodynamic equations
from the integral equation (6.77) without prior knowl- that describe wave motion in an inhomogeneous an-
edge of the number of source elements, their loca- isotropic solid. The material parameters, wavefields,
tions, or their character (air gun, water gun, clustered and sources are defined by the following symbols:
guns, etc.). This radiation pattern can be of particular cijkl (x) = stiffness tensor
importance for prestack amplitude-versus-offset (AVO) ρ(x) = volume density of mass
studies. vi (x, ω) = particle velocity component
τij (x, ω) = stress tensor
fi (x, ω) = volume density of
external force component
BETTI-RAYLEIGH’S Iij (x, ω) = source stress tensor
RECIPROCITY THEOREM
The source stress distribution is related to the source
In its general form, the elastodynamic principle strain distribution hij in accordance with Iij = cijkl hkl ,
of reciprocity interrelates the field or wave quantities with the inverse relation hij = sijkl Ikl . The equation of
that characterize two admissible “states” that could
occur in the same domain in space. One of these states
can be the physical (actual) seismic experiment. The
other state typically can be either a computational state 3 The reciprocity theorem for elastodynamic fields is generally known
[e.g., a wavefield propagator (Green’s function)], or as Betti-Rayleigh’s reciprocity theorem, although most of the results pre-
sented in this section, as well as in many other textbooks, have been derived
another physical state (e.g., representing a time-lapse
by Knopoff and Gangi (Gangi, 1970; Knopoff and Gangi, 1959) for inho-
seismic experiment), or a desired, hypothetical state mogeneous elastic media and by deHoop (1966, 1995) for inhomogeneous
(e.g., representing a multiple-free seismic experiment). linearly anelastic media.
BOX 6.3: DERIVATION OF LIPPMANN-SCHWINGER

EQUATION USING THE PERTURBATION THEORY
An alternative approach to deriving the Lipp- with

mann-Schwinger equation is based on perturba-
tion theory. This approach considers a reference L(x, ω) = ω2 κ + ∇ · σ ∇, (6.85)
medium in addition to an actual medium, such
that the medium parameters can be expressed as where L = L(x, ω) is the differential opera-
follows: tor for describing wave propagation in the actual
medium. Note that operator L = L(x, ω) also can
κ(x) = κ0 (x) + δκ(x) (6.78) be expressed as
and L(x, ω) = L0 (x, ω) + L(x, ω), (6.86)

σ (x) = σ0 (x) + δσ (x), (6.79) where
where {κ, σ } represents the actual medium, {κ0 , σ0 } L(x, ω) = ω2 δκ(x) + ∇ · δσ (x)∇. (6.87)
represents the reference medium, and {δκ, δσ }
represents the perturbation. Usually, this decompo- Suppose that the reference medium is known and,
sition is carried out under the assumption that the therefore, the Green’s function associated with
medium parameters of the perturbation are small reference medium g is known. By substituting
compared to those of the reference medium. This is equation (6.86) into equation (6.85), we obtain
not the case here: the perturbation can be arbitrarily
large. L0 (x, ω)p(x, ω; xs ) = −a(ω)δ(x − xs )
The pressure field p0 = p0 (x, ω, xs ), corres-
ponding to wave propagation in the reference − L(x, ω)p(x, ω; xs ). (6.88)
medium, satisfies the following equation:
The two terms on the right-hand side of equation
L0 (x, ω)p0 (x, ω; xs ) = −a(ω)δ(x − xs ), (6.80) (6.88) can together be considered as an effective
source distribution. The second term is sometimes
with referred to as a passive source because it “waits”
until p(x, ω; xs ) impinges on L(x, ω) before gen-
L0 (x, ω) = ω2 κ0 + ∇ · σ0 ∇. (6.81)
erating any waves. Using the solution of the pres-
L0 = L0 (x, ω) is the differential operator describ- sure field in equation (6.12), we obtain the solution
ing wave propagation in the reference medium. of equation (6.88):
Later, we also will need the Green’s function,
g = g(x, ω, x ), which is associated with the wave p(x, ω; xs ) = dx g(x, ω; x )[a(ω)δ(x − xs )
equation for the reference medium. It is defined as D
+ L(x , ω)p(x , ω; xs )]. (6.89)
L0 (x, ω)g(x, ω; x ) = −δ(x − x ), (6.82)
The integral equation (6.89) is known as the Lipp-
such that
mann-Schwinger equation. On the right-hand side,
p0 (x, ω; xs ) = a(ω)g(x, ω; xs ). (6.83) we have two terms. The first term,
We are primarily interested in the seismic response p0 (x, ω; xs ) = a(ω)g(x, ω; xs ), (6.90)

to the actual medium. For the actual medium,
pressure field p = p(x, ω; xs ) satisfies is the response of the reference medium. The pres-
sure field, p0 , is generally called the direct or un-
L(x, ω)p(x, ω; xs ) = −a(ω)δ(x − xs ), (6.84) perturbed wavefield. The second term of equation
(continued)
Box 6.3 continued
(6.89) is and
δp(x, ω; xs )
δp(x, ω; xs ) = p(x, ω; xs ) − p0 (x, ω; xs ). (6.93)

= dx g(x, ω; x )L(x , ω)p(x , ω; xs ) δp is the part of the wavefield caused by deviation
D
of the actual medium from the reference medium.
It is generated by the passive source, L p.
= dVg(x, ω; x )W (x , ω)p(x , ω; xs ),
D The field δp is generally known as the scattered
(6.91) wavefield.
Note that equation (6.91), which we just
where the scattering potential, W , is
derived using the perturbation theory, is identical to
the one in equation (6.73), derived earlier by using
W = W (x, ω) = ω2 δκ(x) + ∇ · δσ (x)∇, (6.92) the reciprocity theorem.
motion states that parameters and its own distribution of sources. On the
right-hand side of equation (6.96), the first four terms
∂j τij + iωρvi = −fi , (6.94) represent the action of possible sources in D in the two
states. These four terms vanish if no sources are present
in D. The last four terms under the volume integral rep-
−iωτij = cijkl ∂l vk + iωIij . (6.95) resent possible differences in the elastic properties of
the medium present in the two states. If the media are
Consider a domain or volume D enclosed by the identical, these terms vanish. On the left-hand side of
surface ∂D with an outward-pointing normal vector n. equation (6.63), the surface integral takes into account
In this volume, we define two nonidentical elastic wave- possible differences in external boundary conditions.
fields denoted by the wavefields for “state A” and “state Volume D to which the reciprocity theorem applies
B,” respectively. For the moment, the boundary condi- may be bounded or unbounded. An unbounded volume
tions for the wavefields are not specified. By introducing can be treated as a limiting case in which the boundary
the vector τijA viB − τijB viA and applying Gauss’s theorem surface ∂D of volume D recedes to infinity.
to its divergence ∂j (τijA viB − τijB viA ), one readily obtains

Special Cases of Elastic Reciprocity
dSni τijA vjB − τijB vjA
∂D for Identical Unbounded Media

= dV fiB viA − fiA viB + IijB ∂j viA − IijA ∂j viB Referring to Betti’s theorem (6.96), let volume D
D be unbounded so that surface ∂D becomes a sphere
A B A
− (iω)−1 cijkl − cijkl
B
∂l vk ∂j vi with infinite radius. The radiation condition then states
A that the surface integral over ∂D vanishes. Furthermore,
− iω ρ − ρ B viA viB , (6.96) assume that state A and state B have identical medium
where the symmetry relationship cijkl = cklij has been parameters. Betti’s theorem then reduces to

used. Equation (6.96) is generally known as the elasto-
dynamic reciprocity theorem, or Betti’s theorem. The dV fiB viA − fiA viB + IijB ∂j viA − IijA ∂j viB = 0.
D
reciprocity theorem gives the relationship between the (6.97)
wavefield variables that characterize the two states that
could occur in the same domain or volume D. Each When we introduce sources of strain distribution (i.e.,
of the states may be associated with its own medium hij = sijkl Ikl ) instead of stress distribution (i.e., Iij ),
Betti’s theorem reads source at xA and receiver at xB are displayed as traces

in solid lines. The results of the reciprocal experiments

dV fiB viA − fiA viB − iω hijB τijA − hijA τijB = 0. are shown in circles.
D
(6.98)
Reciprocity of particle velocity for point
At the same time that we develop reciprocity rela- forces. Assume that the sources of the two states are
tionships, we will verify them by running numerical point forces. In state A, let
experiments based on the model and source-receiver
configuration shown in Figure 6.3. The source (receiver fiA = aA (ω)δ(x − xA )δin ,
in the reciprocal experiment) is located at position IijA = 0, and
xA = (1.4 km, 0.1 km), whereas the receiver (source (A)
in the reciprocal experiment) is located at position vi = vi(n) (x, ω; xA ).
xB = (0.7 km, 1.0 km). The numerical results with
In state B, let
x (km) fiB = aB (ω)δ(x − xB )δim ,

0.5 1.0 1.5
0.0 IijB = 0, and
1 (B)
vi = vi(m) (x, ω; xB ).
z (km)
The subscripts in parentheses on the field variables
2
0.5 denote that the fields are generated from a point force
acting in the specified direction. Inserting into Betti’s
3 theorem, equation (6.97) yields
aB (ω)vm(n) (xB , ω; xA ) = aA (ω)vn(m) (xA , ω; xB ).

4
1.0 (6.99)
For identical source signatures, aA = aB , equation

5 (6.99) reduces to
1.5 vm(n) (xB , ω; xA ) = vn(m) (xA , ω; xB ), (6.100)

6
stating that, because of a point force in the n-direction
at xA , the mth component of the particle velocity vec-
Material P-wave velocity S-wave velocity Density tor at location xB is identical to the nth component of
(m/s) (m/s) (g/cc)
the particle velocity vector at location xA because of
1 2000 1000 2.0 a point force in the m-direction at xB . Thus, source
2 2200 1300 2.2 and receiver positions can be interchanged, provided
3 2600 1450 2.3 that the indices of particle velocity components and
4 3000 1700 2.4 force components are interchanged. This relationship,
5 3800 2100 2.2 valid for any inhomogeneous anisotropic viscoelastic
6 3600 1700 2.6 medium, is probably the best-known formulation of the
reciprocity principle. In the case in which the source
Source point (1.4 km, 0.1 km) signature is unity, a(ω) = 1, the particle velocity is
Receiver point (0.7 km, 1.0 km)
the Green’s tensor of the medium. Reciprocity of the
FIGURE 6.3. Model and source-receiver geometry for test- Green’s tensor was established in equation (6.52). The
ing reciprocity relationships for different source-receiver reciprocity relationship established in equation (6.98)
combinations. The source (the receiver in the reciprocal is numerically verified in Figure 6.4.
experiment) is located at position xA = (1.4 km, 0.1 km).
The receiver (the source in the reciprocal experiment) is Reciprocity of strain for stress-point sourc-
located at position xB = (0.7 km, 1.0 km). es. Sources in elastic media can be more complex than
(a) (c)
1.0 1.0
Normalized particle velocity

0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)
(b)
(d)
1.0 1.0
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5

Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 6.4. Reciprocity of particle velocity for single-body forces, vm(n) (xB , ω; xA ) = vn(m) (xA , ω; xB ): (a) m = 1, n = 1;
(b) m = 3, n = 1; (c) m = 1, n = 3; (d) m = 3, n = 3. The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the source at xA and
the receiver at xB . The circles correspond to the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the receiver at xA .
a body force directed along one of the coordinate axes. In state B, the source and fields are specified as
We now assume that the sources of the two states are
fiB = 0,
sources of stress acting in directions k and l and direc-
tions m and n (similar to Arntsen and Carcione, 2001 IijB = −ω−2 aB (ω)δ(x − xB )δim δjn ,
and Carcione, 2001). In state A, the source and fields
are specified as viB = vi(mn) (x, ω; xB ).
Inserting the above parameters of states A and B
fiA = 0, into Betti’s theorem (6.100) yields
IijA = −ω−2 aA × (ω)δ(x − xA )δik δjl , and aB (ω)∂n(B) vm(kl) (xB , ω; xA )

viA = vi(kl) (x, ω; xA ). = aA (ω)∂l(A) vk(mn) (xA , ω; xB ). (6.101)
Identical source signatures, aA = aB , give 2001, and to Carcione, 2001). In state A, we define the
following:
(A)
∂l vk(mn) (xA , ω; xB ) = ∂n(B) vm(kl) (xB , ω; xA ).
(6.102) fiA = 0,
Equation (6.102) shows that, because of a stress dis- hijA = −ω−2 aA (ω)δ(x − xA )δik δjl , and
tribution source with components mn at location xB ,
the kl-strain component at position xA equals the τijA = τij(kl) (x, ω; xA ).
mn-strain component at position xB because of a stress
distribution-source with components kl at location xA . In state B, we define the following:
In the case where k = l and m = n, the stress source
has moment. In the case where k = l and m = n, fiB = 0,
the stress source has no moment. The source then
constitutes a dilatational source for P-waves. The hijB = −ω−2 aB (ω)δ(x − xB )δim δjn , and
reciprocity relationship for this source type is τijB = τij(mn) (x, ω; xB ).
(A) (B)
∂i vi(jj) (xA , ω; xB ) = ∂i vi(jj) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.103)
Inserting the above parameters of states A and B into
Here, the equal subscripts in parentheses (jj) on the Betti’s theorem (6.98) yields
field variables denote that the fields are generated from
a P-wave source. For a dilatational point source (explo-
aB (ω)τmn(kl) (xB , ω; xA ) = aA (ω)τkl(mn) (xA , ω; xB ).
sion), dilatation is thus unchanged when the source and
(6.104)
receiver are interchanged. The reciprocity relationship
of equation (6.103) is numerically verified in Figure 6.5.
Identical source signatures, aA = aB , give
Reciprocity of stress for strain-point sourc-
es. Now we assume the sources of the two states τkl(mn) (xA , ω; xB ) = τmn(kl) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.105)
are sources of strain acting in directions k and l and
directions m and n (similar to Arntsen and Carcione, Equation (6.105) shows that, because of a strain distri-
bution source with components mn at location xB , the
kl-stress component at position xA equals the mn-stress
1.0
component at position xB because of a strain distri-
bution source with components kl at location xA . The
Normalized strain (exx + ezz )
reciprocity relationship of equation (6.105) is numeri-

cally tested for (kl) = (mn) = (13). The result is shown
in Figure 6.6a. Further, the reciprocity relationship is
0.0
tested for a P-wave source by setting k = l and m = n.
This result is displayed in Figure 6.6b.
Reciprocity for P-wave source and force.

Finally, we consider the reciprocity relationship when
one state has a point source of volume injection for P-
–1.0 waves, whereas the other has a source of point force
0.5 1.0 1.5 acting in direction m. In state A, let
Time (s)
fiA = aA (ω)δ(x − xA )δim ,
FIGURE 6.5. Reciprocity of strain for stress-point sources.
For a P-wave source, ∂i(A) vi(jj) (xA , ω; xB ) = ∂i(B) vi(jj) (xB , ω; IijA = 0,
xA ). The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the
(A)
source at xA and the receiver at xB . The circles correspond vi = vi(m) (x, ω; xA ), and
to the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the
receiver at xA . τij(A) = τij(m) (x, ω; xA ).
(a) (b)
1.0 1.0
Normalized stress (τxx+ τzz )

Normalized stress (τ xz )
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 6.6. Reciprocity of stress for strain-point sources. (a) τ13(13) (xA , ω; xB ) = τ13(13) (xB , ω; xA ); (b) for a P-wave source,
τii(jj) (xA , ω; xB ) = τii(jj) (xB , ω; xA ). The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the source at xA and the receiver at xB .
The circles correspond to the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the receiver at xA .
(b)
(a)
1.0
1.0
0.0 0.0
–1.0 –1.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.0 1.5
Time (s) Time (s)
FIGURE 6.7. Reciprocity for P-wave source and force in direction m: τii(m) (xA , ω; xB ) = −iωvm(ii) (xB , ω; xA ). (a) m = 1;
(b) m = 3. The solid lines correspond to the experiment with the source at xA and receiver in xB . The circles correspond to
the reciprocal experiment with the source at xB and the receiver at xA .
In state B, let Again, the equal subscripts in parentheses (kk) on

the field variables denote that the fields are generated
fiB = 0, from a P-wave source. Inserting the above parameters
of states A and B into Betti’s theorem (6.98) yields
hijB = −ω−2 aB (ω)δ(x − xB )δij ,
(B)
vi = vi(kk) (x, ω; xB ), and
iωaA (ω)vm(ii) (xA , ω; xB ) = −aB (ω)τii(m) (xB , ω; xA ).
τij(B) = τij(kk) (x, ω; xB ). (6.106)
Identical source signatures, aA = aB , now give Media,” in which the acoustic reciprocity theorem is
discussed.
iωvm(ii) (xA , ω; xB ) = −τii(m) (xB , ω; xA ). (6.107) In Figure 6.8, equation (6.108) is numerically ver-
ified for m = 3. The model geometry is the same as in
Equation (6.107) states that, because of a P-wave point
Figure 6.3, but the uppermost layer is fluid. Both source
source at xB , iω times the m-component of the particle

and receivers are located in the fluid at position (xA , zA ,
velocity at location xA is identical to the normal stress
xB , zB ) = (1400 m, 10 m, 700 m, and 20 m).
field at location xB from a point force in the m-direction
at xA . This relationship holds for xA at any position in an
inhomogeneous anisotropic elastic medium. The reci-
procity relationship of equation (6.107) is numerically EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING
verified in Figure 6.7.
A special case of equation (6.107) is obtained when 1) In a domain occupied by water or any other nonvis-
the receiver of state A is located in a fluid, say at xB . In cous fluids, denoted here as D, the wavefield can be
this case, τii /3 = −p, where p is the pressure. Then characterized by the acoustic pressure, denoted here
as p = p(x, ω), and the particle velocity, denoted as
iωvm (xA , ω; xB ) = p(m) (xB , ω; xA ), (6.108) vr = vr (x, ω) for a generic point x. We can pre-
dict pressure and particle velocity at any point x in
stating that because of a P-wave point source at xB , domain D by solving a system of two first-order
iω times the m-component of the particle velocity at differential equations. These equations are (a) the
location xA is identical to the pressure field at loca- equation of wave motion,
tion xB from a point force in the m-direction at xA .
This particular reciprocity relationship was used by ∂k p − iωρvk = fk , (6.109)
Amundsen et al. (2001) to derive a seismic data-
and (b) the constitutive equation,
processing scheme for source designature and atten-
uation of free-surface-related multiples in the OBS ∂k vk − iωκp = q, (6.110)
experiment. For m = 3, equation (6.108) is identi-
cal to equation (6.68) derived in subsection “Special in which ρ = ρ(x) is the fluid volume density of
Cases of Acoustic Reciprocity for Identical Unbounded mass, and κ = κ(x) is the fluid compressibility
(the reciprocal of the bulk modulus). The source
q = q(x, ω, xs ) is generally known as the fluid
1.0 volume-source density of the injection rate, because
it describes the rate of change over time of the total
volume of a particular elementary domain associated
with particle x. The source fk = fk (x, ω, xs ) gener-
Normalized pressure
ally is known as the fluid volume-source density of

force.
0.0
a) Define sources q and fk for the particular case in
which they are point sources.
b) Rewrite equations (6.109) and (6.110) for the
particular case in which the source is an impul-
sive watergun explosion.
–1.0 2) The system of first-order differential equations
0.5 1.0 1.5
(6.109) and (6.110) can be described equiva-
Time (s) lently by two independent second-order differential
FIGURE 6.8. Reciprocity for a P-wave source and a equations. One of these is
vertically oriented force in fluid: p(3) (xB , ω; xA ) =
ω2 κp + ∂k (σ ∂k p) = s, (6.111)
iωv3 (xA , ω; xB ). The solid lines correspond to the exper-
iment with the source at xA and the receiver at xB . The with source term s given by
circles correspond to the reciprocal experiment with the
source at xB and the receiver at xA . s = iωq + ∂k (σ fk ) , (6.112)
where σ = σ (x) = 1/ρ(x) is the specific volume

(the reciprocal of density).
a) Derive equation (6.111) from equations (6.109) S Df
(Water/solid interface)
and (6.110). n Fluid
b) Rewrite equation (6.111) for the particular case

in which the specific volume is constant.
c) Derive a second-order differential equation [sim-
ilar to equation (6.111)] for the particle velocity. Solid
d) Give the explicit expression of s for the particular
case in which seismic waves are generated by a
monopole source. Ds
3) In a domain occupied by solids, the wavefield
can be characterized by the stress, denoted here FIGURE 6.9. Water/solid configuration — a heterogeneous
τpq = τpq (x, ω), and the particle velocity, denoted solid overlain by a homogeneous fluid.
vr = vr (x, ω), for the generic point x in the solid.
These quantities satisfy the equations
is also located in water. These quantities satisfy the
−kmpq ∂m τpq − iωρs ∂t vk = Fk , (6.113)
equations
ijnr ∂n vr + iωsijpq τpq = hij , (6.114) ∂k p − iωρf wk = 0, (6.117)
−kmpq ∂m τpq + ρs ∂t vk = Fk , (6.115) ∂k wk − iωκf p = q. (6.118)
where In subdomain Ds (occupied by a solid), the elas-

1 tic wavefield can be characterized by the solid stress,
ijpq = (δip δjq + δiq δjp ), (6.116) denoted here τpq = τpq (x, ω; xs ), and the solid par-
2
and in which Fk = Fk (x, ω) is the solid-volume ticle velocity, denoted vr = vr (x, ω; xs ), for a shot
density of force, hij = hij (x, ω) is the solid-volume point located at xs in Df and for the generic point x
source density of rate deformation, ρs = ρs (x) is the in Ds . These quantities satisfy the equations
solid-volume density of mass, and sijpq = sijpq (x) is
kmpq ∂m τpq + iωρs vk = 0, and (6.119)
the compliance.
As in the previous exercises, we can alterna- ijnr ∂n vr + iωsijpq τpq = 0. (6.120)
tively formulate the set of first-order coupled differ-
ential equations in equation (6.115) into a set of Note that the source is only in water; therefore,
second-order decoupled differential equations for equations (6.119) and (6.120) are source free.
stress and particle velocity. Across the interface between a water/solid inter-
Derive these two second-order differential equa- face S, we have continuity of stresses and particle
tions. velocity normal to the interface; i.e.,
q q
4) Consider a 3D model of the earth consisting of a het- nk (x)wk (x, ω; xs ) = nk (x)vk (x, ω, xs ) (6.121)
erogeneous, solid half-space overlain by a homoge-
neous fluid (water) layer, as described in Figure 6.9. and
We divide this model into two subdomains: (a) the
subdomain occupied by a solid, denoted Ds ; and (b) p(x, ω, xs ) = −nk (x)kmpq nm (x)τpq (x, ω, xs ).
the subdomain occupied by water, denoted Df . The (6.122)
interface between the two subdomains is denoted A.
In subdomain Df (occupied by water), the acoustic Tangential stresses vanish at the water/solid inter-
wavefield can be characterized by the acoustic pres- face; i.e.,
sure, denoted here p = p(x, ω; xs ), and the water
particle velocity, denoted wk = wk (x, ω; xs ), for a [δkr − nk (x)nr (x)]rmpq nm (x)τpq
q
(x, ω, xs ) = 0,
shot point located at xs in fluid. The generic point x (6.123)
where nk = nk (x) is the k-component of the local c) Deduce from Problem 5(a) the reciprocity the-
unit along the normal to the water/solid interface, orem for the case in which the source of the
denoted A. experiment associated with State A is assumed to
be a fluid volume-source density of force, and the
a) Deduce a simple form of the boundary condi-
source of the experiment associated with State B
tions, equations (6.121) through (6.123), for the

is assumed to be a solid volume-source density
particular case in which the water/solid interface
of force.
is horizontally flat.
d) Deduce from Problem 5(a) the reciprocity the-
b) Verify that the boundary conditions, equations
orem for the case in which the source of the
(6.121) through (6.123), are consistent with
experiment associated with State A is assumed to
those introduced in Chapter 3 at the interface
be a fluid volume-source density of force, and the
between two homogeneous half spaces.
source of the experiment associated with State B
5) The global reciprocity relationship holds for do- is assumed to be a solid volume-source density
main D (as depicted in Figure 6.9), describing a of rate deformation.
water/solid configuration. For the case of an un-
6) Decomposition of the medium parameter in subdo-
bounded domain, it can be written as
main Ds (Figure 6.9) into reference and perturbation
B A can be explicitly expressed as
q p + fkA wkB − qA pB − frB wrA dV
x∈D∩Df

ρs = ρs(0) + ρs(1) , (6.125)
= −F̃kA vkB + hpq
B A
τpq + FrB vrA − τijB hijA dV .
x∈D∩Ds
(6.124)
(0) (1)
We have used the notations introduced in Problem 4, cijpq = cijpq + cijpq , (6.126)
and we have assumed that the medium parameters
are the same in both States A and B. The domain
D∩Df is the domain that D and Df have in common; (0) (1)
sijpq = sijpq + sijpq , (6.127)
the domain D ∩ Ds is the domain that D and Ds have
in common. with
a) Consider that State A corresponds to a seismic (0) (0)
sijrs crspq = ijpq , (6.128)
experiment in which the source is at xA (point
source) and the receiver is at xB (point receiver)
and that State B corresponds to a seismic experi-
ment in which the source is at xB (point source) sijrs crspq = ijpq , (6.129)
and the receiver is at xA (point receiver). Deduce (0) (0) (0)
from equation (6.124) the reciprocity between where ρs , cijpq , and sijpq correspond to the refer-
two point sources in a water/solid configuration. ence medium and ρs(1) , cijpq
(1) (1)
, and sijpq correspond to
b) Deduce from Problem 5(a) the reciprocity theo- the perturbation.
rem between a monopole source in the fluid and Demonstrate that the following relationship
a dipole source in the solid. In other words, the (1) (1)
between cijpq and sijpq ,
source of the experiment associated with State A
is assumed to be a monopole source in the fluid, (0) (1) (1) (0) (1) (1)
sijrs crspq + sijrs crspq + sijrs crspq = 0, (6.130)
and the source of the experiment associated with
State B is assumed to be a dipole source in the holds, irrespective of the shapes or forms of the
solid. reference and actual media.

7
ACQUISITION GEOMETRIES AND SEISMIC DATA
Collecting seismic data is like attending a soccer as well as its relative cost. We also analyze the key
game. Your view of the game depends not only on the features of seismic data resulting from each of these
lighting system but also your position in the stadium. acquisition geometries.
A journalist, for instance, might prefer a position in the
stands with a good view of the entire soccer field to ana-
lyze and report on all moves and tactics. A photographer
might prefer a place on the touchline where he/she can SEISMIC ACQUISITION IN
immortalize the goals, even at the expense of not seeing WATER AND IN SOLIDS
the rest of the game. Each of these special positions in
the stadium will cost more than a standard seat. The concepts of homogeneity, heterogeneity, acous-
To continue the analogy to soccer games, the view ticity, and elasticity control the types of waves we can
of the subsurface by means of seismic data is deter- generate and the physical quantities we can record.
mined by the system of sources we use to illuminate Therefore, their implications for seismic acquisitions
the surface and by the type of sensors we use to cap- are profound. For instance, seismic experiments are
ture ground motion. The places we can put our sources divided primarily into land and marine acquisitions:
and sensors are limited — at or near the surface of the in marine cases, the acquisition is conducted in water,
earth, inside the water column, at the seafloor, or inside which can be treated as acoustic and homogeneous,
a borehole. Our choices, not only for the best possible whereas in land cases, the acquisition is conducted in
illumination but also locations of sources and sensors, heterogeneous elastic media (see Figure 7.1).
determine the cost. Our objective in this chapter is to The differences between various acquisition scenar-
describe current and emerging distributions of source ios presented here are between generating and recording
and receivers (i.e., seismic-acquisition geometries) in waves in a homogeneous fluid and in a heterogeneous,
seismic experiments. Our descriptions include advan- elastic medium (solid). The fluid is generally consid-
tages and disadvantages of each acquisition geometry, ered homogeneous, with a relatively flat air-water inter-
face. It supports only P-waves, and only
pressure variations are recorded, although
particle velocity can be deduced from
pressure measurements, as we shall see.
The solid is generally considered a hetero-
geneous, elastic medium with a nonflat
air-solid interface at the earth’s surface,
or a nonflat water-solid interface at the
seafloor. It supports P- and S-waves, and
the three components of particle velocity
can be recorded.
There are several configurations of
source and receiver distributions in ma-
rine acquisition. Those commonly used
for petroleum exploration and produc-
tion are (1) towed-streamer experiments,
FIGURE 7.1. Seismic experiments are

generally divided into surveys of land,
transition zones, and marine areas.
255
in which sources and receivers are distributed hor- Cases such as continental margins (mud) that can-
izontally in the water column near the sea surface; not be defined clearly as marine or land are called
(2) ocean-bottom-seismic (OBS) experiments, in which transition zones (Figure 7.1). We also discuss how
the sources are in the water column and the receivers seismic experiments are conducted in these cases.
are at the seafloor; (3) vertical-cable experiments, in
which the sources are in the water near the sea surface
as in towed-streamer and OBS experiments except that
receivers are distributed in the water in a vertical array; MARINE TOWED-STREAMER
and (4) walkaway VSP (vertical seismic profile) exper- SEISMICS
iments, in which the sources are in the water as in OBS
experiments but with the receivers inside a borehole. Acquisition Geometry
We describe these acquisition geometries in detail in
this chapter. Figure 7.2 illustrates a towed-streamer acquisition;
On land, the commonly used source and receiver a ship maneuvers across potential petroleum reservoirs
distributions are (1) surface-seismic experiments, in and tows a set of cables that contain receivers to record
which sources and receiver are at the surface of the signals generated by seismic sources. These cables,
earth or only a few meters (less than 10 m) below generally called streamers, are towed at depths of 5 to
the earth’s surface; (2) vertical-cable experiments, in 10 m below the sea surface. A typical streamer is 5,000-
which the source is at or near the surface of the to 10,000-m long and carries several hundred sensors,
earth and the receivers are distributed inside boreholes known as hydrophones, that record pressure changes. In
that are generally less than 500 m deep; and (3) VSP conventional acquisition, each seismic receiver is com-
experiments, in which the source is at the earth’s sur- posed of 12 to 24 hydrophones (see Figure 7.3) that
face and the receivers are inside a borehole, or vice are summed before or after recording, depending on
versa. The borehole in this case is generally as deep processing objectives (which we discuss in Chapter 8).
as the targeted petroleum reservoir. Again, we describe The spacing between receivers (i.e., the center of a
these acquisition geometries in detail in this chapter. group of hydrophones) is generally 12.5 m.
FIGURE 7.2. Illustration of towed- y x

streamer acquisition. The vessel tows
Air guns
an array of air guns and streamers of Streamers Streamer
hydrophones while traveling at an

approximately constant speed (a typical
seismic boat covers 50 m in about 20 s).
z
Downgoing seismic waves Upgoing seismic waves
74 m 101–200 m 5000–10 000 m
Air guns Water surface
Source array Live portion of streamer ~10m

at ~7 m
1 2 3 4 237 238 239 240
Monowing
12.5–25 m
x
Streamers
Subsurface coverage
Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data 257
Single air gun FIGURE 7.3. (a) Example of a marine

(a) 18-air-gun array configuration without
6–10-m streamers. Sometimes arrays are fired in
towing depth alternation, to allow recharge of the other
arrays and to improve acquisition time.
15–20-m (b) A conventional receiver array with 24

18.5-m su subarray separation
six gun p barray, hydrophones, formed with overlapping
ositions
per sub array
groups of 12 sensors, which are spaced
12.5 m nonuniformly.
(b) Array interval
Conventional single array, 24 individual hydrophones

16.12 m
Array length 16.12 m
Array length
Typical acquisition vessels can tow 12 to 16 stream- of the fluid medium. Because pressure is nondirec-
ers spaced 50 to 100 m apart. One of the major chal- tional, a hydrophone’s output is independent of wave
lenges with towed streamers is maintaining constant direction (assuming that the patterns of hydrophones
streamer spacing.1 Currents, tides, and other forces are isotropic).
can cause streamers to feather, or drift laterally, from 2) Towed-streamer acquisition is a roll-along experi-
programmed positions: In extreme cases, they become ment; i.e., after each shot, the lines of receivers
tangled and must be reeled back to the vessel and are moved to another appropriate location, and the
untangled manually, resulting in loss of time (see Evans, source is fired again.
1997, for a detailed discussion of these technological 3) The configuration of sources and receivers is called
challenges and solutions). off-end spread, meaning that all the receivers are
Several types of sources can be used in towed- on one side of the shotpoint.3 A major problem
streamer acquisition. The most common uses an array with this configuration is the large spacing between
of air guns that operates as an exploding source.2 streamers in the y-direction, assuming that the
Like receivers, the typical seismic source is an array streamer direction is the x-axis. We discuss this
composed of subarrays, each containing as many as six problem in Chapter 8.
air guns about 3 m apart (see Figure 7.3). The air-gun
In some special cases, two or more boats can be used
arrays are towed at depths of 5 to 10 m but are usually
to collect towed-streamer data. Figure 7.4 describes a
located at a shallower depth than streamers.
towed-streamer experiment in which three boats are
Towed-streamer acquisitions are often performed
used to collect long-offset (as long as 20-km) data in a
as a series of parallel shooting lines, called inline
split-spread configuration; i.e., receivers on either side
sections or rows. Lines perpendicular to these lines are
of the shotpoint. Long offsets are needed to increase
called crossline sections or columns. Crosslines can be
angular coverage for deep targets such as subbasalt rock
generated from inline data.
formations, as discussed in Chapter 1.
The main characteristics of towed-streamer acqui-
sition are:
Seismic Data
1) Sources and receivers are in water; therefore,
the sources generate only P-waves, and the physical We now analyze the different patterns contained
quantity recorded is pressure, i.e., the acceleration in towed-streamer seismic data, beginning with data
corresponding to a simple model made of two layers
and a half-space (Figure 7.5). Our analysis of the data
1 Present seismic-data processing requires that data be uniformly corresponding to this model is based on snapshots of
sampled in space; therefore, distance between streamers must be constant.
2 The effect of seismic operations on marine mammals is a subject of
vigorous debate. Some feel that these operations are harmful, whereas others 3 The assumption that seismic sources are point sources is realistic
argue that potential effects of seismic operations on the marine mammal in petroleum seismology studies, despite our use of arrays, because they
population are negligible. For the status of this debate, see Dragoset (2000). generally act on very small volumes.
FIGURE 7.4. Schematic diagram of a Streamers

towed-streamer acquisition with three Shooting and
recording Recording
boats. Recording
boat 3
boat 1 boat 2
Air guns
Negative far-offset Positive far-offset
FIGURE 7.5. Midpoint raypaths for a horizon- x

(a) Sea surface
tally layered medium: (a) the effects of Snell’s
law included and (b) the effect of Snell’s law
ignored.
z VP=1500 m/s Midpoint
VS=0 m/s plane
ρ=1.0 g/cc
Seafloor
VP=2500 m/s
VS=1250 m/s
ρ=2.25 g/cc
wave propagation (Figures 7.6 and 7.7),

on seismic data proper (Figures 7.8 VP=3000 m/s
and 7.9), and on a raypath description VS=1750 m/s
ρ=0.75 g/cc
of patterns contained in these data (Fig-
ure 7.10). For clarity, the schematic dia- (b) x
gram of raypaths in Figure 7.10 ignores Sea surface
Snell’s law. The difference between draw-
ing raypaths with and without the effects
of Snell’s law is shown in Figure 7.5. In z
Midpoint
petroleum seismology, to draw raypaths plane
without using Snell’s law is common prac-
Seafloor
tice. Except when stated otherwise, these Z1 = 500 m
simplifications of raypaths are limited
only to our drawings: our data include the
effects of Snell’s law.
In marine towed-streamer acquisi-
Z2 = 1250 m
tion, source and receivers are located in a
water column less than 10 m below the sea Source Receiver
surface. To clearly identify various pat-
terns contained in the data corresponding
to this acquisition geometry, we consider
the case in which source and receivers are located at 1) Direct waves: The expanding energy that moves
225 m and 275 m, respectively, in the water column. from the source point to the receiver without hitting
Patterns in seismic data generally are described any interface is a direct wave. As illustrated in Fig-
using the concept of an event. An event is formed by ures 7.8 and 7.9, the direct wave has a linear moveout
coherent seismic energy corresponding to one of the when sources and receivers are at almost the same
wave types that travel from source to receiver by some depth. The direct-wave event in Figure 7.9 inter-
path through the subsurface. The events in Figures 7.8 feres with the source ghost event (we discuss this
and 7.9 can be grouped into six categories: direct waves, interference later, after we introduce the concept of
primaries, source ghosts, receiver ghosts, free-surface ghosts). In any given marine seismic data set only
multiples, and internal multiples. one direct-wave event is present.
2000 m 2000 m 2000 m 2000 m

d
1500 m
d and sgd
1500 m
150 ms 750 ms 150 ms 750 ms

sgd
sgp1
1500 m
1500 m
350 ms 850 ms 350 ms 850
50 ms
rgp1
p1 and sgp1
1500 m
1500 m
p2
550 ms 900 ms 550 ms 900 ms

1500 m
p1
1500 m
p2 and sgp2
650 ms 1050 ms 650 ms 1050 ms
FIGURE 7.6. Snapshots of wave propagation in a model FIGURE 7.7. Snapshots of wave propagation in a model
made of two homogeneous layers and a half-space. Prop- made of two homogeneous layers and a half-space. Prop-
erties of this model are given in Figure 7.5. Impedance erties of this model are given in Figure 7.5, and the nomen-
contrasts are particularly large in this example because clature is explained in Figure 7.6. Source and receivers are
we wanted to show internal multiples as well as primaries, located very near the sea surface (zs = 5 m, zr = 10 m),
free-surface multiples, and ghosts. The nomenclature is as as compared to the case in Figure 7.6 (zs = 225 m,
follows: d = direct wave; sgd = source ghost of the direct zr = 275 m).
wave; p = primary; sgp = source ghost of the primary;
rgp = receiver ghost of the primary.
2) Primaries: These are seismic events that reflect or Because of interferences between primaries and
diffract only once in the subsurface before being other events contained in the seismic data, the prob-
recorded. As we see by following the path of the lem of removing multiples is one of the most chal-
primary p1 in the snapshots in Figure 7.6, it has lenging steps in seismic-data processing, as we see in
reflected only once from the source to the receivers. Chapter 10.
For the model in Figure 7.5, we have only two 3) Source ghosts: Seismic energy not only travels
primaries, p1 and p2, because this model con- downward in the subsurface but, unfortunately, up-
tains only two reflectors other than the sea surface ward to the free surface (i.e., the air-water interface).
(i.e., free surface). The two primaries are identi- This up-traveling energy is reflected downward at
fied in the seismic data shown in Figures 7.8 and the free surface, generating a new seismic event.
7.9. These primaries interfere with the source and This event, whose first bounce is at the free surface,
receiver ghost events shown in Figure 7.9. Present is called a source ghost because it follows the ini-
seismic-imaging schemes assume that data contain tial downgoing signal into the reflection paths (see
primaries only; direct, ghost, and multiple events Figure 7.6). A source ghost is associated with each
must be removed from the data before imaging. seismic event, as illustrated in Figure 7.8, with one
1.0 Offset (km) 0.0 1.0 Offset (km) 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0
d d
sgd
0.5 p1 0.5
0.5
sgp1
Time (s)
1.0 1.0 p1
Time (s)
1.0
rsgp1
rgp1
p2
1.5 1.5
sgp2
p2
1.5 psp
rsgp2 mi
m1 rgp2
2.0 2.0
m1
2.0
Source
Receiver
d sgd
p1 sgp1 rgp1 rsgp1 m1
P P
p2 sgp2 rgp2 rsgp2 P1 m1

P S
FIGURE 7.8. Simulated seismic data corresponding to PSP mi

P2
the model described in Figure 7.5. The physical quan-
tity displayed is pressure. Offset is the distance between FIGURE 7.9. Simulated seismic data corresponding to the
the shot position and a receiver position along the hor- model described in Figure 7.5. The physical quantity dis-
izontal axis. Depth of the source is 225 m and that of played is pressure. Offset is the distance between the shot
the receivers is 275 m. The nomenclature is as follows: position and a receiver position along the horizontal axis.
d = direct wave; sgd = source ghost of the direct wave; Depth of the source is 5 m and that of the receivers is
sgp = source ghost of the primary; rgp = receiver ghost 10 m. The nomenclature is as follows: d = direct wave;
of the primary; rsgp = combination of source and receiver p = primary; psp = primary of a P-to-S-to-P converted
ghost; m = free-surface multiple. wave; mi = internal multiple; m = free-surface multiple.
exception: direct waves. No source ghost is asso- because they are indistinguishable from events asso-
ciated with direct waves if the shotpoint is located ciated with them.
below the receiver point. However, as in towed- 4) Receiver ghosts: These are events whose last
streamer experiments, the source is usually located bounce is at the free surface. Figures 7.6 and 7.8
above the streamer of receivers, so towed-streamer show examples of receiver ghosts. When the source
data will then contain the source ghost of a direct is located above the receiver, as in most towed-
wave, as we see in Figure 7.8. In this figure, we streamer experiments, there is no receiver ghost for
also identify the source ghost of primaries. Source direct waves. Otherwise, each event in seismic data
ghosts, say, of primaries, are almost indistinguish- has its receiver ghost. Again, the receiver ghosts, say,
able from the primaries themselves (see Figures 7.7 of primaries, are almost indistinguishable from the
and 7.9) when the sources are very close to the primaries because zr is quite small (see Figures 7.8
free surface (zs = 5 m), as they are in most marine and 7.9). In practice, receiver ghosts are treated as
experiments. In practice, source ghosts generally part of an effective-source signature that takes into
are treated as a component of the source signature account the effect of the ghosts.
● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
FIGURE 7.10. Examples of events in
towed-streamer data. These events can
be grouped into direct waves, primaries,
internal multiples, free-surface multiples,
receiver ghosts, source ghosts and a com-
bination of source ghosts and receiver

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ghosts.
1 : Direct wave 5 : Receiver ghosts

2 : Primaries 6 : Source ghosts
3 : Internal multiple 7 : A combination of source and
4 : Free-surface multiples receiver ghosts
● Source Receiver
Shot location FIGURE 7.11. A simulated shot gather

