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JAMA | Review
A
sthma affects about 7.5% of adults in the United States, re- This review presents an evidence-based approach to the diag-
sulting in 1.8 million hospitalizations and 10.5 million physi- nosis and management of mild to moderate stable asthma in adults.
cian office visits per year (Table 1). Asthma is more common For patients with severe disease, generally manifested as continu-
in black (8.7%) and Puerto Rican Hispanic (13.3%) individuals than in ing symptoms and airway obstruction despite appropriate
whiteindividuals(7.6%)andisassociatedwithhighermortalityinblacks therapy,12,13 consultation with an asthma specialist (allergist or pul-
than in whites (25.4 vs 8.8 per million annually) (Table 1). Inhaled cor- monologist) should be sought.
ticosteroids increase the number of days without symptoms (by 7-21
d/mo), improve lung function (forced expiratory volume in first second
of expiration [FEV1]) by 13% and peak flow by 23 to 41 L/min,7 and re-
Methods
duce symptoms of dyspnea, cough, and nighttime awakening.8
Asthma exhibits considerable clinical and molecular hetero- The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cumulative Index to
geneity (eg, atopic vs nonatopic, aspirin-exacerbated respiratory Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), EMBASE, MEDLINE,
disease, obesity-associated asthma), which complicates diagnos- Population Information Online, PubMed, and Web of Science were
tic evaluations and affects therapeutic responsiveness. 9 For searched for the period from the inception of each database through
example, patients with asthma who smoke have relative resis- March 2017 for randomized clinical trials, systematic reviews, and/or
tance to inhaled corticosteroids.10 Patients with asthma uncon- meta-analyses and for observational studies using asthma or anti-
trolled by standard treatment and with peripheral blood eosino- asthmatic drugs or asthma management or therapeutic as primary
philia may benefit from mepolizumab or reslizumab, and those search terms. Titles and abstracts of the articles were initially screened,
with elevated perennial allergen-specific IgE could be candidates and selected articles underwent full review. The bibliographies of se-
for omalizumab.11 Clinical history, spirometry, and assessment of lected articles were manually screened for additional relevant ar-
allergic sensitivities are important for diagnosis of asthma.12,13 ticles. All authors agreed on the final bibliography. Emphasis was given
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280 JAMA July 18, 2017 Volume 318, Number 3 (Reprinted) jama.com
Abbreviations: COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in first second of expiration; URI, upper respiratory infection.
jama.com (Reprinted) JAMA July 18, 2017 Volume 318, Number 3 281
Obtain spirometry
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Figure 2. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Approach to Classification of Asthma Severity
In 2-6 weeks, evaluate level of asthma control that is achieved and adjust therapy accordingly
An estimate of asthma severity on initial presentation is made on the basis This categorization informs the initial therapeutic approach (Figure 3).
of daytime and nocturnal symptoms, the frequency of need for short-acting EIB indicates exercise-induced bronchoconstriction; FEV1, forced expiratory
β2-agonists for relief of symptoms, the degree to which asthma interferes volume in first second of expiration; FVC, forced vital capacity.
with normal activity, the degree of airway obstruction measured by spirometry, Figure adapted from NAEPP.12
and the history of asthma exacerbations. On the basis of these factors, asthma
can be categorized as intermittent, or persistent (mild, moderate, or severe).