8200 m 4100 m
0 extracted from the Pluto 1.5 D data set.
Shot location Highlighted are the direct wave (d), four
d (Direct wave) primaries (P0, P1, P2, P3), and the first-
1 and second-order multiples (M10 and
P0
P3
M20) associated with the primary P0.
P1
P0 P2
2
M10
3
P1 Time (s)
M20 4
5
P2
P3
6
5) Free-surface multiples: Every discontinuity en- simplicity of the model used in this example). How-
countered by a progressing wave gives rise to ever, the diagram of raypaths of events contained
reflected and transmitted waves. Seismic data thus in these data allows to us to picture the free-surface
contain contributions from waves that have not only multiples (see Figure 7.10). These multiple events
traveled the direct primary path shot from reflector also are identified in the seismic data in Figures 7.8
to receiver, but also from those traveling all possible and 7.9. They all have at least one bounce at the
paths, including free-surface multiples that involve free surface, except for the ghost events, whose
one or several bounces at the air-water, free-surface first and/or last bounce is at the free surface. Free-
interface. The snapshots in Figures 7.6 and 7.7 con- surface multiples generally are distinguished by
tain no free-surface multiples, because they arrive the number of bounces at the free surface. Thus,
late (after 1 s). Snapshots become very complex free-surface multiples that include only one bounce
as a result of simultaneous occurrences of several at the free surface are called first-order multiples.
reflections and transmissions (despite the relative Free-surface multiples that bounce twice at the free
BOX 7.1: THE SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE

In most seismic surveys, several sources are in an inhomogeneous medium. The material para-
grouped in a source array to produce a single shot. meters, wavefields, and sources are defined by the
However, we have not yet fully addressed one following:
fundamental question. What is the relationship
κ = κ(x) compressibility (reciprocal of bulk
between the response of a source array and the
modulus)
response of each single source constituting the
σ = σ (x) specific volume (reciprocal of
array? This question is important, because if we
density)
know the response of elements forming the array,
v = v(x, ω) particle velocity
such a relationship allows us to predict the seis-
p = p(x, ω) acoustic pressure
mic response of the source array. The superposition
f = f(x, ω) volume density of external force
principle answers this question.
iv = iv (x, ω) volume density of volume
The superposition principle states that, in a injection
linear system, the response to a number of sig-
nal inputs applied simultaneously is the same as The equation of motion is
the sum of the responses to the signals applied
separately (one at a time). In seismic acquisition, σ ∇p = iωv + σ f, (7.1)
input signals are the source signatures from sources
that need not be identical. The linear system is
constructed from the constitutive stress-strain rela- iωκp = ∇ · v + iωiv . (7.2)
tionship (Hooke’s law) and the equations of wave
motion that govern wave propagation; the response Let {pA , vA } be the field generated by the given
can be either snapshots or seismic data representing source distributions {ivA , f A } in accordance with
stress, particle velocity, particle acceleration, etc. equations 7.1 and 7.2. Similarly, let {pB , vB } be the
The only time the superposition principle does not field generated by the given source distributions
apply in seismic acquisition and processing is when {ivB , f B } in the same medium, also in accordance
the stress-strain relationship is nonlinear. The wave with equations 7.1 and 7.2. Then {αpA +βpB , αvA +
equation is linear by definition. Fortunately, lin- βvB } is the field that would be generated by the
ear stress-strain relationships are good enough for source distributions {αivA + βivB , αf A + βf B }, where
modeling most phenomena encountered in seismic α and β are arbitrary constants. Again, this result is
data, including anisotropy and attenuation, because known as the superposition principle. The proof of
we are dealing mostly with small deformations in this principle is straightforward from equations 7.1
petroleum seismology. and 7.2. This generalization applied to other cases,
The only important phenomenon in seismic such as solid or water-solid configurations, is also
exploration and production that cannot be mod- straightforward.
eled properly by a linear stress-strain relationship The marine-source array can be treated as a
is deformation near the shotpoint during formation set of localized point sources, each characterized
of the initial shot pulse, because deformation in by an effective (or notional) monopole wavefield.
the vicinity of the shotpoint can be relatively large. This representation, introduced by Ziolkowski et al.
However, this phenomenon is of no great conse- (1982), takes into account the interaction effects
quence over most of the travel path, thus permitting between oscillating bubbles in the airgun array.
us to use the superposition principle in most cases. The effective-source method generates a set of
To describe the superposition principle mathe- monopole signatures for each bubble. The wave-
matically, recall the basic acoustic equations intro- field at any chosen point is computed by superpos-
duced in Chapter 2, which describe wave motion ing these monopole effective (notional) sources.
surface are called second-order multiples. Each free- pressure wavefield can be written as
surface multiple has its receiver and source ghosts.
6) Internal multiples: These are seismic events with p = p(xs , xr , t), (7.3)
a bounce between two interfaces but not at the
free surface (see Figure 7.9). Compared to pri- where t is the signal’s traveltime from the source to
maries, the amplitudes of internal multiples usually the receiver location. Therefore, the shot gathers are
are quite small and often barely visible in seismic the (t, xr ) cross sections of the pressure wavefield.
data. However, one type of internal multiple that can Each cross section corresponds to a limited experiment
be relevant is the seafloor-related internal multiple with one shot and all receivers available. Similarly, we
such as the one in Figure 7.9. Furthermore, only the introduce the (t, xs ) cross section, known as a common-
first of the seafloor-related internal multiples that receiver gather; the pressure wavefield in this cross
bounce once at the seafloor may be noticeable in section corresponds to an experiment with all shots
towed-streamer data. Salt and basalt also are known recorded at a single receiver. Pressure wavefield p is
to produce strong internal multiples. a scalar function because pressure is a nondirectional
quantity. In the towed-streamer experiment, the receiver
Figure 7.11 shows simulated towed-streamer data
corresponding to the Pluto 1.5 model (see Figure 1.7 in
Chapter 1) constructed by the SMAART JV group. The (a)
model and the data are much more complicated than
in the previous example (Figure 7.9). We indicate the
direct wave, some of the primaries, and the free-surface
multiples included in these data. In practice, we can-
not identify all primaries and multiples contained in the
seismic data; computer codes are necessary to trans- (b)
late the seismic data to the model of the subsurface.
This task is known as seismic imaging, and the field of
reconstructing models from given data is broadly known
as inverse problem theory. Seismic imaging is just one
application of this theory (see Chapter 11).
(c)
Shot and Receiver Gathers
As described earlier, the towed-streamer experi-
ment consists of setting off a bang (the source) in the
water, letting the wavefield bounce through the subsur-
face, and recording the time required for the wavefield
to bounce back to the sea surface (at the receiver).
Then the source location is moved a specified distance, (d)
and the process is repeated.4 Many receivers are used
to record returning signals for each source location;
each receiver recording is called a trace, and the group
of traces corresponding to the same seismic source is
known as a shot gather. So a shot gather is a side-by-side
display of seismic traces that have the same shotpoint
coordinates. The data in Figures 7.8, 7.9, and 7.11 are Source positions
displayed in common-shot gathers. Receiver positions
If we denote the source position by xs = (xs , ys , zs )
and the receiver position by xr = (xr , yr , zr ), the FIGURE 7.12. Common collections of seismic traces:
(a) common-shot gather, (b) common-receiver gather,
(c) common midpoint gather, and (d) common-offset
4 Seismic boats generally move at 5 knots, about 20 s per 50 m. gather.
FIGURE 7.13. A simulated common- Receiver

8200 m 4100 m
receiver gather extracted from the Pluto 0
1.5D data set. Highlighted are the direct Receiver location
wave (d), the seafloor primary (P0),

d (Direct wave)
and the first- and second-order multi- 1
ples (M10 and M20) associated with the

primary P0. M10
P0
M20
Time (s)
4
and source depths, zr and zs , are assumed to be constant In other words, a common-receiver gather at xA is
during the survey. equal to the common-shot gather at the same point,
Figure 7.12b illustrates the concept of receiver gath- xA . In practice, the requirement that zs = zr is fre-
ers, and Figure 7.13 shows a common-receiver gather quently ignored for towed-streamer data because the
from the Pluto 1.5D model. As we see in Figure 7.13, distance zr − zs is generally very small (less than
common-receiver gathers and shot gathers are quite 5 m; less than λ/5 for 60-Hz data, with λ being the
similar in an experiment in which source and receiver wavelength) (see Figures 7.14 and 7.15).
positions can be interchanged based on the reciprocity
theorem, as in the towed-streamer experiment (see Common-midpoint and
Chapter 6 and the next paragraph). However, receiver Common-offset Gathers
gathers in towed-streamer data can be split-spread (i.e.,
receivers on both sides of the shotpoint) even when shot Although seismic data are naturally recorded in
gathers are not split-spread, because shot locations can shot gathers, sometimes they are reorganized in other
be on both sides of the receiver location. domains in which processing may be physically more
The reciprocity theorem (see Chapter 6) is an asser- intuitive or important features reveal themselves more
tion about a single experiment carried out twice with an clearly. Common-midpoint (CMP) gathers constitute
exchange of source and receiver positions; i.e., an example of such a domain.
We can also describe the pressure wavefield in terms
p(t, xs = xA , xr = xB ) = p(t, xs = xB , xr = xA ). of the midpoint vector, xm = (xm , ym , zm ), and the half-
(7.4) offset vector, xh = (xh , yh , zh ); i.e., p = p(t, xm , xh ), in
which xm and xh are defined by a linear coordinate
For reciprocity to be valid for the ensemble of all shots transformation; i.e.,
and receivers along the seismic line, depths zs and zr xs + xr
must be equal. An important consequence of the reci- xm = (7.6)
procity theorem is that, when zs = zr , the wavefield 2
generated by a source at xA for receivers along x equals and
xs − xr
the wavefield recorded at xA for (individual) sources xh = . (7.7)
along x; i.e., 2
To understand this change better, we limit our discus-
p(t, xs = xA , x) = p(t, x, xr = xA ) for all x. (7.5) sion to the collection of multiple-coverage data gathered
(a) 1000 m 225 m Receiver location index
∆z
750 m VP = 1.5 km/s, VS = 0 km/s, ρ = 1 g/cc
250 m
Exp1: source receiver VP = 2.5 km/s, VS = 1.25 km/s,
Shot location
ρ = 2.25 g/cc
Exp2: source receiver
(b) Exp1
Exp2
Exp1-Exp2
∆z = 0 m
(c) Exp1
Raw data
Exp2
Zero offset
Exp1-Exp2
Copied data using reciprocity
∆z = 5 m FIGURE 7.15. Illustration of applicability of the reciproc-

ity theorem in a towed-streamer experiment in which
(d) Exp1 the source and receiver depths are constant. Chart shows
seismic-trace (source and receiver pair) positions in a 2D
Exp2 survey of towed-streamer data. Rows are shot locations and
columns are receiver locations.
Exp1-Exp2
0.05 s ∆z = 25 m
for a single seismic line. We assume that the data are
FIGURE 7.14. Illustration of the applicability of the reci-
gathered along a straight line with constant depth zs for
procity theorem in a towed-streamer experiment in which
the source and receiver depths are constant. (a) Illustration the sources and constant depth zr for the receivers. A
of two similar experiments, in which the coordinates of point on this seismic line is selected as the origin, so
source and receiver along the horizontal axis in one exper- that ys = yr = 0. Hence, we need only consider the
iment are exchanged in the second experiment (drawing is subspace (t, xs , xr ) in which the wavefield is a function
not to scale). (b) Comparison of data corresponding to the of only three variables:
two experiments in (a) for z = 0 m (z = zr − zs ,
where zs and zr are source and receiver depths, respec- p = p(t, xs , xr ),
tively). (c) Comparison of data corresponding to the two
experiments in (a) for z = 5 m. (d) Comparison of data (i.e., ys = yr = 0, zs = const, zr = const), (7.8)
corresponding to the two experiments in (a) for z = 25 m.
The direct wave and its ghost are identical in the two
or
experiments, irrespective of the value of z, because their p = p(t, xm , xh ), (7.9)
wavepaths are not affected by lateral heterogeneity of the with
corner diffraction. Also, the traces for the case in which
z = 5 m are very similar when comparing arrivals of var-
xs + xr xs − xr
xm = , xh = , (7.10)
ious events and shapes of the waveforms. However, even 2 2
one sample shift is enough to produce large differences and
between the two experiments. Because arrivals of various
xs = xm + xh , xr = xm − xh . (7.11)
events and shapes of the waveforms are almost identi-
cal, we generally assume that reciprocity is valid in such The CMP gather is the (t, xh ) cross section. Figure 7.12c
a small z. shows the experiment corresponding to a CMP gather.
x in Figure 7.16, for dipping interfaces, the reflection

Sea surface
points no longer coincide with the midpoints.
Similarly, we introduce the (t, xm ) cross section,
Midpoint
z plane known as the common-offset gather; the pressure wave-
field in this cross section corresponds to an experi-
ment with all shots recorded at a single offset (see

Water Figure 7.12d).
Z1
Figures 7.17, 7.18, and 7.19 show common-mid-
point and offset gathers from the Pluto 1.5D data set.
From the four cross sections introduced so far, the
Rock 1 Z2
common-offset gathers give the best indication of the
shape of the model of the subsurface.
Reciprocity also applies in the CMP domain.
FIGURE 7.16. Midpoint raypaths for dipping layers. Note Assuming that zs = zr , reciprocity gives
that the midpoint coincides with a reflection point only for
horizontally flat (1D) media. p(t, xs , xr ) = p(t, xr , xs ), (7.12)
and using the definitions of the midpoint and half-offset
in equation (7.9), we arrive at
p(t, xm , xh ) = p(t, xm , −xh ). (7.13)
The variable in the CMP gather is the distance between Equation 7.13 shows that p(t, xm , xh ) is symmetric with
the source and receiver, called the offset. A near offset is respect to xh = 0.
the horizontal distance between the source and the near-
est receiver, whereas a far offset is the distance between
the source and the far receiver. When the medium is Out-of-plane Reflections
one dimensional (i.e., all interfaces between rock for-
mations are horizontal), as in Figure 7.5, the midpoints In the past, seismic data consisted of a single inline
coincide with the reflection points. However, as we see acquisition, known as 2D seismics (see Figure 7.20a).
FIGURE 7.17. CMP gather extracted from Offset CMP position Offset
the Pluto 1.5D data set. 8200 m 4100 m
0
CMP location
3
Time (s)
7
CMP positions FIGURE 7.18. Common-offset (230-m)

20 km gather extracted from the Pluto 1.5D
0
data set.
1.0
2.0
Time (s)
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
CMP positions FIGURE 7.19. Common-offset (4100-

20 km m) gather extracted from the Pluto
0
1.5D data set.
1.0
2.0
Time (s)
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
The model of the earth in this acquisition and in the expanding wavefront. In the absence of any varia-
subsequent seismic-imaging process is assumed to be tion of the geologic structure from the vertical plane
invariant along the crosslines. This, of course, is not of the 2D acquisition line, only reflections return-
generally true. Because of the structural features of ing from within the vertical plane would be recorded.
the sea bottom or other reflectors below the sea bot- However, if there were a structural feature, such as
tom, reflected events from outside the vertical plane scattering points outside the acquisition plane, out-of-
will be recorded in the 2D data. When the source is plane reflections from these scattering points would
detonated, seismic energy propagates outward in an also be recorded (see Figure 7.20b). The presence of
(a)
Source Single streamer with
hydrophones
Principle of
2D acquisition
P = pressure waves
S = shear waves
Survey lines often
kilometers apart
Seismic
section
(b) Source Multiple streamers Close spacing between

streamers (tens of meters apart)
and sail lines allows data to be
represented as seismic cubes.
P = pressure waves
S = shear waves
Principle of 3D acquisition Seismic cube

FIGURE 7.20. (a) The simplest and oldest form of standard offshore reflection surveys is conducted
by a ship towing an array of air guns and a single cable, or streamer, containing hydrophones. This
technique is known as 2D seismic because the survey lines are generally several kilometers apart.
A subsurface picture of the geology thus has to be reconstructed painstakingly by interpreting and
guessing intelligently what exists between the survey lines. (b) After 2D seismic, the next sig-
nificant step was the emergence of so-called 3D seismic, which uses multiple streamers to shoot
closely spaced lines (25 to 100 m apart). Because of this close spacing, it is possible to represent
the data as 3D seismic cubes — an innovation that goes hand in hand with rapid development of
high-performance computers and advanced data-processing techniques. Cubes can be viewed as
they are, or they can be analyzed in greater detail by computer-generating vertical, horizontal (time
slices), or inclined sections through them, as well as sections along interpreted horizons.
reflections from out of the plane is an inherent prob- rough weather, the level of swell noise is the principal
lem with 2D seismic data, because it usually is difficult factor determining the acceptability of marine seismic
to distinguish within-the-plane reflections from out-of- data.
plane reflections. Ignoring these reflections in imaging Figure 7.21a shows a shot gather from the Atlantic
schemes results in inaccurate representations of the Ocean, west of the Shetland Islands. The gather was
subsurface. affected by swell noise. The data quality is such that, in

Out-of-plane reflections occur as primaries as well normal circumstances, the data would be rejected and
as multiples. data acquisition suspended were it not for an investiga-
tion of the characteristics of swell noise.
Swell Noise Swell noise occurs predominantly at frequencies
below 20 Hz, although in extreme sea conditions, it can
As discussed in Chapter 6, noise in seismic data can be present above 20 Hz. Swell noise above 20 Hz
be defined as a signal that our mathematical model can- is generally known as break-out noise, caused by a
not account for. In a marine acquisition, noise is created hydrophone either breaking out or close to breaking
by side effects related to the seismic-source detona- out from the sea to the atmosphere.
tion, or it emanates from sources other than the seismic The standard technique for removing swell noise
survey, e.g., electrical power lines, ship propellers, is to apply a high-pass filter to the data. Figure 7.21b
drilling activities, other seismic boats, and wind/rough shows the same data as in Figure 7.21a, but high-pass fil-
seas. tered at 20 Hz. We see that a significant amount of swell
Rough seas are the most important source of noise noise has been reduced; also, the hydrophones with
in marine acquisition. This noise, called swell noise, break-out noise are more clearly visible. A major draw-
corresponds to ocean swells during rough weather. In back of this technique is that it reduces the bandwidth
Offset (km) Offset (km)

0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
0 0
(a) (b)
Raw data 20-Hz low-cut
1 1
2 2
3 3
Time (s)
Time (s)
4 4
5 5
6 6
Break-out
7
noise
7
FIGURE 7.21. Illustration of swell noise in towed-streamer data: (a) raw data and (b) image after a high-pass filter at
20 Hz. (Adapted from Christie et al., 2001.)
of the seismic signal. Advanced methods for reducing where τ is the two-way traveltime from the source
swell noise are being developed and are discussed in to the receiver. Since the overall system response of
Chapter 8. dual-seismic processing (simultaneous use of pressure
and particle velocity in seismic processing) is the prod-
uct of the individual amplitude spectra, ghosts can be
suppressed by summing the seismic trace recorded by

Measurement of Particle Velocity both the hydrophone and the geophone. Thus, a simul-
in Towed-streamer Acquisition taneous recording of pressure and particle velocity can
aid in the process of attenuating ghosts, which is known
Measurement of particle velocity in towed-streamer
as deghosting.
acquisition is done by sensing particle motions in the
How do we measure particle velocity in the water?
water column instead of changes in pressure. Why
Equation (2.160), i.e.,
would one want to measure particle velocity in a water
column? And how do we do it? ∂vk 1 ∂p
The answer to “why” was discussed in Chapter 4. =− , (7.16)
∂t ρ ∂xk
Using a geophone that can measure the vertical com-
ponent of particle velocity, an impulse arriving at the provides the answer to this question: vk is the kth com-
receiver from below produces an initial output that we ponent of the particle velocity, p is the pressure, and ρ
can define as positive. When this pulse is reflected at is the density of water. The index k takes the values 1,
the free surface, boundary conditions show that the 2, and 3. Although only volumetric deformation occurs
reflected pulse is also measured as positive. If we em- in the water, we are still indirectly able to measure the
ploy pressure receivers, an initial upgoing compres- particle velocity by using equation (7.16), whose rela-
sional signal will produce an output that we define as tionship allows us to determine, for example, the ver-
positive, and the measured reflected signal will have tical component of particle velocity from the gradient
negative polarity. Thus, the impulse response of the of pressure; measurements of the vertical component
ghost distortion corresponding to the particle velocity of particle velocity in seawater are based on this rela-
receiver is tionship. One way to measure the vertical component
of particle velocity in practice is to use dual streamers,
hv (t) = δ(t) + δ(t − τ ), (7.14) as depicted in Figure 7.22. Vertical separation between
streamers must be small and constant at all offsets to
whereas the impulse response of the ghost distortion approximate ∂p/∂z. One other method for performing
corresponding to the pressure receiver is this measurement is described below.
We have pointed out that the vertical component
hp (t) = δ(t) − δ(t − τ ), (7.15) of particle velocity can be computed by recording
pressure with two streamers at two
different depths (see Figure 7.22). By
using the reciprocity relationship (see
Chapter 6), we can alternatively use
two sources to simulate a vertical force
Streamer 1
and avoid towing two sets of stream-
Streamer 2
ers. Figure 6.1 illustrates this applica-
tion of the reciprocity theorem, and
Air gun Figure 7.23 compares the snapshots
of a particle velocity response gener-
ated by a monopole source with that
of a pressure response generated by a
vertical-force source. For practical im-
plementations of this vertical force,
readers are referred to Chapter 6 and
also the paper of Moldoveanu (2000),
FIGURE 7.22. Dual-streamer acquisition. who first proposed this concept.
Acoustic Acoustic Acoustic

monopole dipole dipole
radiation radiation radiation
300 ms 300 ms 300 ms

1.5 km
5m
5m
1.5 km 1.5 km 1.5 km
FIGURE 7.23. Examples of acoustic monopole and dipole radiations in water (VP = 1.5 km/s, ρ = 1.0 g/cc). The quantity
displayed is acoustic pressure. Note the similarity between the radiation pattern of the dipole responses and that of vertical
and horizontal components of the particle velocity in Figure 2.27.
BOX 7.2: DISPLAYING SEISMIC DATA: AMPLITUDE CORRECTION

As the seismic wave propagates through the 3) Absorption (anelastic attenuation): Transmis-
subsurface, the amplitude of the input pulse decays sion of seismic energy is commonly thought of
with distance. The following factors contribute to as an elastic process; however, a small frac-
this attenuation: tion of the traveling energy is lost because of
1) Geometric spreading: As a seismic pulse prop- the anelasticity of the rocks. This lost energy
agates outward from the source, the original is dissipated into heat. The loss is greater for
energy transmitted becomes distributed over a higher frequencies than for lower frequencies
spherical shell of expanding radius. Therefore, (we describe the mechanism of these losses in
in a homogeneous material having constant Chapter 12).
velocity, the amplitude of the wavefront dimin- 4) Multiple scattering: Small heterogeneities of
ishes with the inverse of the radius of the shell the earth, in the order of centimeters or smaller,
r −1 , as discussed in Chapter 2. deflect seismic waves in different directions;
2) Reflection and transmission losses: As the therefore, they can produce amplitude decays
seismic wavelet encounters reflection bound- (we also describe the mechanism of these losses
aries, some of the energy is reflected at the in Chapter 12).
boundary and some is transmitted farther into the
subsurface. The amount of energy reflected and Figures 7.24 and 7.25 show typical amplitude
transmitted decreases at each interface, making decay from all four causes. Geometric spreading
it difficult to see the deeper reflectors. accounts for most of it; however, amplitude decay
(continued)
Box 7.2 continued
(a) Constant velocity (b) Increasing velocity most common methods petroleum seismologists
Source Source
have devised to compensate for energy decays:
1) Exponential-gain recovery: Used to remove

the exponential decay of amplitudes with in-
creasing depth and offset. A wide variety of
Energy algorithms exists; in general, all try to equalize
flowing
across this the trace amplitudes from early to late arrival
area times.
later flows
across 2) Trace balancing: Used to correct for lateral
this
area
variations in trace-to-trace amplitudes. These
variations are more common on land because of
near-surface effects, but they can occur also in
marine environments as a result of instrumen-
tation problems. Corrections are applied on a
trace-by-trace basis. The same gain correction
FIGURE 7.24. Spherical divergence: (a) homogeneous is applied to every sample of a trace, based on
earth, (b) heterogeneous earth. As energy propagates the average amplitude of either the entire trace
outward, it spreads over a greater surface area. In the or some windowed portion of it.
homogeneous model, the expansion can be described
3) Automatic gain control (AGC): Attempts to
by a linear function. In the heterogeneous model, the
make amplitudes similar for all offsets, for all
expansion is nonlinear. (Adapted from O’Doherty and
Anstey, 1971.) times, and for all midpoints (Dobrin and Savit,
1988). This process computes a gain correction
for every sample, based on the average power
100 in a sliding-window function. The process is re-
Decay caused by geometric spreading peated on a trace-by-trace basis. An excessively
short AGC window can affect the phase of the
Reflection amplitude (%)
data.
10 4) Q-compensation: Defined as a loss of fre-
quency components in a seismic signal with
increasing travel distance. As stated before, as
Ambient noise
a seismic wave travels through the subsur-
1
face, it progressively loses frequency content,
Observed decay from all causes becoming lower in frequency. Q-compensation
is an attempt to recover and restore these lost
0.1 high-frequency components. Q-compensation,
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 or the inverse Q filter, can provide a good
Time (s)
solution to the problem, but it is difficult to deter-
FIGURE 7.25. Attenuating effects in seismic data. The mine Q with any precision, as we discuss in
majority of attenuation is caused by geometric spread- Chapter 12.
ing of the wavefront. (Adapted from O’Doherty and
Anstey, 1971.) Some of these processes should be used only for
purposes of display. AGC and trace balancing are
related to other sources is not negligible. In any especially dangerous to AVO analysis and should
event, these decays must be compensated so that be avoided if possible. Any process that affects
deep events in seismic data can be clearly visible, the trace-to-trace amplitudes of a section can either
especially for display purposes. Following are the create or destroy AVO effects.
OCEAN-BOTTOM SEISMICS the second vessel records, the third vessel retrieves and
moves sensor cables and sets up the next receiver lines
Acquisition Geometry: 4C-OBS Data ahead of the source vessel. This three-vessel configura-
tion allows the source boat to run a nearly continuous
The towed-streamer experiment records P-waves operation. Another solution to reduce the cost of acqui-
directly, but not S-waves, although the wavepath below sition is to operate with one seismic vessel, which both
the seafloor may include some S-wave paths. S-waves deploys the receiver and shoots seismic waves. For
are not recorded directly, because the receivers are every cable deployed, data are recorded into record-
in seawater, and water, as with all nonviscous fluids, ing buoys. When the sensors are not in cables, but in
supports only P-waves, not S-waves. ocean-bottom, node-type systems with sensors housed
In a marine four-component (4C) ocean-bottom in units inserted into the seafloor by remotely operated
seismic (OBS) experiment, also known as a marine 4C vehicles, recording must take place locally.
experiment, the receivers are located at the seafloor. A major requirement in 4C-OBS experiments is
Every receiver station is a four-component sensing sys- that geophones be precisely coupled to the seafloor in
tem: three components of the particle velocity field order to record both high-quality P-waves and S-waves.
are recorded from a three-component geophone, and Because shear waves do not travel through water, geo-
the pressure field is recorded from a hydrophone. One phones must be in direct contact with the seabed to
geophone component is oriented vertically and two capture the motion of the seabed but not the change of
are oriented horizontally, perpendicular to each other. pressure in seawater. This process is called coupling.
While the sensing system is stationary on the seabed and Another important requirement of OBS surveys is
usually is wired to a recording vessel, a source vessel so-called vector fidelity, defined as that property of a
towing a marine-source array shoots on a predetermined three-component geophone sensor system wherein a
grid on the sea surface. One possible acquisition geom- given particle-motion impulse applied parallel to one
etry is illustrated in Figure 7.26. It consists of two of the sensor components registers only on that com-
vessels — one recording vessel and one shooting vessel ponent. Moreover, the same impulse applied parallel
towing one or more energy sources. to the other components gives the same response, so
OBS surveys are not limited to two-vessel oper- that the various components can be combined accord-
ations. To speed up the data-acquisition process and ing to the rules of vector algebra. Three-component
thus reduce costs, three-vessel operations also are com- geophone recordings obeying vector fidelity are thus
mon. While the source boat traverses the survey area and in agreement with the true earth motion generated by
FIGURE 7.26. Principle of 4C-OBS

acquisition. Both pressure and shear-
wave data can be obtained by placing
sensors (geophones and hydrophones) on
the seafloor. PP denotes pressure waves
traveling down to a reflector where they
are reflected upward as pressure waves.
PS denotes pressure waves traveling
downward to the reflector where they
are converted to upward-reflected shear
waves.
seismic waves at the seafloor. At a minimum, vector information about the structure of the seafloor, and a sig-
fidelity is constituted as follows: (1) leakage of energy nificant number of reverberations in the water column
from one geophone component to another orthogonal are categorized as receiver ghosts (see Figure 7.27).
component is not substantial, (2) azimuthal bias in The definitions of direct waves and receiver ghosts
the recording of horizontal-component geophone data introduced earlier (see Figure 7.27) are critical for
is not significant, (3) noise events that originate from understanding the difference between OBS data and
sources that are not geophysical (for example, mechan- towed-streamer data. We elaborate on these definitions.
ical resonance) are inconsequential, and (4) bandwidth,
transfer functions, and coupling of all three components
Direct waves. As in the streamer experiment, the
to the seafloor are substantially identical. Vector fidelity
direct wave in OBS experiments (pressure recordings)
depends upon the type of sensors, housing, coupling
is the wave that propagates in the water column, from
with the seafloor, and method of sensor deployment;
the source position to the receiver, without hitting any
it is required for all processing methods based on the
reflector. However, when the recorded OBS wavefield
elastic-wave theory.
is a pressure field, a sea-bottom reflection arrives at
almost the same time as the direct wave. This situation
Ocean-bottom Seismic Data is illustrated in Figure 7.28, with a slight exaggeration,
by putting the receiver well inside the water column.
Although seismic events in OBS data can be cast These two events are sometimes treated as a single
into direct waves, primaries, ghosts, and multiples, just event and called a direct wave. In this definition of a
as with towed-streamer data, their wave-propagation direct wave, the effect of the sea-bottom reflection adds
paths are quite different, in particular those of direct another virtual source to the actual source. So, if we
waves and receiver ghosts. In the towed-streamer exper- interpret the source signature as corresponding to that
iment in which sources and receivers are located in the effective source, this definition of a direct wave is valid.
water, the direct wave describes the wave propagation The pressure data and the normal (to the seafloor)
in the water only. It carries no information about the component of the particle velocity data contain direct
subsurface; therefore, it is generally muted from the waves (since the normal component of the particle
data. The effect of receiver ghosts is also negligible in velocity is continuous, we consider the normal com-
towed-streamer data; it is generally treated as part of ponent of the particle velocity as recorded above the
an effective-source signature, because the receivers are seafloor) whereas the tranverse (to the seafloor) com-
very close to the sea surface, except in the case of bad ponents contain no direct waves because they are null
weather — in which case the receiver depth can be 10 m above the seafloor. (See Chapter 3 for a more detailed
or more to avoid ocean swell. In an OBS experiment, discussion of boundary conditions at the water-solid
the problem is quite different; the direct wave carries interface.)
FIGURE 7.27. Examples of primaries, ● Source position

receiver ghosts (receiver-side rever- Receiver position
berations), and free-surface multiples
Downgoing waves Upgoing waves
(source-side reverberations) in OBS (direct wave and ghosts) (primaries and multiples)
seismic data. A significant number of
reverberations in the water column are Direct Receiver ghosts Primary Free-surface multiples
categorized as receiver ghosts. Seismic
events in OBS data can be grouped into
Sea surface
downgoing and upgoing wavefields after ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
an up-down separation just below the sea Sea bottom
floor. Source ghosts are not displayed
here because they are generally treated
as a component of the source signature,
since they are indistinguishable from
events associated with them. (The effects
of Snell’s law are not included in this
diagram of raypaths.)
Direct wave
P P P P
Water
P P S S
(a) (b)
P P
Source
Receiver P P P S
(c) (d)
FIGURE 7.28. The direct wave and the first sea-bottom
reflection in the OBS pressure field (hydrophone data). The
receiver is well inside the water column to clearly distin-
guish the two events, which, in actuality, interfere at all
P P
offsets.
S P S S
Receiver ghosts. A receiver ghost is generally

defined as an event whose last reflection was from (e) (f)
the sea surface. The main difference between receiver
Source Receiver
ghosts in the OBS and streamer surveys is the larger
time separation of OBS receiver ghosts from primaries. FIGURE 7.29. Examples of reflections in towed-streamer
As water depth increases, OBS receiver ghosts tend to and OBS data: (a) PP-PP and (b) PS-SP reflections in
look like multiples. As discussed briefly in the previ- towed-streamer data; (c) PP-P (generally known as PP or
ous section, summation of hydrophone- and vertical- P-wave data), (d) PP-S (generally known as PS- or S-wave
geophone-component data removes receiver ghosts. data), (e) PS-P, and (f) PS-S reflections in OBS data.
This summation is described in detail in Chapter 9.
Only the pressure data and the normal compo-
nent of particle-velocity data contain receiver ghosts. Another possible mode converter is the seafloor
The transverse components contain no receiver ghosts interface. However, unless the seafloor is very “hard,”
because they are null above the seafloor. (See Chapter 3 with shear velocity higher than one-third the compres-
for a more detailed discussion of boundary conditions sional velocity, the amplitudes of such PS-S reflections
at the water-solid interface.) are small compared to most PS reflections. (PS-S reflec-
tions denote P-waves down through the water layer and
refraction on the seabed to S-waves, which then prop-
The dominant converted shear-wave reflec- agate down and up through the subsurface as S-waves;
tions. Since the source in 4C acquisition is a marine see Figure 7.29.
source emitting P-waves, any measured shear-wave Figure 7.30 shows examples of PP data (data that
energy must originate from P-waves being mode- rely on P-wave propagation only) and PS data (data con-
converted to S-waves. In most cases, the most energetic taining events whose downgoing propagations depend
and useful S-waves recorded are those generated on on P-waves only and whose upgoing propagations
reflection in the subsurface when downgoing P-waves depend on S-waves only). Figure 7.30a shows seismic
are mode-converted to upgoing S-waves. These mode- data corresponding to a 2D model (top). The quan-
converted shear waves are commonly denoted as PS- tity displayed in Figure 7.30a is the vertical component
waves (see Figure 7.29). of the particle velocity. We construct the PP and PS
P -wave
S -wave
PP reflection PS reflection
Offset (km) Offset (km) Offset (km)
1.5 0.75 0 1.5 0.75 0 1.5 0.75 0
0
0.5
Time (s)
1.0
1.5
(a) Data (b) Divergence (c) Curl
FIGURE 7.30. (Top) Separation of seismic data into PP data (also called P-wave data) and PS data (also called
S-wave data). (a) Vertical component of the particle velocity, (b) PP data obtained through the divergence of the
particle velocity, and (c) PS data obtained through the curl of the particle velocity.
data by computing the divergence and curl of the par- (CMP) halfway between the source and receiver (see
ticle velocity. Figure 7.30b shows the divergence of Figure 7.31). The difference in reflection points must
the particle velocity, which is treated as the PP data. be taken into account when processing the data. For
We see that these PP data are essentially dominated by an NMO (normal moveout) correction, we derived
PP reflections. Similarly, the curl of the particle veloc- the equation corresponding to each of these cases in
ity in Figure 7.30c, which corresponds to PS data, is Chapter 3.
dominated by PS reflections. Other converted events
are not totally negligible, as we see in Figure 7.30c; PZ data. In most cases, the seabed can be approx-
therefore, care must be taken during processing to avoid imated as an acoustic/elastic interface.5 In the context
misinterpreting the events that are not PS events. of wave-propagation theory, to fully describe the elastic
A PS reflection in a 1D medium is asymmetrical wavefield at an acoustic/elastic interface, the pressure
at the point of reflection, generally called the com-
mon conversion point (CCP). This behavior of PS is
contrary to that of a PP reflection, which is symmetri- 5 Note that in tracts where mud is abundant in sediments, the seabed
cal at the point of reflection at the common midpoint is not a perfect acoustic/elastic interface.
using the sensing system that has both hydrophones

and vertically oriented geophones is that recordings
can be scaled in proper proportion and summed in
Source
a preprocessing step to attenuate receiver ghosts and
Receiver water-layer reverberations from the subsurface pres-
P-wave sure reflections. After preprocessing, only three data

S-wave information types are further processed and analyzed:
the summed data (often denoted PZ data), representing
an estimate of pressure reflections, and the two hor-
izontally oriented geophone records, representing an
CMP CCP estimate of shear-wave reflections.
FIGURE 7.31. PP and PS raypaths. When P-waves reflect
as P-waves, they do so symmetrically about a common
midpoint (CMP). When P-waves convert after reflection Brief History of Marine
to an S-wave, they do so asymmetrically about a common 4C-OBS Experiments
conversion point (CCP).
In the 1970s and 1980s, attempts were made to
extract shear-wave information from marine seismic
measurement is required just above the interface, and data acquired in surveys with standard towed-streamer
the particle velocity measurement is required just below experiments. The attempts relied on double-mode con-
the interface. From these four components of the versions at or just below the water bottom, giving
wavefield, we show in Chapter 9 that upcoming com- so-called PS-SP reflections (see Figure 7.29b). For
pressional or pressure (P) waves and upcoming shear (S) certain angles of incidence, mode conversion from com-
waves can be extracted exactly. This is one of the rea- pressional P-waves to S-waves is quite efficient in hard
sons for going to the added effort and expense of placing water-bottom environments. Water-bottom shear veloc-
the sensing system on the seabed: both shear waves ity is the most critical parameter affecting the generation
and pressure waves are “recorded” from the sea-bottom of observable PS-SP reflections, whose amplitudes can
interface, enabling petroleum seismologists to charac- be comparable to normal P-wave reflections when the
terize the rock and its contained fluids more reliably S-wave velocity is greater than one-third the water-
than is possible from conventionally towed-streamer bottom P-wave velocity (Kim and Seriff, 1992). How-
recordings, which give only the pressure field. ever, in most areas the seafloor shear velocity is much
Wave propagation theory uses all four measure- lower. Therefore, the use of PS-SP reflection data is not
ments — pressure (P) and three particle velocity com- a viable technique to record high-quality shear-wave
ponents (often denoted by X, Y, Z) — to properly data in a marine environment: other solutions were thus
decompose the wavefield into upgoing shear and investigated. Unless shear waves were generated by
pressure constituents. In practice, simplified schemes source devices on the seafloor, these methods necessar-
are used to estimate the shear- and pressure-wave reflec- ily had to rely on mode conversion by reflection from
tions from subsurface layers. Since particle motion P-wave to S-wave at reflectors in the subsurface.
of the upward-traveling shear waves is orthogonal to In the late 1980s, Statoil ASA developed a concept
the direction of propagation, the horizontally oriented for acquiring 4C seismic data directly on the seafloor.
geophones will dominantly record shear-wave energy. Known as SUMIC (SUbsea seisMIC), the technique re-
Therefore, the two horizontal components (X and Y) corded both shear and compressional waves by sensors
of the particle velocity recording are assumed to be an implanted in the seabed, with hydrophones to measure
approximate representation of shear-wave energy. On P-waves and three-component geophones to measure
the other hand, pressure waves have particle motion the particle-velocity vector (Berg et al., 1994). In 1992,
along the direction of propagation. Hence, for pressure after development of the prototype SUMIC sensor array,
waves propagating vertically and close to the vertical several extensive field-equipment tests were carried
axis, the vertically oriented geophone will dominantly out. One original SUMIC sensor is shown in Fig-
record P-waves. (Geophones are sensitive to both P- ure 7.32. Data quality from the SUMIC sensor layouts
and S-waves, whereas hydrophones record P-waves was judged to be remarkably good; it demonstrated
only.) As we discuss in Chapter 9, one reason for that SUMIC was a viable system for acquisition of
Hydrophone
lithology and pore saturants may be difficult. Since
Cable connector P- and S-waves are affected differently by variations
in rock properties and pore fluids, marine multicompo-
nent seismic emerges as a key tool for exploration and
for reservoir evaluation.
The uses of 4C marine data can be divided into three

Geophone
housing broad categories: (1) imaging in complex areas, (2) pre-
diction of lithology and fluid, and (3) time-lapse (4D)
seismic monitoring, which maps reserves by imaging
how the distribution of fluids in the reservoir changes
through time as oil and gas are produced. It is expected
Spike that 4D-4C data will greatly reduce the ambiguity inher-
30 cm ent in monitoring variation of saturation and reservoir
pressure over time. Some of the uses are well devel-
oped, such as imaging below gas, but others are still
immature.
6 cm Following are some potential applications of 4C
technology for exploration and production:
FIGURE 7.32. Original SUMIC sensor used in the 1993
Tommeliten 2D-4C survey. It consists of a 30-cm-long, 1) imaging below gas-invaded sediments
6-cm-diameter “spike” that was planted into the seafloor 2) imaging under salt
by an ROV (remotely operated vehicle) to achieve good
3) imaging of reservoirs with low P-wave but high
coupling. (It took the ROV crew approximately one-half
PS-wave reflectivity
hour to plant each SUMIC detector.) Above the spike is
the geophone housing, approximately 40 cm long. On the 4) revealing reservoirs obscured by multiples on con-
top left is the hydrophone housing. The device at top right ventional seismic data
is a cable connector. An array of 16 SUMIC sensors was 5) discrimination between lithologies (e.g., sandstone
used in the acquisition. During the Tommeliten survey, 375 and shale) by VP /VS estimation
common-receiver gathers were recorded. 6) quantification of amplitude anomalies such as
P-wave “bright spots” and flat spots
7) mapping of overpressured zones
high-fidelity 4C data. The first full-scale SUMIC data 8) mapping of stress-field orientation
acquisition of a multifold 2D seismic line was conduc- 9) mapping of fractured reservoirs (fracture orienta-
ted in late 1993 over Statoil’s Tommeliten Alpha struction, density, and fluid content)
ture in Block 1/9 in the southern part of the Norwegian 10) reservoir characterization and monitoring
sector of the North Sea. The principal objective of the 11) imaging of complex structures by multiazimuth, true
survey was to demonstrate the potential of the SUMIC 3D surveys
technique for imaging subsurface structures through
and below gas chimneys. Some results of the Tom- Imaging below gas-invaded sediments. The
meliten seismic-imaging study are presented in a later Tommeliten Alpha gas-condensate field was chosen as
subsection (“Imaging below gas-invaded sediments”) part of the SUMIC development program to measure
of this section. the potential of 4C seismic surveying as a cost-effective
Since 1996, the major seismic contractors have solution to specific geophysical problems that could not
developed and offered different acquisition systems to be solved using conventional seismic methods (Berg
acquire 4C marine seismic data. et al., 1994; Granli et al., 1999). The chosen exploration
target has a reservoir that lies beneath a gas chimney in
shales. Conventional seismic surveys, which relied on
Some Benefits of 4C Technology P-wave propagation only, produced unusable images
of some regions because of distortion and misfocusing
PP reflections for a number of different rocks introduced as P-waves passed through the gas chimney.
with different saturants can be quite similar. From PP Gas saturation of even a few percent in the chimney
reflection data (P-wave data) alone, quantification of introduces strong attenuation and heavily distorts the
P-raypaths. Figure 7.33a shows a conventional P-wave between the wells, which are 3 km apart. Targets of
image section over the Alpha structure. In the flank interest are reflections between 3 s and 3.5 s in the Top
areas, quality of the seismic data is considered to be Ekofisk chalk interval and possible Jurassic prospects
very good; however, the reflectors seen in the section below 3.7 s in the middle part of the section.
are truncated abruptly between the positions of wells Because shear waves are much less affected by flu-
1/9-1 and 1/9-3R, which are on the flanks of the Alpha ids than are compressional waves, it was expected that
structure. Disruption of the reflector is so severe that no 4C technology would “see through” the distorting gas
stratigraphic or structural interpretation can be made chimney and produce a reliable image of the target,
P-data Gas PS-data

chimney
Top reservoir
(a) 3 km (b) 3 km
1/ 9 – 1 1/ 9 – 3R
Source Receiver Source
Seabed
Gas
? Target
(c) P-wave S-wave
FIGURE 7.33. (a) On the conventional P-wave section, the Tommeliten Alpha structure is obscured by gas escaping
through shale (a gas chimney). Consequently, over a horizontal distance of 3 km between well 1/9-1 (left vertical line)
and well 1/9-3R (right vertical line) the top of the structure cannot be mapped. (b) The PS-data considerably reduce
the area of uncertain structural interpretation, especially in the deeper part of the section (top Ekofisk Formation and
top Lower Cretaceous Formation). (c) Illustration of the principle of undershooting gas areas by PS-waves. The target
(reservoir) is in the dome, with a gas cloud in the red-striped white area. The yellow triangle on the seabed represents
the 4C sensor. Where downgoing P-waves (green arrows) travel outside the gas-affected area, good quality PS-waves
(red arrows) are generated, traveling upward to the sensor. The gas area has little effect on S-waves, because they are
largely unaffected by gas. Where downgoing P-waves travel inside the gas-affected area, they are attenuated severely,
and no significant PS-waves are generated from the target. Thus, to obtain high-quality PS images of reservoirs below
sediments or rocks charged with gas, we must ensure that the offsets (source-receiver distances) are large enough for
P-waves to travel downward outside the gas area. (Courtesy of Statoil ASA.)
from shear waves. In late 1993, a continuous, regu-

lar 2D-4C profile 12 km long was acquired; it passed
over the two wells. Quality of the 4C data generally
was excellent at all locations along the line, although
the sea bottom, geologic conditions, and water depth
varied significantly.
The processed PS-wave time section is displayed
in Figure 7.33b. The section shows a good image
of the Alpha structure, with minimal distortion from
the gas chimney. The basic principle is illustrated in
Figure 7.33c: the long-offset PS-converted wave under-
shoots the gas chimney; the downgoing P-wave mode
propagates outside the gas, whereas the reflected
S-wave mode travels upward almost unaffected by the
gas. However, some loss of amplitude and interference
by scattering were introduced by small-scale faulting
in strata above the reservoir. The reservoir is between
5.5 s and 6 s on the PS-wave section, and the pattern
of faulting can be partly traced across the crest of the
dome. The Tommeliten Alpha structure is interpreted
as a faulted dome (Figure 7.33b).
The field study demonstrated the viability of 4C
technology to image below shallow gas. Today, in areas
where imaging based on conventional seismic data is
limited by gas-bearing rock, the use of shear waves to
map reservoirs is effective.
Imaging under salt. By acquiring both P- and

S-waves, petroleum seismologists expect to illuminate
shadow zones beneath high-velocity salt structures.
Because raypaths bend at the boundary of two differ- FIGURE 7.34. (a) Conventional streamer P-wave image of
ent velocities and because salt bodies commonly have the Alba channel-fill sandstone. Note the weak “top-sand”
event in the middle of the section at about 2 s traveltime.
irregular boundaries, shadow zones — zones with no
(b) The converted PS-wave image shows dramatically
reflections — also are common. By using both P- and improved imaging of the channel, caused by high PS reflec-
S-waves, some shadow zones of one wave mode are tivity between shale and sandstone. (c) The dipole sonic
illuminated by the other, resulting in better structural log (a brief introduction to sonic logging is given in Chap-
and stratigraphic images. ter 12) through the Alba reservoir shows a large contrast in
shear-wave velocity (left) and a small contrast in P-wave
Imaging of reservoirs with low P-wave re- velocity (right) of sandstone and surrounding shales. The
green curves represent velocities in sand. The red and blue
flectivity but high PS-wave reflectivity. The Alba
curves represent velocities in shales above and below the
field in the central U. K. North Sea consists of chan-
sandstone channel, respectively. (Courtesy of Chevron
nel sandstones sealed by shales (McLeod et al., 1999). Petroleum Technology Co.)
The channel “sand” is roughly 9 km long, 1.5 km
wide, and as much as 100 m thick. Conventional
P-wave seismic data, shown in Figure 7.34a, show a
weak, inconsistent reflector at the top of the reservoir illustrated in Figure 7.34c, wireline sonic logs show
and tops of intrareservoir shales, but a strong oil-water a significant increase in shear-wave impedance at the
contact response. The top of the Alba reservoir is shale-sandstone interface; hence, it was expected that
almost seismically invisible because there is little or PS-converted reflection data would image the Alba
no contrast in P-wave reflectivity between the reser- reservoir properly. In early 1998, Chevron Petroleum
voir sandstone and the overlying shale. However, as Technology Co. acquired a 67 km2 3D-4C survey at
Alba. The PS data shown in Figure 7.34b provided are most likely related to lithology or to fluid effects.
a clear, high-quality image of the reservoir body. By The ability to distinguish between the effects of rock
comparing OBS data with streamer data, reservoir and the effects of fluid properties is a significant, predic-
fluid changes after four years of production and water tive contribution to decreasing the risk in exploration.
injection have been imaged directly. Chevron’s study In marine exploration, one of the first applications
has improved the reservoir characterization of Alba, of joint interpretation of P- and S-wave data was to
allowing better placement of development wells; fur- verify the P-wave bright-spot amplitude anomaly (in
thermore, it documented the usefulness of PS-converted the P-wave section in Figure 7.35a) as a direct indica-
data to image low P-wave impedance-contrast reser- tion of gas saturation. In a reservoir that varies laterally
voirs that show evidence of large PS-wave impedance from water saturated to gas saturated, the bright spot
contrast. represents a strong increase in P-wave reflectivity, as
Although reservoirs with low P-wave reflectivity a result of a significant decrease in P-wave velocity in
caused by the small contrast in P-wave impedance are the presence of gas. Because S-wave velocities are not
imaged well by PS waves, because of the large con- very sensitive to differences in water saturation and gas
trast in S-wave impedance, large-angle stacks of con- saturation, there should be no S-wave bright spot asso-
ventional P-wave towed-streamer data can potentially ciated with gas saturation. This is indeed observed on
provide a satisfactory image. P-wave AVO predicts the S-wave section in Figure 7.35b, which indicates that
that shale-sandstone interfaces with small P-wave but the reservoir is gas saturated. Had the S-wave amplitude
high S-wave impedance contrast should have signifi- anomaly coincided with the P-wave amplitude anomaly,
cant P-wave reflectivity for large angles of incidence. the bright spot would not have been interpreted as being
Therefore, before deciding on 4C-OBS acquisition for associated with gas saturation.
imaging low P-wave impedance-contrast reservoirs, the The second example is a flat spot on the P-wave
petroleum seismologist should evaluate whether towed- section displayed in Figure 7.36a. The flat spot has the
streamer AVO sections can solve the problem. In some appearance of a direct hydrocarbon indicator. Should
cases, the reservoir may be an obstructed area with lim- we drill the prospect or not? Looking at the correspond-
ited access for towed-streamer operations, in which case ing PS section in Figure 7.36b, the most likely answer
4C-OBS definitely is the best solution. is “no.” The flat spot is also present on the PS data,
a fact strongly suggesting that the event is related to
Quantification of amplitude anomalies. Ma- lithology.7 In this case, the combined use of P-wave
rine 4C seismic is gaining acceptance in the petroleum
exploration and production industry as a tool that can
reduce risk by providing information about subsurface twice the seismic tuning thickness and are relatively soft. In exploring for
hydrocarbons, this phenomenon is frequently used as a direct hydrocarbon
rocks and distributions of pore fluids. This 4C seismic indicator (DHI), in conjunction with seismic amplitudes and AVO tech-
technology can solve many seismic and geologic prob- niques. Flat-spot recognition has been particularly successful in the North
lems that cannot be solved reliably by use of P-wave Sea, where it has been applied to both exploration and reservoir monitoring
(e.g., the Gannet-C field). However, at some localities, seismic reflections
data information alone. caused by other phenomena, such as remnant multiples and lithology vari-
When one interprets P-wave data from towed- ations, have been misinterpreted as fluid contacts simply because they look
streamer surveys, as is common industry practice, flat seismically and show up in the downdip location. These errors have led
to the drilling of unsuccessful prospects.
it is extremely difficult to distinguish whether P-wave 7 The geologic model for the area where the data were acquired sug-
amplitude anomalies, such as “bright spots” and “flat gests that the flat-spot reflector fits an opal-A (biogenic silica) to opal-CT
spots” (discordant events), are attributable to hydrocar- (porcellanite) transition. For an opal-A to opal-CT reflector to develop,
bons or to lithology. P-waves are influenced not only by biogenic silica necessarily is deposited as part of the sediment. When the
biogenic silica is buried, opal-A is transformed to opal-CT and then to micro-
rock types but also by fluids, making it difficult to dis- crystalline quartz. The transformation is temperature-controlled, implying
criminate between these effects. Unlike their P-wave that the transition tends to form along an isotherm. The transformation is
counterparts, S-waves are relatively insensitive to a presumed to produce a less porous, denser, and more rigid rock; therefore,
seismic reflectors caused by opal transformations can be mapped as seis-
rock’s fluid content. Therefore, by including S-wave mically “hard” reflectors that crosscut strata. In some instances, it may be
information from ocean-bottom seismic surveys, it is difficult to distinguish such a crosscutting reflector from a hydrocarbon-
possible to know whether bright spots and flat spots6 related flat spot. Several dry wells have been drilled where reflectors caused
by opal transformations were mistaken for flat spots within a prospect. How-
ever, in this particular area, information derived from the 4C data is consistent
with the geologic model of a flat spot caused by variation in lithology. See
6 Seismic flat spots are caused by the interface between two types of Jones and Segnit, 1971, and Hein et al., 1978, for more information about
fluids in a reservoir. They are recognizable where reservoirs are more than opal-A to opal-CT transition.
FIGURE 7.35. Comparison of (a) PP data

P-wave (a) and converted PS-
wave (b) images through the
same geologic section. The
promising amplitude anomaly
Time
(bright spot) on the P-wave
section may have been caused
either by hydrocarbons or
by rock effects (lithology).
Absence of the bright spot
from the PS section indicates Bright spot
strongly that the bright spot
is evidence of hydrocarbons (b) PS data
alone. (Courtesy of Statoil
ASA.)
Time
No bright spot
PP data 400 m. Our limited knowledge of natural-gas hydrates

(a) comes from cores of sedimentary materials below and
close to the seafloor. Seismic-reflection methods may
be the most promising approach to indirect detection
of marine gas hydrates. As discussed in Chapter 1,
the bottom-simulating reflection (BSR), as observed on
PS data
(b) conventional P-wave data (e.g., towed-streamer data),
is the most commonly used indicator of the presence
of gas hydrate accumulations below the seafloor. How-
ever, P-wave data alone often fail to detect gas hydrates
when a BSR is absent.
On the other hand, PS data integrated with P-wave
FIGURE 7.36. (a) Comparison of P-wave and (b) mode- data lead to better interpretation of the nature, struc-
converted PS-wave images through the same geologic ture, distribution, and quantification of gas hydrates,
section. The flat spot indicated by a yellow arrow on the regardless of the existence of a BSR. In order to test
P-wave section may represent either a hydrocarbon-water the information PS data can provide about gas hydrate
contact or rock effects (lithology). The appearance of sediments and their characterization, Petroleum Geo-
the flat spot on the PS section strongly indicates that it is Services (PGS) acquired a 4C line profile over a location
caused by lithology. (Courtesy of Statoil ASA.) in the Norwegian Sea where a BSR had been identi-
fied on conventional-streamer P-wave data (Andreassen
et al., 2001). Parts of the P-wave and PS-wave migrated
and PS-wave data indicates that the structure is not filled stacks from this multicomponent line are shown in
with petroleum. Figure 7.37. By comparing the migrated stacks, we
The third example is related to characterization of observe that events at the BSR area and below are quite
gas hydrates, a topic that was introduced in Chapter 1. different on the two data sections. The BSR is clearly
Gas hydrates are icelike crystalline solids in which a visible on the P-wave data but is not observable on the
gas molecule, normally methane, is included in a cage PS-wave data. PS reflections are not masked by gas
of water molecules. Methane hydrate is stable in near- effects, as are PP reflections, and usually follow the
seafloor sediments at water depths greater than 300 to sediment layers, thus providing better stratigraphic and
FIGURE 7.37. Comparison

of (a) P-wave and (b) con-
verted PS-wave images
through the same geo-
logic section. The BSR
is clearly visible on the

P-wave data but not on the
PS-wave data. Note that
the P-wave and PS-wave
are displayed in oppo-
site directions. (Courtesy
Petroleum Geo-Services.)
structural information. In this example, the fact that the (the difference between overburden and pore-fluid pres-
BSR is not detected on the PS-wave section suggests sure). However, where an overpressured zone having
that gas hydrates in the sediments above BSR have not anomalously high pore-fluid pressure is encountered
stiffened the sediment framework. By contrast, if the in the deeper section, anomalies in the VP /VS ratio
hydrate had formed at grain contacts, it could have acted can be measured. Overpressure implies a decrease in
as a cementing agent. The sediment framework would differential pressure, which tends to decrease both
then have become stiffer, resulting in increased P-wave P- and S-wave velocities but increase the VP /VS ratio.
and S-wave velocities above the BSR. PS-wave data in Hence, from VP /VS analysis of pressure and shear-wave
this particular situation could potentially show the BSR sections, overpressure zones can be identified.
and give more detailed information about stiffness of
the sediment and gas-hydrate concentration. Anisotropy: Fractured reservoirs. Oriented
fractures and/or directional, horizontal stress fields can
Quantitative VP /VS velocity ratio. The VP /VS create azimuthal anisotropy in the subsurface. Predict-
velocity ratio (or Poisson’s ratio) is recognized as a key ing the directions of oriented fractures and fracture
indicator of hydrocarbons in clastic formations. The density and possibly obtaining quantitative information
VP /VS ratio, which varies principally in response to about the state of stress underground (stress orienta-
differences in lithology, porosity, pore fluid, and stress tion and relative magnitude) can be critical for under-
state, can be estimated by prestack P-wave AVO anal- standing how fluids and gas flow through a reservoir,
ysis. However, the record of hydrocarbon detection by for determining drilling locations, and for optimizing
AVO analysis is mixed, and AVO analysis is used cur- reservoir productivity.
rently with great care. The VP /VS ratio can also be Two simple, effective models that describe azi-
estimated from poststack P- and PS-wave reflectivi- muthal anisotropy8 are transverse isotropy with a hor-
ties. A key question is whether VP /VS can be found izontal axis of symmetry (HTI), and orthorhombic
with higher accuracy and reliability using 4C data. The- anisotropy. HTI can be caused by a system of parallel,
ory predicts that VP /VS can be estimated quantitatively penny-shaped, vertical cracks encased by an isotropic
from pressure and shear records. However, several case matrix. Orthorhombic anisotropy, which is believed to
studies emphasizing the quantitative aspects of measur- be a more realistic model of fractured reservoirs, may
ing elastic subsurface parameters are needed before this result from a combination of thin, “horizontal” layering
question can be answered fully. and vertically aligned cracks.
Azimuthal anisotropy commonly is subtle and quite
difficult to recover from P-wave data. However, shear
Overpressured zones. Except near the surface
(typically the first kilometer), VP , VS , and VP /VS are
largely insensitive to changes in differential pressure 8 Anisotropic models and types are reviewed in Chapter 12.
waves are more sensitive to azimuthal anisotropy. land, where source positions can at least be marked
Therefore, by estimating azimuthal anisotropy from an- and receivers permanently implanted and revisited for
alysis of mode-converted shear waves, fracture param- monitoring surveys.
eters and/or unequal stress fields can be predicted. Two To date, most marine monitoring studies have
methods have been proposed to extract this informa- been based on seismic pressure recordings. Attempts
tion from marine multicomponent data: (1) study of to map fluid-distribution changes are predominantly
shear-wave splitting for near-vertical propagation and from differences in P-wave impedance between sur-
(2) study of variations in reflection amplitude as a veys. Theoretically, the combination of pressure and
function of offsets and azimuths. Both methods have shear-wave data should provide better reservoir char-
the potential to determine the fracture orientation and acterization and monitoring of hydrocarbon-bearing
density of vertical fractures. The second method is reservoirs during production. Many future time-lapse
of particular recent interest, as it is also sensitive to surveys are expected to be based on multicomponent
the fluid content of the fracture system. To discover technology. Two concrete benefits from 4D-4C analysis
whether the fracture network is fluid- or gas-filled may are:
be possible by amplitude analysis.
1) Bypassed reservoir zones can be detected more reli-
Reservoir monitoring (4D). Seismic surveys ably by time-differencing the VP /VS ratio obtained
acquired at different stages in the life of a reservoir from correlation of P- and PS-wave data.
can provide time-lapse snapshots of fluid distribution 2) Bulk-rock property changes caused by variations
over production time. This technique, called 4D seis- in fluid and changes in effective stress potentially
mic reservoir monitoring, is helping the exploration and can be separated by time-differencing two elastic
production industry delineate bypassed oil and gas and parameters calibrated at wells in a multidisciplinary
design programs to optimize recovery and extend the approach (e.g., VP /VS velocity ratio and P-wave
lives of some petroleum fields. impedance, or S-wave and P-wave impedances).
As a reservoir is exploited, pore fluid undergoes The advantage of using multicomponent data is that
changes in temperature, pressure, and composition. For the two elastic parameters can be estimated directly
example, enhanced oil recovery (EOR) processes, such from poststack P- and PS-data.
as steam injection, increase temperatures. Production
of any fluid typically lowers fluid pressure, increasing Imaging of complex structures by multiazi-
the effective pressure of overburden on the reservoir. muth, true 3D surveys. In many geologically com-
Gas injection and water flooding change mainly the plex areas, towed-streamer seismic surveys may not
fluid composition and pressure. These changes in fluids be the best geophysical solution for delivering optimal
alter the seismic velocities and densities of rock, which reservoir imaging. Independent of the use of multicom-
can combine to affect traveltimes and amplitude seismic ponent sensors, seabed seismic-data recording offers
responses. the generic advantage of flexibility in the use of acqui-
When changes are great enough, a seismic moni- sition geometry. As virtually any pattern of shots and
tor survey acquired after months or years of production receivers is possible, data acquisition can be optimized
will show attributes different from those of an earlier to provide the most revealing subsurface image, in
surveys, perhaps a survey dated even before produc- particular, the ability to undershoot platforms.
tion began. (Seismic surveys acquired before beginning A stationary acquisition system, such as an OBS
production are generally called baseline surveys.) The experiment, thus permits true 3D acquisition, meaning
key to 4D seismic monitoring is that changes in elastic that complete offset and azimuth distributions will be
properties must be large enough to be detected in the present in the data. Although they provide coverage of
computation of differences between a baseline survey a 3D volume, towed 3D surveys do so with a series
and subsequent monitor surveys. of essentially 2D traverses, as the source is inline with
Another key factor in 4D seismic surveys is that the receiver cable. We illustrate this important differ-
survey parameters in the baseline and monitor surveys ence by quantifying the relative coverage of an OBS
must be as similar as possible. These parameters include survey and a towed-streamer survey for a single scat-
receiver positions, source positions, source signatures, tering point in a homogeneous medium, as depicted in
any directivity or coupling effects, etc. In the past, Figure 7.38. For the OBS survey, we used 101 hori-
this requirement has limited most 4D experiments to zontal lines with a 25-m interval between lines; each
z shot spacing was 25 m, and the crossline was 500 m.

We can associate each source and receiver pair to dip
angle θ, which characterizes the offset and azimuthal
angle, φ, with respect to the scattering point, as shown
in Figure 7.38. Then we measure the occurrences of
Source these angles at every degree for all source and receiver
pairs in both surveys. Figure 7.39 shows the plot of
φ Receiver the number of occurrences as a function of dip and
azimuthal angles for both surveys. For each pair of
dip and azimuthal angles, we can determine the best
coverage between the two surveys, based on the high-
y est number of occurrences. The OBS survey provides a
θ continuous and dense coverage as a function of θ and φ,
whereas the towed-streamer coverage lacks continuity
x Scatterer and even symmetry as a result of the off-end spread of
the source-receiver configuration and the large spacing
FIGURE 7.38. Definitions of dip θ and azimuthal φ angles.
between crossline shots. OBS coverage is superior to
towed-streamer coverage for almost all θ and φ pairs.
Another advantage of OBS dense azimuthal cov-
erage is in anisotropic characterization of rock forma-
line had 101 receivers spaced 25 m apart. The inline tions. By acquiring P- and S-waves propagated in all
and crossline spacing between shots was also 25 m, so azimuths, anisotropic elastic parameters (i.e., elastic-
that source and receiver locations coincided. For the parameter variations with direction) can be deter-
towed-streamer data, we used 12 streamers with 50-m mined. For instance, the anisotropic behavior of S-wave
spacing between them for each shot location. The inline velocity can be especially pronounced, depending on
Angular coverage ()
Azimuth (
) Azimuth (
)
(a) OBS (b) Towed streamer
FIGURE 7.39. Relative coverage between OBS and towed-streamer data for an image point located at the cen-
ter of the survey area. The towed-streamer data consist of 12 streamers spaced every 50 m, with each streamer
containing 101 receivers spaced every 25 m. For OBS, we have used 101 static streamers with each streamer
containing 101 receivers spaced every 25 m. Source points were the same for the two surveys. A total of 6400
shots in a 2500-m by 2500-m area were used in this analysis. The color scale here goes from blue to red. Blue
corresponds to zero occurrences of a given pair of dip and azimuthal angles, and red corresponds to 40,000
occurrences of a pair of dip and azimuthal angles during the whole survey.
BOX 7.3: 4D SEISMIC MONITORING OF A SUBSURFACE CO2 REPOSITORY
Time-lapse seismic expertise has also been put velocity) and gas-bearing (lower-velocity) sand-
to good use in a somewhat unconventional way — stones.

to monitor and analyze the behavior of a subsurface So far, the results show that the CO2 indeed
CO2 repository, such as that at the Statoil-operated resides in the formation and no leakage has been
Sleipner field, where enormous volumes of CO2 detected — a highly encouraging situation with re-
have been injected into a deeply buried rock forma- spect to the trap’s behavior in years to come. These
tion solely for the purpose of protecting the natural conclusions are based on the geologic interpreta-
environment. The challenge lay in the fact that nat- tion, simulation, and seismic modeling of results
ural gas from Sleipner West contains about 9% obtained from three surveys: a baseline survey car-
CO2 , which is far too high: export gas should con- ried out in 1994 prior to CO2 injection, and two
tain less than 2.5% by volume. monitoring surveys carried out in 1999 and 2001
The block diagram in Figure 7.40 illustrates during CO2 injection.
the principle of CO2 sequestration. The long-term effect of subsurface CO2 seques-
The repository is the Utsira Formation — a tration is being documented by the Saline Aquifer
thick, water-bearing sandstone some 1,000 m below CO2 Storage project (SACS).
the seabed — into which about 1 million tons of Subsurface gas storage has been used previ-
CO2 have been injected annually since 1996. Time- ously in other ways. An early example is that of
lapse seismic has been used to monitor the forma- a French company, Gaz de France, which has used
tion’s behavior. The method is particularly suitable, onshore reservoirs to store gas during off-peak sea-
because velocity of sound waves can be used to sons, ready for winter demands. Stock levels are
differentiate easily between water-bearing (higher- monitored by seismics.
FIGURE 7.40. Block diagram

illustrating the principle of CO2 CO2 injection in the Utsira Formation
sequestration. Unwanted CO2
produced with gas from the
Sleipner field Ty Formation is
injected into the Utsira For-
mation repository. The 1999
and 2001 time-lapse seismic
sections (lower right) show that Ut
sir
the injected CO2 is in place and Ty
aF
or
For ma
that the volume has increased ma
tio
tio
n
n
substantially. This is corrob-
orated by thickness maps of
the most extensive layer (upper n
io
at
right). The 1996 survey was m
For
made prior to CO2 injection; Ty
the 1999 and 2001 surveys were

made during CO2 injection. .
(Courtesy of Statoil ASA.)
the type of anisotropy symmetry (see Chapter 12). It can (a) Blasting system
be used to help discriminate rock types, detect source
rocks, and identify principal directions of fractures.
For example, shales commonly are highly anisotropic,
displaying transverse isotropy wherein vertical veloc-
ity is different from horizontal velocity. In some cases

this difference in velocity can be observed in 4C seis- LVL
mic data; it could indicate shale, a common sealing

Explosive charge
formation in stratigraphic traps.
LAND-SURFACE SEISMICS (b)
In marine seismics, the layer of water overlying the VEHICLE

Reaction mass
geology controls the wave types we can generate and VEHICLE
Flexible couplings
Hydraulic piston
the physical quantities we can record. This water layer Base plate
is also responsible for most coherent noise in marine ELASTIC EARTH
seismic data — swell noise, multiples, and ghosts. On

land, the low-velocity layer (LVL) plays a similar role
in different ways.
What is a low-velocity layer? Weathering of sur-
face rocks and deposition of soft sediments over the
years produce a layer of semiconsolidated surface rocks FIGURE 7.41. Example of (a) a land survey with an
that overlie the sedimentary section to be explored. explosive and (b) a land survey with vibroseis.
This layer of semiconsolidated surface rocks is known
as the weathered layer, or LVL, so called because
of the low velocities of propagation of P-waves and sources, receivers, and acquisition geometries is caused
S-waves through this layer. Energy trapped in the LVL by limited accessibility (e.g., in urban areas, jungles),
is responsible for most of the challenges associated with topography (e.g., mountains, terrain of unconsolidated
land-seismic acquisition and processing. Land-seismic materials), and areas of extreme temperatures (e.g.,
acquisition is designed to reduce this trapped energy as deserts, the Arctic).
much as possible. The discussion of the effect of LVL In addition to this variation, we see in Figure 7.41
on-land data will be revisited in Chapter 8. that the basic principle of setting off a bang (at the
source), propagating waves through the subsurface, and
recording the time required for them to return to the
Contrasting Land and receiver, as described for marine acquisition, is also
Marine Acquisitions valid for land acquisition. The key difference between
land and marine environments is that on land, we
Figure 7.41 shows two examples of land-seismic operate in a heterogeneous solid, whereas in marine
acquisitions. In one case, receivers are planted individ- environments, most of our operations are conducted in
ually on the ground; in the other case, receivers are water. On land, therefore, we can use a three-component
connected through cables so that they can be moved source by shaking the ground in three directions. We
simultaneously from one location to another, just as in can also use three-component geophones to record
marine experiments. In Figure 7.41a, sources consist of the ground motion, which can correspond to either
buried explosives, which require the drilling of a hole, particle velocity or particle acceleration. The combina-
whereas in Figure 7.41b, a vibroseis source requires no tion of three-component sources and three-component
drilling. In contrast to marine experiments, in which receivers is known as a nine-component (9C) survey,
every survey has roughly the same sources, receivers, which at present can be performed only on land.
and acquisition geometry, every survey on land is In land experiments, even if we use only unidirec-
different. The examples in Figure 7.41 are merely rep- tional sources, we generate P- and S-waves. Depending
resentative of particular cases. Variation in types of on the direction of the source, one of the two wave types
EXPLOSIVES VIBRATORS
may be weak. For example, if we use the drop-weight
source depicted in Chapter 2 (essentially a vertical
force), we generate strong P-waves and weak S-waves.
Similarly, if we use the horizontal source illustrated
in Chapter 2, we generate strong S-waves and weak
P-waves. However, in contrast to marine cases, none of Time Time

the existing land sources can generate only P-waves or
only S-waves. FIGURE 7.42. Comparison of an explosive source sig-
Although land-seismic acquisitions provide oppor- nature with the vibrator’s response.
tunity to produce 9C data, most present acquisitions are
limited to buried explosive or vibroseis sources and ver-
Figure 7.42 shows a typical response. Compared to
tical geophones, which record the vertical component of
other land sources, such as vibroseis, buried explosive
particle velocity. Poor data quality (discussed in the next
sources are broadband. Where the explosives are buried
section) and the enormous cost of land acquisition are
below the LVL, as in Figure 7.41, the effect of the layer
major limitations in land surveys. On the average, land-
is much reduced. Furthermore, this source can be used
seismic acquisitions take 50 times longer than marine
in some areas difficult to reach by truck, such as in jun-
acquisitions. For instance, under fair marine conditions,
gles, as well as in places where there are no buildings
about 80 km2 of data can be collected per day, whereas a
to damage, no landowners, and no crops, as in some
typical land survey will collect less than 2 km2 per day.
deserts. However, explosive sources are prohibited in
The most time-consuming task in land acquisition is the
populated areas of many countries because of the gen-
laying out of receivers. On average, 150,000 geophones
eral perception of danger and the risk of damage to
are picked up and put down repeatedly and maintained
buildings, pipelines, wells, and other infrastructure.
in the course of a survey. Drilling shot holes (when using
Another disadvantage of explosive sources is the
explosive sources) is another time-consuming task. In
need to drill holes. Although shot-hole drilling rigs are
rough terrain, it can be difficult and hugely time con-
reliable, and techniques of drilling are well established,
suming to move a vibroseis vehicle from one position
the requirement for shot holes brings many problems.
to another. Another factor slowing data acquisition is
In hard-rock country, where drilling is slow, several rigs
darkness. Because darkness can present many hazards,
may be required to give a reasonable rate of progress;
land acquisition is generally conducted only during day-
the rigs (and their drill bits) are expensive. Areas with
light hours, in contrast to the 24-hour-per-day recording
thick LVL require deep holes, which can also slow the
that takes place in marine experiments.
drilling process.
Just as in OBS experiments, precise coupling of
the geophone to the ground is critical on land to ensure
the proper measurement of ground motion — another
reason why laying down a geophone on land is so time- Vibroseis
consuming.
Both the split-spread configuration, with the source The original vibroseis technique was developed by
at the center of its spread, and the off-end spread Conoco, Inc. in 1966 using a vibrator — a mechani-
configuration, with all receivers to one side of the cal device mounted on a truck. Several trucks may be
shotpoint, are used in land acquisition, as demonstra- positioned along a line to make a source array. Vibrator
ted in Figure 7.41. The off-end spread configuration is trucks are normally about the size of garbage trucks and
used mostly in desert terrain and in the Arctic, where weigh as much as 50 tons. They can be moved on pub-
there is clear space for streamer-type experiments (see lic roads, and some are equipped with individual-wheel
Figure 7.41b). Streamer-type experiments on land are drive; they can be driven almost anywhere that their
as efficient as marine experiments. weight can be accommodated. The vibroseis technique
is popular because cost of operation is lower than most
alternatives, such as explosive sources, which require
Explosive Sources (Dynamite) shot holes.
This is the concept of vibroseis: A signal that con-
The explosive source (dynamite) on land is det- tains a known set of frequencies is transmitted into
onated in a drilled hole, as depicted in Figure 7.41; the earth. A return signal is received at the surface.
Up Sweep Down
The transmitted signal is extracted from the returned 20
20
0
signal. The remainder of the returned signal is the (a) 18
earth’s reflection series. To transmit a signal contain- 16

ing a known set of frequencies, a steel plate, known
14
as the base plate, is vibrated on the ground at known
12
frequencies. The vibrator truck is driven to the shot-
Time (s)
point, or vibrator point in this case, where the base 10
10 10
plate is lowered to the ground. After vibration of the 8
e ar
base plate is completed and the vibrator-point record- 6 Lin )
1/2
ing is finished, the base plate is lifted and the vibrator (ν=
4 ar
ne
truck is driven to the next vibrator point. These steps nli
2 No
complete a single vibrator-point cycle, equivalent to 00 20
an explosive shotpoint. The base plate of a vibrator is 00 10 20 30 4050
50 60 70 80 90 100
100
Frequency (Hz)
driven by a continuous, variable-frequency, sinusoidal-
like signal. At any particular time, the signal has an
(b)
instantaneous frequency that lies within the seismic
bandwidth. The driving signal is called a “sweep,”
because of the way in which the variable frequency
sweeps through the seismic bandwidth. When the fre-
quency range is swept from low to high frequencies,
it is called an “upsweep.” A “downsweep” is a sweep (c)
from high to low frequencies.
Sweep also can be characterized as linear or nonlin-
ear. The mathematical expression of a nonlinear sweep, Time
denoted s(t), is given by
FIGURE 7.43. Examples of linear and nonlinear sweeps:
s(t) = A sin φ(t) = sin 2πg(t)t, (7.17) (a) the relationship between sweep frequency and time,
(b) linear sweep as a function of time, and (c) nonlinear
with sweep with ν = 1/2. The start frequency, end frequency,
1 dφ(t) and duration are identical for the linear and nonlinear
g(t) = , (7.18) sweeps.
2π dt
ν
f 2 − f1 t
φ(t) = 2π f1 + t, ν = −1, thus increasing the chances of improving vertical reso-
ν+1 T lution. The practical implementation of the nonlinear
(7.19) sweep is conducted as follows: the vibrator sweeps
slowly through the frequencies that should be strength-
where f1 is the start frequency, f2 is the end frequency,
ened and quickly through those of sufficient strength.
A is amplitude, and T is duration. The particular case
For instance, in Figure 7.43, in the nonlinear sweep,
in which ν = 1 is the linear sweep; equation (7.17)
most time is spent at the higher frequencies; it reaches
becomes
70 Hz in about 10 s; the remaining 10 s are spent in

t sweeping from 70 to 100 Hz.
s(t) = A sin 2π f1 + ( f2 − f1 ) t. (7.20) We now determine the real source signatures asso-
2T
ciated with the sweeps shown in Figure 7.43. In very
The key difference between linear and nonlinear sweeps loose terms, the sweep is a sum of delayed cosine waves,
is in their rate of frequency change. Figure 7.43 shows such as those we introduced in the Fourier series, in
that linear sweeps have a constant rate of change, Chapter 4. If these cosine waves are brought back into
whereas in nonlinear sweeps, the rate of change is not phase before summation, we can reconstruct the signal
constant. The basic idea behind nonlinear sweeps is to represented by the sweep. The resulting time signals of
provide petroleum seismologists some control of rel- such a summation are zero-phase and are more compact
ative strengths of frequencies contained in the sweep, than the sweeps. This process of phase corrections,
FIGURE 7.44. Examples of linear and nonlinear sweeps

and their autocorrelations: (a) linear sweep with a
10–100-Hz bandwidth, (b) nonlinear sweep (ν = 1/2)
with a 10–100-Hz bandwidth, (c) linear sweep with (a)
a 10–60-Hz bandwidth, and (d) nonlinear sweep
(ν = 1/2) with a 10–60-Hz bandwidth.
(b)
(c)
(d)
0 500 –100 0 100

Time (ms) Time (ms)
A C followed by a summation of cosine waves of the fre-

Zero time
Reflectivity quency components of the sweep, is actually equivalent
B to taking the autocorrelation of the sweep; i.e.,
∞
Sweep signal w(t) = s(τ )s(τ + t)dτ , (7.21)
−∞
where w(t) represents the zero-phase signals. In other

words, w(t) is the source signature of data generated
Reflection A
by the vibroseis source. Examples of source signa-
tures reconstructed from linear and nonlinear sweeps
are given in Figure 7.44.
Reflection B To ensure that the signal being transmitted into the
ground is the desired sweep signal, a sensor is mounted
on the base plate. This sensor produces an output signal
Reflection C that can be compared with the desired sweep signal.
The classical method of recovering the reflection
series from the signal received by the geophones con-
sists of cross correlating the received signal by the
Recorded trace
sweep; i.e.,
∞
u(t) = s(τ )uV (τ + t)dτ , (7.22)
Correlated trace −∞
where uV is the received signal and u(t) is the final

seismic trace. Figure 7.45 illustrates a reflected signal
FIGURE 7.45. Steps in the vibroseis sweep correlation. from three geological boundaries, each reflecting the
Ground roll FIGURE 7.46. Synthetic

PS-converted waves common-shot gather (verti-
0.0 cal component of the particle
Surface VC1 VC2 VC3 VC4
velocity) for a surface-receiver
array and vertical cables, as
seen in Figure 7.48. The source

was in the low-velocity zone.
0.5
Ground roll in the surface
Time (s)
data is disrupting the primary

events, whereas ground roll in
the vertical-cable data is lim-
1.0 ited to shallow receivers in the
low-velocity layers.
Ground roll FIGURE 7.47. Synthetic

PS-converted wave common-shot gather
0.0 (the vertical component
Surface VC1 VC2 VC3 VC4 of the particle veloc-
ity) for surface-receiver
arrays and vertical cables,
as seen in Figure 7.48.
0.5 The source was below
the low-velocity zone.
Time (s)
Vertical-cable data qual-

ity is improved and lacks
“ringiness.”
1.0
complete sweep signal at a given time delay. Prior to energy that bounces back, is the same for marine and
correlation, the signal detected at the surface does not land experiments. However, the appearance of land-
readily indicate event arrival times. Two or more sweeps seismic data is generally very different from that of
may be summed to build up the energy level and atten- marine-seismic data. Figure 7.46 shows a simulated
uate random noise. The summed signal is then cross shot generated by the source in the low-velocity zone (a
correlated with the sweep signal. If a reflection event simulation of the vibroseis case), and Figure 7.47 shows
is present, a zero-phase source signature, w(t), is pro- a simulated shot generated by a buried explosive source
duced at a point in the correlated trace corresponding below the low-velocity zone. The model used to gen-
to the arrival time of that event. erate these data is shown in Figure 7.48. (Figures 7.46
and 7.47 also contain vertical-cable data, which we will
discuss later in “Potential Impact of Land VC.”) Com-
Land Data pared to marine data, we notice significant differences:
chief among them is the dispersive horizontal propa-
The basic principle of setting off a bang, waves gating energy. It is generally more difficult to identify
propagating through the subsurface and recording of the reflected energy in land data than in marine data because
Surface array Source Vertical cable X (surface)

Time
FIGURE 7.48. Earth model showing onshore vertical cables
and surface receiver arrays. Ground roll Ground roll
Airwave Receiver FIGURE 7.50. Shot record showing extreme ground roll that
obscures reflection events. (Adapted from Evans, 1997.)
Ground roll
Source
Ground roll. A significant amount of generated
Refraction
seismic energy is trapped in the LVL as surface waves
Reflections
that travel horizontally along the earth’s boundary.
These surface waves,9 known as “ground roll,” spread
out from a disturbance like ripples when a stone is
dropped into a pond. Figure 7.50 shows a shot gather
of real land data. Just as in the simulated data shown
in Figure 7.46, surface waves appear as coherent
events that completely cover the desired reflected data.
Ground-roll alignments are straight, as are direct waves,
but they have much lower apparent velocities (Anstey,
1986). The theory of wave propagation on the free
surface of a semi-infinite, elastic, homogeneous solid,
developed by Lord Rayleigh in 1885 and described
in Chapter 3, shows that ground roll propagates with
velocity, VR = 0.92 VS , where VS is the shear velocity.
A ground roll usually builds up and decays slowly,
FIGURE 7.49. Illustration of an airwave, ground roll,
and its energy is high enough to obscure a significant
refraction, and reflections.
number of reflections.
of the heterogeneous LVL that overlies the sedimentary An interesting observation to make by comparing
rocks on land; in marine data, the overlying layer is Figures 7.46 and 7.47 is that when the source is located
water, which is a homogeneous acoustic medium. below the LVL, ground-roll energy is small compared
In Figure 7.49, we identify the main seismic events to the case in which the source is located in the LVL or
that dominate land data — air waves, the ground, direct at the surface. This is an advantage of a buried explosive
P- and S-waves, and reflected and refracted events. Def- source (below the LVL) over a vibroseis source, which
initions of reflected, refracted, and direct waves were is located at the surface. However, the need to drill
discussed in detail in the section on towed-streamer data holes to reduce ground roll when using explosives is a
or are self-explanatory (see Figure 7.49). Ground roll disadvantage, as the drilling of shot holes is very time-
(the surface wave) is discussed below. consuming.
In land data, the interface between air and the
weathering layer is not flat in some terrains. The effects 9 As described in Chapter 3, surface waves are of two types: Love
of nonflatness of this interface on seismic data are and Rayleigh waves. In petroleum seismology, we are interested only in
known as statics, which we describe later in more detail. Rayleigh waves.
∆t = 145 ms FIGURE 7.51. Numerical calculation of

T = 150 ms
phase and group velocities. (Adapted
from Dobrin et al., 1954.)
50 m
X = 750 m
+
2400 ms t
Another observation we can make from the data in As an example of the calculation, the phase and
Figures 7.46, 7.47, and 7.50 is the dispersive nature group velocities are computed for the period marked
of the ground roll, which covers an envelope cone (+) in Figure 7.51. The arrival time of this period is
instead of a straight line, as shown in Figure 7.50. This 2400 ms, and the trace distance x is 750 m. Its group
is because the LVL generally is not a homogeneous velocity is then
solid, as depicted in Figure 7.48. For instance, in a
layered medium, ground-roll velocity varies with fre- x 750 m
quency (or, alternatively, with its wavelength). Such U= = = 313 m/s. (7.26)
t 2.4 s
wave propagation is said to be dispersive. In a disper-
sive medium, two measurements of velocity are used The traces on either side can be used to compute the
to describe wave propagation: phase velocity, V , and phase velocity. These traces are separated by x =
group velocity, U. Phase velocity, commonly called 50 m, and the moveout time of this cycle is t =
moveout velocity, is defined by V (λ) = dx/dt, where .145 ms. The phase velocity is
λ is the wavelength. Group velocity is distance divided
by arrival time, defined by U(λ) = x/t. These two x 50 m
velocities are measurable directly from the records. V= = = 345 m/s. (7.27)
t 0.145 s
Consider a particular period T of the surface-wave
train. Its phase velocity is determined by dividing the The period here is T = 150 ms. Therefore, its wave-
trace spacing by the moveout time, length is
λ = VT = 51.8 m. (7.28)
x
V= . (7.23)
t A more accurate method of determining the dispersion
curves uses Fourier analysis to measure phase velocity
Its group velocity is determined by dividing the trace
versus frequency (we discuss this relationship in detail
distance by the arrival time,
in Chapter 8). Then, using the relationship V = f λ, the
x V (λ) curve is determined. U(λ) is then calculated using
U= . (7.24)
t
dV
Its apparent wavelength is the product of its apparent U =V −λ . (7.29)
dλ
period and its phase velocity,
The phenomenon of dispersion can be used for
λ = VT . (7.25) petroleum exploration purposes by considering the
source-receiver separation to be large compared to the
This calculation is repeated for each period of the depth at which the velocity is determined. The tech-
surface-wave train. The resulting curves of V versus nique uses surface waves and a point source in space
λ and U versus λ describe the dispersive characteristics and time (i.e., a concentrated impulse, such as an explo-
of the medium. sion), which gives a signal at the receiver that is spread
Source Receiver 2000 m 2000 m