lymphocytes, mast cells, neutrophils) and is commonly initiated Activation of IL-17, CD4+ T cells (TH17 cells), and IL-12/IL-23 is
by allergen-dependent release of histamine and other mediators distinct from type 2 factors noted above and is more closely associ-
from mast cells47 and subsequent infiltration of lymphocytes ated with neutrophilic inflammation.58 Neutrophil infiltration and
(particularly T-helper type 2 [TH 2]) and granulocytes into the activation contribute to the severity of uncontrolled and severe
airway.48 IgE occupies a central role in the pathogenesis of allergic asthma, and neutrophilic inflammation is less responsive to stan-
asthma; inflammatory responses are mediated by allergen-specific dard therapies, making the neutrophil an attractive potential target
IgE, generated during allergic sensitization, and bound to mast cells for novel asthma therapy.59
which are activated by reexposure to allergen. Elevated levels of
proinflammatory cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 are observed.49,50 Assessment and Diagnosis
Airway inflammation accentuates obstruction by promoting The diagnosis and severity of asthma are established based on
mucosal infiltration and edema, mucus secretion, and airway clinical criteria: history, physical examination, and evidence of
hyperresponsiveness; it also predisposes to exacerbations. either reversible airflow obstruction, or airway hyperresponsive-
Structural changes, termed airway remodeling, include increased ness (Figure 1).12,13 The US National Asthma Education and Pre-
smooth muscle mass, 51 goblet cell hyperplasia, 52 and lamina vention Program (NAEPP) approach to classifying asthma sever-
reticularis thickening.51 The TH2 hypothesis (activation of TH2 cells) ity is based on 2 domains: impairment and risk. The impairment
provides conceptual understanding of the development of domain includes measured airway obstruction, the frequency and
inflammation associated with asthma. 53 More recently it has intensity of daytime and nocturnal symptoms, frequency of
been recognized that type 2 innate lymphoid cells also contribute short-acting β2 agonist use for symptom relief, and interference
to eosinophilic airway inflammation. This phenomenon is termed of daily activities by symptoms. The risk domain assesses the
“type 2 inflammation.”54 Eosinophilic inflammation and asthma frequency of exacerbations (Figure 2). These data collectively
may develop in the absence of overt allergy. 55 Endogenous define both asthma severity and asthma control.12,13 Physical
anti-inflammatory mediators appear to be important in control- findings of accessory muscle use or audible wheezing during nor-
ling and resolving airway inflammation in individuals without mal breathing may be present only during times of asthma exac-
asthma, and these mechanisms may be insufficiently or ineffec- erbation and have poor negative predictive value to exclude the
tively activated in asthma: eg, reduced production of the anti- diagnosis of asthma.
inflammatory factors IL-10 and lipoxin A4 has been identified in Spirometry is the most important diagnostic procedure for
patients with asthma.56,57 evaluating airway obstruction and its reversibility. It should
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Table 3. Diagnostic Modalities Useful in Diagnosis and Treatment of Stable Asthma in Adults
Abbreviations: CDC, complete blood cell count; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CT, computed tomography; FEV1, forced expiratory volume in first
second of expiration; FVC, forced vital capacity.
be performed in all patients in whom asthma is a diagnostic Impedance oscillometry, a technique that measures airway resis-
consideration. The maximal volume of air forcibly exhaled from tance without forced expiration, can measure central and peripheral
the point of maximal inhalation (forced vital capacity, FVC), the airway resistance in those patients for whom the forced expiratory ma-
volume of air exhaled during the first second of this maneuver neuver is difficult or impossible, including elderly patients.64 How-
(FEV1), and FEV1:FVC ratio are 3 key measures. An FEV1:FVC ratio ever, there is no consensus on the incremental value of impedance os-
less than the lower limit of normal (0.7-0.8 in adults, depending cillometry over spirometry alone, nor are there sufficient data to
on age) (Figure 2) indicates airway obstruction, although asthma establish the performance characteristics (sensitivity, specificity) of os-
may be present even without demonstrable airway obstruction cillometry vs spirometry alone in asthma.
(Figure 1). Reversibility of airway obstruction is indicated by an Instableasthma,measurementofarterialbloodgasvaluesisrarely
increase in FEV1 of 200 mL or greater and 12% or greater from necessary,althoughitmaybehelpfulincasesofacutedecompensation
baseline after inhalation of short-acting β2-agonists. In patients and exacerbation. Periodic monitoring of pulse oximetry, with or with-
who have smoked cigarettes, distinguishing asthma with partially outexercise,maybeuseful.Allergyevaluationhasbecomeincreasingly
reversible obstruction from chronic obstructive pulmonary dis- important in recent years, as biologic agents have become available for
ease is challenging and has led to the description of an asthma– treatment.AtotalserumIgEandspecificIgEforcommonaeroallergens
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease overlap syndrome, the maybeperformed,12,13 asthesetestscanguideallergenavoidancestrat-
existence and clinical importance of which is controversial.60 No egies and suggest the potential use of anti-IgE monoclonal therapeu-
validated approaches for differentiating these entities has been tics. Allergy skin testing may be substituted for serum measures of
identified. A low diffusing capacity for carbon monoxide suggests allergen-specificIgE.12 Acompletebloodcellcountwithanelevatedab-
an element of emphysema rather than asthma. Pulmonary soluteeosinophilcountcanidentifyappropriatecandidatesforanti-IL-5
function testing is less informative when performed during exac- therapies (mepolizumab ⱖ150/μL and reslizumab ⱖ400/μL).
erbations of asthma and is best obtained during times of disease These diagnostic modalities are summarized in Table 3. The
stability. NAEPP12 presents a severity classification system based on histori-
Bronchoprovocation with methacholine can be helpful in pa- cal features and spirometric measurements, and recently updated
tients with suspected asthma and normal spirometry because a nega- Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) guidelines are also now
tive test result makes the diagnosis of asthma unlikely (Figure 1).61 available.13 Severity classes of intermittent, mild persistent, moder-
Outside the United States, mannitol may be used as an effective ate persistent, and severe persistent asthma are defined, and
bronchoprovocation agent.62 Methacholine and mannitol used as severity categorization determines initial therapeutic approaches
bronchoprovocation agents both have a sensitivity of approxi- (Figure 3). The GINA guidelines also outline assessment of severity
mately 80% and specificity of approximately 65%.63 in patients already receiving effective controller therapy.13
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Figure 3. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program Recommendations for Asthma Therapy
Step 6
Preferred:
High-dose ICS + LABA
Step 5 + oral corticosteroid
All patients with asthma should have a rescue inhaler composed of a preferred or alternative therapy. EIB indicates exercise-induced
short-acting β2-agonist (eg, albuterol). Preferred initial therapy is outlined by bronchoconstriction; ICS, inhaled corticosteroid; LABA, long-acting β2-agonist;
step. Periodic reevaluation of asthma symptoms, lung function, and LTRA, leukotriene receptor antagonist; SABA, short-acting β2-agonist.
exacerbations is necessary to guide adjustments in treatment. Alphabetical Figure adapted from NAEPP.12
order is used when more than 1 treatment option is listed within either
Asthma symptom control, using validated patient question- despite therapy, or present with long-standing disease may be at risk
naires (Asthma Control Test [ACT], Asthma Quality of Life Ques- for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or lung cancer.12,13 The
tionnaire [AQLQ], or Asthma Control Questionnaire [ACQ]) to pro- optimal imaging modality has not been established; low-dose, high-
vide a quantitative assessment of symptoms, may be assessed resolution computed tomographic scanning provides considerably
at each visit.12,65,66 (Because asthma symptoms and pulmonary more information than a standard chest radiograph, but with in-
function may not correlate well, measurement of both can inform creased radiation exposure and higher cost.
adjustments to therapy.) Spirometry should be repeated every
1 to 2 years or with clinically significant change of asthma con- Treatment
trol to identify accelerated loss of lung function.12 Home peak The goals of asthma treatment are reducing impairment (reducing
flow monitoring may be useful in some patients for whom routine symptoms, maintaining normal activities, achieving [nearly] normal
office spirometry cannot be performed. Patients with relatively pulmonary function test values) and minimizing risks associated
normal pulmonary function test results, but persistent symptoms with the disease (future exacerbations, medication adverse
(eg, abnormal ACT, ACQ, or AQLQ scores) may be candidates effects). Because of the heterogeneous nature of asthma and the
for intensification of treatment. Persistently abnormal findings limited availability of predictive biomarkers for treatment success,
from pulmonary function tests suggest the need for intensification clinicians must approach patients with a guideline-based plan
of the controller regimen. The utility of routine monitoring of the that recognizes specific environmental triggers and their mitigation
concentration of exhaled nitric oxide has not been established; (eg, allergens, viruses, or irritants encountered in occupational,
however, patients who are not receiving adequate doses of inhaled household, or environmental settings), individual variability in the
steroids may show elevated concentrations (ie, >50 ppb) of dose and particle size of inhaled corticosteroids, the class of long-
exhaled nitric oxide.67 acting bronchodilator (long-acting β2 agonist vs long-acting musca-
There is little evidence to demonstrate the value of routine chest rinic antagonist), and other individual factors to provide an indi-
radiography in asthma. Chest imaging, beginning with a standard vidualized treatment plan. A written asthma action plan that details
2-view chest radiograph, may help to exclude other pulmonary in lay language the signs and symptoms indicating worsening
pathology.12 Patients who are older than 65 years, have a clinically of asthma, such as increased dyspnea or cough, or need for more
important history of smoking or significant occupational expo- frequent use of the β2 agonist inhaler, and the steps required to
sures such as mineral or organic dusts, have persistent symptoms mitigate that worsening, is a key component of management.