V= 0.5 km/s, ρ=0.012g/cc 150 ms V= 0.5 km/s, ρ=0.012g/cc 150 ms
1500 m
V= 1.5 km/s, V= 1.5 km/s,
ρ=1.5 g/cc ρ=1.5 g/cc
V= 2.5 km/s, ρ=2.1 g/cc V= 2.5 km/s, ρ=2.1 g/cc

V= 3.0 km/s, ρ=2.3 g/cc V= 3.0 km/s, ρ=2.3 g/cc
350 ms 350 ms
1500 m
FIGURE 7.52. Illustration of the basic method of the dis-
persion seismology technique; the source-receiver separa-
tion is large compared to the depth at which the velocity is
determined. The schematic of this figure is based on Love 550 ms 550 ms
waves.
1500 m
out (or dispersed) in time. The dispersion of Love waves
(“trapped” waves) has long been used in earthquake 750 ms 750 ms
seismology because P- and S-waves can take many
1500 m
paths from the source to the receiver, as illustrated in
Figure 7.52. This technique has been used to determine
the velocity distribution of the upper 600 km (or so)
of the earth (see Ben Menahem and Singh, 1981 for
more details). It is a relatively sensitive method in that (a) (b)
it can distinguish between velocity structures beneath
continents and oceans. As described in Box 7.4, this FIGURE 7.53. Comparison of (a) snapshots of wave prop-
technique is also applicable to petroleum seismology agation in a model with a nonflat air/LVL interface with
because the same principles are applicable to ground (b) snapshots corresponding to a model with a flat air/LVL
roll or surface waves generated by explosions. interface.
Statics. The air/LVL interface is nonflat for rough TRANSITION ZONES

terrains; it can have a very complex shape, thus fur-
ther complicating the character of land-seismic data. A transition zone (also called a mixed-terrain zone)
Figure 7.53a shows snapshots of wave propagation is a region where environments vary in short distances,
through a medium with a nonflat air/LVL interface, and from land to the near-onshore coast, and vice versa.
Figure 7.53b shows wave propagation through the same Because ships are limited by depth of the water in
medium with a flat air/LVL interface. By comparing which they can be used safely and because land oper-
the snapshots, we see how the nonflat air/LVL interface ations must terminate where the source is near the
further complicates wave propagation on land. The cor- water’s edge, transition-zone recording techniques must
responding seismic data for these two cases are shown be employed if a continuous seismic profile is required
in Figure 7.54. Events are distorted in Figure 7.54a over the land and into the sea. Figure 7.56 shows an
because of the complexity of the shape of the air/LVL example of a transition zone. As expected, different
interface; the hyperbolic moveout in Figure 7.54a is coastlines require different equipment. One must be
barely recognizable. These distortions are known as imaginative and work on a case-by-case basis; there are
statics. Correcting for these distortions so that the seis- no standard acquisition geometries in transition zones.
mic data in Figure 7.54a can resemble the data in Transition-zone experiments are often more labor-
Figure 7.54b is called static corrections, which aim intensive than either land or marine experiments, they
to eliminate the effect of free-surface topography from are often more expensive to conduct, and processing
seismic data. of the resulting data is commonly more expensive.
Shot S hot FIGURE 7.54. Comparison

75075 m 750
25
m 7 5 0m 7 5 0m of (a) simulated streamer
0.0 0 .0
data corresponding to
a model with a nonflat
air/LVL interface with
(b) data corresponding to

0.5 0 .5
a model with a flat air/LVL
interface. Receivers are just
along the air/LVL interface,
and sources are well below
1.0 1 .0 this interface, as depicted in
Figure 7.53.
1.5 1 .5
2.0 2 .0
(a) (b )
With vaster areas of subsea land being reclaimed by sives (dynamite), and vibroseis — and two types of
dikes, transition zones are being expanded artificially. receivers: geophones and hydrophones. Several com-
Therefore, scientific progress in the acquisition and binations of source and receiver are possible: in some
processing of transition-zone data can be beneficial in areas, particle velocity is recorded from the pressure
the long run. source; in others, from the dynamite source. One of the
Typically, transition-zone experiments use three daunting tasks in seismic processing is calibration of
classical seismic sources — airguns, land-buried explo- these different measurements with different statics and
BOX 7.4: SCHOLTE WAVES RECORDED ON THE SEAFLOOR

In Chapter 3 we discussed different types of velocity is much less than the water-sound veloc-
seismic surface waves: guided waves propagating ity but may show very large gradients close to the
along the interface between two media with dif- seafloor. In this case, the Scholte wave becomes
ferent shear velocities. These waves are generally highly dispersive because of the intrinsic length
classified according to the names of their discover- scale of the sediment. The Scholte wave has the
ers. The surface wave on a free surface of a solid following additional characteristics:
is called a Rayleigh wave. The wave propagat-
ing along a fluid-solid interface is called a Scholte 1) It propagates along the seafloor with exponen-
wave, and a Stoneley wave is associated with a tially decaying amplitude away from the inter-
solid-solid boundary. face. Thus, it can be measured both by geo-
For the Scholte wave, the simple model inves- phones deployed just below the seafloor and
tigated in Chapter 3 is a fluid layer above a solid hydrophones deployed just above the sea-
half-space. However, the seafloor is more complex floor.
(see Figure 4.49). The near-water-bottom sediment 2) Its particle motion is elliptical in the offset-depth
has depth-dependent and often rapid variations in plane.
shear-wave velocity. Typically, in soft marine sed- 3) Its velocity and attenuation are closely related
iments consisting of clay and silt, the shear-wave to the shear properties of the seafloor sediment.
(continued)
Box 7.4 continued
Thus, the seafloor sediment’s shear velocity and should be close to the seafloor. In underwater acous-
attenuation can be determined indirectly through tic experiments that aim at exciting strong Scholte
the measured propagation characteristics of the waves for seafloor characterization, the sources
Scholte wave. commonly are explosive charges detonated near the
In Figure 7.55, part of a common-receiver seafloor. In the Tommeliten SUMIC experiment,
gather shows the dispersive Scholte wave recorded the source was an airgun array towed at 6-m depth,
in the 1993 SUMIC experiment over the Tom- implying that the airgun source was approximately
meliten field offshore Norway, where the water is 64 m above the seafloor. This source-depth loca-
approximately 70 m deep. The top 30-m sediment tion did not prevent the excitation of Scholte waves
column is typically soft in the upper part, with a with observable energy. However, other OBS sur-
shear-wave velocity of approximately 200 m/s and veys have shown that when the source is located
a strong gradient of 5 m/s/m. The Scholte wave, more than approximately 100 m above the seafloor,
with dominant energy in the frequency range of Scholte waves are not generated with energy suffi-
1–7.5 Hz, has apparent velocities that range from cient for detection. This fact is consistent with the
350 to 650 m/s. observation that the Scholte-wave amplitude dimin-
Recall from the brief discussion in Chapter 3 ishes exponentially with distance of the source from
that to properly excite the Scholte wave, the source the seafloor (Cagniard, 1962).
FIGURE 7.55. Dis- Time (s)

play of part of a 0 2 4 6 8
common-receiver gather
3.5
showing the disper-
sive low-frequency
Scholte wave arrivals.
Offset (km)
The data were recorded

over the Tommeliten
field, where water is
approximately 70 m
deep. The surface wave 2.1
has apparent velocities
ranging from 350 m/s to 0 2 4 6 8
650 m/s. (Courtesy of
Statoil ASA.)
different LVLs. Most efforts to date have been limited BOREHOLE SEISMICS
to phase calibration. More progress on amplitude cal-
ibration or an even more general approach to imaging VSP Acquisition Geometries
that integrates different sources and receiver types is and Borehole Seismic Data
expected in coming years.
Figures 7.57 and 7.58 summarize the challenges of Borehole seismic surveys, also known as vertical
mixed-terrain acquisition. Figure 7.57 shows a map of seismic profiles (VSPs), are acquired with the source on
a transition-zone survey near the port of Rotterdam (in the surface and receivers at known depths in the bore-
the Netherlands). This survey was conducted by Shell hole. Energy from the source arrives at the receivers
and ExxonMobil. Figure 7.58 is a schematic illustration directly, as the first arrival, and also after reflection
of personnel and seismic equipment involved in this from interfaces below the receiver. The key difference
survey. between borehole seismics and surface seismics, such
LEGEND
Urban
Farm land
Greenhous es
Wildlife res erve
Indus trial/ Refineries
FIGURE 7.57. Example of a transition-zone map. (Adapted

from Petersen et al., 1992.)
Zero-offset VSP. The geophone and source con-

figuration in zero-offset VSP surveys is similar to that
of check-shot surveys. The key difference is that zero-
offset VSP measures the full waveform rather than
traveltime only. To obtain an image of subsurface reflec-
tors from the waveform, a higher density of receiver
positions is used in zero-offset VSPs as compared with
check-shot surveys, and trace recordings extend beyond
the first breaks to include later times at which the sig-
nals from reflectors arrive. The source is located directly
above the receivers (Figure 7.59a and c). In marine
FIGURE 7.56. Example of a transition zone. (Adapted from
experiments, the source often will be an airgun, whereas
Petersen et al., 1992.)
on land the source will be either dynamite or a vibroseis.
Physical quantities recorded in this experiment can be
as towed-streamer, OBS, land surface, or even the ver- pressure, by suspending hydrophones in the borehole
tical cable (which we discuss later) is that surface seis- (hydrophones are sensitive to fluid-pressure changes as
mics cover a large area, on the order of several hundred the seismic wave passes in any direction), and particle
square kilometers, whereas borehole seismics cover just velocity, by clamping geophones to the rock formation
the vicinity of the borehole — but with higher resolu- (geophones sense the motion of the rock formation and
tion. One of the functions of borehole seismics is to help can record the three components of particle velocity).
find the precise location of a well in the 3D image of the Figure 7.59b shows an example of zero-offset VSP
subsurface that is derived from surface-seismic data. data. Two types of events are shown: those that are
downgoing with respect to the receiver position and
those that are upgoing. All reflected events below the
Check shot. The simplest borehole survey is the receiver location are upgoing. The classical objective
check shot, or velocity survey, in which receivers are of seismic imaging of VSP data is to image upgoing
stationed at specific intervals in the borehole, while the energy (notice that the downgoing wavefield contains
surface source is fired from nearly vertically above. all direct waves and some multiples). So, the processing
The receivers may be separated by hundreds of meters. of VSP includes the separation of downgoing wave-
The receivers record the traveltime from source to depth forms and upgoing waveforms, multiple attenuation,
at several depths, and a table of seismic velocities and imaging of upgoing primaries. The apparent time
between depth stations is constructed. This velocity difference across the receiver array between downgoing
table can be used to convert, albeit crudely, a surface- and upgoing waves is generally exploited for up/down
seismic section from time to depth, or logs from depth separation. We provide examples in Chapter 8. The
to time. 4C recordings (i.e., hydrophones and three-component
FIGURE 7.58. Seismic equip- Personnel Vehicles and vessels Seismic equipment
ment, personnel, vehicles,
and vessels needed to con-
duct a transition-zone survey.
(Adapted from Petersen et al.,
1992.)
X Receiver depths
Time
Z 3 1
2
4 6
5 5
3
4
(a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 7.59. Illustration of zero-offset VSP experiments; in this experiment, the source is directly above the receivers.
For clarity of raypaths in this picture, we show the source at some distance from the borehole. (a) Examples of raypath
downgoing events, (b) zero-offset VSP seismograms, and (c) examples of upgoing events.
(a) (b) FIGURE 7.60. (a) Offset VSP experiment in

x
which a single source located near or at the sur-
face is positioned at a substantial distance from
the well. (b) Walkaway VSP experiment in its
z simplest form, consisting of several receivers in
the borehole and several shotpoints at or near

the surface.
1.05 Receiver (km ) 0.75 FIGURE 7.61. Examples of shot

gathers corresponding to the
0
2D model in Figure 7.60. The

Shot at Shot at Shot at
borehole is located at 2000 m,
2000 m 1500 m 1000 m
and the shots are located at
2000 m (i.e., zero offset; the plot
denoted “shot at 2000 m”), at
1500 m (i.e., 500-m offset; the
plot denoted “shot at 1500 m”),
and at 1000 m (i.e., 1000-m off-
Time (s)
set; the plot denoted “shot at

1000 m”). The receiver depths
vary from 750 m to 1050 m.
Arrows show examples of
downgoing events.
1.5
geophones) can also be used for up/down separation. techniques. The walkaway VSP departs from these con-
We provide examples in Chapter 9. figurations (see Figure 7.60b). In its simplest form,
a receiver array of five to seven geophones collects
Offset VSP. In offset VSP, a single surface source data from multiple surface source locations along a
is positioned at a substantial distance from the well (see line that extends from the well. Each line typically has
Figure 7.60a). This distance is called an offset; it is hundreds of source positions. Reflections from each
designed to shift the reflection points away from the horizon below the geophone offer umbrella-shaped cov-
well so that the subsurface coverage can be extended, erage of the formation alongside and beneath the well.
thus enabling the offset VSP to detect heterogeneities These data may be processed to create an image; most
away from the well. such images have higher resolution than that available
from surface-seismic surveys.
Walkaway VSP. The check shot and two VSP tech- Figure 7.61 shows three examples of walkaway
niques described above are multireceiver, single-source VSP shot gathers corresponding to the model in Fig-
FIGURE 7.62. Receiver gathers correspond- 2.0 Shot position 0.5 2.0 Shot position 0.5
0.0 0.0
ing to the 2D model in Figure 7.60. The

receiver gather denoted “receiver at 2000 Receiver Receiver
at 2000 m at 1250 m
m” corresponds to the offset VSP exper-
iment in Figure 7.60a, with a receiver
located at 2000 m deep inside the bore- 0.5
hole. The receiver gather denoted “receiver

at 1250 m” corresponds to the offset VSP
Time (s)
experiment in Figure 7.60b, with a receiver
located at 1250 m deep inside the borehole.
Arrows indicate some of the reflections 1.0
caused by lateral heterogeneities.
1.5
FIGURE 7.63. (a) Illustration of a walkabove VSP (a) x (b)

experiment. The source is located directly over
the receiver. (b) A drill-bit seismic experiment,
Pilot
sometimes called drill-noise VSP or seismic-while- sensor Receivers
drilling. The seismic source in this case is the drill z
bit. Ground roll
Drill
bit
ure 7.60. Figure 7.62 shows two walkaway VSP receiver offset, as is also true for upgoing events. Note also
gathers for the same model. To facilitate inspection of that receiver gathers in Figure 7.62 look like standard
the different events contained in walkaway VSP shot surface seismic data.
gathers, we have used 30 receivers, quite a large num-
ber compared to the number in standard walkaway Walkabove VSP. Somewhere between the single-
VSP experiments, which generally include only seven source and walkaway VSP is the VSP in deviated and
receivers. In contrast to zero-offset VSP data, it is easy horizontal wells, often called a walkabove VSP. In this
to detect the effect of large heterogeneities distant from technique, a source may be positioned directly over the
the well in walkaway VSP data, especially when data receiver to map a deeper reflector and a deviated well
are organized in receiver gathers. Also, data in walk- onto a seismic section. Walkabove VSPs are used to
away VSP shot gathers resemble those of the zero-offset help locate lateral anomalies of elastic parameters that
VSP in Figure 7.59, in the sense that we can quite easily are not clearly visible in images obtained from surface
differentiate between downgoing and upgoing events. seismic data. Another use is to improve seismic resolu-
However, as the shot moves substantially away from tion below the deviated portion of a well. Figure 7.63a
the borehole, the quasiparallelism between downgoing shows an example of a walkabove VSP experiment. As
events in zero-offset data is no longer valid because with any VSP survey, there is usually a desire to perform
of heterogeneities away from the well and toward the an up/down separation. Unlike vertical wells and like
surface-seismic data, there is no apparent time differ- employs a large number of receivers (more than 200),
ence across the array between the downgoing and the whose prime role is to deliver images comparable to
reflected upgoing waves. In this case, the strategy for those of conventional walkaway VSPs. Haldorsen et al.
dual-field recording using hydrophones and geophones (1995) describe a way to convert seismic-while-drilling
is essential for up/down separation. data recorded with a continuous noisy source in cases
in which the drill-bit source signature is not recorded to

Drill-noise VSP. The drill-bit seismic technique, data that would have been recorded if the drill bit had
sometimes called drill-noise VSP or seismic while been a noiseless impulse. Their method is limited to
drilling, reverses the geometry of the source and re- large arrays of receivers and is not applicable for contin-
ceiver (Figure 7.63b). The drill bit is the seismic source, uous check shots. Basically, each seismic trace contains
and the receivers are placed on the surface. The advan- the drill-bit source signature with a certain delay. By
tage of this technique over conventional VSP is that it appropriately shifting each trace and then summing
does not require the drilling to stop, because the mea- them, a signal very similar to the actual drill-bit source
surements are made continuously. These measurements signature can be produced.
can be used to image the reservoir or a drilling haz- In addition to estimating or measuring the noisy
ard, such as overpressure, as the well is being drilled. source signature and deconvolving recorded data by
In other words, information resulting from these mea- using this source, the ground-roll noise must be atten-
surements allows us to make decisions about well uated when working on land. The classical method to
trajectories before it is too late. The key challenge of attenuate ground-roll noise in seismic-while-drilling is
the seismic-while-drilling technique is in converting its the adaptive noise attenuation described in Chapter 8.
noisy and continuous signals into data in which seismic
events are recognizable. In fact, contrary to conven- Salt-proximity VSP. Salt-proximity surveys are
tional VSP, in which the source signature is either a recorded in wells adjacent to salt domes, with sources
well-defined impulse explosive or a well-defined source placed immediately above the salt domes (see Fig-
signature from vibroseis with a very short duration ure 7.64). Traveltime information and polarization of
in time, the drill bit as a seismic source is continu- first arrivals are measured by the downhole geophone
ous and noisy, and its signature is generally unknown. at various locations in the well. When the location of the
On land, the recorded seismic-while-drilling data also receivers and the source, velocity of the salt, velocity
contain ground-roll noise caused by bit vibrations. of the sediment layers, and distance to the top of the
The vibrations travel upward through the drill string salt dome are known, traveltimes can be used to deter-
and the fluid-filled annulus and then roll along the mine locations of points where rays exit the salt dome.
air/ground interface, where they are recorded along with These locations allow us to construct a profile of the salt
the desired signal. dome, which may be used to determine lateral distance
Briefly, the classical approach to converting seis- from the well to the salt, and also to identify possi-
mic-while-drilling data to data that would have been ble overhangs and potential traps along the flank of the
recorded if the drill bit had been a noiseless impulse is salt dome.
to record the source signature of the drill bit by placing It is important to position the borehole quite
a sensor (generally known as “pilot sensor”) at the top close to the flank of the dome to reduce interference
of the drill string or on the swivel (the lowest part of between first arrivals (or first breaks) and later arrivals.
the drilling equipment that does not rotate). The sig- Figure 7.65 shows two shots of salt-proximity experi-
nal received by the pilot sensor is then crosscorrelated ments: one is located about 100 m from point A of the
with the receiver signals, as in the vibroseis sweeping flank (see Figure 7.64), and the other about 450 m. First
technique described in the third section of this chapter, breaks are much more clearly defined in the case in
“Land-surface Seismics” (see Rector and Marion, 1991, which receivers are closest to the borehole.
for more details). This approach to recording seismic-
while-drilling data along with the source signature of Shear-wave VSP. As the name suggests, and
the drill bit is used also for check-shot-while-drilling as we can see in Figure 7.66, shear-wave VSPs are
(also known as continuous check shot), as well as recorded with shear-wave sources, usually shear-wave
for imaging-while-drilling. The continuous check-shot vibrators such as the emerging marine-seismic vibrator
system employs a very small number of receivers (fewer shown in Figure 7.67. These may be used in a man-
than 12), whose prime role is to provide time-to- ner similar to P-wave VSPs to create a high-resolution
depth conversion. The imaging-while-drilling system image of reflectors. However, another application is to
FIGURE 7.64. Illustration of a salt- x

proximity experiment, in which the
source is located immediately above
the salt dome, and the receivers are
located near the salt flank. Included z 150 ms 250 ms
are snapshots of wave propagations

through the salt dome. The shot gath- d A
ers in Figure 7.65 are located at d = 100
m and d = 450 m from point A of the
salt dome.
350 ms 450 ms
550 ms 650 ms
measure a phenomenon known as shear-wave splitting, complexity away from the borehole. These walkaway
which is associated with anisotropy caused by stress or profiles are essentially along one direction and, for this
vertically aligned fracture systems. Shear waves travel reason, are usually characterized as two-dimensional
faster when particle motion is polarized in the plane of (2D). Moreover, the imaging of these profiles is gener-
the fractures than when it is perpendicular to the fracture ally confined to the vertical plane containing the line of
plane. Thus, shear-wave VSPs can be used to determine sources and the borehole.
expected orientation of induced and natural fractures Because of the proximity of the receivers to the
and stress directions and as a qualitative indication of target, these 2D images usually have higher reso-
fracture density. (See Chapter 12 for more details.) lution than their surface seismic counterparts; how-
ever, 2D walkaways, by definition, do not describe
3D VSPs the full volume of the reservoir. Fortunately, the
acquisition principle can be extended to cover 3D
VSP imaging surveys, such as walkaways, have media by repeated profiling in parallel lines — by col-
been used for a number of years to image structural lecting a series of 2D walkaway surveys similar to
1.2 Receiver depth (km) 0.5 1.2 Receiver depth (km) 0.5 Two shear-wave
0.5
0.5
polarizations
Shot at 350 m Shot at 650 m Shear-wave VSP
Time (s)
Time (s)
Fractured layer
FIGURE 7.66. Illustration of a shear-wave experiment

recorded with shear-wave sources, usually shear-wave
vibrators.
The key obstacle to development of 3D VSP is

1.2
1.2
rig time: production or other measurements must stop
FIGURE 7.65. Two shot gathers of salt-proximity VSP while conducting 3D VSP experiments. A 3D VSP of
experiments. The geologic model used in these experiments 41 lines of 200 shots currently takes about 40 hours;
for generating the shot gathers is described in Figure 7.64. it is difficult to convince an oil producer or driller to
The receiver depths in both gathers vary from 500 to shut down production or stop drilling for that length
1200 m deep. The shot point is identical for the two of time.
gathers. For the shot gather denoted “shot at 350 m,” the
distance d from point A of the salt dome to the borehole
is 350 m. For the shot gather denoted “shot at 650 m,” the
distance d is 650 m. Arrows indicate first breaks. Through-tubing VSPs
Another emerging application of borehole seismics
is the through-tubing survey. Traditionally, borehole
those collected in marine towed-streamer seismic-data seismic surveys are acquired in exploration wells when
acquisition. they are drilled. However, in older fields, borehole seis-
As depicted in Figure 7.68, three-dimensional mic information is often needed to aid the reservoir
VSPs allow high-resolution imaging to augment surface engineer in areas where no new wells are planned,
3D surveys and make it possible to obtain images or to plan a new well. During workover or while the
beneath obstacles on the surface, such as drilling plat- well is still in production, slim seismic receivers can
forms and near-surface obstructions such as shallow gas be deployed by a simple masted logging truck to
zones. In addition, because acquisition conditions and acquire borehole seismic data through production tub-
processing steps of VSP surveys are accurately repro- ing and inside casing. This reduces acquisition costs
ducible, 3D VSPs open the possibility of time-lapse, or and makes surveys in several wells possible during the
4D, seismic surveying. one mobilization.
An example of a 3D walkaway VSP (3D-WVSP) In this way, a full range of borehole surveys can be
survey and data is illustrated in Figure 7.69, which carried out, and the data can be used to tie log and pro-
shows the distribution of shotpoints for a 3D-WVSP duction information to new 3D surface-seismic surveys
survey over the Ekofisk field in the North Sea. This being run in older producing fields.
distribution is typical. Figure 7.70 shows the imag-
ing results of the data obtained from this survey.
These results are overlain on towed-streamer data to Tube Waves
show how the 3D-WVSP can improve resolution in
the area of towed-streamer data in which resolution Waves traveling in a fluid-filled borehole or on the
might be poor — in this instance, because of shallow walls of a borehole in the direction of the axis are called
gas zones. hydraulic or tube waves. Tube waves, being localized to
FIGURE 7.67. A new-generation marine-seismic vibrator is (a)

the electrohydraulic, seabed-coupled, shear-wave source Servo control
developed by the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute. The
Force Stroke
development of the source has used key competencies from
several disciplines — marine foundations, geodynamics, Mass
subsea technology, and geophysics. The shear-wave source

Seafloor
is designed to produce deep-penetrating shear waves for
improved reservoir characterization. By means of suction-
Suction anchor
anchor technology, the source is deployed efficiently on and foundation
retrieved from the seabed, then moved and reinstalled at the
next source location. (a) Sketch illustrating the working prin-
ciple. Shear waves are generated by a sliding inertia mass on
top of the suction anchor. Customized seismic signals are
composed by the user and used as set-point signals to the
closed-loop servo system moving the inertia mass. Seismic Seismic wave
power is concentrated at defined frequencies and transferred
into the seabed with minimal noise and energy losses in the (b)
water column. (b) Photo of the source on deck before deploy-
ment on the Gullfaks field in summer 2003. Its total weight is
9 tons, and its size can be compared to the man on top of the
source. The suction anchor skirt is 2.5 m wide and 1.5 m deep.
(c) Photo of the source ready to sweep on the seabed, after
suction penetration of 1.3 m.
(c)
the borehole, radiate very little energy into the forma- In uncased boreholes, the Stoneley wave velocity, VSt , is
tion (at least for some medium-parameter ranges). This determined by the elastic constants of the drilling fluid
implies that tube waves have high amplitudes; there- and rock surrounding the borehole. It is given, in the
fore, they are considered a major source of noise in low-frequency limit, by the formula (Galperin, 1985)
VSP data.
The most important wave mode localized to the 1
VSt = Vf , (7.30)
borehole is the interface Stoneley wave. This wave 1 + Kf /µ
mode is slightly dispersive, but for seismic frequencies,
the low-frequency approximation applies. Its velocity is where µ = ρVS2 is the shear modulus of the rock
invariably smaller than the velocity of the drilling fluid. comprising the borehole walls with density ρ, VS is
Shotpoint
shear-wave velocity, Vf is the velocity of the fluid ) y (km)
x (km8.0
or mud filling the borehole, and Kf = ρf Vf2 is the 6.0
8.0 7.5
7.0
6.5
6.0
5.5
5.0
bulk modulus of the mud with density ρf . In the low- 2.0
4.0 4.5
4.0
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

frequency limit, for sufficiently small shear-wave veloc-
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5

ities, it can be shown that the Stoneley wave becomes

Borehole
Depth (km)
attenuated because it radiates energy as formation shear
waves when VSt > VS ; that is, when the Stoneley wave
velocity is higher than that of the formation shear veloc-
Depth (km)
ity. Equation (7.30) indicates that, by measuring the
Stoneley velocity, the shear formation modulus or shear 8.0
y (km) 7.8 7.0 6.0
8.0x (km)
6.5
velocity can be estimated. Furthermore, the Stoneley 6.0
5.5
5.0
4.5 2.0
4.0
4.0
velocity in the low-frequency approximation is quite
sensitive to formation permeability. Thus, in principle, 1.600 2.100 2.600 3.100 3.600
this particular rock characteristic can be correlated with

FIGURE 7.68. Illustration of a 3D walkaway VSP survey.
the Stoneley wave propagation.
Metal casing in the borehole increases the velocity
Vtube of the tube wave, now becoming (Galperin, 1985) 3410.0
3000.0
Kf D
Vtube = Vf 1+ , (7.31)
Ed
with
2000.0 Platform
North (m)
µc (3λc + 2µc )
E= , (7.32)
λc + µc
where D and d are the diameter and thickness of the 1000.0

casing, respectively, and λc and µc are the Lamé’s
parameters of the casing material. Velocity of the tube
wave may be 40% higher than velocity of the fluid in
the borehole.
Figure 7.71 shows the hydrophone recording in a 86.0
–170.0 1000.0 2000.0 3000.0 4000.0 5000.0 6000.0 7130.0
zero-offset VSP experiment run offshore Norway in East (m)
2001. The dominant strong-amplitude mode on the
hydrophone section is the tube wave propagating in FIGURE 7.69. Distribution of shotpoints in a 3D walka-
the fluid column of the borehole. In the upper part way VSP survey over the Ekofisk field in the North Sea.
of the section, which is cased, the tube-wave velocity Shotpoints are mainly colored blue, with some sparse
is almost constant. The tube-wave reflection at depth green and red points; red points correspond to cases of
1300 m is caused by the casing shoe, which is 13 38 in. gun failure, and green points correspond to shots outside
the original survey plan. (Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum
thick (approximately 34 cm). The varying and quite
Company.)
long signature is most likely related to the coupling
between the casing and the formation. Below the casing
shoe, the hole is open so that there is coupling between VERTICAL CABLES
the drilling fluid and the formation. As the tube wave
(Stoneley wave) passes, the drilling fluid interacts with Marine VC
the pore system of the formation, resulting in attenua-
tion and loss of high frequencies of the tube wave as it Acquisition. Marine vertical-cable (VC) acqui-
propagates down the open hole. sition is performed with vertical hydrophone arrays
(a) Towed-streamer data (b)

VSP
FIGURE 7.70. The Ekofisk field in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea produces from high-porosity chalk
reservoir layers at depths of about 10,000 ft (3400 m). The thickest and most porous chalk is at the crest of the
field, but the reservoir structure in this area is not mappable on surface seismic data because of strong lateral
and vertical velocity variations in the overburden section, which cause ray bending and severe attenuation of
seismic-reflection energy from the reservoir (diagram a). 3D VSP data acquired over the Ekofisk crestal area
has greatly improved the imaging of reservoir layers (diagram b). VSP data are used to define the structure of
the crest of the field, with a reservoir horizon and fault maps. (Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Co.)
deployed in the water column, as illustrated in Fig- pressure at a depth of 600 m is 860 psi, compared to 28
ure 7.72. In areas congested by platforms or other psi at the normal operating depth of 10 m for a streamer,
obstacles, VC seismics is emerging as an alternative so a receiver cable designed specifically for deep ocean
technology to surface seismics because it operates with depths is required, as well as special hydrophones cal-
small boats and not cumbersome towed streamers. ibrated for high pressure. Another major challenge is
Another advantage of VC technology is data of better keeping the cable vertical, because ocean currents can
quality, because the receivers are in a quiet environment, cause significant tilt of the cable. The cable is kept verti-
as compared to the near-surface environment (which cal by anchoring it at the sea bottom and to buoys at the
can be affected by ocean swell) in which measurements sea surface. Most current VC data-processing schemes
such as towed-streamer data are made. can tolerate only as much as a 5◦ tilt.
VC-cable acquisition had its genesis in walkaway VC acquisition is designed for deep-water explo-
VSP, with the important difference that it constitutes a ration and production. The experiment suggests that
VSP without borehole tube waves or expensive standby water depth must be about 500 m or more for this tech-
rig time; it was proposed first by Krail (1994). More- nology to be effective.
over, VC acquisition is aimed at imaging a large area,
as do towed-streamer and OBS acquisition, not merely
the vicinity of the cable. Data. Figures 7.73 and 7.74 show examples of a
Although the principle of VC acquisition is sim- VC shot gather and receiver gathers of synthetic and real
ple, its implementation is not: it requires a completely data. As expected, the shot gathers look like standard
different type of ocean engineering effort than marine VSP data, and the receiver gathers look like standard
towed-streamer acquisitions. For example, hydrostatic surface-seismic data. Most of the events are linear,
Horizontal scale 1:11000 measured depth Vertical scale 10 cm/s FIGURE 7.71. Hydrophone recording in a zero-
offset VSP experiment run offshore Norway
in 2001 in a partially cased borehole. The
dominant, strong-amplitude energy on the
hydrophone section is the tube wave prop-
agating in the fluid column of the borehole.

In the upper part of the section, which has
Tube wave casing, the tube-wave velocity is almost con-
stant. The tube-wave reflection at a depth of
1300 m is caused by the casing shoe of 13 38 in.
(approximately 34 cm). (Courtesy of Statoil
ASA.)
1.0
Time (s)
Tube wave they are generally treated as part of an

effective-source signature because the re-
ceivers are very close to the sea surface. In
VC experiments, the problem is quite dif-
ferent; receiver ghosts can be distinct from
primaries and multiples, as illustrated in Fig-
ure 7.75. Moreover, early developments of
2.0
VC imaging algorithms tended to use re-
ceiver ghosts of primaries instead of pri-
maries themselves, because they provided
better illumination of the subsurface (e.g.,
Krail,1994). Therefore, multiple-attenuation
methods developed for VSP data, such as the
one described in Ikelle and Weglein (1996)
Casing No casing
for attenuating free-surface multiples while
Depth
preserving primaries, must be reappraised
for VC data.
with opposite gradients. Just as in VSP data, down- Potential Impact of Land VC
going events have positive gradients, whereas upgoing
wavefield events have negative gradients. This differ- For the most part, current applications of VC sur-
ence in the sign of the gradient between upgoing and veys have been limited to offshore exploration, with
downgoing waves can be used for up/down separation, encouraging results. However, as first pointed out by
as we see in Chapters 8 and 9. Ikelle and Wilson (1999), land seismics may be the ulti-
One of the major differences between VC data and mate beneficiary of this technology. Land VC surveys
surface-seismic data, in particular towed-streamer data, allow us to overcome significant drawbacks in current
is the nature and use of receiver ghosts. In surface- land-data processing, such as statics, ground-roll atten-
seismic data, the effect of receiver ghosts is negligible; uation, and coupling. We present synthetic examples
(a) Seismic source

(b)
Recording buoy
Sea surface
Buoyancy
sphere
Hydrophones
VC1 VC2 VC3
α=1500 m/s, β=0.0 m/s, ρ=1.0 g/cc α=1800 m/s, β=1000 m/s, ρ=2.1 g/cc
α=2100 m/s, β=1100 m/s, ρ=2.4 g/cc α=2500 m/s, β=1300 m/s, ρ=2.7 g/cc
FIGURE 7.72. (a) Illustration of vertical-cable (VC) acquisition. A VC array is kept under tension by an anchor, and the
buoys float near the surface; thus, the array remains vertical throughout a survey. Unlike conventional surveys, the shoot-
ing boat does not carry horizontal cables. (Adapted from Krail, 1994.) (b) Example of primaries, receiver ghosts, and
free-surface multiples in VC data.
FIGURE 7.73. The full wave- 500 Depth (m) 125 130 Shotpoint 1
field (downgoing and upgoing 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
waves), including direct-wave Shot 21 D Receiver — 125 m
arrivals corresponding to the D

2D model in Figure 7.72a: (a) a
shot gather, and (b) a receiver P
gather. The data have only two 0.5 0.5 0.5
0.5 0.5
P
PP primaries but several multi-
RGP
ples: D indicates a direct wave, RGP
P indicates primaries, and RGP
Time (s)
indicates receiver ghosts of

1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 P
primaries.
RGP
1.5 1.5 1.5

1.5 1.5
RGP
RGP
(a) (b)
that confirm that statics and ground roll are not pro- To analyze the applicability of VC surveys fully, we
cessing dilemmas in VC data. The quality of VC data have also investigated the problem of spacing between
from receivers below the low-velocity zone is equal to cables and sampling within cables. The problem of VC
that of marine data. Even when the source is buried sampling is that of finding the spacing between cables
below the low-velocity zone, the quality of VC data is that allows us to image at least as well as surface seis-
superior to that of surface seismics. mics — under the assumption, although unrealistic, that
(b) Shotpoints
(a) 0
VC1 VC2 VC3 VC4
0
Number of shots = 797
Inline shot spacing = 50 m
Crossline shot spacing = 75 m

200
Time (s)
Depth (m)
400
Number of vertical cables = 4

600 Number of receivers/cable = 16
Receiver spacing = 25 m
Vertical cable spacing = 2 km
800
5.6
(c) Traces (d) Depth (m)

375 35
0 0
VC1 VC2 VC3 VC4
Down
Time (s)
Up
9 1.0
FIGURE 7.74. Real VC data: (a) characteristics of the acquisition geometry; (b) example of receiver gathers; (c) and
(d) examples of shot gathers. The display in (d) has been limited to a 1-s window to point out clearly the downgoing
and upgoing events.
surface data do not contain ground-roll or static prob- surface survey). The added pressure data can aid in
lems. For a cable length of 500 m spaced every 500 m, up/down separation. Also, the orientation and coupling
we found that we could achieve imaging resolution of each receiver are guaranteed when positioned on a
equal or superior to surface seismics. fixed vertical cable.
Vertical-cable data in Figure 7.47 appear very sim-
VC data. The acquisition style of vertical cables ilar to VSP data, with strong downgoing events and
overcomes many of the problems associated with sur- weaker upgoing events. Also, PS-converted waves are
face seismics. The very nature of land seismics implies more important in VC data because of larger incidence
the ability to use a three-component source and record angles than those achieved in surface seismic. But more
multicomponent data. By coupling the cable onto the importantly, data quality, compared to that of surface
walls of fluid-filled boreholes, we gain the opportunity data, is significantly improved. High-amplitude ground
to record four-component data versus three-component roll is limited to the receivers, which are located in the
surface data (in other words, VC can be characterized as low-velocity zone. High amplitudes can be attributed
a 12-component survey versus a current nine-component to large impedance contrasts at the surface and at the
X
Water
Reflected h
rays
Incident ray Z
θ' max
Receiver
θmax
Scattering point
Reflector FIGURE 7.76. Schematic representation of raypaths re-

flected from an image point at a depth Z. θmax is the
Rg Rp
maximum angle of reflection for the surface array, and θmax
is the maximum angle of reflection for the vertical cable.
FIGURE 7.75. Difference of the subsurface aperture for a
series of primaries and receiver ghosts. The light gray ray-
paths are primaries, and the white raypaths are receiver
ghosts. Distance Rg , corresponding to the receiver ghosts’ allows us to image at least as well as with surface seis-
subsurface aperture, is larger than Rp , the subsurface aper- mics. Because of the difference in data quality between
ture for the primaries; however, Rp has a greater density of the surface and VC data caused by the low-velocity
sampling and is closer to the receiver, as compared to Rg . zone, we limit the imaging-resolution analysis to an
earth model that contains no low-velocity zone. Two
factors that control the imaging resolution are (1) total
angular coverage and (2) density of sampling in this
base of the low-velocity zone, which effectively traps angular coverage. Figure 7.76 illustrates an example of
much of the seismic energy. Eliminating ground roll defining angular coverage for both the surface and VC
is accomplished simply by removing the near-surface surveys. θmax is the maximum angle of reflection for the
receivers located in the low-velocity layers. Receivers
surface array. θmax is the maximum angle of reflection
located below the low-velocity zone display data qual- for the vertical cables. To achieve equal or superior res-
ity similar to that obtained in typical marine streamer olution using vertical cables, θ = θmax − θmax must
surveys. Simulated static effects caused by the irreg- be greater than zero. In addition, ray coverage between
ular base of weathered material are still present, ] must be sampled as densely as or more densely
[0, θmax
but they are not as significant as equivalent surface than the equivalent surface seismic in this interval. For a
data. given image point of depth Z and cable length h, we can
By placing the source below the low-velocity zone, calculate the increased angular coverage a vertical cable
VC data quality (Figure 7.47) is further improved. survey can achieve by using the following formula:
Again, ground roll is present only in receivers located
hX
in the low-velocity zone. Also, many multiple events tan(θ) = .
in the VC data are much weaker, in comparison to the Z2 + X 2 − Zh
prior data set. Where the source is located beneath the So, for a given θmax and the corresponding density
low-velocity zone, the base of weathered material acts coverage from the surface data, the problem is how to
more or less as a free surface with a reflection coefficient sample properly using vertical cables to achieve supe-
of ∼–0.6, reflecting most of the upgoing energy back rior coverage for a given θ . Figure 7.77 compares
downward. the resolution between surface data and VC data. The
surface survey consists of 100 shots and 100 receivers,
Resolution of VC data versus surface data. spaced at 25-m intervals. In this survey the receivers are
A full analysis of the applicability of VC surveys must static. For this surface survey, θmax is approximately
include the fundamental problem of spacing between 64◦ , and the angular coverage is represented by the
cables and sampling within the cables. The problem of black line. This curve was obtained by grouping all
VC sampling is to find the spacing between cables that angles in the interval [0, θmax ] as a function of their
400 700
350 Superior VC coverage 600 Superior VC coverage
Number of occurences
Number of occurences
300 500
250 Equivalent VC coverage
400
Equivalent VC coverage
200
300 Surface VC coverage
150
100 200
50 Poor VC coverage 100

Surface coverage Poor VC coverage
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Reflection angle(°) Reflection angle(°)
FIGURE 7.77. Angular coverage for an image point at a FIGURE 7.78. Angular coverage for an image point at a
depth of 2000 m and simulating 100 shots spaced every depth of 2000 m and simulating 100 shots spaced every
25 m. The blank curve (surface) shows surface coverage for 25 m. The black curve (surface) shows coverage for 100
100 receivers spaced every 25 m. Receiver spacing along receivers spaced every 25 m. Cable spacing was constant
the vertical cable was constant (19 receivers spaced every (six cables spaced at 500 m intervals), and spacing within
26 m), and spacing of cables varied. The green curve (poor) cables varied. The green curve (poor) corresponds to 10
corresponds to three cables spaced at 833 m, the red curve receivers spaced every 50 m, the red curve (equivalent) cor-
(equivalent) corresponds to six cables spaced every 500 m, responds to 19 receivers spaced every 26 m, and the blue
and the blue curve (superior) corresponds to eight cables curve (superior) corresponds to 40 receivers spaced every
spaced every 357 m. 12.5 m.
occurrences. The angle was sampled at each degree.

Each of the following VC surveys assumes a maximum
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING
borehole depth of 500 m, with θ = 7.8◦ . To achieve 1) Why is proper coupling of a geophone in the
equivalent VC coverage, six cables spaced every 500 m, ground so important in land-seismic acquisition? Is
with 19 receivers spaced every 26 m, were used (red coupling of a geophone at the seafloor necessary in
line, Figure 7.77). Keeping this same sampling within sea-bottom acquisition?
each cable, the cable spacing can be increased to 833 m
to produce the green curve in Figure 7.77, showing inad- 2) Design a marine-seismic experiment in which
equate sampling density with respect to cable spacing. sources generate P- and S-waves and receivers can
Superior VC coverage is obtained by using eight cables record only P-waves. More specifically, indicate the
spaced every 357 m (blue line, Figure 7.77). following:
We also can determine the sampling criteria, assum-
ing we keep a constant distance between cables (500 m) (a) source positions
and vary the sampling only within the cable for a cable (b) source type
length of 500 m. Figure 7.78 shows the results of vary- (c) receiver positions
ing only the sampling within the cable. Using the same (d) receiver type
parameters as those illustrated in Figure 7.77, the black
line represents surface data, the red line corresponds 3) Design a roll-along experiment on land. In particu-
to the equivalent VC data, the blue line is obtained lar, deal with the following:
by sampling every 12.5 m along each cable, and the (a) Where can such an experiment be conducted?
green line is obtained by sampling every 50 m along (b) Suggest a deployment scenario.
each cable. The stair-step appearance of the VC data (c) Propose a solution to the coupling problem
is attributed to the spacing between cables. Results of in this case.
this analysis show that we can achieve superior imaging
resolution over surface seismics by using a 500-m 4) Figure 7.79 represents two synthetic shot gathers
cable interval and sampling densely along each cable. corresponding to a 1D elastic, layered medium. The
Similar results are obtained by using the suggested source used to generate these data is a weight-drop.
wavenumber-based resolution analysis. We discuss the One of these shot gathers corresponds to the hori-
issue of resolution in more detail in Chapter 10. zontal component of the particle velocity, and the
FIGURE 7.79. Two shot gathers Offset (km) Offset (km)

generated and distributed to the (a) (b)
0.5 1.5 2.5 0.5 1.5 2.5
seismic community by Institut 0.0 0.0
Français du Pétrole, for research
and development.
0.5 0.5
1.0 1.0
1.5 1.5
Time (s)
2.0 2.0
2.5 2.5
3.0 3.0
3.5 3.5
other shot gather represents the vertical component

of the particle velocity.
(a) Which one is the horizontal component?
(b) Indicate the direct waves.
5) Figure 7.80 is a schematic diagram of seismic events.

Categorize these events into primaries, ghosts, free-
surface multiples, and/or internal multiples. Source position Receiver position
6) Figure 1.4 (Chapter 1) shows synthetic seismograms FIGURE 7.80. Examples of seismic events in sea-bottom
and snapshots corresponding to wave propagation cable data.
through a faulted model.
(b) Identify (1) the direct wave, (2) reflections of
(a) Which physical quantity is displayed in this primaries, (3) ghost reflections, (4) PS reflec-
figure? tions, (5) free-surface multiples, and (6) PP
(a) (b) (c)

Free surface 1.0
101 Depth (km) 0.5
1 Depth (km)
A 5m .0 0.0
0.00.0 1. 0 0. 9 0. 8 0. 7 0. 6 0. 5
★ 0. 2
Source
V P1
Water 0. 3
B
1
0. 4
.5 0.5
0.5
500 m
V P2 0. 5
C Interface 2 2 0. 6
Receivers
Time (s)
3
.0 1.0
1.0 4
Time (s)
0. 7
5
V P3
0. 8
1000 m
6
0. 9
.5 1.5
1.5
9 7 1. 0
D Interface 3
V P4 1. 1
8
2.0 1. 2
FIGURE 7.81. (a) Model of the subsurface and acquisition geometry; (b) the corresponding walkaway VSP data; (c) a
schematic version of key events of the walkaway VSP data.
diffractions in both surface and borehole 12) Explain why the RC of an oil-water contact is always
synthetic seismograms. positive but very small.
7) Consider the following acquisition configurations:
13) Suppose that water in the model in Figure 7.10 is at
100 m. Rank the multiples in this figure as a function
(a) 25-m receiver group spacing, 25-m shot pull- of their zero-offset arrival time.
up
(b) 12.5-m receiver group spacing, 50-m shot 14) Factors affecting changes in rock properties that
pull-up result in events observed in seismic data include the
What is the CMP spacing in each case? following:
8) Sources used in seismic surveys include hammer (a) rock type — chemical composition of the rock
blow, shotgun, and vibroseis. Which of these three (b) rock condition — fracturing, porosity, depth,
sources can be used (a) in marine environments and and overpressuring
(b) on land? (c) saturant — gas and oil
9) (a) At a transition from soft rock to hard rock, is Which of these factors are likely to be detected from
the reflection coefficient (RC) positive or negative? 4C-OBS data and to be missed by towed-streamer
(b) Describe an example of a transition from soft data?
rock to hard rock.
15) As a seismic pulse propagates outward from the
10) In marine seismic surveys, which reflector has the shotpoint, the original energy decreases with propa-
largest RC at normal incidence? gation time. This decrease in energy depends on the
physical properties of rocks encountered during the
11) Explain why the RC of a gas-water contact is always propagation of the pulse. Some of this decrease in
positive. energy is a result of geometric spreading. Can we
use the decrease in energy resulting from geometric Events Number

spreading to reconstruct the physical properties of
Primary reflection at interface 2
rock formations?
Primary reflection at interface 3
Downgoing free-surface multiple
16) Consider a medium made of three acoustic layers
Upgoing free-surface multiple

and a half-space, as shown in Figure 7.81a. We
Downgoing internal multiple
have computed synthetic data corresponding to a
Upgoing internal multiple
VSP experiment. The source is located just above
the borehole, as shown in Figure 7.81a. The zero- 17) A common pulse shape used in petroleum seismol-
offset VSP data corresponding to this experiment ogy modeling is the Ricker wavelet, defined as
are shown in Figure 7.81b and c.

a) Estimate the distances AB, BC, and CD SR (t) = 1 − 2π 2 2 2
fc t exp −π 2 2 2
fc t , (7.33)
(shown in Figure 7.81a).
b) Estimate the velocities VP1 , VP2 , and VP3 where fc is the peak frequency in the spectrum of the
(shown in Figure 7.81a). wavelet.
c) Seismic events in Figure 7.81c are identified a) Plot the Ricker wavelet for fc = 25 Hz.
by numbers. Find the number corresponding b) Determine by differentiation its period, τ ,
to each of the following (only one number per which is defined as the time difference
event): between its minima.
8
WAVEFIELD SAMPLING
As we discussed in previous chapters, in petroleum described in Figure 7.3, so that the distributions of
seismology we do not have direct access to snapshots of sources and receivers in space satisfy the sampling cri-
wave propagation in the earth; our seismic data are lim- teria; then the outputs of these arrays are resampled
ited to seismograms recorded by sensors deployed at or before or after recording them. The current resam-
near the surface of the earth, in the water column in the pling approach is basically a hardwired summation of
sea, at the sea bottom, or inside a borehole. Therefore, outputs of the sensors of arrays, before recording the
making sure that sensors used in seismic experiments outputs. An emerging new approach to this resam-
are distributed adequately to capture the main character- pling process introduces a filtering step of outputs from
istics of wave propagation, namely ground motion and the sensors of arrays, to improve this process. This
pressure changes, is a problem of prime importance. approach, which is also known as single-sensor sam-
Ground motion and pressure changes are contin- pling, generally requires recording all the outputs of the
uous by nature; that is, the signals representing these sensors of arrays. We will discuss these two resampling
phenomena are continuous functions of time and space approaches and their impact on seismic data quality.
(we also call these signals “wavefields”). Unfortunately, Before we discuss these resampling processes, we
these seismic signals are so complex that we cannot will introduce the notions of plane waves, wavenum-
represent them by analytical mathematical expressions. bers, and apparent velocity, which are central to
We need a computer to process them. Consequently, deriving spatial sampling criteria.
our continuous signals must be converted into discrete
signals by taking “samples” of continuous signals at
discrete time intervals and specific points in space. In PLANE WAVES AND THE
Chapter 4, we described criteria for sampling seismic 2D FOURIER TRANSFORM
signals with respect to time. Our objective in this chap-
ter is to discuss the sampling criteria of these signals In Chapter 4, we introduced the concept of Fourier
with respect to space and to show that the sampling representation for temporal signals, u(t), as sums of
criteria are actually the same for both time and space “cosine waves,” as follows:
variables. ∞

There are many ways to sample a continuous signal. u(t) = A0 + An cos(ωn t − φn ) (8.1)
The most commonly used method is uniform sampling. n=1
In the case of a spatial variable, uniform sampling
consists of selecting values of a continuous signal at (see Chapter 4 for the definitions of An , ωn , and φn ). In
specific points in space. These specific points need not this section our objective is to show that this concept can
be equidistant, but in practice, they are taken at equally be extended to multidimensional signals, in particular
spaced distances for convenience in computation. If we to 2D signals with time and space variables, such as shot
assume that these points are equidistant, then the criteria gathers in seismic data. However, instead of summing
for selecting the spacing between these points, without cosine waves, we will have to sum “plane waves,” as
losing any information contained in continuous signals, follows:
∞
∞
are exactly the same as those described in Chapter 4 for ωn
temporal signals. u(x, t) = Anm cos ωn t − x , (8.2)
Vm
Unfortunately, in most cases, the spacings between n=0 m=0
points imposed by the criteria of spatially uniform sam- where u(x, t) is a 2D signal. The parameters Anm , Vm
pling are so small that seismic experiments based on will be described in detail later in this section.
these criteria are not economically viable in terms of A two-dimensional (2D) Fourier representation of
data storage and processing. The common approach is signals with one temporal variable and one spatial vari-
to use arrays of sources and receivers, like the example able focuses on the notions of frequency, apparent
315
velocity, and wavenumber. In Chapter 4, we discussed

the notion of frequency. We start our discussion here
Plane wavefront
Va = V
with the notions of apparent velocity and wavenumber.
Apparent Velocity
When we are on the ground looking at an airplane n
flying in the sky, our perception of the airplane’s speed
is usually very different from its actual speed. However,
when a car is passing in front of us, our perception of
the car’s speed is very close to its actual speed. More-
over, we may have a harder time distinguishing between Va = V /cos
two cars passing in front of us than we do of two air-
planes flying in the sky at a faster speed. In other words,
the capability of our eyes to record information about
moving objects depends not only on the actual speed of
nt
fro
the object but also on our position with respect to the
ve
object. The combination of these two factors produces
wa
an apparent speed of the object that may not be its actual
ne
n
Pla
speed, depending on our position.
Receivers recording seismic events have similar
perception problems. For instance, when a plane wave-
front with a velocity V is propagating perpendicular to
the receiver line, as depicted in Figure 8.1, receivers will
see the wavefront with its actual velocity, V . However, Receiver
if the wavefront is tilted by an angle θ, as depicted in
FIGURE 8.1. An illustration of the concept of apparent
Figure 8.1, receivers will record the wavefront not with
velocity: Va is the apparent velocity, and V is the actual
the actual velocity V but with an apparent velocity:
velocity of the wavefront.
V
Va = , (8.3)
cos θ
where Va is the apparent velocity. Thus, the appar- In other words, the apparent velocity of the same seis-
ent velocity of a given seismic event is the speed at mic event can vary from one cross section to another,
which the event travels along the receiver positions. in contrast to the actual velocity, which does not vary
Therefore, the apparent velocity, rather than the actual among cross sections.
velocity of the wavefront, controls our ability to record Let us look at two examples: a direct-wave event
seismic events. and a dipping-reflection event. In the context of towed-
If we denote the traveltime of a seismic event by streamer data, the direct wave travels horizontally along
t(xs , xr ), as a function of receiver position xr and of the receiver line, despite its dipping shape in seismic
shot position xs , the apparent velocity of this event is data in an x-t plot (see Figure 7.8). In a medium with
defined as constant velocity V , the traveltimes of direct waves are
given by
dt(xs , xr ) −1
Va =
(s)
. (8.4)
dxr |xs − xr |
t(xs , xr ) = . (8.6)
Similar definitions can be given for all the cross sec- V
tions introduced in Chapter 7. For instance, in receiver
gathers, the definition (8.4) becomes Using equations (8.4) and (8.5), the apparent velocity
of a direct wave in the shot gathers is

dt(xs , xr ) −1
Va =
(r)
. (8.5)
dxs Va(s) = ±V , (8.7)
Wavefield Sampling 317
and the apparent velocity of a direct wave in the receiver TABLE 8.1. Dependence of apparent velocity on source and
gathers is receiver locations, with dip variation. The actual velocity is
3.0 km/s. Symbols used in this table are identical to those used
Va(r) = ±V . (8.8) in equations (8.9), (8.10), and (8.11).
(s) (r)
xs xr t α Va Va
We can see that, contrary to the actual velocity, which (m) (m) (ms) (deg.) (m/s) (m/s)
is always positive, the apparent velocity can be nega-
500.0 500.0 86.3 15 11591 11591
tive or positive. Actually, the apparent velocity can take 500.0 500.0 166.7 30 6000 6000
any value between −∞ and +∞. Notice that for direct 500.0 500.0 235.7 45 4242 4242
waves, the apparent velocity is the same in the shot 1000.0 500.0 166.67 0 3000 −3000
gathers and in the receiver gathers. 1000.0 500.0 206.5 15 3278 −5078
1000.0 500.0 288.6 30 3464 8.51E + 10
Let us now consider a dipping reflector with 1000.0 500.0 372.7 45 3354 6708
dip angle α, overlain by a constant-velocity acoustic 1500.0 500.0 333.3 0 3000 −3000
medium. The origin of the coordinate is put at the 1500.0 500.0 365.3 15 3081 −4114
1500.0 500.0 440.9 30 3174 −15874
intersection of the dipping plane and a dip line at the 1500.0 500.0 527.0 45 3162 9486
surface (Figure 8.2). The traveltime expression follows
immediately from the cosine rule:

xs2 + xr2 − 2xr xs cos 2α
t(xs , xr ) = . (8.9)
V2 examples of apparent velocities for various dip angles
and offsets. We can see that the apparent velocity varies
Using equations (8.4) and (8.5), the apparent velocity
widely. Notice also that for the dipping reflection, the
for shot gathers is
apparent velocities in the shot-gather domain are now
different from the apparent velocities in the receiver-
V 2t
Va(s) = , (8.10) gather domain.
xr − xs cos 2α
and for receiver gathers it is
V 2t Wavenumber
Va(r) = , (8.11)
xs − xr cos 2α
In Chapter 2, we derived the solution of a 1D wave
where V is the actual velocity, with α > 0 for downdip equation as a plane wave. One particular case of this
shooting and α < 0 for updip shooting. Table 8.1 gives solution is
x
u(x, t) = A cos ω t ± , (8.12)
V
where the propagation along the +x direction corre-

xr xs
0 xr sponds to cos[ω(t − x/V )], and along the −x direc-
α tion it corresponds to cos[ω(t + x/V )]. Notice that
expression (8.12) is confined to only one propagation
2α
Dipp
mode (i.e., to the P-wave or S-wave, but not both).
xs ing r Equation (8.12) can also be written as follows:
eflec
tor

t x
u(x, t) = A cos 2π ± , (8.13)
T Λ
FIGURE 8.2. Source-receiver configuration of a dipping where T is the period of the plane wave and Λ
reflector. is its wavelength. The period and wavelength are
defined as follows: for a fixed frequency f = 25 Hz and various values of

wavenumber k. Also displayed on the bottom of each
2π 1 plane wave is a two-quadrant plot known as the f -k
T= = , (8.14) plot, in which f stands for frequency and k stands for
ω f
wavenumber. The following conventions are used in the
plots in Figures 8.4 and 8.5: Events with downdip to

the right are assigned positive dip, whereas events with
V updip to the right are assigned negative dip. Addition-
Λ= = VT . (8.15) ally, positive dips map onto the right quadrant, whereas
f
negative dips map onto the left quadrant, which cor-
Figure 8.3 illustrates an example of plane waves for responds to negative wavenumbers. Notice that each
a specific value of the period, T , which is the time plane wave can be mapped onto a single point in the
between the passage of successive peaks of the cosine f -k plane. We can see that the dip of the plane wave,
wave at a given point, x = x0 . If the wave is consid- which is controlled by the velocity, is related to a spe-
ered as a function of x alone, the wavelength, Λ, is cific wavenumber. For instance, zero dip is equivalent
the distance between peaks on the cosine wave, and the to a zero wavenumber.
term Another useful way to build better understanding
of the notion of wavenumbers is to add plane waves to
ω 2π produce classical events such as direct waves in seis-
k= = (8.16) mic data. For instance, in Figure 8.6a, we have added
V Λ 40 planes, as follows:
is the wavenumber of the plane wave. Using the
wavenumber definition, equation (8.12) becomes
39
u(x, t) = cos[ωn t − kn x], (8.18)
n=0
u(x, t) = A cos[ωt ± kx]. (8.17)
with
Notice that when the wavenumber k is null (i.e., k =
0), u(x, t) reduces to the cosine wave signal used in
Chapter 4 to describe a 1D Fourier representation. ωn = 2π nf (8.19)
To develop more intuition about the notion of
wavenumber, Figures 8.4 and 8.5 display the wavefield and
ωn
kn = , (8.20)
V
x = x0
T = 2 π /ω
A
and where V = 3 km/s, and f = 0.25 Hz. The
summation (8.18) produces a more compact straight
t line than do the plane waves in Figures 8.4 and 8.5.
This line follows the traveltime equation of the direct
wave in equation (8.6). Similarly, we can add various
t = t0 plane waves to produce another straight line that fol-
Λ = VT lows the traveltime equation of the dipping reflection in
A
equation (8.9), but with varying amplitude (the move-
x out of this dipping reflector is linear because the origin
of the x-coordinate is at the intersection of the dip-
ping plane and a dip line, as depicted in Figure 8.2).
In Figure 8.6b, we show the 40 plane waves corre-
FIGURE 8.3. Definition of period and wavelength for a sponding to the same frequencies as those used for
plane wave. the direct wave event in Figure 8.6a. However, the
v = 1.0 km/s v = 1.5 km/s v = 3.0 km/s v =∝ FIGURE 8.4. Top row: four gathers, each
0.0 containing 25-Hz cosine waves with dif-
ferent apparent velocities, ranging from
infinity to 1.0 km/s. Bottom row: their
respective amplitude spectra. If the posi-
tive dips are defined as downdip from left
Time (s)
to right, then all events map onto the posi-
tive quadrant in the frequency-wavenumber
( f -k) plane. The symbol “v” represents the
apparent velocity.
0.16
800 m
75
Frequency (Hz) f
50
25
0.0
–50 0.0 50
Wavenumber k
(cycles/km)
v = –5.0 km/s v = –3.0 km/s v = –1.5 km/s v = –1.0 km/s FIGURE 8.5. Top row: four gathers, each
0.0
containing 25-Hz cosine waves with dif-
ferent apparent velocities, ranging from
−5.0 km/s to −1.0 km/s. Bottom row: their
respective amplitude spectra. If the nega-
Time (s)
tive dips are defined as being updip from

left to right, then all events map onto the
negative quadrant in the frequency-
wavenumber ( f -k) plane. The symbol “v”
represents the apparent velocity.
0.16
800 m
75
Frequency (Hz) f
50
25
0.0
–50 50
Wavenumber k
(cycles/km)
wavenumbers of these 40 plane waves are now dif- where

ferent, because we have used different velocities for ωn
each plane wave. In other words, equation (8.18) can kn,m = , (8.22)
Vm
be written
V 2t
Vm = , (8.23)

39
39 xm − xs cos 2α
u(x, t) = cos[ωn t − kn,m x], (8.21)
n=0 m=0 xm = xs + (m − 1)dxr , (8.24)
Offset (km) the process of reconstructing a time-space signal can

0 1.5
0 be performed by adding individual plane waves in the
(a) form of a series in which each plane wave has its
own frequency and wavenumber. We follow exactly the
same procedure as in Chapter 4. That is, we (1) define
a scalar product for a space of 2D periodic signals,

Time (ms)
(2) construct an orthonormal basis of plane waves for

this space, (3) deduce a 2D Fourier series representa-
tion of 2D periodic signals, (4) derive the 2D Fourier
transform of 2D periodic signals, and (5) generalize
the 2D Fourier transform of 2D continuous signals.
600
We can demonstrate that this observation is correct for
transient 2D signals. The result is summarized in the
0 following transform pair, which is known as the 2D
(b) Fourier transform:
+∞ +∞
U(ω, k) = dtdx u(t, x)
−∞ −∞
Time (ms)
× exp[i(ωt − kx)] (8.25)
+∞ +∞
1
u(t, x) = dω dk U(ω, k)
4π 2 −∞ −∞
600 × exp[−i(ωt − kx)], (8.26)
FIGURE 8.6. Summation of 40 plane waves correspond- where U(ω, k) is the 2D Fourier representation of
ing to frequencies between 0 and 10 Hz: (a) for a constant u(t, x). The 2D Fourier representation is also known
apparent velocity (3.0 km/s) and (b) for a varying apparent in petroleum seismology as the f -k representation.
velocity. Note that by splitting the exponential into two
halves, it is easy to see that the 2D Fourier transform
can be considered to be two 1D transforms, first with
and where V = 3 km/s, dxr = 5 m, xs = 500 m, respect to time t and then to x:
α = 45◦ , and t is given by equation (8.9). The veloc- +∞
ity Vm in equation (8.23) is chosen according to the U(ω, k) = dx exp(−ikx)
formula of the apparent velocity of the dipping reflec- −∞
tion in equation (8.10). Note that if we had used +∞
the actual velocity, we would have ended up with × dt u(t, x) exp(iωt). (8.27)
another constant-amplitude straight-line event, as in −∞
Figure 8.6a, because the actual velocity is constant. In general, U(ω, k) is a complex-valued 2D signal that
So, strictly speaking, we should call kn,m the apparent can be decomposed in amplitude and phase spectra, just
wavenumber, because it is directly related to the appar- as we saw in Chapter 4 for 1D signals.
ent velocity. For convenience, we generally use the
term wavenumber to mean apparent wavenumber in
petroleum seismology. Example 1: 2D Fourier Transform
of the Rectangle Function
2D Fourier Transform As an example, let us consider

Another important conclusion that we can draw 1 for |t| ≤ 21 and |x| ≤ 21 .
u(t, x) = (8.28)
from the results in Figure 8.6 is that they suggest that 0 elsewhere
Carrying out the integration indicated in equation these reasons, it is important to understand how the
(8.25), we find events with straight paths are represented in the f -k
1/2 1/2 domain.
U(ω, k) = dtdx exp[i(ωt − kx)] Figure 8.6 has shown experimentally that straight
−1/2 −1/2 lines in the t-x domain are transformed into straight lines
1/2 in the f -k domain. Our objective, in this example of the

1 sin ω/2
= dx exp(−ikx) calculation of the 2D Fourier transform, is to provide a
2 ω −1/2
formal proof of this experimental result.
1 sin ω/2 sin k/2 Consider the following 2D function:
= . (8.29)
4 ω k
u(t, x) = δ(t − ta ), (8.30)
Example 2: 2D Fourier Transform where
of an Event with Linear Moveout
1
Events corresponding to horizontally propagat- ta = x + t0 (8.31)
Va
ing waves are ground roll, air waves, direct waves,
and refracted waves. These events generally follow a and where Va and t0 are constants. Substituting equa-
straight line (if we ignore dispersion) in seismic data and tion (8.30) into (8.25), we arrive at
are predominant in seismic data in the x-t domain, as ∞

we saw in Chapter 7. Unfortunately, they are generally ω
U(ω, k) = exp(iωt0 ) dx exp −i −k x
undesirable for petroleum exploration and production; −∞ Va
therefore, efforts to attenuate them start at the acqui-
ω
sition stage, during the sampling of the wavefield. For = exp[iωt0 ]δ −k . (8.32)
Va
0 x Equation (8.32) corresponds to all energy

tA
being concentrated on the line
(a)
A(t) = A 0δ(t-x/VA+tA) ω
A
k= , (8.33)
Va
C
B B(t) = B 0δ(t-x/VB+tA) which goes through the origin. This is the

tC desired result. Note that t0 appears only
D as a phase factor. Figure 8.7 shows some
C(t) = C 0δ(t-x/VA +tC ) straight lines in the t-x domain and the
amplitude spectra in the f -k domain. Note
t that ω is varying from 0 to +∞, and k is
D(t) = D0 δ(t+x/VB +tA ) varying between −∞ and +∞; that is how
these coordinates normally are displayed
(b) in petroleum seismology. Note also that
D B A,C because t0 appears only in the phase of the
ω f -k transform, straight lines A and C map
–1/VB 1/VB 1/VA VA > VB onto the same line in the f -k domain. Fur-
thermore, the line with the largest value
of dt/dx in the t-x domain is transformed
into lines with the smallest values of df /dk
in the f -k domain. More precisely, the
above derivations show that a line with
0 k gradient 1/Va ,
FIGURE 8.7. Equivalent responses in the 2D (a) space-time and 1

ta = x + t0 (8.34)
(b) frequency-wavenumber domains. Va
for both the forward and inverse Fourier transforms,

in the t-x domain, transforms to a line with gradient Va ,
the following properties of the Fourier transform are
valid.
ω = Va k (8.35)
1) Linearity:
in the ω-k domain. w(t, x) = au(t, x) + bv(t, x) ⇐⇒

Similarly, if the line (8.34) has the opposite dip,
W (ω, k) = aU(ω, k) + bV (ω, k), (8.38)
that is,
with a and b as constants.
1
ta = − x + t0 (8.36)
Va 2) Shifting (translation):
in the t-x domain, it will transform to the following line: w(t, x) = u(t − t0 , x − x0 ) ⇐⇒
W (ω, k) = U(ω, k) exp[i(ωt0 − kx0 )], (8.39)
ω = −Va k (8.37)
where t0 and x0 are constants.
in the ω-k domain. 3) Scaling (dilatation):
Because a dipping straight line in the t-x domain
ω k
transforms to a dipping straight line in the f -k domain, w(t, x) = u(at, bx) ⇐⇒ W (ω, k) = U , .
overlapping events that have certain dips between two a b
values in the t-x domain can be removed. This is done (8.40)
by multiplying the f -k transform of the data with a filter
that is zero between the corresponding dips in the f -k 4) Convolution:
domain, because these events may not overlap in the f -k
domain. This is known as dip filtering. We will revisit ∞ ∞
this issue in more detail later. w(t, x) = u(t , x )v(t − t , x − x )dt dx
−∞ −∞
⇐⇒ W (ω, k) = U(ω, k)V (ω, k). (8.41)
Properties of 2D Fourier Transforms 5) Parseval’s theorem:

Several properties of the 2D Fourier transform fol- ∞ ∞
low easily from the defining integrals equation. We u(t, x)v(t, x)dtdx = 1/(2π)2
present them without proof. The proofs can be found −∞ −∞
in Bracewell (1978), Brigham (1974), and Goodman ∞ ∞
(1968). × U(ω, k)V ∗ (ω, k)dωdk, (8.42)
−∞ −∞
To describe some of the basic properties of the
2D Fourier transform, let us consider two 2D sig-
where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate.
nals1 , u(t, x) and v(t, x), and their respective Fourier
When v(t, x) = u(t, x), we have
transforms, U(ω, k) and V (ω, k). Using the notational
convention in which ⇐= here indicates an inverse
∞ ∞
Fourier transform, =⇒ indicates a forward Fourier u2 (t, x)dtdx = 1/(2π)2
transform (which is known simply as the Fourier trans- −∞ −∞
form), and ⇐⇒ indicates that the properties are valid ∞ ∞
× |U(ω, k)|2 dωdk. (8.43)
−∞ −∞
1 In this book, a 2D signal represents functions with two variables. In Parseval’s theorem states that the energy in the time-
this chapter, we focus on 2D signals whose variables are time and space. space domain and that in the f -k domain are equal;
it basically states the principle of the conservation for q between 0 and N − 1. If, however, we use the
of energy. same equation to evaluate U(±p, ±q), we can see that
the periodicity properties of the exponential factor in
equation (8.45) imply that
Discrete 2D Fourier Transform U(p, −q) = U( p, N − q), (8.47)

The 2D version of the discrete Fourier trans-
form is simply the 1D transform extended to two
variables. U(−p, q) = U(M − p, q), and (8.48)
Let u(t, x) be a continuous 2D signal; its conversion
to a discrete signal using uniform sampling for t and x
variables can be described by the following relationship: U(−p, −q) = U(M − p, N − q). (8.49)
u(m, n) = u(mt, nx), (8.44) Similarly, using equation (8.46), we can show that
u(−m, n) = u(M − m, n), (8.50)

with
m = 0, 1, . . . , M − 1 and n = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1,
u(m, −n) = u(m, N − n), and (8.51)
where u(m, n) is the discrete-time signal obtained by
“taking samples” of the continuous u(t, x) at every grid
u(−m, −n) = u(M − m, N − n). (8.52)
point (t, x). Note that the discrete signal u(m, n) is
a function of two independent variables that are inte-
Another related consequence of the periodicity prop-
gers. It is not defined as instants between successive
erties of the exponential factor in equations (8.45) and
grid points. Also, it is incorrect to think that u(m, n) is
(8.46) is that
equal to zero if either m or n is not an integer. Simply,
the signal u(m, n) is not defined for noninteger values
U(kN + p, lM + q) = U( p, q) (8.53)
of m and n.
The 2D discrete Fourier transform (2D-DFT) is
and
defined as
u(kN + n, lM + m) = u(n, m) (8.54)
1
M−1 N−1
U(p, q) = u(m, n)
MN for k = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . , l = 0, ±1, ±2, . . . . Therefore,
m=0 n=0
pm qn we reach the following conclusion: Beyond the original
× exp i2π − , (8.45) domain, which is given by [0 ≤ (m and p) ≤ M − 1]
M N and [0 ≤ (n and q) ≤ N − 1], if a discrete 2D signal is
with u(n, m), the extension of u(m, n) and U(p, q) is given by
equations (8.54) and (8.53). In other words, the exten-
p = 0, 1, . . . , M − 1 and q = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1; sions of u(m, n) and U(p, q) are periodic repetitions of
themselves.
the inverse transform is defined as The convolution of two discrete signals, u(m, n) and
v(m, n), is given by
N−1
M−1 pm qn
u(m, n) = U(p, q) exp −i2π − . N−1
M−1
p=0 q=0
M N w(k, l) = u(m, n)v(k − m, l − n)
(8.46) m=0 n=0
N−1
M−1
In equation (8.46), the discrete Fourier transform = u(k − m, l − n)v(m, n) (8.55)
U(p, q) is defined for p between 0 and M − 1 and m=0 n=0
for k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , l = 0, 1, 2, . . . . We emphasize tion (8.42), whereas for the discrete case,

here that when the values of u(m, n) and v(m, n) are
required for indices outside the range 0 ≤ m ≤ M − 1 N−1
M−1
u(m, n)v(m, n)
and 0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1, for which u(m, n) and v(m, n)
m=0 n=0
are defined, then their convolution can be obtained by
the rule given in equation (8.54). With this condition, N−1

M−1
the convolution previously defined becomes a circular = MN U(p, q)V ∗ (p, q). (8.56)
convolution. p=0 q=0
The discrete version of Parseval’s theorem is an
The following relationship directly follows from equa-
often-used property of the discrete Fourier transform.
tion (8.56):
In the continuous case, this theorem is given by equa-
N−1
M−1 N−1
M−1
u (m, n) = MN
2
|U(p, q)|2 . (8.57)
m=0 n=0 p=0 q=0
As was true in the continuous 2D case, Parseval’s theo-

rem states that the energy in the time-space domain and
Input data in t-x domain that in the f -k domain are equal.
On a practical note, equation (8.45) can be writ-
ten as
1D Fourier transform over 1

M−1 pm
time, for each x [data are now U(p, q) = exp i2π
M M
in f-x domain] m=0
N−1
1 qn
× u(m, n) exp −i2π . (8.58)
N N
n=0
Hence, if we consider U(p, q) to be a matrix, the 2D

1D Fourier transform over
the spatial variable, for each f DFT can be computed by performing a 1D transform
[data are in f-k domain] on all the rows, followed by another 1D transform of all
the columns (see Figure 8.8). A similar treatment shows
that the same end is achieved by doing the columns
FIGURE 8.8. Computation of a 2D Fourier transform. first.
BOX 8.1: DISPERSION, PHASE VELOCITIES, AND GROUP VELOCITIES
In Chapter 7, we analyzed the concept of dis- If a plane wave is somehow excited by a seis-
persion, along with the concept of phase velocities mic source, only the phase velocity, Va (ω), of that
and group velocities in the t-x domain. We now plane wave would be needed to fully characterize
revisit it in the f -k domain, based on the fact that the resulting disturbance. However, when several
seismic signals can be described as a series of plane plane waves are excited, as is the case in most real
waves, especially as we establish the relationship seismic sources, the wave disturbances interfere,
between phase and group velocities. producing constructive and destructive patterns that
(continued)
Box 8.1 continued
influence the total ground motion. Constructive By inserting equations (8.62) and (8.63) into equa-
interferences behave as wave packets, which them- tion (8.59) and using the cosine law,
selves propagate as disturbances along the surface,

with well-defined group velocities, U(ω). Our 2 cos a cos b = cos(a + b) + cos(a − b),
goal here is to understand the relationship between
Va (ω) and U(ω). we obtain
Similarly to Lay and Wallace (1995), we be-
gin by considering two plane waves with the u(x, t) = 2 cos(ωt −kx) cos(δω t −δk x). (8.66)
same amplitude but slightly different frequencies,
wavenumbers, and phase velocities. The combina- This is the product of two cosines, the second of
tion of these two plane waves can be written which varies much more slowly than does the first.
Figure 8.9 shows a specific example. The envelope
u(x, t) = cos(ω1 t −k1 x)+cos(ω2 t −k2 x), (8.59) of the modulated signal propagates with a velocity
of the average phase Va , which is defined as the
with group velocity:
ω1
k1 = (1)
, and (8.60) δω
Va U= . (8.67)
δk
ω2 In the limit, as δω and δk −→ 0 and
k2 = (2)
. (8.61)
Va
δω dω
We define ω as the average of ω2 and ω1 , such that −→ , (8.68)
δk dk
ω = ω1 + δω = ω2 − δω, (8.62)
dω d(kVa ) dVa dVa
and the wavenumber k = ω/Va , such that U= = = Va + k = Va − Λ .
dk dk dk dΛ
k = k1 + δk = k2 − δk, (8.63) (8.69)
with From equation (8.69), we see that the group velocity

depends on both the phase velocity and the varia-
δk k (8.64)
tion of the phase velocity with the wavenumber. If
dVa /dk = 0, the phase and group velocities are
δω ω. (8.65) equal.
(a) (b) FIGURE 8.9.

fA = 16 Hz VA = 5.45 km/s 1.5/5.45 = 0.275 s Example of the
interference of two
A A
waves (A and B) of
fB = 16 Hz VB = 5.0 km/s the form in equa-
1.5/5 = 0.3 s tion (8.59), at two
B B positions: (a) x = 0
and (b) x = 1.5 km.
(Adapted from
0.5 s
A+B A+B Kamori and
U = 1.5/0.5 = 3 km/s Anderson, 1977.)
0.5 s
0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2
CRITERIA OF UNIFORM If Vmin is the minimum apparent velocity contained

SPATIAL SAMPLING in a continuous 2D signal, u(t, x), from equation (8.33)
it follows that in the ( f , k) domain, the lines
Energy Distribution in the f -k Domain
2πf
k=±
(8.70)
With regard to selection of the time interval for Vmin
the temporal signals discussed in Chapter 4, the objec-
divide the panels into regions with and without
tive here is to define criteria for selecting the spacing
propagating energy (Figure 8.10a). Thus, for a given
between receivers (sensors), such that any energy con-
frequency f , the wavenumber spectrum is confined to
tained in the continuous 2D signal can be preserved in
the discrete 2D signal. Therefore, determining the loca- 2π f 2π f
tion of the energy contained in the continuous signals − ≤k≤ . (8.71)
Vmin Vmin
is one of the first steps that we must address. We will
carry out this investigation in the f -k domain. This property is often referred to as the spatial band-
A 2D seismic data set (which is described as a width limitation for propagating energy (Vermeer,
2D signal) can be described as a sum of plane waves 1990).
(each plane wave being defined by a frequency and an If U(ω, k) = 0 for f > fmax , then there exist max-
apparent velocity). We can use the limits of variations imum wavenumbers |k|max = 2π fmax /Vmin , and the
of apparent velocities and of frequencies of the seismic energy region becomes (see Figure 8.10b)
signal to determine the region in the f -k domain where 2πfmax 2πfmax
the energy of a given signal will be located. − ≤k≤ . (8.72)
Vmin Vmin
Thus, regarding a given seismic signal with a mini-
mum apparent velocity Vmin and a maximum frequency
k fmax , its energy is confined in the cone defined by
(a) equation (8.72).
k = 2π f /V min
Sampling Criteria
Criteria for selecting the sampling interval in time
f or in space are the same. Let us first recall the criteria
for time sampling that we derived in Chapter 4: If fmax
is the maximum frequency in the wavefield, then the
sampling interval t must be chosen such that
k
π 1
k max t ≤ = . (8.73)
(b) ωmax 2fmax
As shown in Chapter 4, criterion (8.73) ensures that
we can reconstruct the continuous wavefield accurately.
A similar criterion is also valid for uniform spatial
f max sampling: If kmax is the maximum wavenumber in the
f wavefield, then the spacing interval x must be chosen
such that
π
Energy present x ≤ . (8.74)
kmax
FIGURE 8.10. Energy distribution of a seismic signal in the Whereas general information concerning the frequency
f -k domain. (a) Minimum apparent velocity determines content of the signal leading to fmax usually is available,
region in which energy is present. (b) If there is a maxi- no such information is directly available for the maxi-
mum frequency, there is also a maximum wavenumber. mum wavenumber, kmax . However, general information
concerning the velocity ranges of the model subsurface Selecting a spatial sampling interval as small as 10 m,
leading to the minimum apparent velocity usually is let alone 1 m, currently is uncommon, which means that
available. Thus, using equation (8.33), we can estimate a certain amount of spatial aliasing is virtually always
kmax . The criterion (8.74) becomes present. Methods for correcting for spatial aliasing are
discussed below. First, we will illustrate the concept of
π Vmin
x ≤ = . (8.75) aliasing in the x-t and f -k domains.
kmax 2fmax
This criterion is the one that we must use to select
the spacing between receivers and the spacing between Spatial Aliasing
sources for uniform distributions. It is valid for all three
spatial coordinates: x, y, and z. It is also valid for all the As we have already discussed, for the 1D case (the
acquisition geometries reviewed in Chapter 7. How- single-variable signals) in Chapter 4, aliasing occurs
ever, there is one important note of caution: As we when the sampling criteria in equation (8.73) are not
discussed earlier, the apparent minimum velocity can satisfied. It causes duplicates of the input spectrum in
vary from one cross section to another, from one acqui- multiples of 1/t, where t is the sampling interval,
sition geometry to another, and from one axis to another. to overlap (see Figures 4.18 and 4.19). If this overlap-
In other words, we must always adjust the appar- ping does occur, the aliasing effects cannot be removed
ent minimum velocity for the particular context under without additional information about the sampled spec-
consideration. trum, from sources other than the sampled spectrum
Let us consider at some specific examples. If we itself. A trivial example would be a case in which it
want to record as much as 80 Hz in a medium with is known that a 4-ms data set contained frequencies
Vmin = 1600 m/s, then equation (8.75) leads to between 0 and 90 Hz, along with an unknown amount
of aliased 150 Hz. Because 150 Hz produces an alias at
t = 6 41 ms, xs = xr = 10 m. (8.76) 125 − (150 − 125) Hz = 100 Hz, the correct spectrum
Usually, and certainly in land-data acquisition, Vmin is for the 4-ms sampling interval could be reconstructed
much smaller, perhaps 160 m/s; in that case, by zeroing out the 100-Hz contribution. Another illus-
tration of the effect of aliasing for a 1D signal is given
t = 6 41 ms, xs = xr = 1 m. (8.77) in Figure 8.11.
Signal sampled at 2 ms Nonaliased amplitude spectrum FIGURE 8.11. Aliasing for a 1D signal.
(a) (a) Nonaliased signal and its amplitude
spectrum. (b) The same signal as (a), but at
a coarsely sampled interval that produces
aliasing. Notice how the overlapping of
aliased energy has changed the amplitude
in (b).
0 40 80 0 125 250
Signal sampled at 4 ms Aliased amplitude spectrum

(b)
0 62.5 125
Time (ms) Frequency (Hz)
1700 m signals (single-variable signals), a wraparound caused

0s by spatial aliasing may sometimes not include any over-
B A
lapping with the nonaliased signal, as illustrated in
Figure 8.13b. In this case, the effect of aliasing can
be corrected by zeroing the aliased region in the f -k
1s domain (see the section on dip filtering for more details).

C By increasing the spacing between traces to 12.5 m, we
can see that events D and C are now severely aliased
2s and overlap with the nonaliased signal.
Another interesting conclusion that we reach, based
on Figure 8.13, is that spatial aliasing is simple to iden-
D
tify in the f -k domain, compared with the temporal
3s aliasing in a 1D signal like the one in Figure 8.11.
Let us inspect other illustrations of the phenomenon
FIGURE 8.12. Data consisting of four dipping events. The of spatial aliasing. This time we consider shot gathers,
amplitude spectra of these data are given in Figure 8.13 for
starting with reflections over a horizontally flat inter-
three spacing intervals between traces: 2.5, 5.0, and 12.5 m.
face. The model and the corresponding data used for
this example are shown in Figure 8.14. The receiver
Spatial aliasing occurs when the sampling crite- spread is from 0 m to 2250 m, and the spacing between
rion in (8.75) is not satisfied. However, with regard receivers is 25 m. Although we show only the shot
to the removal of the spatial aliasing effects, things are gathers corresponding to the shot point at 1375 m, we
very different, because we are gen-
erally dealing with two (or more) (a)
dimensions. Let us start by con- 0.1
70
sidering examples of f -k plots of A B 0.08
aliased seismic data. Consider a 2D
0.06
signal made of four dipping events, 2.5 m
(Hz)
as depicted in Figure 8.12. This 0.04
D C
2D signal represents a zero-offset 0.02
section. Figure 8.13 shows the f -
0
k amplitude spectrum of this signal 200 0 – 200
for three spacing intervals between cycle/km
(b)
traces: 2.5 m, 5 m, and 12.5 m. The 70 0.2
data are considered to be spatially D
aliased if some of the energy of the A B 0.15
data is wrapped around in the f -k (Hz) 0.1 5m
amplitude spectrum plot. For 2.5-m
spacing, the data are not aliased, and D C 0.05
the different dipping events in the t-
0
x domain map onto straight lines in 100 0 – 100
the f -k domain, with inverse slopes, cycle/km
as we discussed earlier. For 5-m (c)
0.2
70
spacing, we notice that event D is C
aliased. However, contrary to what B 0.15
we discussed in Chapter 4 for 1D C
(Hz) 0.1 12.5 m
A D
0.05
D
FIGURE 8.13. The f -k spectra of the data 0
in Figure 8-12 for (a) 2.5-m, (b) 5-m, 40 0 – 40
and (c) 12.5-m spacing between traces. cycle/km
have actually computed, for the same receiver spread, Shot 1 Shot 2 Shot 3
data for three other shot points: 500 m, 1125 m, and 550 m 1125 m 1750 m
1750 m. Figure 8.15 shows the f -k amplitude spectrum * * *
plots of these three shots. We can see that the energy (a)
Depth
800 m
Receivers
is now spread over a large area of the f -k domain,
Vp = 1500 m/s, ρ = 1.0 g/cm3

compared with what is shown in Figure 8.13. The rea-
son for this spread is related to the fact that reflected
events possess a wider range of continuous apparent
velocities than do the dipping events in the zero-offset
section in Figure 8.12. Moreover, as the apparent veloc-
ity varies with source and receiver positions, we can see Vp = 2500 m/s, ρ = 2.0 g/cm3
1450 m
that the three shots corresponding to the same model
and with the same receiver spread produce different
f -k responses. Notice that the shot gather correspond-
ing to the shot at 1750 m is even slightly aliased.
However, this aliasing effect does not include any over-
lapping with the nonaliased signal. Therefore, it is quite 0 2250 m
easy to correct for the aliasing effect by zeroing the
0s
aliased region in the f -k domain (see the section on dip (b) Shot location
Time (s)
filtering for more details).
As is shown in Figures 8.16 and 8.17, we re- Primary
peated the experiment for dipping reflections with the 1s
same source and receiver configurations; the receiver
spread is from 0 m to 2250 m, and the spacing
Multiple
between receivers is 25 m. The dipping model and the 2s
corresponding data for the shot point at 1125 m are

shown in Figure 8.16. We also computed shot gathers 3s
for shot points at 1125 m and 1750 m. The correspond-
ing f -k amplitude spectra for all the three shot gathers * Source Receiver
are shown in Figure 8.17. We can see that all the shot FIGURE 8.14. Top: model. Bottom: corresponding data for
gathers are now aliased because of the large moveout the source position at 1375 m. We have also computed data
associated with the dipping reflections. However, we corresponding to the shot at 550 m, 1125 m, and 1725 m.
notice that the aliasing effect still does not include any Each shot gather has 91 receivers from 0 to 2250 m, with
overlapping with the nonaliased signal, and therefore it 25-m spacing between receivers. Because of limited space,
can be eliminated easily (see the section on dip filtering these shot gathers are not shown here, although their f -k
for more details). spectra will be shown in Figure 8.15.
DIP FILTERING unwanted energy based on coherent noise is known as

f -k dip filtering (Treitel, 1970).
Overlapping dipping events in the zero-offset gath- Figure 8.18 illustrates the key steps in f -k dip fil-
ers in the t-x domain can be separated in the f -k domain tering. Basically, the data are first transformed from the
on the basis of their dips, as is illustrated in Figures 8.12 t-x domain to the f -k domain. Then a fan (a continu-
and 8.13. This property of the f -k domain allows us to ous range of dips) is imposed on the resulting spectrum
eliminate certain types of unwanted energy from seis- within which the undesired energy is zeroed out. The
mic data, especially coherent noise; such noise can be dipping lines bordering the fan correspond to the lim-
described as linear events in the t-x domain, like ground its in which apparent velocities of the undesired energy
roll that commonly obscures the desired reflections in are located. The next step is to perform an inverse 2D
the data, and some spatial aliasing that may be caused Fourier transformation to map the filtered data back to
by coarse sampling. The procedure for eliminating this the t-x domain.
FIGURE 8.15. The f -k spectra corre- x 10

11
sponding to data generated using the 8
60
model in Figure 8.14 for the shot point
(a) at 550 m, (b) at 1125 m, and (c) at 6
1750 m.
550 m
(Hz) 4
(Shot 1)
2
(a)
0 20 0 – 20
cycle/km
In the cartoon in Figure 8.18, x 10
11
the objective is to filter the dipping

event D. The amplitude spectrum 60
shows that the overlapping events 6
C and D in the t-x domain are well
4 1125 m
separated in the f -k domain, based (Hz)
on their dips. We can see that after (Shot 2)
2
zeroing out a fan in the f -k domain,
which includes event D, the filtered (b)
data are free of event D. 0 20 0 – 20
cycle/km
Figure 8.19 illustrates an appli- x 10
11
cation of f -k dip filtering to real 8

60
data. In this case, the objective of
filtering is to attenuate ground- 6
roll energy. First, we can see how
ground-roll energy can dominate (Hz) 4 1750 m
the data. (Typically, ground roll is (Shot 3)
2
suppressed in the field by receiver-
(c)
array resampling techniques, which
0 20 0 – 20
we will discuss later.) We see that
cycle/km
in the f -k domain, the various types
of energy are better separated from
one another, compared with the
t-x domain representation. Ground An Application of Dip Filtering
roll, A; its backscattered compo- to Multiple Attenuation
nent, B; and guided waves, C, are identifiable. Reflec-
tions D are situated around the frequency axis. As F-k dip filtering can help discriminate against
shown in Figure 8.19c, a fan is imposed on this spec- multiples on the basis of moveout. Figure 8.20 shows
trum, within which the undesired energy is zeroed out. this f -k filtering procedure. The data are transformed
This step is followed by inverse mapping back to the from the t-x domain to the f -k domain. F-k dip
t-x space. The resulting shot gather in Figure 8.19d filtering distinguishes between primary and multiple
is virtually free of ground-roll energy, except for the reflections, based on residual moveout after normal
backscattered component. moveout (NMO) corrections have been applied. Multi-
Note that zeroing out a fan in the f -k domain is one ple events are flattened, with approximately no residual
of the various implementations of the f -k dip filtering. In moveout, whereas the primary events will have some
fact, the reject/pass zones in f -k spectra need not be con- residual moveout. The data with NMO corrections are
strained to a fan shape. For instance, in towed-streamer transformed to the f -k domain, in which primary and
data corresponding to a region with a moderately dip- multiple events are now well separated on the basis of
ping reflector, one quadrant of the f -k spectra mostly their dips (or, equivalently, apparent velocities). The
contains spatially aliased data that can be eliminated by zero dip corresponds to multiples that can be zeroed out.
zeroing out most of this quadrant. The following steps consist of performing the inverse
Shot 1 Shot 2 Shot 3

Fourier transformation and removing the NMO correc-
tion. We see that f -k dip filtering can be effective for 550 m 1125 m 1750 m
multiple removal, especially in the far offsets, but can * * *
400 m
(a)
leave multiples in the near offsets, where the moveout Receivers
Depth
is minimal.
Vp = 1500 m/s, ρ = 1.0 g/cm3
1850 m
An Application of Dip Filtering
to Up-down Separation Vp = 2500 m/s, ρ = 2.0 g/cm3
Let us now look at the vertical-cable (VC) exam-

ple described in Figures 8.21, 8.22, 8.23, 8.24, and
8.25. Figure 8.22 shows an example of a vertical-cable
shot gather for one cable, using a receiver spacing of
6.25 m. The model used to generate these data is shown 0 2250 m
in Figure 8.21. We can see that most of the events are
0s
linear and have opposite gradients, just as in vertical (b)
seismic profiling (VSP) data. In the f -k spectrum, the
Time (s)
events in the vertical-cable data are arranged as a func-
tion of the gradients only. The downgoing wavefield is 1s
located in the positive wavenumbers, and the upgoing
wavefield is located in the negative wavenumbers. As
2s
shown in Figure 8.22, this separation is very clear. The
up-down separation based on f -k filtering consists of
zeroing energy in the f -k domain corresponding to the
3s
negative wavenumbers, to extract the downgoing field,
and zeroing energy in the f -k domain corresponding to * Source Receiver
the positive wavenumbers, to find the upgoing field, as

the figure illustrates. FIGURE 8.16. Top: model. Bottom: corresponding data for
the source position at 1125 m. We have also computed data
One may expect that the f -k dip-filtering method is
corresponding to the shot at 550 m and at 1725 m. Each
more difficult to apply for shot points located far away
shot gather has 91 receivers from 0 to 2250 m, with 25-m
from the cable, because the arrivals of seismic events is spacing between receivers. Because of limited space, these
no longer a linear function of receiver positions. This shot gathers are not shown here, although their f -k spectra
actually is not the case. Figure 8.23 shows that for a shot will be shown in Figure 8.17.
located at 1 km from the cable, except for the direct
wave, all the rest of the events remain linear, with a
positive gradient for downgoing waves and a negative The major limitation to the application of f -k dip
gradient for upgoing waves. We can see that the up- filtering for up-down separation in the vertical-cable
down separation is quite effective, even in this case. survey is the sampling interval between receivers within
Note that this procedure is generally applied on the cable. According to the sampling theorem, for a
the shot-gather domain, in which the dip separation typical maximum frequency of 60 Hz, the receiver
of events is more effective. However, we can also spacing must be
analyze the effectiveness of the up-down separation Vmin 1500 m/s
in the receiver gathers, as illustrated in Figure 8.24. z ≤ = = 12.50 m , (8.78)
Although the downgoing wavefields contain only mul- fmax 2 × 60 Hz
tiples (see Chapter 6), the up-down separation is not where z is the receiver spacing, fmax is the maximum
entirely equivalent to multiple attenuation, because the frequency, and Vmin is the velocity of the water (here
upgoing wavefield also includes multiple events, as the the minimum apparent velocity is the velocity of the
figure illustrates. water; Vmin = 1500 m/s).
FIGURE 8.17. The f -k spectra correspond- x 10

ing to data generated using the model in 5
60
Figure 8.16 for the shot points (a) at 550 m,
4
(b) at 1125 m, and (c) at 1750 m.
3
550 m
(Hz) 2 (Shot 1)
1
Unfortunately, in most current (a)
vertical-cable surveys, the receiver 0 20 –20
0
spacing generally is greater than cycle/km
11
the maximum required by the sam- x 10
pling theorem. Thus, it is important 60 4
at the acquisition stage to design
well-sampled cables to apply this 3
method. Furthermore, adding more 2 1125 m

(Hz)
receivers in the cable is not a major (Shot 2)
economic and technological issue. 1
The only drawback is that we will (b)
have to collect more data, but this 0 20 0 –20
should not be a problem, given our cycle/km 11
x 10
increasing data-storage capabilities.
60
We have simulated the situa-
3
tions in which the vertical-cable
receiver spacing is 6.25 m, 12.50 2
m, 18.75 m, and 25 m. Figure 8.25 (Hz) 1750 m
shows the f -k spectrum of some shot 1 (Shot 3)
gathers for the different receiver
(c)
spacings considered. We notice that 0
aliasing occurs for receiver spacing 20 0 –20
cycle/km
of 18.5 m and greater. As we can
see, at 18.5-m and 25-m receiver
spacing interval between receivers and/or the spac-
spacings, some downgoing-event aliases are shifted to
ing interval between shot points. The usual temporal
negative wavenumbers at higher frequencies, instead
sampling interval used today is 2 ms. For a typical
of staying in positive wavenumbers. The same problem
seismic record of 75 Hz, the sampling theorem requires
develops for upgoing-event aliases, which are shifted
that the temporal sampling interval be less than 6 ms, to
in positive wavenumbers, instead of staying in negative
ensure that the recorded wavefield can be reconstructed
wavenumbers at higher frequencies. Thus, because of
at any time with maximum fidelity. With a 2-ms sam-
aliasing, it is now difficult to achieve a proper up-down
pling interval, we are well within the requirement of the
separation. A trade-off must be made between having
sampling theorem.
a good up-down separation and keeping the entire sig-
Moreover, the data at a 2-ms sampling interval can
nal spectrum. One possible way to improve the f -k dip
be resampled to the commonly used 4-ms sampling
filtering is to use an interpolation method, like the f -x
interval after an antialiasing filter has been applied, as
interpolation (Spitz, 1991), to create data required to
Figure 8.26 illustrates. Note that by collecting data at
satisfy the sampling theorem.
a 2-ms sampling interval, we avoid possible distortion
of the desired spectrum with noise that may contain
frequencies higher than 125 Hz [i.e., 1/(2t), with
SPATIAL RESAMPLING BASED ON A t = 4 ms].
HARDWIRED ARRAY SUMMATION The situation is quite different regarding our usual
selection of the spacing interval for receivers, for
The principle for selecting a temporal sampling instance. A spacing of 25 m between receivers is com-
interval is exactly the same as that for selecting the monly used in seismic acquisition today. On the basis
of the sampling criterion in equation (8.75), all seismic x

events with an absolute value of their apparent velocity
that is less than 2750 m/s (in the frequency ranges of 0 B A
to 75 Hz) will be aliased. In other words, the recorded t Data
wavefield alone is not enough to reconstruct these events C
properly at any point in the space other than the point D

at which the measurement is recorded. Seismic events
with an apparent-velocity absolute value of less than A B
2750 m/s include direct waves, ground roll, air waves,
C
and even some desired reflection primaries. All these 2D Fourier transform
f D
events will be aliased. As we described above, the spac-
ing interval between receivers ideally must be on the
order of 1 m, if we are to avoid aliasing. With 25-m spac-
ing between receivers, a typical land-seismic acquisi- k
tion requires picking up, putting down, and maintaining A B

Define a fan reject zone,
150,000 geophones. Multiplying this number of geo- C and zero out the trans-
f form within the 2D
phones by a factor of 25 to achieve a 1-m spacing is not
inverse Fourier transform
yet economically viable. On the other hand, we cannot
rejection zone.
rely on seismic processing to solve this problem, either.
As we can see in Figure 8.27, sometimes the aliased k
x
energy overlaps the desired signal so much that f -k
dip filtering becomes impractical. The solution to this B A
aliasing problem that the oil and gas industry adopted t f-k filtered data
in the 1930s, when reflected-seismic experiments were C
first used for petroleum exploration on land, is known
as hardwired array recording (sometimes called array
recording). FIGURE 8.18. The f -k dip-filtering steps.
Array recording consists of an arrangement of
identical elements (receivers) that together form one
receiver (Vermeer, 1990; Newman and Mahoney, 1973; by-product has become the leading criterion of the
Schoenberger, 1970; Kerns, 1965; Graebner, 1960; and performance of array recording, for many petroleum
White, 1958). The goal of the array is to sample the seismologists. In other words, array recording is regard-
continuous wavefield at the position of the array element ed or designed not as an antialiasing filter followed by
and then, for each array, to sum (via a simple analog resampling, but rather as a surface-wave energy fil-
summation) the samples to form the seismic output. ter followed by resampling. These two approaches to
This simple analog summation is an antialiasing filter resampling are not necessarily equivalent.
before the data are resampled. Figure 8.28 provides an Let us emphasize that, for the case in which arrays
illustration of this process. are designed to be an antialiasing filter followed by
Actually, the basic idea of resampling using array resampling (see Figure 8.29), one is concerned only
recording is the same as the temporal resampling with removing aliasing energy. Therefore, the compo-
described in Figures 8.11 and 8.26. We first want to nents of desired signals, surface-wave energy, and other
sample the continuous wavefield so finely (by using the undesired noise signals that are not aliased will end up
the elements of the array) that we can avoid distorting in our output data. However, with this output, we can
the desired spectrum with noise such as ground roll. reconstruct the continuous wavefield at any point in the
We then apply an antialiasing filter to the data before space.
we resample the wavefield at spacing intervals that may For the case in which arrays are designed to be
be economically viable. a surface-wave energy filter followed by resampling
A by-product of this antialiasing filter is that the (see Figure 8.29), one is concerned only about remov-
filter can suppress a significant amount of surface- ing surface-wave energy. That means that some aliased
wave energy, such as ground roll for land experiments energy related to the desired signals or some undesired
and swell noise for marine experiments. Actually, this noise signal other than surface waves may end up in
Aliasing
50 1000 2000 50 1000 2000
(a) 72 72 (d)
(b)
48 48 D C
Hz
24 24
–50 50
Aliasing
72 (c) 72
48 48
Hz
24 24
–50 50
FIGURE 8.19. An illustration of surface-noise attenuation using f -k filtering. (a) Field record with a trace spacing of
10 m: A = ground roll; B = a backscattered component of A; C = dispersive guided waves; and D = reflections.
(b) The f -k spectrum of this field record. (c) The f -k spectrum of this field record after rejecting ground-roll energy A.
For display purposes, each is normalized with respect to its own maximum. (d) Dip-filtered field record, the f -k
spectrum of which is shown in (c). (From Yilmaz, 1987.)
the output. The hope is that f -k filtering and other that form one source station or one receiver station.
noise-attenuation tools can be used to suppress the All sources in an array are fired simultaneously, and
remaining aliasing effect. Because these surface waves the signal detected by the receivers of an array is
generally are dispersive, they cover a wide range of summed to record one trace. Typically, the elements
wavenumbers (which are related to the range of appar- of an array are arranged in a 1D array and are usu-
ent velocities of the noise) that need to be suppressed ally equidistant, as illustrated in Figure 8.30a. This
by this type of array. Unfortunately, in this suppression type of arrangement is generally known as a line array.
process, often we may end up attenuating or distorting Other arrangements may be used, such as the areal array
the desired signal in these wavenumber ranges. shown in Figure 8.30b. As we will discuss later, areal
Putting aside these concerns for a moment, we arrays can produce a better antialiasing filter than can
begin by describing hardwired array resampling as a 1D arrays. Unfortunately, in most cases, their practical
system that we can associate with a specific impulse implementation is still not feasible in the field.
response. We then describe criteria for which the con- The focus of our discussion in this section will be
volution of the continuous wavefield with this impulse line arrays. Other arrangements, such as areal arrays,
response of the arrays produces either a nonaliased can be deduced easily from derivations of line arrays.
output signal or an output signal without surface noise. The key parameters that we will use in our discus-
sion are the
Definition of Arrays 1) number of elements, N, per array

2) element spacing, L
We use the term array throughout to indicate an 3) length of array, L defined as L = NL. (To facilitate
arrangement of identical elements (sources or receivers) the subsequent algebra, this definition of array length
1050 m
1
Primary 55 0.9
Primary
0.8
0.7
0.6
t (Hz) 0.5
Multiple 0.4
Multiple 0.3
0.2
0.1
0
40 0 –40
NMO-corrected with (cycle/km)
2D forward FFT
multiple velocity
After zeroing
multiple energy 2D inverse FFT Removal of NMO correction
55 1
0.3
0.9
Primary
0.8
0.7
0.6
(Hz) 0.5
0.4
0.3
Primary
0.2
0.1
0 0
40 0 –40
(cycle/km)
FIGURE 8.20. The f -k dip filtering for multiple attenuation.
Material Vp Vs
FIGURE 8.21. Synthetic model and
(m/s) (m/s) (g/cm3) parameters.
1 1500 0 1000
2 2000 1000 2100
3 2500 1200 1900
4 2600 1500 2400
5 2800 1450 2700
6 3000 1300 2900
7 2200 1050 2200
8 3000 1400 300
is chosen, rather than the distance from the first to Impulse Responses of Arrays
the last element, which is (N − 1)L)
4) spacing between arrays, x The process of converting the continuous wavefield
5) minimum apparent wavelength of surface noise, into a discrete wavefield by using a hardwired array
Λmin , and maximum apparent wavelength of surface summation is schematized in Figure 8.28. We can see
noise, Λmax that this process essentially has two steps:
z z
z
0 Traces 101
0 Traces 101
0 0 Traces 101
0
0
125 Hz
Downgoing Upgoing
waves waves
Up Down
-80 0 +80
125 Hz
(c)
Time (s)
Time (s)
frequency
Time (s)
125 Hz
-80 0 +80
Wavenumber
cycles/km
(b)
t 3
-80 0 +80 3
(d) 3
Shot gather Upgoing Downgoing
for one cable waves waves
(a) (e) (f)
FIGURE 8.22. The f -k dip filtering for a vertical cable (VC) shot close to the cable. (a) Raw shot gather for a VC
cable located at 362.5 m from the shot point. (b) The f -k spectrum of the raw shot gather. Separation (c) and (d) of
the f -k spectrum of the raw shot gather into negative and positive wavenumbers. Separation (e) and (f) of the raw
shot gather into an upgoing wavefield and a downgoing wavefield.
1) sampling of the continuous wavefield at the position Let us investigate the impulse response of other
of the array elements types of arrays. Consider a dipping line array of five
2) grouping of one array to form one output trace elements, with spacing L (Figure 8.31b). The effec-
tive spacing is given by L cos θ, where θ is the angle
These two steps can be grouped into a system that between the raypath and the direction of the line array.
represents the hardwired array summation. The sam- The impulse response has the same shape, which is
pled wavefield can then be described as a convolution independent of direction (except for the limiting case,
of the continuous wavefield by the impulse response where θ = 90◦ ), but the effective spacing changes with
of the hardwired array. Our objective in this subsec- the direction of the incident wave.
tion is to introduce the impulse responses of some Let us now examine the impulse response of the
of the common array arrangements used in petroleum areal array. Consider the response of an areal array to
seismology studies. a unit impulse traveling as a plane wave across the
The impulse response of the hardwired array system array, as shown in Figure 8.31c. Each element has
can be defined as the response of an array to a unit unit sensitivity. When the wavefront crosses the array
impulse that is traveling as a plane wave. For example, in the direction indicated by the arrow, D, it sees a
an equally weighted line array of five elements, with five-element array with spacing L and weights of
spacing L, has an impulse response g(x), as shown in 1, 2, 3, 2, 1. In other words, the areal arrays can be
Figure 8.31a. treated as nonuniformly weighted line arrays.
z
z z 0 Traces 101
0
0 Traces 101 0 Traces 101
0 0 z
Direct 0 Traces 101

Upgoing 125 Hz 0
wave waves
Downgoing
waves Up Down
125 Hz
Time (s)
-80 0 +80
frequency
(d)
Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
125 Hz
-80 0 +80
Wavenumber
cycles/km
(c)
-80 0 +80 3
t 3 3
Upgoing
waves
Data with Direct wave
direct wave muted
3
(a) (b) (e) (f) Downgoing
waves
(g)
FIGURE 8.23. The f -k dip filtering for a VC shot far from the cable. (a) and (b) Raw shot gathers with and with-
out direct wave arrivals for a VC cable located at 11375.5 m from the shot point. (c) The f -k spectrum of the raw
shot gather without direct wave arrivals. Separation (d) and (e) of the f -k spectrum of the raw shot gather (with-
out direct wave arrivals) into negative and positive wavenumbers. Separation (f) and (g) of the raw shot gather
(without direct wave arrivals) into an upgoing wavefield and a downgoing wavefield.
In more general terms, nonuniformly weighted the operation in equation (8.79) is performed for each
arrays can be obtained by (1) controlling the sensitivi- time instant t independently of the other time instants,
ties of the individual elements in a line array, (2) using we can drop the time argument from equation (8.79) to
an areal array, and (3) using a combination of shot and facilitate the subsequent algebra; that is,
geophone arrays.
pd (x) = pc (x) ∗x g(x), (8.80)
or, in the wavenumber domain,

Wavenumber Response of
Arrays: General Case Pd (k) = Pc (k)G(k), (8.81)
Let pc (x, t) be the continuous wavefield and g(x, t) where Pd (k), Pc (k), and G(k) are Fourier transforms
the impulse response of the hardwired array. The sam- with respect to x of pd (x), pc (x), and g(x), respectively.
pled wavefield resulting from the process described in Our objective in this subsection is to derive the
Figure 8.28 is given by wavenumber response G(k) (which is also known as the
pd (x, t) = pc (x, t) ∗x g(x, t), (8.79) time-harmonic response) of hardwired arrays in general
terms. Cases that are more specific will be discussed
where ∗x denotes the spatial convolution with respect to in following subsections. We will begin by defining the
x, and pd (x, t) denotes the sampled wavefield. Because ideal response that we would like to have, so that we can
1 Traces 150 1 Traces 150 1 Traces 150
0 0 0
Time (s)
Time (s)
Time (s)
3 3 3
Pressure data Upgoing waves Downgoing waves
FIGURE 8.24. Receiver gathers after up-down separation, using f -k dip filtering.
understand the pros and cons of the different responses is the impulse response of a system, its wavenumber
that we will derive later. response G(k) is given by
+∞
Ideal wavenumber response. Recall that the G(k) = g(x) exp(−ikx) dx. (8.82)
spacing between elements of arrays is denoted by L, −∞
with the corresponding Nyquist wavenumber kaN =
In the special case in which the impulse response is
1/(2L); the spacing between traces in the resampled
symmetrical about x = 0, the wavenumber response is
data is x, with the corresponding Nyquist wavenum-
given by the cosine transform
ber kdN = 1/(2x).
+∞
The Nyquist wavenumber kdN = 1/(2x) deter-
mines the desired response of the antialiasing of G(k). G(k) = g(x) cos(kx) dx. (8.83)
−∞
The ideal form of G(k) is shown in Figure 8.32a.
The cutoff wavenumber is at kdN , with a passband for We will consider symmetrical impulse responses
k < kdN and a reject band for k > kdN . Figure 8.32b only. There are two types, depending on whether the
shows a practical version of the ideal filter shown in number of elements is odd or even. Consider an odd
Figure 8.32a, which we will try to emulate with the number of elements first, as shown in Figure 8.33a.
hardwired array. Note that the antialiasing filter in The impulse response is the sum of the weighted and
Figure 8.32b is very close to the ideal filter, although it spaced impulses:
is periodic.
g(x) = g0 δ(x) + g1 δ(x − L) + g2 δ(x − 2L)
Wavenumber response of an array with + g−1 δ(x + L) + g−2 δ(x + 2L)
an odd number of elements. The wavenumber
response of a line array — or an equivalent line array, in
2
the case of areal arrays — can be calculated by taking = gn δ(x − nL). (8.84)
the Fourier transform of the impulse response. If g(x) n = −2
Shot 10 Shot 50 Shot 90 Shot 130

Receiver
spacing
6.25 m
Receiver
spacing
12.50 m
Receiver
spacing
18.75 m
Alias of downgoing waves

Alias of upgoing waves
Receiver
spacing
25.00 m
–1137.5 m –637.50 m –137.50 m 362.50 m

Distance from cable
FIGURE 8.25. The f -k spectra, considering different vertical-cable samplings.

For a symmetric array, g1 = g−1

Fundamental sampling that and g2 = g−2 . Also, each impulse
avoids any aliasing of the de- pair is equally spaced about zero.
sired spectrum. Sampling inter- Thus, in calculating the wavenum-
val is smaller than the seismic ber response, the cosine transform
processing requirements can be used as follows:

( t = 2 ms here)
0 40
ms
80
∞
FFT
G(k) = dx[g0 δ(x)
0
+ 2g1 δ(x − L)
+ 2g2 δ(x − 2L)] cos(kx)
= g0 + 2g1 cos(kL)
0 125 250
Antialiasing filter, to bring + 2g2 cos(2kL). (8.85)
Hz the spectrum to the desired
Low-pass filtering bandwidth.
G(k) is the cosine spectrum of the
array. It is made up of the sum
of three terms. Each term is plot-
ted in Figure 8.34, along with the
resulting sum. The first term is
a constant, which is independent
0 125 250 of wavenumber. The second term,
FFT
Hz G1 (k) = 2g1 cos(kL), is a cosine
function of wavenumber. Therefore,
this cosine function repeats itself
Resampling after k = 2π/L, 4π/L, . . . . The
( t = 4 ms here) truth of this is apparent by substi-
tuting these values of k into the
second term. The third term is
also a cosine function of wavenum-
0 40 80
ms ber, but it repeats at k = π/L,
2π/L, . . . . Because the array is
FIGURE 8.26. Resampling steps. symmetrical, the sine spectrum is
zero. Thus, the amplitude spectrum
is given by |G(k)|. The phase spectrum is zero if
|G(k)| is positive and π if G(k) is negative. The ampli-
tude spectrum is called the wavenumber array re-
70 0.2 sponse.
B A
0.15
D
(Hz) C 0.1
D C 0.05
D A Wavenumber response of an array with an
0 even number of elements. Consider now that the
20 0 – 20 number of elements is even, as in Figure 8.33b. The
cycle/km
origin is chosen at x = 0 to make the impulse
FIGURE 8.27. The f -k spectra of the data in Figure 8.12, for response symmetrical. There is no impulse at the ori-
25-m spacing between traces. gin. The impulses occur at intervals of (2l − 1)L/2,
Hardwired group forming
In-field Field
processing tape
Marine acquisition system

Discreted
Single digital output #1 #2 #3 signal
∆x Data recording
Hardwired summation
Σ Σ Σ
Hardwired array
Summation
Sampling
Continuous signals
Fundamental
sampling
∆L
Wavefield
Continuous
signal
FIGURE 8.28. A schematic diagram of array recording. The data are recorded at x, using hardwired-array technology.
∆L
Hardwired-array summation (a)
∆L
y
Surface noise Antialiasing

attenuation filter (b)
FIGURE 8.29. The map of objectives of hardwired-array

summation.
where l = 1, 2, 3, . . . . The impulse response is

FIGURE 8.30. (a) A 1D array of five elements and (b) an

areal array with nine elements.
L 3L
g(x) = g1 δ x − + g2 δ x −
2 2

5L L
+ g3 δ x − + g−1 δ x +
2 2

Wavenumber Response of Equally
L 5L
+ g−2 δ x + 3 + g−3 δ x + . (8.86) Weighted Line Arrays
2 2
The array response generally is normalized such
The cosine transform of g(x) is (with g−n = gn ) that the amplitude response at k = 0 is equal to unity.

This normalization is done by making the sum of the
kL 3kL impulse weights equal to unity. In an equally weighted
G(k) = 2g1 cos + 2g2 cos
2 2 line, each impulse will have the weight 1/N.

Consider three elements in the line, with the
5kL
+ 2g3 cos . (8.87) normalized impulse response shown in Figure 8.35a.
2
FIGURE 8.31. (a) An impulse (a)

response of a line array, (b) an
impulse response of a tilted line
array, and (c) an impulse response x
∆L
Plane wavefront
of an areal array. x=0 ∆L
–2∆L –∆L 2∆L
Its spectrum is given by

(b)
1 2 ∆L cosθ
G(k) = + cos(kL). Effective line array
3 3 x
(8.88)
Plane wavefront
∆ L cosθ
The five-element line (Fig-

ure 8.35b) will have a spec- Li
ne ∆L
ar
trum given by ra
y
1 2
G(k) = + cos(kL)
5 5
2
+ cos(2kL).
5
(8.89) (c) 3
∆L
2 2
In general, a line array with an
odd number of elements N = 1 1
2m+1, where m = 1, 2, 3, . . . ,
Plane wavefront
x
will have a spectrum given by ∆L
2
m
1
G(k) = + cos(lkL).
N N
l=1
(8.90)
The spectra of line arrays con-
taining odd numbers of ele- band increases, and (2) the amplitude response in the
ments from 3 through 17 are rejection band decreases.
shown in Figure 8.36. In this
case, the spacing is held constant; therefore, the length
of the array increases as the number of elements
increases. Wavenumber Response of Nonuniformly
Note that the spectra are periodic, as is characteris- Weighted Line Arrays
tic of any system having a sampled impulse response,
arrays included. The amplitude spectrum of an array Nonuniformly weighted arrays can be obtained by
has a maximum response at k = 0. The spectral (1) controlling the sensitivities of the individual ele-
period is essentially the reciprocal of the sampling inter- ments in a line array, (2) using an areal array, and
val, 2π/L; therefore, the spectrum rebounds to its (3) using a combination of shot and geophone arrays.
maximum value at k = 2π/L, 4π/L, . . . . Here we present the wavenumber responses of the first
Increasing the length of the array by increasing the two forms of nonuniformly weighted arrays, described
number of elements while holding the spacing con- in this subsection, and the third type of nonuniformly
stant, as shown in Figure 8.36, has two effects on the weighted arrays, which will be discussed in the next
wavenumber spectrum: (1) the width of the rejection subsection.
G(k)
(a) g0
G(k) = g k/(2 )
0
2 g1
G (k) = 2g cos 2 k L
1 1
k/(2 )
k 2g
1/2 x 1/2 L 1/ L 2
G(k) (b) G (k) = 2g cos 4 k L k/(2 )
2 2
1.0
k
1/2 x 1/2 L 1/ L
G(k) = g (k) + g (k) + g (k) k/(2 )

FIGURE 8.32. (a) Ideal antialiasing filter. (b) A smooth and 0 1 2
periodic version of (a).

1.0
Rejection band
|G(k)| k/(2 )
1/ L
(a) g0
g1 FIGURE 8.34. Impulse response of an array with an odd
g–1
number of elements.
g–2 g2
x triangular and quadratic arrays shown in Figure 8.37

L are as follows:
1
(b) triangular: G(k) = [3 + 4 cos(kL)
g–1 g1 9
g–2 g2 + 2 cos(2kL)], and (8.91)
g–3 g3 1
quadratic: G (k) = [5 + 8 cos(kL)
17
+ 4 cos(2kL)]. (8.92)
x
L/ 2 L The nonuniform arrays have a better rejection over a

more restrictive band (i.e., the “bandwidth” is larger).
FIGURE 8.33. (a) An impulse response with an odd number Notice that when kL ≈ (2π)/n, the response of
of elements. (b) An impulse response with an even numbers the uniform array is superior to the other two; how-
of elements. ever, when kL ≈ (2π)/2, the nonuniform arrays are
superior.
Areal arrays. Consider the response of the dia-

mond areal array for the two directions shown in
Figure 8.31c. The equivalent line array has triangu-
Nonuniform line arrays. The wavenumber re- lar weighting for the direction indicated by the arrow
sponse for a line array containing an odd number of (we will denote this direction D). The spacing between
elements is given by equation (8.90). Responses for the impulses is L for D. Therefore, the rebounds in the
Wavenumber Response of a Combination

1/3 1/5
of Source and Receiver Arrays
x x The combination of shot and geophone arrays will
L L
result in a nonuniformly weighted array. The impulse
(a) (c) response of the combination is given by convolving

the individual impulse responses. Suppose the two
arrays are identical, each being a five-element uni-
1.0
1.0 formly weighted line array. The impulse response of
the combination is a triangular array, as shown in
Figure 8.38.
k/(2 ) k/(2 )
1/ L 1/ L
1/3 L 2/3 L
(b) (d)
FIGURE 8.35. Top: equally weighted three-element array. 1.0

(a) Impulse response and (b) wavenumber response.
Bottom: equally weighted five-element array. (c) Impulse 1/5
response and (d) wavenumber response.
(a)
x k/(2π)
n 3/9 1.0
3 2/9
1/9
5
(b)
x k/(2π)
7
5/17 1.0
4/17
9
2/17
11
(c)
x k/(2π)
13
0 1/n∆L 1/2∆L 1/∆L
15
FIGURE 8.37. Weighted arrays: (a) uniform, (b) triangular,
17 and (c) dome.
–2/ L –1/ L 0 1/ L
FIGURE 8.36. Wavenumber responses of n equally weighted

elements, for n = 3, . . . , 17. g(x) x
array responses, which occur at the reciprocal of the

spacing, are at kL = 2π for D. g(x) x
The normalized impulse response is given by
1
g(x) = [3δ(x) + 2δ(x ± L) + δ(x ± 2L)] .
9
(8.93)
g(x)*g(x)
The normalized wavenumber response is
x
1
G (k) = [3 + 4 cos (kL) + 2 cos (2kL)] .
9 FIGURE 8.38. Impulse response of a combination of
(8.94) identical geophone and shot arrays.
The array response of the combination can be

obtained by multiplying the individual array responses, 1.0
G (k) = Gs (k) Gr (k) . (8.95) G(k)

In this case, the response of the combination is equal to

the square of one of the individual responses.
The maximum amplitude in the rejection band can
k/(2π)
be reduced by designing the individual arrays such that
their zeros do not occur at the same values of kL.
This may be done by using either different lengths or 1.0
different spacings (or both). A five-element geophone
array with spacing equal to L and a five-element shot G(k) G(k)
array with spacing equal to 2L are used to give the
combined array response shown in Figure 8.39. The
associated impulse responses are also shown.
k/(2π)
1/∆L
0
Array System Designed as
FIGURE 8.39. Wavenumber response of a combination of
an Antialiasing Filter identical geophone and shot arrays.
Suppose that we intend to sample our data with a
spacing between traces of x (e.g., x = 22.5 m).
However, we know that a uniform sampling of
the wavefield with our desired x will produce a
Let us evaluate two examples of applying these two cri-
severe interference, between the aliased and nonaliased
teria. Consider the shot gather in Figure 8.40a, which
energy, which cannot be corrected by dip filtering. The
contains ground roll, guide waves, and reflections. In
question here is, how can we design the hardwired array
this data set the distance between traces is 7.5 m (i.e.,
system such that we can sample the data with x spac-
L = 7.5 m). Our objective is to simulate a hard-
ing between traces without introducing aliasing into the
wired array by arithmetic average that we can then use
data? In other words, can we design an effective array
to resample the data set in Figure 8.40b to 22.5-m-trace
system that acts as an antialiasing filter?
spacing. First, we notice that the wavefield with 7.5-m-
In a line array setup, the answer to this question
trace spacing is not aliased (Figure 8.41a); therefore,
comes down to the selection of values of two parame-
the criteria for selecting L are fulfilled. However, if
ters described in the previous subsections: the spacing
we sample the same wavefield uniformly with 22.5-
between elements of the arrays (i.e., L) and the num-
m-trace spacing without using array recording, we see
ber of elements in each array (i.e., N). Here are the
that the data become severely aliased (Figure 8.41b).
criteria for selecting these parameters:
Our objective is to show that these data can be recorded
1) The criterion for selecting L is that the wavefield at 22.5-m spacing by using an adequate array system,
sampled with L must be nonaliased for all the which in this case acts as an antialiasing filter.
events contained in the wavefield, including surface On the basis of equation (8.96), N must be equal
noise. to or greater than 6 in this example. Actually, we can
2) The number of elements in each array, N, must also select a number just below 6, because variations of
be selected such that the wavenumber number the filter generally are small in the point near the cutoff
kdN = 1/(2x) is located in the passband region wavenumber. Thus, we select N = 5 and N = 7. The
of the array wavenumber response, that is, principle of selecting these values of N is illustrated in
Figure 8.42, as is the result of the array summation. We
1 1 2x
< or N> , (8.96) have used equally weighted line arrays in our computa-
NL 2x L tion. The results in Figures 8.42a and 8.42b are limited
where 1/(NL) is the cutoff wavenumber of the to a fixed-time instant t = 610 ms; the results on the
array wavenumber response (Figure 8.34). full gather are shown in Figure 8.43a (N = 5). Notice
that the energy in the reject band has been reduced Theoretically, the results in Figures 8.42a, 8.42b,
significantly, but not totally, because the wavenumber and 8.43a can be improved by using a nonuniformly
response of an equally weighted array has large nonzero weighted array. However, as discussed earlier, nonuni-
values in the reject band. formly weighted arrays are still impractical in the field;
therefore, there is no point in trying to use sophisticated
nonuniformly weighted arrays.

There is an indirect way of using a nonuniformly
1500.0 Offset (m) 0.0 weighted array, which is the combination of equally
(a) 0.0 0.0 weighted line shot and receiver arrays. As described
in equation (8.96), this combination produces an effec-
tive nonuniformly weighted array. Furthermore, most
seismic experiments, on land as well as marine, use a
Reflections combination of shot and receiver arrays. We have tested
this combination for two identical line shot and receiver
0.5 arrays, each being a uniformly weighted line array with
0.5
seven elements. The results in Figures 8.42c, 8.42d, and
8.43b show that the residuals of ground roll observed
Time (s)
Time (s)
in Figures 8.42a, 8.42b, and 8.43a are reduced even

further. The amplitude spectra in Figure 8.44 confirm
these results.
1.0 1.0
Guided waves Guided waves

and ground roll Reflections
Ground roll
(a) 60 (a)
1.4
1.2
(Hz)
1500.0 Offset (m) 0.0 1
(b) 0.0 0.0
30 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
67 0 – 67
0.5
cycle/km
0.5
(b) 60
Time (s)
(b)
Time (s)
1.4
(Hz) 1.2
1
30 0.8
1.0 1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
22 0 –22
cycle/km
FIGURE 8.40. (a) Closely sampled data corresponding to FIGURE 8.41. (a) Amplitude spectrum corresponding
L = 7.5 m; (b) coarsely sampled data corresponding to to data in Figure 8.40a and (b) amplitude spectrum
x = 22.5 m. corresponding to data in Figure 8.40b.
t = 610 ms t = 610 ms FIGURE 8.42. Reduction of surface noise

using uniform arrays. (a) A five-element
(a) Five elements (b) array, (b) a seven-element array, (c) a
Seven elements
combination of identical five-element
geophone and source arrays, and (d) a
combination of identical seven-element

Data Data geophone and source arrays.
Filter
Filter
cannot be achieved simultaneously
with uniformly weighted line arrays.
We must design our array for one of
these two objectives. Figure 8.45a
shows the results of a hardwired
Filtered data Filtered data
grouping designed as an antialis-
ing filter, for the case in which
Signal Noise Signal Noise the reflection data and surface noise
overlap. We can see that the resam-
(c) Five-element source and
five-element receiver
(d) Seven-element source and
seven-element receiver pled wavefield is not aliased, but
a significant amount of ground-roll
energy remains in the data.
Now let us consider the case
Data Data
of designing our array primarily as
a surface-noise suppressor. Again,
the parameters we have at our dis-
posal are the spacing of sensors and
Filter Filter
the number of elements. Our prob-
lem, then, is to design a line array
that has a uniform sensitivity that
will reduce the surface noise most
effectively.
Filtered data Filtered data
The wavenumber array response
of equally weighted line arrays has
a rejection band of approximately
1/(2 x) 1/(N L) 1/(N L) 1/(2 x) L/Λ = 1/N to L/Λ = (N −
1)/N, as Figure 8.46 illustrates.
These two values are the first zero
following the primary passband and the last zero preced-
ing the first rebound passband, respectively. We desire
Array System Designed as a an array design such that the apparent wavelengths of
Surface-noise Suppressor all noises fall within the rejection band. The following
criteria can be used to design such arrays:
The previous example shows that if the reflec-
tion data and surface noise are well separated in the 1) The noise should be equal to or less than (N − 1)/N
wavenumber domain, an adequate choice of the resam- times the shortest wavelength (denoted by Λmin ), so
pling interval x allows us to achieve two objectives that all noise wavelengths will be to the left of the
simultaneously: (1) resampling of the wavefield free last zero:
from aliasing and (2) attenuation of surface noise. How-
ever, when the reflection data and surface noise overlap, N −1
L ≤ Λmin . (8.97)
as usually is the case in the real world, these objectives N
This criterion ensures that the wavefield sampled noise contains the smallest apparent wavelength in
with L is not nonaliased for all the events con- the data.
tained in the wavefield, assuming that the surface 2) The length should be equal to, or greater than, the
longest noise wavelength (denoted by Λmax ), so that
all noise wavelengths will be to the right of the first
zero:
1500.0 Offset (m) 0.0
(a) 0.0 Λmax
N≥ . (8.98)
L
Notice that when Λmax = 2x, this criterion is

equivalent to equation (8.96).
Now, apply these criteria to the data set in Fig-

0.5 ure 8.45b. For this example, Λmax = 65 m and Λmin =
7.5 m; therefore, L = 7.5 m and N = 9 are adequate
Time (s)
for removing noise, as the results in Figure 8.45b show.

However, we also distort the reflection data because
we have to remove the part of the reflection data that
overlaps the noise, in order to remove all the noise.
This is one of the drawbacks of designing an array to
1.0
suppress surface noise rather than to be an antialiasing
filter only.
60 (a)
1.4
1.2
(Hz)
1500.0 Offset (m) 0.0 1
(b) 0.0
0.8
30
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
22 0 – 22
0.5 cycle/km
Time (s)
60 (b)
1.4
1.2
(Hz)
1
1.0 30 0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
22 0 – 22
cycle/km
FIGURE 8.43. Antialiasing filtering and noise reduction
using (a) a five-element uniform array and (b) a com- FIGURE 8.44. (a) Amplitude spectrum corresponding
bination of identical five-element geophone and source to data in Figure 8.43a and (b) amplitude spectrum
arrays. corresponding to data in Figure 8.43b.
t = 610 ms |G|
Seven-element source and seven-element receiver
1.0 N ∆L > Λ N ∆ L < (N–1)Λ min
max
Signal
Noise (a)
Data
1/(N∆ L) 1/(2∆ L) 1/∆ L k/(2π)
Nyquist
Filter
FIGURE 8.46. Basic principles of array design.
1.0
Filtered data
Noise residuals t = 610 ms

Nine-element source and nine-element receiver
(b)
Data 0
0
1/∆L
k/(2π)
FIGURE 8.47. Illustration of the effect of sensor dropout on

Filter array response.
Signal is also gathers. It consists of one sensor per trace, with sen-
attenuated
sors spaced closely enough to ensure that noise waves
are not aliased and can be detected easily by looking
Filtered data
across the receiver spread. Such a spacing varies from
1 m to 12.5 m.
k/(2π)
FIGURE 8.45. Noise reduction using (a) a combination of Sensitivity of Array Summation
seven-element identical geophone and source arrays and to Sensor Dropouts
(b) a combination of nine-element identical geophone
and source arrays. Notice that each plot in this figure is Often, some of the hydrophones or geophones
normalized individually. “fail” during seismic experiments. Figure 8.47 shows
a five-element uniform array response to such fail-
ure. We can see that if one element fails during the
recording process, the wavenumber response no longer
A practical issue with the criteria in equations (8.97) corresponds to the uniform array and the range of
and (8.98) is that we have to estimate the Λmin and wavenumbers that the array is expected to attenuate no
Λmax needed to design the array. This information gen- longer coincides with the reject band. Unfortunately,
erally is derived from the so-called “noise” survey. Such once data acquisition with a hardwired array has taken
a survey contains only a very limited number of shot place, the signal cannot be detected or corrected easily.
As we will discuss in the next section, when data antialiasing filters and noise-suppression tools before
from individual elements of arrays are recorded, defec- we group the data at a desired spatial interval, if such
tive hydrophones can be identified and the missing data grouping is needed at all. Figure 8.48 summarizes the
can be recovered through real-time interpolation, by signal-sensor recording philosophy. We notice the posi-
using the data from neighboring elements for summing tion of data recording in Figure 8.48 compared with that
the data. in Figure 8.28. Basically, the single-sensor approach to

wavefield recording and resampling is almost identical
to that used for temporal sampling and resampling.
SPATIAL RESAMPLING BASED ON Let us focus our thoughts by study of a spe-
ADAPTIVE BEAMFORMING cific example. Figure 8.49a shows a towed-streamer
shot gather recorded in relatively rough weather with
Single-sensor Recordings conventionally hardwired arrays. Figure 8.49b shows
another towed-streamer shot gather recorded simul-
Because of recent progress in computational capa- taneously with the data in Figure 8.49a, but with
bility in the field, the seismic industry (in particular closely spaced hydrophones. Now we can see very-
the Schlumberger division for seismic acquisition and low-velocity events in the records (Figure 8.49b). These
processing) has taken steps to record signals directly very-low-velocity events are not quite as obvious in the
at every element of arrays, instead of after hardwired hardwired records, because most of their energy has
summation, following the philosophy that Ongkiehong been eliminated by the hardwired summation. In other
(Ongkiehong, 1988; Ongkiehong and Askin, 1988; words, the high-amplitude noise in Figure 8.49a now
and Ongkiehong and Huizer, 1987) has been promot- appears coherent and can be filtered out. By record-
ing now for almost two decades. This new approach ing signals at every receiver position, we can properly
to seismic recording, known as single-sensor record- sample both signals and noise, and we can then use
ing, allows us to record seismic wavefields with a very more-sophisticated processing algorithms than a simple
small spacing between receivers, on the order 1 or 2 summation of the responses of array elements to sup-
m. Thus, we end with a wavefield that is free of spatial press noise and to dealias data before grouping them, if
aliasing and to which we can apply our sophisticated grouping is needed.
Adaptive beamforming
In-field Field
processing tape
x
Dynamic group formed data
Discreted
signal
Real-time data adaptive filtering
Marine acquisition system

Processing
Digital signals for noise
w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 w7 w8 suppression
and for anti-
aliasing fil-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 tering
Data
recording
L
Wavefield
Continuous
wavefield
FIGURE 8.48. A schematic diagram of single-sensor recording. The data are recorded at L.
(a) 0.0
array of the seismic survey and xj represented the jth
1.0
sensor of the ith array; in other words, xi described
array positions and xj described sensor positions for a
2.0 given array. Instead, now the output of beamforming 2 is
3.0

N
L
Time (s)
4.0
pd (xi , t) = wjk (t)pc (xj , t − τk ), (8.100)
j=1 k=1
5.0
with
6.0
τk = (k − 1)τ , (8.101)
7.0
where τ is the time interval, wjk (t) are weighting
8.0 coefficients to be determined, and pd (xi , t) is the out-
(b) 0.0 put of the beamforming. Before we describe how to
estimate the weights, wjk (t), let us remark that the
1.0
output of the beamforming uses the outputs of arrays
2.0 before time t, up to tL = t − (L − 1)τ . Therefore,
contrary to a hardwired array in which the outputs of
Time (s)
3.0 the array are summed at time t before being recorded,

4.0
beamforming requires that we record the outputs of the
array elements so that we can perform the sum over k
5.0 in equation (8.100) and compute the weights, wjk (t), as
we will observe soon.
6.0 Before we go further in our derivations for wjk (t),
let us also remark that as a spatial aliasing filter, the
7.0
beamforming concept was first used in radar systems.
8.0 In radar, the sensors consist of antenna elements (e.g.,
dipoles, horns, and slotted wave guides) that respond
FIGURE 8.49. Shot records acquired in relatively rough to incident electromagnetic waves. Spatial filtering,
weather with (a) conventionally grouped hydrophones and known as beamforming, is used in this system to dis-
(b) closely spaced hydrophones. Notice that in (a), high- tinguish between the desired signal and the noise. The
amplitude wave noise that appears to be incoherent can
device used to do the beamforming is called a beam-
be seen on many traces at nearly all arrival times, and in
(b), high-amplitude wave noise is present, but appears to
former. The term beamformer is derived from the fact
be coherent; it can be filtered out with processing. (From that the early forms of antennas (spatial filters) were
Christie et al., 2001.) designed to form pencil beams, so as to receive sig-
nals radiating from specific directions and to attenuate
signals radiating from other directions of no interest
What Is Beamforming? (see Haykin [1996] for more details). Gangi and Byun
(1976) and recently Martin et al. (2000), Baeten et al.
One of the sophisticated processing algorithms used
to suppress the noise of single-sensor data is the adap-
tive beamforming algorithm. Before, we formed our 2 Again, note that wavenumber filtering is a special case of the convo-
output as a simple linear summation, that is, as lution operation in the space domain. For example, the fan filter described
in this chapter can be written as follows:
+∞ +∞

N
o( y, t) = i(x, τ )h( y − x, τ )dxdτ
pd (xi , t) = pc (xj , t), (8.99) −∞ −∞
j=1 with

1 1 y−x y−x
where pc (xj , t) was the continuous wavefield taken at h( y − x, τ ) = ∗ δ t− −δ t+
2π t y−x v v
the jth element of the array with the center at xi and
where i(x, τ ) is the input signal on which the fan filter is applied and o(y, t)
where pd (xi , t) denoted the sampled wavefield after the is the filtered output signal. v is the velocity used to define the fan filter, and
hardwired summation. There, xi represented the ith the asterisk denotes convolution in the time domain.
(2000), and Ozbek (2000a, b) have adapted the beam- steered toward the target. However, a major limitation
forming approach to seismic recordings. of the delay-and-sum beamformer is that it has no
In the case of spatial filtering known as the delay- provisions for dealing with sources of interference.
and-sum beamformer, the various sensor outputs are To enable a beamformer to respond to an unknown
delayed by appropriate amounts, to align signal com- interference environment, it has to be made adaptive
ponents coming from the direction of a target; then the in such a way that it places nulls in the direction(s) of
outputs are summed. (Note that the hardwired array the source(s) of interference automatically, and in real
described earlier is a particular case of a delay-and- time. By so doing, the output signal-to-noise ratio of the
sum beamformer in which the delays are null.) The key system is increased, and the directional response of the
issue in practical implementation of the delay-and-sum system is thereby improved. Below is a brief description
beamformer is to determine the time delay for each sen- of one of Ozbek’s (2000a, b) implementations.
sor of a given array. The standard solution is to take the
crosscorrelation between the sum signal of the array
and each sensor of the array. The proper time delay A Formulation of Beamforming
for each sensor is at the peak of this crosscorrelation as a Variant of the Wiener Filter
function. The sum signal is used as the reference sig-
nal in the crosscorrelation computation, because (1) it An important class of adaptive beamforming is lin-
has the highest signal-to-noise ratio, (2) it is the most early constrained adaptive beamforming. Its objective
representative of all the sensor signals received at the is to preserve signals that are incident from the target
array because of the ensemble-averaging obtained in the direction and to suppress noise interferences that are
summing, and (3) it takes advantage of whatever ran- incident from other directions (Haykin, 1996).
domness there is in the geology under the array. Thus, To facilitate the subsequent algebra, let us rewrite
for a single target, the average power at the output of the linear convolution in equation (8.100) without the
the delay-and-sum beamformer is maximized when it is spatial variable; that is,

N
L
y(t) = wjk (t)ujk (t), (8.102)
1 2 k L
j=1 k=1
(a) τ τ τ
w11 w12 w1k w1L
where
1
y(t) = pd (xi , t), (8.103)
τ τ τ ujk (t) = pc (xj , t − τk ), (8.104)

+
j wj1 wj 2 wjk wjL
and y(t) is the output of the beamforming. The model
+ ∑
+ representing the linear convolution in equation (8.102)
is shown in Figure 8.50a. It consists of N sensors and
τ τ τ L time samples (generally known as tap points). A set
N wN1 wN 2 wNk wNL of adjustable weights, wjk (t), known as tap weights,
is multiplied with the input signal ujk (t). With the
introduction of tap weights, the beamforming opera-
tion in equation (8.102) can now act as a frequency-
wavenumber filter (i.e., a dip filter); it is not limited just
to wavenumber filtering as the hardwired summation.
1 2 k L
To illustrate this point, let us consider a case in which
(b) τ τ τ
L = 5 and N = 5 for data containing the signal and
f1 f2 fk fL noise, as Figure 8.51 illustrates. Notice that the form of
wjk (t), which allows us to achieve the optimal response
FIGURE 8.50. Configuration of a linearly constrained adap- y(t), is a dip filter.
tive beamformer. (a) Array processor configuration and Note also that if the tap weights are constraints
(b) constraint filter. (Adapted from Gangi and Byun, 1976.) such that the sum of the weights at equal time-delay
taps is constant, then for the aligned target signal, the (a) Sensors
multichannel processor in Figure 8.50b is equivalent to Taps 1 2 3 4 5

a single-channel time-delay tap line; that is,
t = t1 u11 u12 u13 u14 u15

N
t = t2 u21 u22 u23 u24 u25

wjk (t) = fk , k = 1, . . . , L, for all t. (8.105)
j=1 [u]
t = t3 u31 u32 u33 u34 u35
More general constraints on the tap weights will be
t = t4 u41 u42 u43 u44 u45
discussed later.
In compact notations, equation (8.102) can be
t = t5 u51 u52 u53 u54 u55
written
y(t) = wT (t)u(t), (8.106)
where
(b) Sensors
1 2 3 4 5
u(t) = [u11 (t), . . . , uN1 (t), . . . , u1L (t), . . . , uNL (t)] ,
T Taps
(8.107) t = t1 1 0 0 0 0
and t = t2 0 0.8 0 0 0
[w]
w(t) = [w11 (t), . . . , wN1 (t), . . . , w1L (t), . . . , wNL (t)]T t = t3 0 0 1 1 1
(8.108) t = t4 0 0 0 0 0
are NL-dimensional column vectors. (The reader is re-
t = t5 0 0 0 0 0
minded that all vectors are indicated by lowercase bold-
face type).
For convenience in our later derivations, we also
introduce the L-dimensional column vector (c) Optimum output: y = u11 + 0.8 u 22 + u33 + u34 + u35
f = [ f1 , . . . , fL ]T , (8.109) FIGURE 8.51. Illustration of the components of equa-

tion (8.102), for the case in which L = N = 5. The input
and a constant, mutually orthogonal, NL-dimensional signal is described in (a), tap weights are described in (b),
column vector and the desired output at a given time, say, t = t0 , is given
in (c). Notice that the tap weights in equation (8.102) allow
ck = [0, . . . , 0, 1, . . . , 1, 0, . . . , 0]T , k = 1, . . . , L, us to apply most 2D filtering to the input data, as we may

(k−1)N N (L−k)N desire.
(8.110)
so that
The fundamental issue in beamforming is determi-
cjT ck = Nδjk , (8.111)
nation of the weights wik (t). Notice that the problem
where δjk is the Kronecker delta (δjk = 1 for j = k; of determining these weights is similar to that of the
δjk = 0 for j = k). We further introduce the NL ×L con- Wiener filter problem discussed in Chapter 4. Basically,
stant matrix [C] obtained from the L constant column we need to define a desired response and a cost function
vectors ck to solve for wik (t). Unfortunately, the desired function
[C] = [c1 , . . . , cL ]. (8.112) in the adaptive beamforming is not as specific as in
the Wiener filter problem. Consequently, the objec-
Note that because of the orthogonality relationship of
tive function, which consists of minimizing the error
the vectors, ck , [C] has the property
between the output of linear convolution and the desired
[C]T [C] = N[I], (8.113) response, cannot be used directly. The classical way
of determining the weights, wik (t), is known as lin-
where [I] is the L × L identity matrix. early constrained adaptive beamforming. The basic idea
behind this method is that, for a beamformer to deal with exists in the literature for searching for an optimum fil-
an unknown interference environment, it must be made ter (see Haykin [1996]). One of the common iterative
adaptive in such a way that it automatically places nulls solutions is
in the directions of the sources of interferences. Thus,
we will select wik (t), for which the expectation of the w(n+1) (t) = w(n) (t) − α[P][R(t)]w(n) (t), (8.118)
square of beamformer output is minimum; that is,

with
−1
E y2 (t) = E wT (t)u(t)uT (t)w(t) w(0) (t) = [C] [C]T [R(t)]−1 [C] f, and (8.119)
= w (t)[R(t)]w(t),
T
(8.114) −1
[P] = [I] − [C]T [C] [C]T , (8.120)
with where w(n) (t) is the estimate of w(t) at the nth iteration
and α is a suitable positive constant that determines the
1 I−1
rate of convergence.
[R(t)] = E u(t)uT (t) = u(it)uT (it),
I Because of the cost of the iterative solution descri-
i=0
bed above, it is generally considered to be im-
(8.115)
practical for real-time beamforming requirements in ac-
where E[.] denotes the expectation value. In the equa- quisition of seismic data. For this reason, Ozbek (2000a,
tion above, t is the sample interval in the time between b) proposed a noniterative scheme in the following
the data points of the signal in each sensor of the form:
−1
array, and I is the total number of samples of the sig- w(t) = [C ] [C ]T [R(t)]−1 [C ] f (8.121)
nal in each sensor. The solution of equation (8.114)
effectively places nulls automatically in the directions where [C ] is an NL × L matrix as C but with the least
of the sources of interferences. However, to ensure that null elements:
this process preserves signals that are incident from  
c11 . . . cL1
the target direction while it suppresses interferences
 . ... .  | N
that are incident from other directions, a linear con-  
 . ... .  |
straint is added to this process so that the criterion for  
 c11 . . . cL1 
determining wik (t) consists of minimizing the function  
 c12 . . . cL2 
 
J(t) = E y2 (t) + αE [C]T w(t) − f ,  . ... . 
(8.116)  
[C ] =  . ... .  (8.122)
 
 . ... . 
where α is a factor that controls the relative importance  
 . ... . 
of the two terms in equation (8.116).  c 
 1L . . . cLL 
 .  | N
 ... . 
 . ... .  |
Linearly Constrained
c1L . . . cLL
Adaptive Beamforming
Ozbek (2000a, b) arrived at this solution by a series
The solution to the linearly constrained optimiza- of approximations. Actually, this solution is as exact
tion problem in equation (8.116) can be found in Haykin as equation (8.117) if, instead of equations (8.102) and
(1996). Here, we give the solution directly, (8.103), we consider the more general constraints on
the tap weights as
−1
w(t) = [R(t)]−1 [C] [C]T [R(t)]−1 [C] f. (8.117)

L
N

cjp wkp = fj ; j = 1, . . . , L, (8.123)
The matrix inversions involved in this solution can p=1 k=1
be quite unstable if the statistics of the input signals
are not known, as is generally the case in practice are constants (the L constraint equations are
where cjp
(Treitel, 1970). For this reason, iterative solutions are assumed to be mutually independent). The solution in
sometimes adopted. A variety of iterative algorithms equation (8.121) is generally known as the quiescent
solution. It is the one currently used in most seismic k

beamforming. f min ≥ 20 Hz
Thus, the critical step in implementing equa-
tion (8.121) is construction of the matrix, [C ], and the
vector, f. One way of making sure that we can remove
ground roll and surface waves in land or swell noise

in marine settings, while preserving the desired signal,
is to identify a particular region of the data in which
the signal does interfere with noise and then to ensure
f max
that the beamforming algorithm totally preserves the
signal in this region. We know that in most scenarios, f
this surface noise is low frequency, generally below
20 Hz. Thus, in the f -k domain, we can design [C ]
and f such that we can preserve the signal in a prede- FIGURE 8.52. An example of a region in which the signal
termined region like the one highlighted in Figure 8.52 must be protected during beamforming.
(see Ozbek [2000a] for more details).
0.0
1.0
2.0
An Example of Swell-noise Attenuation
3.0
Let us return to the example in Figure 8.49. Using
Time (s)
the beamforming approach that we have just described, 4.0
Christie et al. (2001) obtained the result in Figure 8.53.

5.0
Comparing the beamforming results in Figure 8.53 and
the hardwired array in Figure 8.49a, we can see how 6.0
well the beamforming can take advantage of single-
sensor data. The shot record acquired with convention- 7.0
ally grouped hydrophones at a standard 12.5-m group
8.0
spacing displays high residual levels of swell noise; the
noise appears to be incoherent and thus is difficult to FIGURE 8.53. A shot record of digitally array-formed data
filter out. On the contrary, the beamforming output at output at larger trace spacing, for comparison with the shot
every 12.5-m interval has significantly reduced the level record from the hardwired array, shows almost none of the
of the residual noise that dominates conventional shot high-amplitude noise that contaminated the conventional
gathers. shot record. (From Christie et al., 2001.)
BOX 8.2: CROSSLINE SAMPLING

In 3D acquisitions, the continuous wave- subscript s indicates source positions. The sam-
field can be described as P(t, xs , ys , xr , yr ) and pling criterion for selecting t is given in equation
its sampled versions as P(nt t, nsx xs , nsy ys , nrx (8.73) and that for selecting xs , xr , ys , and
xr , nry yr ), where nt , nsx , nsy , nrx , and nry are yr is given in equation (8.75). With the present
the integers describing each sample of the data and choice of t ≤ 2ms in most acquisitions, the crite-
t, xs , xr , ys , and yr describe the sam- rion is fulfilled well. In addition, with the array
pling intervals between data samples. Note that technology and single-sensor technology (also
the subscript r indicates receiver positions, and the known as Q-technology) described in this chapter,
(continued)
Box 8.2 continued
we can achieve the desired sampling in xs and receivers are sampled densely along both the
xr . The sampling along the x-axis generally is x- and y-axis, whereas shotpoints are sampled
known as inline sampling, and the sampling along coarsely along the x-axis and densely along the
the y-axis generally is known as crossline. The y-axis, as illustrated in Figure 8.54c. This acqui-
key oustanding problem today in sampling seis- sition is the second of the two common options
mic wavefields concerns the selection of ys and in current ocean-bottom seismics.
yr . This problem generally is known as crossline • xr and xs are sampled according to equa-
sampling. Our objective in this box is to summation (8.75), and yr and ys are not. In
rize briefly some of the approaches being used for other words, both receivers and shotpoints are
crossline sampling. We also will indicate some of sampled densely along the x-axis, and both
the solutions being investigated. are sampled coarsely along the y-axis, as illus-
trated in Figure 8.54d. This source-and-receiver
distribution is the most common option in ma-
3D Wavefield Sampling rine towed-streamer acquisition. It generally is
implemented with the multisource and multi-
We can notice that the wavefield P(t, xs , streamer concept (known in brief as MS/MS).
ys , xr , yr ) is actually five-dimensional. Sampling
this wavefield along the five dimensions in a way Marine acquisitions dominate most seismic
that respects the criteria in equations (8.73) through activity today, and towed-streamer acquisition is
(8.75), especially the need to sample densely both still by far the most commonly used technique
shots and receivers along the x- and y-axis, is still for marine acquisition. Therefore, let us elabo-
well beyond the capability of current acquisition rate a little more on the concept behind the current
systems. In view of this limitation, some practical towed-streamer acquisition technique, namely the
solutions for sampling P(t, xs , ys , xr , yr ) have been multisource and multistreamer concept.
put forward. We can categorize them as follows:
• xr and yr are sampled according to equation
(8.75), and xs and ys are not. In other words, The Multisource and
receivers are sampled densely along both the x- Multistreamer Concept
and y-axis, but shotpoints are sampled coarsely
along both the x- and y-axis, as illustrated in Figure 8.54d describes one typical implemen-
Figure 8.54a. This type of 3D acquisition is tation of the concept of the multisource and mul-
common on land, and some future ocean-bottom tistreamer (MS/MS) experiment. This experiment
seismic (OBS) acquisitions also might have sim- corresponds to a boat towing two sources and eight
ilar source-and-receiver distributions. streamers. That is why it is known as 2/8. The
• xs , ys , and xr are sampled according to sources are fired alternately every 25 m (i.e., each
equation (8.75), but yr is not. In other words, individual source is fired every 50 m). In other
shotpoints are sampled densely along both the words, the spacing between shotpoints in one shoot-
x- and y-axis, whereas receivers are sampled ing line is 50 m (i.e., xs = 50 m). This shooting
coarsely along the y-axis and densely along the technique is known as “flip-flop.” The large spacing
x-axis, as illustrated in Figure 8.54b. This acqui- between shotpoints along a given shot line is one of
sition is one of the two common options in the key drawbacks of flip-flop shooting. This spac-
current ocean-bottom seismics. ing is imposed by the time interval between two
• xs , ys , and xr are sampled according to shots. During that time interval, the boat moved
equation (8.75), but yr is not. In other words, about 25 m.
(continued)
Box 8.2 continued

∆ ys
(a) (c) ∆ yr
∆ yr
∆ xr
x ∆xr ~ 25m, ∆yr ~ 50m

∆xs ~ 75m, ∆ys ~150m Streamers ∆xr ~ 12.5m, ∆yr ~ 200m
y Shooting lines
∆xs ~ 25m, ∆ys ~ 25m
∆ yr
(b) (d)
∆ yr
∆ xs
∆xr ~ 12.5m, ∆yr ~ 200m Streamers ∆yr ~ 50m

Streamers
Shooting lines
Shooting lines
∆xs ~ 25m, ∆ys ~ 25m ∆xs ~ 50m, ∆xr ~ 12.5m
FIGURE 8.54. (a) describes receivers for a typical 3D land survey with xr ≈ 25 m and yr ≈ 50 m. The spacing
of shots is quite coarse, with xs ≈ 75 m and ys ≈ 150 m. (b) describes one of the common OBS acquisition
geometries. This acquisition has a very high density of source coverage compared to receivers. Typically, as many
as eight cables are deployed at the seafloor, and sources are fired over them. The number of cables is limited to about
eight because OBS cables are still more expensive to manufacture and more time-consuming to deploy than towed-
streamer cables. However, source boats are very cheap, small, and easy to maneuver. Thus, we easily can afford
a dense coverage of shotpoints in both the x (inline — cable direction) and y (crossline) directions. (c) describes
another of the common OBS acquisition geometries in which shooting lines are parallel to cables (inline). (d)
describes sources and receivers in a typical 3D towed-streamer acquisition; sources and receivers are parallel to each
other. Note that values of xr , yr , xs , and ys vary from experiment to experiment. The ones given in this figure
are indicative of typical values used in land, OBS, and towed-streamer acquisitions.
The large spacing between shotpoints along a increase in number sources to k implies that xs
given shot line is also the reason why most MS/MS is k times 25 m along each shooting line (e.g., five
experiments today are limited to two sources. An sources lead to xs = 125 m along each shot line).
(continued)
Box 8.2 continued

FIGURE 8.55. Pictures of solid
streamers. This type of streamer
is designed to extend the data-

acquisition window to bad weather
as long as it is safe to do so for the
personnel involved. Furthermore, it
allows us to bring streamers closer
to one another for a better sampling
in the crossline direction without
tangling them. (Courtesy Veritas
DGC Inc.)
of 6.25 m today, even

yr = 37.5 m is still a long
shot. Unfortunately, we can-
not bring cables closer than
37.5 m because of the risk
of the cable becoming tan-
gled. The risk is particularly
high with the present long
cable (more than 4 km long)
employed in seismic acqui-
sition. It is quite difficult to
maintain such long cables a
Another MS/MS configuration generally used short distance apart.
is 2/16, in which the boat tows two sources and 16 One possible solution, although not cost-ef-
streamers. fective, is to sail in both x and y directions. OBS
The spacing between streamers is another acquisition, which can provide a landlike sampling,
important drawback of MS/MS experiments. In is obviously another approach to properly sampling
the 1990s, spacing between cables was about data in the y direction. A technologically attractive
100 m. Spacing has been reduced to 50 m and solution being pursued by some organizations is
even to 37.5 m in some cases. Because xr and the development of solid streamers (Figure 8.55).
yr must satisfy the same sampling criteria as in Such streamers will allow us to bring streamers even
equation (8.75), and with xr typically on the order closer without tangling them.
EXERCISES IN PROBLEM SOLVING 2) An event on a seismic time section has a dip of

15.625 ms per trace separation. Calculate the fre-
1) (a) Rewrite the traveltime equation (8.9) of a dip- quency fmax , above which this event will be aliased.
ping reflector in the common midpoint (CMP)
domain. 3) A surface wave with a maximum frequency of 50 Hz
(b) Determine the apparent velocity of this dipping has an apparent velocity of 200 m/s across an array of
reflector. geophones. At what interval should the geophones
be placed, if spatial aliasing of this signal is to be a) Determine the minimum sampling interval, t,
avoided? required to avoid aliasing.
b) Suppose that t = 5 ms. What is the discrete-
4) A surface noise is identified as having a wavelength time signal obtained after sampling?
of between 18.5 and 45 m. Assume that this noise c) Suppose that the signal is now sampled at t =
is to be filtered out by a hardwired array. Determine 1/75 s. What is the discrete-time signal obtained
the spacing between elements of the array and the after sampling?
number of elements of the array. d) What is the frequency 0 < f < 37.5 Hz of a
sinusoid that yields samples identical to those
5) Establish the sampling criteria, similar to equa- obtained in (c)?
tion (8.75), for the spacing between offsets and for
the spacing between CMPs. 9) Consider the continuous signal:
6) Select a spacing between offsets and the spac-

xc (t) = 8 cos 200πt + 5 sin 300πt + 15 cos 900π t.
ing between CMPs for a survey to be recorded at
(8.125)
60 Hz in a medium with a minimum velocity of
1500 m/s.
a) What is the Nyquist frequency for this
7) Establish a condition under which the group velocity signal?
for a given wavenumber will be less than the phase b) Assume that we sample this signal using
velocity. t = 2 ms. What is the discrete-time signal
obtained after sampling?
8) Consider the continuous signal: c) What is the continuous signal yc (t) we can
reconstruct from the samples in (b) if we use
xc (t) = 8 cos 100πt. (8.124) the ideal interpolation (see Chapter 4)?

9
WAVEFIELD DECOMPOSITION INTO
P- AND S-WAVES AND UPGOING

AND DOWNGOING WAVES
Seismic data that are recorded on geophones below the receiver plane, the medium can be arbitrarily
deployed on land, on the seafloor, or in boreholes con- inhomogeneous, anisotropic, and anelastic.
tain upgoing and downgoing P- and S-wave arrivals. In this chapter, we frequently use the expres-
Some events are primaries, whereas other events are sion multicomponent seismic data. For data recorded
multiples. Most imaging tools used currently in seis- on land, multicomponent data are data measured by
mic data processing require that the recorded data’s three-component (3C) geophones that detect particle
multiples, or at least the downgoing components, be motions in a Cartesian system. For data recorded on
attenuated. The imaging tools also require that P-wave the ocean bottom, multicomponent data are marine
and S-wave arrivals be separated and imaged sepa- four-component (4C) data recorded with sensor units,
rately. To fulfill these requirements, petroleum seismol- each of which contains one hydrophone to detect the
ogists have developed various techniques for splitting pressure wavefield and three geophones to detect parti-
recorded seismic data into upgoing and downgoing P- cle velocity (or three accelerometers to detect particle
and S-wave arrivals, into total upgoing and downgoing acceleration). Land seismic and 4C ocean-bottom seis-
wavefields, and into primaries and multiples. mic (OBS) were discussed in Chapter 7. Finally, we
Wave-equation-based wavefield decomposition is note that data recorded on the ocean bottom, by the
important in seismic-data preprocessing. Wavefield de- use of hydrophones to detect pressure and single-
composition by means of the wave equation can be component geophones to detect the vertical component
divided roughly into two categories (Figure 9.1). The of the particle velocity, sometimes are called dual-
first category includes methods that either separate the sensor ocean-bottom seismic data.
elastic wavefield into upgoing and downgoing P- and
S-waves (for short, called P/S decomposition) or sep-
arate the wavefield into total upgoing and downgoing THE CONCEPT OF DECOMPOSITION
waves (for short, called U/D decomposition). The sec- INTO P- AND S-WAVE ARRIVALS (P/S)
ond category includes methods that attempt to eliminate AND TOTAL UPGOING AND
free-surface-related multiples (and possibly internal DOWNGOING WAVES (U/D)
multiples). Whereas P/S and U/D decompositions typ-
ically act on one shot gather at a time, full removal of Definitions of P- and S-wave and Upgoing
surface-related multiples requires a considerably larger and Downgoing Wave Decomposition
data volume. The two categories of preprocessing can
be run independently. In a homogeneous region, consider a point source
In this chapter, our goal is to describe methods of force, in the (x1 , x3 )-plane, that is exciting P-SV
for wave-equation-based P/S and U/D decompositions. waves. It follows intuitively that four independent wave
In Chapter 10, we will discuss the decomposition of solutions must exist: two above the source, propagating
seismic data into primaries and multiples. This latter upward as P- and SV-waves, and two below the source,
method is known as free-surface multiple attenuation. propagating downward as P- and SV-waves. Their am-
The wave-equation-based P/S and U/D decomposition plitudes are determined by the nature of the source.
schemes are derived under the assumption that the In Chapter 2, we showed that the divergence of
wavefield has been measured along a horizontal receiver the particle-velocity field v corresponds to P-waves,
plane on which the medium parameters are isotropic whereas the curl of the particle velocity gives the S
and do not vary along the receiver spread. Above and wavefield. Calculating div(v) and curl(v) of the snap-
361
(a) Total downgoing Total upgoing in Figure 3.9 have shown that the particle velocity
P-wave S-wave P-wave S-wave
contains upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves. For
a 3D medium, we will show later that the S-waves can
}
}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
be split into SV- and SH-constituents, on the basis of
their polarization with respect to the receiver plane. The
SH constituent has its polarization in the horizontal

plane. For the ith component of the particle velocity,
we introduce the notation
(UP )
(b)
Total S-wave
Vi : upgoing P-waves,
Total P-wave
(D )
Downgoing Upgoing Downgoing Upgoing Vi P : downgoing P-waves,
}
}
(U )
1 2 3 4 5 8 9 10 6 7 11 12 13 14 15
Vi SV : upgoing SV-waves,
(D )
Vi SV : downgoing SV-waves,
(U )
Vi SH : upgoing SH-waves, and
(D )
Vi SH : downgoing SH-waves.
P-wave S-wave Receiver Source
1 & 6 : Direct waves Therefore, Vi is the sum of all upgoing and downgoing
2 , 3 , 4 & 5 : Receiver ghosts P-, SV-, and SH-waves:
10 & 14 : Free-surface multiples
(UP ) (USV ) (USH )
8 , 9 , 11 , 12 & 13 : Primaries
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi
7 : Seafloor-related ghost
(DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
15 : Internal multiples + Vi + Vi + Vi .
FIGURE 9.1. Examples of primaries, receiver ghosts Our objective in decomposing P- and S-waves into
(receiver-side reverberations), free-surface multiples
upgoing and downgoing waves is to determine
(source-side reverberations), and internal multiples in
OBS data. These events can be decomposed into (a) up-
the individual components from the multicomponent
going and downgoing events (U/D), or into (b) P-wave recordings:
and S-wave arrivals (P/S). (UP ) (USV ) (USH ) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
Vi ; Vi ; Vi ; Vi ; Vi ; Vi .
It is obvious that these components can be added

shots shown in Figure 2.28 produced separate snapshots straightforwardly to obtain total P-, SV-, SH-, and
of P-waves and S-waves, as Figure 2.29 demonstrated. S-waves, as follows:
Therefore, one is led to ask if the same scheme can be
applied to predict P- and S-waves from multicompo- (P) (UP ) (DP )
Vi = Vi + Vi ,
nent data recorded on a receiver plane at some specific
(SV ) (USV ) (DSV )
depth. The answer, of course, is no. Applying diver- Vi = Vi + Vi ,
gence or curl operators to the data implies that we have (SH) (U ) (D )
Vi = Vi SH + Vi SH , and
knowledge of the vertical derivative of the multicom-
(S) (SV ) (SH)
ponent data. Vertical derivatives can be calculated if, Vi = Vi + Vi .
for instance, two sensors are placed close to each other
in the vertical direction. However, because this is not Thus, the total P-wave on the ith component of the
a common practice today, we must find other means particle velocity is the sum of its upgoing and downgo-
for decomposing the recorded multicomponent wave- ing P-waves. Likewise, the total SV-, SH-, and S-waves
field. Frequency-wavenumber domain analysis of the are the sums of upgoing and downgoing SV-, SH-,
multicomponent recordings is the tool we apply in this and S-waves, respectively. A second objective in P/S
book. decomposition is to determine, from the multicompo-
Let Vi be the ith component of the particle velocity nent recordings, the total P-waves and total SV-, SH-,
recorded on a horizontal receiver plane. The snapshots and S-waves.
Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing and Downgoing Waves 363
Alternatively, the upgoing P- and S-waves can be one S-wave image obtained from P-wave to S-wave
added to obtain the total upgoing waves: reflections. P-waves are processed with the proper
P-wave velocity model, whereas S-waves are processed
(U) (UP ) (USV ) (USH )
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi . with the best S-wave model of the subsurface, perhaps
including anisotropy.
Similarly, the downgoing P- and S-waves can be added Intuitively, when we decompose the vector wave-
to obtain the total downgoing waves: field into upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves or
(D) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
total upgoing and downgoing waves, the downgoing
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi . components will contain more multiple energy than do
the upgoing components. In particular, the free sur-
The objective of U/D decomposition is to extract face of the earth totally reflects all upgoing waves into
the total upgoing and downgoing waves from the mul- downgoing waves, giving the petroleum seismologist a
ticomponent data. The next sections will show that P/S multiple-suppression challenge. In the mid-1990s the
and U/D decompositions are realized for every shot advent of four-component (4C) ocean-bottom seismic
gather by adding scaled particle-velocity vector data (OBS) recordings immediately initiated a search for
and scaled vertical-traction vector data. The scalars multiple-suppression schemes. When they are com-
that depend on the medium parameters at the receiver pared with the single pressure measurement from a
level are derived from the elastodynamic wave equa- surface-seismic streamer, the multicomponent record-
tion by introducing proper boundary conditions. Before ings clearly offer a better starting point for multiple-
we embark on the mathematics of elastic wavefield suppression methods: Single pressure measurements
decomposition, we present examples in which P/S cannot, at least in a straightforward manner, be decom-
and U/D decompositions affect multicomponent data posed into upgoing and downgoing waves, as can
processing. multicomponent data. In this context, the upgoing part
of the multicomponent data is the multiple-attenuated
or demultipled data set.
The Benefit of Multicomponent We have long known that pressure and the verti-
Recordings cal component of the particle-velocity recordings on
the seafloor benefit multiple suppression. Although he
The most basic description of the seismic experi- did not formulate it as a wavefield-decomposition tech-
ment is given by a wavefield that propagates downward nique, as we will do in this chapter, in the mid-1960s
from the source to an interface in the subsurface, where White (1965) pointed out the possible usefulness to
the elastic properties change abruptly. At the interface, geophysical prospecting and oceanographic research of
part of the energy will be reflected, and it propagates deploying a composite detector on the seafloor. White
upward to the surface of the earth, where it can be (1965, p. 42) stated: “The output of a pressure detector
recorded by sensitive instruments. Before imaging mul- near the solid interface can be combined with the output
ticomponent data, we assume, basically, that we can of a particle-velocity detector in such proportions that
preprocess the recorded data so that the data fulfill some waves arriving . . . from the fluid will create no net out-
one-way wave equation describing the one-way propa- put, whereas . . . waves from the solid will be detected.”
gation from the subsurface interface to the receivers. By In this book, we show that White’s algorithm can be
their very nature, multicomponent measurements are interpreted as a U/D decomposition scheme just below
vector data. One approach can easily be identified for the seafloor. By adding the pressure recording P to the
preprocessing the multicomponent data to fit the one- scaled vertical component of particle velocity V3 , we
way wave-propagation model: decomposition of the find the upgoing constituent of the vertical component
vector data into upgoing and downgoing scalar P and S of the vertical traction (normal stress), here denoted by
wavefields that obey scalar wave equations. Because the (U)
S3 . For the special case of normal-incidence data, the
fields are scalar, under the one-way propagation model scalar simply equals the P-wave impedance, ρVP , of
assumption they can be processed independently, by use the seafloor, so that
of standard acoustic-imaging software. For a seismic
experiment with a P-wave source only, the data process-
ing results in two images of the subsurface: one P-wave (U) 1
S3 = − (P − ρVP V3 ). (9.1)
image obtained from P-wave to P-wave reflections and 2
The use of a dual sensor did not become a full-scale (a)

practice until the late 1980s. At that time, marine 3D Pressure receiver
streamer seismic data were acknowledged as being nec- 2.0
essary for detailed reservoir imaging. However, marine
3D seismic data could not be acquired without large
gaps in coverage for fields that were obstructed by

production platforms. To circumvent this problem in
shallow-water areas, Rigsby et al. (1987) introduced the
bottom-cable technique to collect pressure data where 1.0
conventional streamers could not be towed. It was soon

realized that such data included the destructive effects of
the receiver ghost and subsequent water-column rever-
berations. We discussed receiver ghosts in Chapters 4
and 7. On the hydrophone signal, the receiver ghost 0.0
causes multiple notches in the amplitude spectrum. The
first spectral notch occurs at 0 Hz. The second notch (b)
occurs at the frequency f2 = VP1 /(2z), where VP1 Velocity receiver
is the velocity of water and z is the water depth. All 2.0
the subsequent notches occur at integer multiples of
frequency
VP1
fn = (n − 1) ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
2z
1.0
For water depths less than 10 m, the second notch
occurs at frequencies higher than 75 Hz. If the geo-
physicist is satisfied with the frequency band between
the first and second notches, standard deconvolution
does a good job of collapsing the reverberations into the 0.0
original wavelet. For water depths greater than 10 m, 0 20 40 60 80
the second notch occurs at frequencies below 75 Hz. Frequency (Hz)
The notches are now in the frequency band required FIGURE 9.2. Amplitude spectra of (a) hydrophone (pres-
for high-resolution imaging. Standard deconvolution or sure) and (b) geophone (vertical component of the particle
receiver deghosting is impossible, because the notches velocity) for a water depth of 25 m.
are deep in the spectrum in the seismic bandwidth. For
the idealized model of a plane sea surface with van-
ishing pressure, there are perfect notches (with zero for data measured on the geophone are
amplitude) in the spectrum.
Figure 9.2a shows the amplitude spectrum of the 1 VP1
ghost on hydrophone data for a water depth of z = 25 m. fn = n − ; n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
2 2z
There is no information about the seismic signal at the
notch positions. To solve this notch problem, Barr and Figure 9.2b shows the amplitude spectrum of the ghost
Sanders (1989) introduced paired pressure and particle- on geophone data for a water depth of z = 25 m. Thus,
velocity detectors (dual sensors) in the water-bottom because the geophone recording has no zero amplitude
cable, which led to improved resolution when the in its spectrum at the frequencies where the hydrophone
hydrophone and geophone signals were properly com- recording has notches with zero amplitude in its spec-
bined in processing. This improved resolution occurs trum, the geophone provides the missing information
because the vertically oriented geophones have notches about the seismic signal.
at frequencies different from those of the hydrophones, However, as water depth increases, the receiver
so that the sum of hydrophone and scaled geophone ghost more and more resembles a water-layer multiple.
measurements has no receiver ghost. Notch frequencies The receiver ghost and its accompanying water-layer
(a) Time immediately that all these events are purely downgoing
waves below the seafloor. In Figure 9.3a, the events are
labeled by “Dnnn,” where “D” means that the event is
downgoing, and “nnn” indicates its traveltime in mil-
liseconds. Thus, U/D decomposition just below the
D100 D300 D500 D700 D900

seafloor must leave the incident wavefield, its ghost,
and its water-layer reverberations on the downgoing
(b)
P V3 S3(U) component. The upgoing field does not contain any
0.0 incident field, ghosts, or reverberations. We say that the
0.1 D100
upgoing field just below the seafloor is the demultipled
field. The zero-offset pressure P, and the vertical com-
0.2 ponent of the particle velocity V3 scaled by the seafloor
P-wave impedance ρVP , are displayed in Figure 9.3b.
0.3 D300 Observe that their downgoing events are all identical.
Therefore, subtracting these two traces according to the
0.4
scheme (9.1) gives zero output on S3(U) , which we must
Time (s)
0.5 D500 have in this special case in which all events below the
seafloor are downgoing. Recall that the boundary con-
0.6 ditions at the fluid-solid interface (seafloor) state that
S3 = −P. Therefore, we may say that this particular
0.7 D700
demultiple or dereverberation technique corresponds to
0.8 computing the upgoing pressure wavefield just below
the seafloor.
0.9 D900 In the second model, shown in Figure 9.4a, we
have included, below the water layer, an additional
1.0
layer 125 m thick. The P-wave velocity in this layer
FIGURE 9.3. (a) Model of a water layer 150 m thick, above is 2000 m/s. The reflection coefficient of the seafloor is
a half-space. All events below the seafloor are downgo- again RPP = 0.45, and the reflection coefficient of the
ing and thus absent in the upgoing component that follows interface below is 0.16. For this model, the zero-offset
from the U/D decomposition just below the seafloor. The pressure and the vertical component of the particle
events are labeled by “Dnnn,” where “D” means that the velocity scaled by the seafloor P-wave impedance are
event is downgoing below the seafloor and “nnn” indicates displayed in Figure 9.4b. Observe that this simple model
the traveltime in milliseconds. (b) Modeled zero-offset data gives a very complicated seismic response. To analyze
of pressure, the vertical component of the particle veloc- the seismograms, we have sketched in Figure 9.4a the
ity scaled by the P-wave impedance of the seafloor, and events up to 625 ms. D and U denote downgoing and
the upgoing component of the vertical traction below the
upgoing events, respectively, just below the seafloor.
seafloor.
Computing the upgoing component S3(U) eliminates all
downgoing events just below the seafloor. The upgoing
reverberations may then interfere and overlap with pri- primary, U225, with a traveltime of 225 ms, is clearly
mary reflections from the subsurface. In this case, the present. The water-layer multiples D300, D500, D700,
receiver ghost and its reverberations can totally distort and the like, are clearly eliminated. The internal multi-
any seismic interpretation, unless they are attenuated ple U350, arriving at 350 ms, is hardly visible, because
properly. Let us consider two simple models in which it has reflected twice at the lower interface with a small
we simulate a zero-offset experiment with the source reflection coefficient. Even if the model is simple, it
situated just below the sea surface and the receiver on has several noteworthy characteristics. Receiver ghosts
the seafloor. The first model, shown in Figure 9.3a, has and reverberations are downgoing events just below the
a water layer 150 m thick that lies above a half-space. seafloor and therefore are attenuated by the computation
The P-wave velocity of water is 1500 m/s. The reflec- step (9.1). However, the free surface produces multiples
tion coefficient of the seafloor is 0.45. Using rays to that are upgoing events below the seafloor. Such free-
depict the seismic events — the incident wavefield, the surface-related events, like U425, U550, and U625, are
ghost, and the water layer reverberations — we realize sometimes called source-side multiples. They remain as
(a) Time (b)

P V3 S 3(U) ^
P
0.0
0.1 D100
D100 U225 D300 U350 D425 U425 D500
0.2
U225
0.3 D300
U350
0.4 U425, D425
Time (s)
D550 U550 D625A D625B U625
0.5 D500
U550, D550
0.6
U625, D625A, D625B
0.7 D700
0.8
0.9
1.0
FIGURE 9.4. (a) Two-layer model above a half-space. The events are labeled by “Dnnn” and “Unnn,” where “D” and “U”
mean that the events are downgoing or upgoing, respectively, below the seafloor, and “nnn” indicates the traveltime in mil-
liseconds. (b) Modeled zero-offset data of pressure, the vertical component of the particle velocity scaled by the P-wave
impedance of the seafloor, and the upgoing component of the vertical traction below the seafloor. The last trace shows the
effect of free-surface multiple elimination.
part of the upgoing wavefield S3(U) . In Chapter 10, we seafloor, for the present analysis and without loss of
will derive algorithms that eliminate all free-surface- generality, we may assume that the vertically oriented
related multiples. Free-surface multiples are events that geophone is also located just above the seafloor. Con-
have at least one reflection at the free surface. The sider a downgoing multiple of unit amplitude hitting
last seismogram in Figure 9.4b shows the response of the sensors. Because the sensors are sitting infinites-
the model when all free-surface-related multiples are imally above the interface when they measure the
absent. Compared with the upgoing field S3(U) just below downgoing event, they will, at the same time, measure
the seafloor, the free-surface-demultipled seismogram an upward-reflected event with an amplitude strength
is almost free of multiples. Therefore, free-surface mul- equal to the reflection coefficient RPP of the seafloor.
tiple attenuation is a better demultiple tool than is U/D Because the hydrophone sensor is isotropic (insensitive
decomposition, below the seafloor. to the wave’s direction), it measures upgoing and down-
A second notable characteristic of the model is that going events without distinction — that is, it measures
the upgoing primary, U225, in Figure 9.4b, is weaker the amplitude sum, 1 + RPP . On the contrary, the geo-
on the pressure recording than it is on the particle- phone is sensitive to orientation and measures upgoing
velocity recording scaled by P-wave impedance. Recall and downgoing events with an opposite sign. In this
that this particular scaling of the particle velocity makes particular case, the geophone measures the amplitude
the downgoing events just below the seafloor equal in 1 − RPP . With RPP > 0, it follows that the downgoing
amplitude between the pressure and particle-velocity multiple is stronger on the pressure seismogram than
seismograms. Stated differently, relative to this pri- it is on the vertical component of the particle-velocity
mary amplitude, the downgoing multiples are stronger seismogram.
on the hydrophone than they are on the geophone. To The third characteristic of this model is related to
see why this is so, we make the following observations. the model’s lateral invariance. In laterally homoge-
The pressure is recorded from a hydrophone placed neous media, source-side multiples will have travel-
just above the seafloor. Because the vertical compo- times equal to receiver-side multiples. For instance,
nent of the particle-velocity field is continuous at the the upgoing source-side multiple, U425, arrives at the
same time that the downgoing receiver-side multiple, arbitrarily inhomogeneous, anisotropic, and anelastic.
D425, arrives. Because their polarity is the same, Along the receiver plane, the wavefield then obeys the
the hydrophones that are measuring their sum will be isotropic elastic equations of motion. The recorded elas-
stronger than the geophones that are measuring their tic field consists of waves passing the receiver plane
difference. This is readily observed in the pressure and both upward and downward.
the scaled vertical component of the particle-velocity The two key steps required for wavefield decom-
traces in Figure 9.4b. It is straightforward to show that position are (1) the formulation in the frequency-
the multiple’s amplitude on the pressure trace is propor- horizontal wavenumber domain of the equations of
tional to 1 + 2RPP , whereas the multiple’s amplitude wave motion as a linear system and (2) the resolution
on the particle velocity is proportional to 1 − 2RPP . of this linear system through its eigenvalue equation
For a hard seafloor with a reflection coefficient of (see Kreyszig [1988] for a quick review of some
RPP = 0.5, the multiple’s amplitude will be zero on of the key results of the theory of eigenvalues and
the geophone recording. Furthermore, observe that the eigenvectors). The solution of the eigenvalue equation
amplitude of this particular multiple is larger on the allows us to decompose the elastic wavefield into
demultipled seismogram S3(U) than it is on the verti- upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves.
cal component of the particle velocity. On S3(U) , the
downgoing receiver-side multiple, D425, is eliminated,
but the source-side multiple, U425, with amplitude The Matrix-vector Differential Equation
proportional to RPP , is present. For hard seafloors, U/D
decomposition below the seafloor is not sufficient to At the horizontal receiver plane, the density and
suppress multiples. Source-side multiples will be sig- the P-wave and S-wave velocities do not vary later-
nificant and must be suppressed by other demultiple ally. They depend only on the local depth x3 (where
techniques. recording takes place): ρ = ρ(x3 ), VP = VP (x3 ),
Finally, we remark that the dual-sensor summation and VS = VS (x3 ). The wave-propagation velocities
(9.1) is known as PZ-summation, where P indicates the are
√ related to the Lamé √ parameters, in that VP =
pressure measurement on the hydrophone and Z indi- (λ + 2µ)/ρ and VS = µ/ρ. In accordance with
cates the vertical component of the particle-velocity geophysical convention, let the depth axis be positive
measurement on the geophone. In this chapter, we downward.
show how White’s (1965) and Barr and Sanders’ (1989) In the time-space domain, the system of equations
schemes, or PZ summation, can be derived from wave- governing the wave motion at the receiver plane at
field decomposition just below the seafloor. Further- depth x3 consists of the following equations of motion
more, we follow the work of Osen et al. (1999) and show
how water-column reverberations can be suppressed on ρ∂t v1 = ∂1 τ11 + ∂2 τ12 + ∂3 τ13 ,
each of the three other measured components in the 4C ρ∂t v2 = ∂1 τ21 + ∂2 τ22 + ∂3 τ23 , (9.2)
experiment — the vertical velocity and the two horizon-
tal velocities — thus presenting a complete extension ρ∂t v3 = ∂1 τ31 + ∂2 τ32 + ∂3 τ33 ,
of White’s (1965) result. Alternative derivations are
and the time derivative of the generalized Hooke’s law
given in Amundsen and Reitan (1995), Amundsen et al.
(the constitutive relation)
(2000), and Paffenholz and Barr (1995).
∂t τ11 = λ(∂1 v1 + ∂2 v2 + ∂3 v3 ) + 2µ∂1 v1 ,
∂t τ22 = λ(∂1 v1 + ∂2 v2 + ∂3 v3 ) + 2µ∂2 v2 ,
DERIVATION OF P/S AND ∂t τ33 = λ(∂1 v1 + ∂2 v2 + ∂3 v3 ) + 2µ∂3 v3 ,
(9.3)
U/D DECOMPOSITION ∂t τ12 = ∂t τ21 = µ(∂2 v1 + ∂1 v2 ),
In this section, we present the theory underlying ∂t τ23 = ∂t τ32 = µ(∂3 v2 + ∂2 v3 ),
wavefield decomposition. We assume that the elastic ∂t τ13 = ∂t τ31 = µ(∂1 v3 + ∂3 v1 ),
wavefield has been measured along a horizontal receiver
plane in a 3D earth where the medium’s parameters where τij = τij (t, x) is the stress, vi = vi (t, x) is the
are isotropic and do not vary along the receiver spread. particle velocity, and ∂i and ∂t are partial-derivative
Above and below the receiver plane, the medium can be operators with respect to xi and time t.
To separate the variables, we Fourier-transform using equations (9.7), (9.8), and (9.10). Bring ∂3 terms
equations (9.2) and (9.3) with respect to time t and the to the left and all other terms to the right. Introduce the
horizontal spatial coordinates (x1 , x2 ). The 3D Fourier particle-velocity vertical-traction vector, b, containing
transform is used in the form the field variables
T
∞ b = [V1 , V2 , V3 , τ̃13 , τ̃23 , τ̃33 ]T = V T , ST , (9.13)

F(ω, k1 , k2 ) = dtdx1 dx2 f (t, x1 , x2 )
−∞ with particle-velocity vector V T = [V1 , V2 , V3 ] and
× exp[i(ωt − k1 x1 − k2 x2 )], vertical-traction vector ST = [τ̃13 , τ̃23 , τ̃33 ] = [S1 , S2 ,
S3 ]. The equation of motion and the constitutive rela-
with the inverse 3D Fourier transform tion can then be written as an ordinary matrix-vector
∞
differential equation,
1
f (t, x1 , x2 ) = dωdk1 dk2 F(ω, k1 , k2 ) ∂3 b = −iωAb, (9.14)
(2π)3 −∞
× exp[−i(ωt − k1 x1 − k2 x2 )], where the elastodynamic-system matrix, A, depending
on material properties, has the form
where ω and (k1 , k2 ) are the angular frequency and
the horizontal wavenumbers, respectively. Recall that  1 
differentiation with respect to time in the temporal 0 0 p1 0 0
 µ 
 
domain corresponds to multiplication by −iω in the  1 
 0 0 p2 0 0 
frequency domain: ∂t ↔ −iω. Differentiation with  µ 
 λ λ 1 
respect to x1 or x2 in the space domain corresponds to  
 λ + 2µ p1 +
p2 0 0 0
λ + 2µ 

A= λ 2µ ,
multiplication by ik1 or ik2 , respectively, in the hor- 
 λ 
izontal wavenumber domain: ∂1 ↔ ik1 , ∂2 ↔ ik2 . ρ − θp21 − µp2 −θp1 p2 0 0 0 p1 
 λ + 2µ 
 
Because the medium’s parameters — ρ, λ, and µ — do  λ 
 −θp1 p2 ρ − θp22 − µp2 0 0 0 p2 
not vary laterally, equations (9.2) and (9.3) become, in  λ + 2µ 
the frequency-wavenumber domain, 0 0 ρ p1 p2 0
(9.15)
−iωρ V1 = ik1 τ̃11 + ik2 τ̃12 + ∂3 τ̃13 , (9.4)
where θ = µ(3λ + 2µ)/(λ + 2µ) and p2 = p21 + p22 ,
−iωρ V2 = ik1 τ̃12 + ik2 τ̃22 + ∂3 τ̃23 , (9.5)
with horizontal slownesses p1 = k1 /ω and p2 = k2 /ω.
−iωρ V3 = ik1 τ̃13 + ik2 τ̃23 + ∂3 τ̃33 , (9.6) For notational convenience, the explicit depend-
ence of different quantities on frequency, wavenumber,
and depth, and the like, is omitted. For instance, the particle-
velocity vector, v(t, x1 , x2 , x3 ), recorded at depth x3 , is
−iωτ̃11 = λ(ik2 V2 + ∂3 V3 ) + (λ + 2µ)ik1 V1 , (9.7)
in the wavenumber domain denoted V or V (x3 ), with
−iωτ̃22 = λ(ik1 V1 + ∂3 V3 ) + (λ + 2µ)ik2 V2 , (9.8) the understanding that V = V (x3 ) = V (ω, k1 , k2 , x3 ).
−iωτ̃33 = λ(ik1 V1 + ik2 V2 ) + (λ + 2µ)∂3 V3 , (9.9) When required, we will show the dependence on hori-
zontal slowness vector p = (p1 , p2 ).
−iωτ̃12 = µ(ik2 V1 + ik1 V2 ), (9.10) Box 9.1 provides an analysis of equation (9.14) in
−iωτ̃23 = µ(∂3 V2 + ik2 V3 ), (9.11) the case in which p2 = 0.
−iωτ̃13 = µ(ik1 V3 + ∂3 V1 ), (9.12)
where V1 = V1 (ω, k1 , k2 , x3 ), τ̃11 = τ̃11 (ω, k1 , k2 , x3 ), Decomposition of the Particle-velocity

and the like, are the Fourier transforms of vi and τij , Vertical-traction Vector
respectively. We take the particle-velocity vector and
the vertical-traction vector as the field quantities char- Observe that even in a homogeneous medium,
acterizing the elastic-wave propagation. Hence, the equation (9.14) is difficult to solve because of the cross-
stresses τ̃11 , τ̃22 , τ̃12 must be eliminated algebraically coupling between the field variables in the particle-
from the above equations. To this end, substitute equa- velocity vertical-traction vector. For a point source of
tion (9.9) for ∂3 V3 in equations (9.7) and (9.8). Then, force in the 3D homogeneous medium, it follows intu-
eliminate τ̃11 , τ̃22 , τ̃12 in equations (9.4) and (9.5) by itively that six independent wave solutions must exist:
BOX 9.1: THE MATRIX-VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION (9.14)

FOR A SPECIAL CASE
For further insight, we look at the special case equation is

of a wavefield that propagates in the (x1 , x3 )-plane, ∂3 b = −iωAb, (9.19)
such that p2 = 0. Both source and receiver points
with particle-velocity vertical-traction vector
are in this vertical plane. Substituting p2 = 0
into equation (9.14), two uncoupled systems are b = (V1 , V3 , S1 , S3 )T (9.20)
obtained.
In the first system, the particle motion is and system matrix
in the x2 -direction. The matrix-vector differential  
equation becomes 1
 0 p1 0 
 µ 
∂3 b = −iωAb, (9.16)  λ 1 
 
 λ + 2µ p1 0 0
λ + 2µ 
with particle-velocity vertical-traction vector A= .
 
 λ 
b = (V2 , S2 )T ρ − (θ + µ)p21 0 0 p1 
(9.17)  λ + 2µ 
and system matrix 0 ρ p1 0
  (9.21)
1
0
A= µ . (9.18) Waves described by equations (9.19) through (9.21)
ρ 1 − VS2 p21 0 are P- and SV-waves. In Chapter 2, we stated that
P- and SV-waves are decoupled from SH-waves in
Waves described by equations (9.16) through (9.18) a homogeneous medium as well as in a horizon-
are SH-waves. Their characteristics were discussed tally layered medium. This box has demonstrated
in Chapter 2. that for the homogeneous medium, we obtain two
In the second system, the particle motion is uncoupled systems: one for SH-waves, the other
in the (x1 , x3 )-plane. The matrix-vector differential for P- and SV-waves.
three above the source, propagating upward as P-, SV-, waves are manifest, it is necessary to find the eigen-
and SH-waves, and three below the source, propagating values and eigenvectors of the system matrix A. The
downward as P-, SV-, and SH-waves. Their amplitudes eigenequation reads
are determined by the nature of the source. These upgo-
ing and downgoing P- and S-waves are now organized A − γ (N) I β (N) = 0, (9.23)
into the wave vector
T
w = [U T , DT ] , (9.22) where I is the 6-by-6 identity matrix, γ (N) is the eigen-
value, and β (N) is the eigenvector corresponding to
where U T = [UP , USV , USH ] and DT = [DP , DSV , DSH ]. γ (N) . We note that, in wave equation theory, γ (N) rep-
The question we must ask is “How can we transform the resents the phase slowness and β (N) the polarization
first-order differential equation (9.14) for the particle- vector. The polarization vector β (N) consists of two
velocity vertical-traction vector (which shows coupling three-component vectors, one corresponding to the par-
between the field variables) to a first-order differential ticle velocity, V , and the other to the traction vector, S.
equation for the wave vector (which shows uncoupling The superscript N indicates the wavetype. It takes val-
between the upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves ues 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, according to this convention:
for the homogeneous medium)?” From the theory of N = 1 → upgoing P, N = 2 → upgoing SV, N =
matrices, the fact is well known that to achieve the wave 3 → upgoing SH, N = 4 → downgoing P, N =
vector structure in which the upgoing and downgoing 5 → downgoing SV, and N = 6 → downgoing SH.
The eigenvalue or vertical phase slowness γ (N) is In a homogeneous medium, the well-known solu-
determined by solving the determinantal equation tions are

det A − γ (N) I = 0. (9.24) UP (x3 ) = UP (0) exp(−iωqP x3 );
USV (x3 ) = USV (0) exp(−iωqS x3 );
The six phase slownesses are given in pairs of opposite

signs, as USH (x3 ) = USH (0) exp(−iωqS x3 );
DP (x3 ) = DP (0) exp(iωqP x3 );
γ (1) = −γ (4) = qP = VP−2 − p2 ,
DSV (x3 ) = DSV (0) exp(iωqS x3 );
γ = −γ = qS = VS−2 − p2 ,
(2) (5) DSH (x3 ) = DSH (0) exp(iωqS x3 );

where UP (0), USV (0), USH (0), DP (0), DSV (0), and
γ (3) = −γ (6) = qS = VS−2 − p2 . DSH (0) are constants. Whereas the particle-velocity
From the theory of matrices, we know that by taking vertical-traction variables in equation (9.14) are
L to be the eigencolumn matrix of A, that is, always coupled, the wave variables UP , DP , USV , DSV ,
USH , and DSH are decoupled in the special case of a
L = [β (1) , β (2) , β (3) , β (4) , β (5) , β (6) ], (9.25) homogeneous medium.
Our next task is to describe analytically the matrix L
then the eigenvalue decomposition of A reads and its inverse. Then we discuss how to scale the polar-
ization vectors, such that the wave variables represent
A = LΛL−1 , (9.26)
either the particle velocity or traction. To this end, we
where the matrix, Λ, is a diagonal matrix with eigen- need to determine the polarization vectors, β (N) . Let
values as elements: us start by recalling that polarization vectors β (N) of
length 6 are determined by
Λ = diag[γ (1) , γ (2) , γ (3) , γ (4) , γ (5) , γ (6) ]. (9.27)
Aβ (N) = γ (N) β (N) ,
In the homogeneous medium, we assume that L is inde-
where β (N) is the nth column of the eigencolumn matrix
pendent of depth. Substitution of equation (9.26) into
L. After some straightforward but tedious calculations,
equation (9.14) and left-multiplication by L−1 yield
we find the composition matrix,

∂3 w = −iωΛw, (9.28) L = L(p) = β (1) , β (2) , β (3) , β (4) , β (5) , β (6)

where LVU (p) −LVU (−p)
= , (9.31)
w = L−1 b (9.29) LSU (p) LSU (−p)
or, alternatively, and the decomposition matrix
b = Lw. (9.30)
L T (p) L T (p)
Equation (9.30) expresses the composition of the L−1 (p) = SU VU
, (9.32)
−LTSU (−p) LTVU (−p)
particle-velocity vertical-traction vector, b, from its
upgoing and downgoing P- and S-wave constituents. where we have the following relations:
Given the inverse eigenvector matrix L−1 , the upgo- −1
ing and downgoing P- and S-waves can be computed LTSU (p) = LVU (p) + LVU (−p)L−1 SU (−p)LSU (p) ,
by evaluating equation (9.29), which describes the −1
decomposition of the particle-velocity vertical-traction LTVU (p) = LSU (p) + LSU (−p)L−1VU (−p)LVU (p) .
vector, b, into upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves. (9.33)
In the source-free homogeneous isotropic region of the The 3-by-3 submatrices are
receiver spread, equation (9.28) defines six independent  
1 p1 qS p2 1
−p1 √ √
wave solutions:  ρqP p ρ p µqS 
 
 
 1 
∂3 UP = −iωqP UP ; ∂3 DP = iωqP DP ; 1 
LVU ( p) = √ −p2 √
1 p2 qS p
− 1√ 
, (9.34)
2

ρqP p ρ p µqS 

∂3 USV = −iωqS USV ; ∂3 DSV = iωqS DSV ; 



qP 1
p√ 0
∂3 USH = −iωqS USH ; ∂3 DSH = iωqS DSH . ρ ρqS
 
qP p1 p2 √
1
 −2µp1 (ρ − 2µp2 ) √ µq S 
we may scale the components so that they have dimen-
 ρ p p
ρqS 




sions of particle velocity or traction, in such a way that
1  qP p2 1 p1 √
LSU (p) = √  −2µp2 2
(ρ − 2µp ) √ − µqS 
. their sum gives a component of particle velocity or a
2 ρ p ρq S p 

 1

qS

 component of vertical traction. Let Vi(UP ) denote the
2
(ρ − 2µp ) √ 2µp 0 upgoing P-waves on Vi , let Vi(USV ) denote the upgoing
ρqP ρ
(9.35) SV-waves on Vi , and so on. Then,
(UP ) (USV ) (USH ) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
Consider equation (9.30), which describes the compo- Vi = Vi +Vi + Vi +Vi +Vi + Vi ,
sition of the particle-velocity vertical-traction vector,
b, from the wave vector, w. The three first elements of with a similar equation for vertical traction:
b are the particle-velocity vector, V . Further, the first
three elements of each eigenvector β (N) of the eigenvec- Si = Si
(UP )
+ Si
(USV )
+ Si
(USH ) (DP )
+ Si
(DSV )
+ Si
(DSH )
+ Si .
tor matrix L determine the particle-velocity polarization
for the particular wave type. Letting Let us introduce particle-velocity vectors and vertical-
traction vectors for upgoing and downgoing P-waves,
β (N) = V (N) , S(N) , according to
each column of LVU represents the polarization vectors (U ) (U ) (U ) T
for upgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves, respectively: V (UP ) = V1 P , V2 P , V3 P ;
(D ) (D ) (D ) T
V (DP ) = V1 P , V2 P , V3 P , (9.40)
LVU = V (1) , V (2) , V (3) , (9.36) (U ) (U ) (U ) T
S(UP ) = S1 P , S2 P , S3 P ;
with (D ) (D ) (D ) T
S(DP ) = S1 P , S2 P , S3 P . (9.41)
1
V (1)
= −√ (p1 , p2 , −qP )T , (9.37)
2ρqP Likewise, we introduce particle-velocity vectors and
1 T vertical-traction vectors for upgoing and downgoing
V (2) = √ p1 qS , p2 qS , p2 , and (9.38) S-waves, according to
p 2ρqS
1 (U ) (U ) (U ) T
V (3) =− √ (−p2 , p1 , 0)T . (9.39) V (USV ) = V1 SV , V2 SV , V3 SV ;
p 2µqS
(D ) (D ) (D ) T
Polarization vectors for downgoing waves are similar, V (DSV ) = V1 SV , V2 SV , V3 SV , (9.42)
but they have opposite signs for the vertical slownesses. (U ) (U ) (U ) T
It is now easily verified that the upgoing and downgoing S(USV ) = S1 SV , S2 SV , S3 SV ;
P- and S-waves have been decomposed into one part for (D ) (D ) (D ) T
S(DSV ) = S1 SV , S2 SV , S3 SV , (9.43)
which the particle velocity is curl-free and into another
(U ) (U ) (U ) T
part for which the particle velocity is divergence-free. V (USH ) = V1 SH , V2 SH , V3 SH ;
The curl-free part represents P-waves, whereas the (D ) (D ) (D ) T
divergence-free part represents S-waves. The decom- V (DSH ) = V1 SH , V2 SH , V3 SH , (9.44)
position of the S-waves into SV- and SH-constituents is (U ) (U ) (U ) T
carried out on the basis of their polarization with respect S(USH ) = S1 SH , S2 SH , S3 SH ;
to the horizontal receiver plane. The SH-constituent has (D ) (D ) (D ) T
its polarization in the horizontal plane. S(DSH ) = S1 SH , S2 SH , S3 SH . (9.45)
Assume now that, say, the upgoing P-, SV-, and SH-
waves UP , USV , and USH , respectively, have been
Upgoing and Downgoing P- determined from equation (9.29). We now want to scale
and S-wave Components UP , USV , and USH , such that they represent upgoing
P-, SV-, and SH-waves on each of the particle-velocity
Upgoing and downgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves, components. In the previous section, we determined the
as defined in equation (9.29), are not defined uniquely, polarization vectors V (1) , V (2) , and V (3) for upgoing
because the eigenvectors can be scaled arbitrarily. Thus, P-, SV-, and SH-waves, respectively. We immediately
realize the relationships the SV information contained in the particle veloc-

ity does not require knowledge of P-wave velocity.
V (UP ) = V (1) UP ; V (USV ) = V (2) USV ; We also notice in this table that reconstruction of the
V (USH ) = V (3) USH . SH information contained in the particle velocity is
independent of the vertical components of the parti-
For mathematical convenience, we introduce “projec- cle velocity and of the vertical traction, and does not
tion operators” require knowledge of P-wave velocity. Finally, as one
    may expect, there is no SH energy on the vertical
1 0 0 0 0 0 components of the particle velocity. Based on the for-
P = 0 0 0 ; SV = 0 1 0 ; mulae in Table 9.2, similar remarks can be made about
0 0 0 0 0 0 reconstruction of the SH information contained in the
  vertical traction; reconstruction of the SH information
0 0 0

SH = 0 0 0 . (9.46) contained in the vertical traction is independent of the
0 0 1 vertical components of the particle velocity and of the
vertical traction and does not require knowledge of
Thus, a right-hand-side multiplication of a projection P-wave velocity. Also, we observe that there are no
operator with a submatrix of L brings out one particu- SH waves in the vertical components of the vertical
lar polarization vector. For instance, LVU P extracts traction.
the particle-velocity polarization vector of upgoing
P-waves, LVU SV extracts the particle-velocity polar-
ization vector of upgoing SV-waves, and so on. Using
the projection operator “trick,” it follows that the Total Upgoing and Downgoing
particle-velocity vectors and vertical-traction vectors Wave Components
for upgoing and downgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves
defined in equations (9.40) through (9.45) are related We have shown how to find equations for calculat-
to the originally defined vectors for upgoing and down- ing upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves on each
going waves, U and D, respectively, as of the particle-velocity components and each of the
vertical-traction components. Here, we want to derive
V (UP ) (p) = LVU (p)P U(p); formulas for total upgoing and downgoing waves on
each of the components of particle velocity and vertical
V (DP ) (p) = −LVU (−p)P D(p), (9.47) traction. By total upgoing waves, we mean the sum of
S(UP ) (p) = LSU (p)P U(p); upgoing P-, SV-, and SH-waves. Likewise, total down-
going waves are the sum of downgoing P-, SV-, and
S(DP ) (p) = LSU (−p)P D(p), (9.48) SH-waves. We define Vi(U) as the sum of upgoing waves
V (USV ) (p) = LVU (p)SV U(p); on Vi ,
V (DSV ) (p) = −LVU (−p)SV D(p), (9.49) (U) (UP ) (USV ) (USH )
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi ,
S(USV ) (p) = LSU (p)SV U(p);
(D)
S(DSV ) (p) = LSU (−p)SV D(p), (9.50) and Vi as the sum of downgoing waves on Vi ,
V (USH ) (p) = LVU (p)SH U(p); (D) (DP ) (DSV ) (DSH )
Vi = Vi + Vi + Vi .
V (DSH )
(p) = −LVU (−p)SH D(p), (9.51)
S(USH ) (p) = LSU (p)SH U(p); The total upgoing waves on Si are
S(DSH ) (p) = LSU (−p)SH D(p). (9.52) (USV ) (USH )
Si(U) = Si(UP ) + Si + Si ,
In Tables 9.1 and 9.2, we write out all of the com-
ponents of the vectors defined in equations (9.47) and the total downgoing waves on Si are
through (9.52). Table 9.1 corresponds to the particle
velocity, and Table 9.2 corresponds to the vertical trac- (DSV ) (DSH )
tion. Notice in Table 9.1 that the reconstruction of Si(D) = Si(DP ) + Si + Si .
TABLE 9.1. The upgoing and downgoing P-waves on each of the particle-velocity components. Equations (9.47)
through (9.52) define upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves on each of the components of particle velocity and
of vertical traction, in terms of the physical fields entering the wave-propagation problem. All vector components
of the particle velocity are written out here.
Type Components of the particle velocity

(UP ) p1 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p2 p1 p2 p
Upgoing P V1 = VS2 p21 V1 + VS2 p1 p2 V2 − V3 + 2ρq1 S1 + 2ρq S − 2ρ1 S3
2qP P P 2
(DP ) p1 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p2 p1 p2 p
Downgoing P V1 = VS2 p21 V1 + VS2 p1 p2 V2 + V3 − 2ρq1 S1 − 2ρq S − 2ρ1 S3
2qP P P 2
(UP ) p2 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p1 p2 p2 p
Upgoing P V2 = VS2 p1 p2 V1 + VS2 p22 V2 − V3 + 2ρq S + 2ρq2 S2 − 2ρ2 S3
2qP P 1 P
(DP ) p2 (1−2VS2 p2 ) p1 p2 p2 p
Downgoing P V2 = VS2 p1 p2 V1 + VS2 p22 V2 + V3 − 2ρq S − 2ρq2 S2 − 2ρ2 S3
2qP P 1 P
(UP ) p p2 q
Upgoing P V3 = −VS2 p1 qP V1 − VS2 p2 qP V2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 − 2ρ1 S1 − 2ρ S2 + 2ρP S3
(DP ) p p2 q
Downgoing P V3 = VS2 p1 qP V1 + VS2 p2 qP V2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 − 2ρ1 S1 − 2ρ S2 − 2ρP S3
(USV ) p21 p p p2 q p p q p
Upgoing SV V1 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p1 qS V3 + 1 S2 S1 + 1 2 2S S2 + 2ρ1 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(DSV ) p21 p p p2 q p p q p
Downgoing SV V1 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 − VS2 p1 qS V3 − 1 S2 S1 − 1 2 2S S2 + 2ρ1 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(USV ) p1 p2 p2 p p q p2 q p
Upgoing SV V2 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p2 qS V3 + 1 2 2S S1 + 2 S2 S2 + 2ρ2 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(DSV ) p1 p2 p2 p p q p2 q p
Downgoing SV V2 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 − VS2 p2 qS V3 − 1 2 2S S1 − 2 S2 S2 + 2ρ2 S3
2p2 2p 2ρp 2ρp
(USV ) p p p p p2
Upgoing SV V3 = 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p2 V3 + 2ρ1 S1 + 2ρ2 S2 + 2ρq S3
S S S
(DSV ) p p p p p2
Downgoing SV V3 = − 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + VS2 p2 V3 + 2ρ1 S1 + 2ρ2 S2 − 2ρq S3
S S S
(USH ) p22 p p p22 p p

Upgoing SH V1 = V − 1 22 V2 + S − 1 2 2 S2
2p2 1 2p 2µqS p2 1 2µqS p
(DSH ) p22 p p p22 p p

Downgoing SH V1 = V − 1 22 V2 − S + 1 2 2 S2
2p2 1 2p 2µqS p2 1 2µqS p
(USH ) p1 p2 p2 p p p21
Upgoing SH V2 =− V1 + 12 V2 − 1 2 2 S1 + S
2p2 2p 2µqS p 2µqS p2 2
(DSH ) p1 p2 p2 p p p21
Downgoing SH V2 =− V + 12 V2 + 1 2 2 S1 − S
2p2 1 2p 2µqS p 2µqS p2 2
(USH )
Upgoing SH V3 =0
(DSH )
Downgoing SH V3 =0
Defining the vectors respectively, as
(U) (U) (U) T

V (U) = V1 , V2 , V3 , V (U) (p) = V (UP ) (p) + V (USV ) (p) + V (USH ) (p)
(D) (D)
(D) T = LVU (p)U(p), (9.53)
V (D) = V1 , V2 , V3 = V − V (U) ,
(U) (U) (U) T V (D)
(p) = V (DP )
(p) + V (DSV )
(p) + V (DSH )
(p)
S(U) = S1 , S2 , S3 , = −LVU (−p)D(p), (9.54)
(D) (D) (D) T
S(D) = S1 , S2 , S3 = S − S(U) , S (U)
(p) = S(UP )
(p) + S (USV )
(p) + S (USH )
(p)
= LSU (p)U(p), (9.55)
it follows from equations (9.47) through (9.52) that
these vectors are related to the originally defined vec- S (D)
(p) = S(DP )
(p) + S (DSV )
(p) + S (DSH )
(p)
tors for upgoing and downgoing waves, U and D, = LSU (−p)D(p), (9.56)
TABLE 9.2. The upgoing and downgoing P-waves on each of the vertical-traction components. Equations (9.47) through (9.52)
define upgoing and downgoing P- and S-waves on each of the components of particle velocity and of vertical traction, in terms of
the physical fields entering the wave-propagation problem. All vector components of the vertical traction are written out here.
Type Components of the vertical traction

(UP )
Upgoing P S1 = 2ρVS4 p21 qP V1 + 2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V2 − ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p21 S1 + VS2 p1 p2 S2 − VS2 p1 qP S3
(D )
Downgoing P S1 P = −2ρVS4 p21 qP V1 − 2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V2 − ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p21 S1 + VS2 p1 p2 S2 + VS2 p1 qP S3
(U )
Upgoing P S2 P = 2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V1 + 2ρVS4 p22 qP V2 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p1 p2 S1 + VS2 p22 S2 − VS2 p2 qP S3
(D )
Downgoing P S2 P = −2ρVS4 p1 p2 qP V1 − 2ρVS4 p22 qP V2 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + VS2 p1 p2 S1 + VS2 p22 S2 + VS2 p2 qP S3
(U ) p p
Upgoing P S3 P = −ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + − 2qρ (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V3 − 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
P P P
(D ) p p
Downgoing P S3 P = −ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 − ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + 2qρ (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V3 + 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 + 21 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
P P P
(U ) ρp2 ρp p p2 p p p
Upgoing SV S1 SV = − 12 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V1 − 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V2 + ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + 12 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 + 2q1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
2qS p 2qS p 2p 2p S
(DSV ) ρp21 2 2 2 ρp1 p2 2 2 2 2 2 2 p21 2 2 p1 p2 2 2 p1
Downgoing SV S1 = (1 − 2VS p ) V1 + (1 − 2VS p ) V2 + ρVS p1 (1 − 2VS p )V3 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S1 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S2 − 2q (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
2qS p2 2qS p2 2p 2p S
(USV ) ρp1 p2 2 2 2 ρp22 2 2 2 2 2 2 p1 p2 2 2 p22 2 2 p
Upgoing SV S2 =− (1 − 2VS p ) V1 − (1 − 2VS p ) V2 + ρVS p1 (1 − 2VS p )V3 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S1 + 2 (1 − 2VS p )S2 + 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
(DSV ) ρp1 p2 ρp22 p p p2 p
Downgoing SV S2 = (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V1 − (1 − 2VS2 p2 )2 V2 + ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V3 + 1 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S1 + 22 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S2 − 2q2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )S3
(U )
Upgoing SV S3 SV = ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 + 2ρVS4 p2 qS V3 + VS2 p1 qS S1 + VS2 p2 qS S2 + VS2 p2 S3
(D )
Downgoing SV S3 SV = ρVS2 p1 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V1 + ρVS2 p2 (1 − 2VS2 p2 )V2 − 2ρVS4 p2 qS V3 − VS2 p1 qS S1 − VS2 p2 qS S2 + VS2 p2 S3
TABLE 9.3. Total upgoing and downgoing wave components of the particle velocity. Equations (9.53) through
(9.56) define the total upgoing and downgoing waves on the components of the particle velocity and of the vertical
traction, in terms of the physical fields. The explicit expressions of total upgoing and downgoing waves for V1 , V2 ,
and V3 are provided here.
Type Components of the particle velocity

(U) p p p
Upgoing V1 = 21 V1 − 2q1 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )]V3 + 2µq1 q [qP − p21 VS2 (qP − qS )]S1 − 2ρq1 2q (qP − qS )S2
P P S P S
(D) (U)
Downgoing V1 = V1 − V1
(U) p p p
Upgoing V2 = 21 V2 − 2q2 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )]V3 − 2ρq1 2q (qP − qS )S1 + 2µq1 q [qP − p22 VS2 (qP − qS )]S2
P P S P S
(D) (U)
(U)
Upgoing V3 = 21 V3 + 2ρq
1 (p2 + q q )S + 1 [1 − 2V 2 (p2 + q q )](p V + p V )
P S 3 2qS S P S 1 1 2 2
S
(D) (U)
TABLE 9.4. Total upgoing and downgoing wave components of the vertical traction. Equations (9.53) through (9.56) define the
total upgoing and downgoing waves on the components of the particle velocity and of the vertical traction, in terms of the physical
fields. The explicit expressions of total upgoing and downgoing waves for V1 , V2 , and V3 are provided here.
Type Components of the vertical traction

(U) p p ρ p µq
Upgoing S1 = 21 S1 + 2q1 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )]S3 + 12 [(1 − 2p2 VS2 )2 + 4p2 VS4 qP qS ](p1 V1 + p2 V2 ) + 2 2 S (p2 V1 − p1 V2 )
S 2p qS 2p
(D) (U)
Downgoing S1 = S1 − S1
(U) p p ρ p µq
Upgoing S2 = 21 S2 + 2q2 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )]S3 + 22 [(1 − 2p2 VS2 )2 + 4p2 VS4 qP qS ](p1 V1 + p2 V2 ) − 1 2 S (p2 V1 − p1 V2 )
S 2p qS 2p
(D) (U)
(U)
Upgoing S3 = 21 S3 − 2q1 [1 − 2VS2 (p2 + qP qS )](p1 S1 + p2 S2 ) + 2qρ [(1 − 2p2 VS2 )2 + 4p2 VS4 qP qS ]V3
P P
(D) (U)
where we have used P + SV + SH = I, where I and S fields on particle velocity and vertical traction are
is the 3 × 3 identity matrix. In Tables 9.3 and 9.4, we defined as
write out all of the components of the vectors defined
in equations (9.53) through (9.56).

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Downloaded 06/25/14 to 134.153.184.170. Redistribution subject to SEG license or copyright; see Terms of Use at http://library.seg.

Investigations in Geophysics Series No. 12

Anthony F. Gangi, volume editor

Society of Exploration Geophysicists

© 2005 by Society of Exploration Geophysicists

permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Introduction to petroleum seismology / Luc T. Ikelle, Lasse Amundsen.

This book is dedicated to

Caroline Ikelle, my loving and caring wife

Eli Reisaeter, Christine, and Birgitte, my loving family

wishes to thank the following for their generous contributions to

Introduction to Petroleum Seismology

Texas A&M University

Chapter 3 Partition of Energy at an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Chapter 4 The Fourier Representation of Seismic Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

Chapter 5 Characterization of Seismic Signals by Statistical Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Chapter 6 The Concepts of Reciprocity and Green’s Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Chapter 7 Acquisition Geometries and Seismic Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

Chapter 8 Wavefield Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

Chapter 9 Wavefield Decomposition into P- and S-waves and Upgoing

Chapter 10 Multiple Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395

Chapter 11 An Example of an Inverse Problem: Linearized Seismic Inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

Chapter 12 Anisotropy and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

Appendix A Some Terminology of Petroleum Geology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615

Appendix B Velocities and Densities of Reservoir Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

Appendix C A Review of Finite-difference Modeling: Explicit Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623

Appendix E 3D-to-2D Transformation and 2D-to-3D Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

Appendix F A Derivation of the Linearized Forward Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653

About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

Box 1.1 Marine Electromagnetic Surveying for Hydrocarbon Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The Scope of this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Box 2.1 Scalar Product and Vector Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Box 2.2 Conventions of Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Abbreviated Notation of the Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Box 2.3 Change of Orthonormal Basis: Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Box 2.4 Euler Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The Stress Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Box 2.5 Changes of Orthonormal Basis (Stress Tensor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Box 2.6 Change of Orthonormal Basis (Stiffness Tensor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Linear Elasticity (Hooke’s Law): Isotropic Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Box 2.7 Helmholtz Decomposition of Vector Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Box 2.8 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Parameters of Isotropic, Elastic Rock Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Box 2.9 Another Form of the Equations of Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Box 2.10 Acoustic Equations of Wave Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Box 2.11 The Equivalence Fluid Model for P-waves in a Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Isotropy, Anisotropy, Homogeneity, and Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Chapter 3 Partition of Energy at an Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Box 3.1 Traveltime in 1D Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Box 3.2 The Notion of rms Velocity for 1D Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

Box 3.3 Dix’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Boundary Conditions for the Elastodynamic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Box 3.4 R/T Coefficients in Terms of Slowness: Solid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Zoeppritz’s Equations: Vacuum-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Box 3.5 R/T Coefficients in Terms of Slowness: Fluid-solid Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients for the Energy of Seismic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Application to AVA Analysis: P-P and P-S Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Box 4.1 Periodic and Transient Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

The Cosine Wave: Concept of Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

The Fourier Series: General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Example 1: The Fourier Series of Sawtooth Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135