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Pharmacologic options are classified as either reliever (short- risk of adverse outcomes and death. However, recent prospective
term benefit) or controller (longer-term benefit) medications evidence suggests that long-acting β 2 -agonists, when used
(Table 2). All patients with asthma should have access to a short- appropriately (ie, always in combination with inhaled corticoste-
acting β2 agonist inhaler (commonly albuterol) for treatment of acute roids), do not confer adverse safety consequences and in fact
symptoms; this intervention alone is appropriate for patients with reduce the risk of exacerbations and adverse events in adults with
intermittent asthma, defined as symptoms less than twice weekly moderate to severe asthma compared with inhaled corticoste-
with (near) normal pulmonary function. For patients with persis- roids alone.69
tent asthma (defined as symptoms more than twice weekly or ab- For suboptimally controlled asthma, a physician should search
normal pulmonary function), a daily maintenance controller is gen- for common problems such as incorrect inhaler technique, poor
erally appropriate. The initial choice of medication is directed by adherence, exposure to allergens, exposure to personal or second-
severity of asthma classification (intermittent; mild, moderate, or se- hand tobacco smoke, gastroesophageal reflux, sinusitis, or inter-
vere persistent [Figure 2]) at diagnosis. In the United States, guide- current viral infections. If control is not optimal, intensification of
lines recommend treatment based on 6 steps (Figure 3),12 but the the therapeutic regimen is usually indicated. The precise timing of
GINA guidelines define 5 steps, which are not strictly comparable follow-up visits is a matter of clinical judgment, as no prospective
to the US guidelines.13 trials exist that directly address this question. Follow-up may range
In the US treatment guidelines, step 1 therapy is used for from several days or weeks for patients with very poorly controlled
patients with intermittent asthma and consists of short-acting or severe disease, to months for patients with well-controlled,
β2-agonists, administered as needed. (These agents are also used milder, and stable asthma. Once asthma is well controlled for 2 to 3
for quick symptom relief in all patients with asthma, irrespective months, treatment may be stepped down to the lowest dose of
of severity.) Step 2 therapy is indicated for mild persistent asthma medication that adequately controls symptoms and lung
and preferably consists of low-dose inhaled corticosteroids, function.12,13 Guidelines for deintensification of asthma therapy are
which improve asthma outcomes such as lung function, symp- not as well established as those for intensification, and there are no
toms, and exacerbations7,8,12,13 in a dose-dependent, but not nec- randomized clinical trials of step-down therapy on which to make
essarily dose-proportionate, manner (eg, a doubled dose of specific recommendations.
inhaled corticosteroids will not produce doubled improvement in For patients who continue to have uncontrolled asthma
lung function). The dose response to inhaled corticosteroids var- despite standard inhaled therapies, several parenteral biologic
ies by the outcome measured (symptom reduction, lung function agents (monoclonal antibodies) are available. These agents act sys-
improvement, reduction in exacerbation).12 Inhaled corticoste- temically by influencing the immunopathogenesis of asthma,
roids reduce the infiltration and activation of eosinophils, rather than treating the consequences of inflammation and bron-
TH2 cells, and other inflammatory cells. An oral leukotriene re- chospasm from within the airway, as standard controller therapies
ceptor antagonist may be as effective as inhaled corticosteroids do (Figure 4). The central role of IgE in the pathogenesis of allergic
and is an alternate first-line treatment.68 These agents block the airway disease makes IgE an attractive target for asthma therapy.
action of cysteinyl leukotrienes, key mediators of airway smooth Omalizumab is an anti-IgE monoclonal antibody used in allergic
muscle contraction. asthma accompanied by moderately elevated IgE level (30 to
Patients with moderate persistent asthma should start at step about 1000 IU/mL, depending on body weight) and evidence of
3 therapy with medium-dose inhaled corticosteroids or a combina- sensitization to perennial aeroallergens. It reduces allergen-
tion of low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and a long-acting β2 ago- induced mast cell activation and decreases expression of IgE high-
nist (Table 2). Longer-acting bronchodilators increase airway cali- affinity receptors on mast cells70 (Figure 4). Omalizumab is given
ber for 12 to 24 hours. Spacers (large volume-holding chambers) may by subcutaneous injection every 2 to 4 weeks, at a dose and fre-
improve pulmonary delivery, reduce pharyngeal delivery, and re- quency determined by body weight and serum IgE levels, and is
duce local adverse effects when used with compatible pressurized principally effective in reducing exacerbations and need for oral
metered-dose inhaler systems, particularly for those patients for steroids.70 Retrospective analysis of omalizumab trials suggests
whom consistent coordination of inhalation with actuation of the that serum eosinophil counts in excess of 260/μL and fractional
device is a concern. excretion of nitric oxide of at least 19.5 ppb may identify patients
Patients diagnosed with severe persistent asthma, commonly likely to improve with omalizumab. However, no biomarker has
characterized as near-continuous chest symptoms, the need been subjected to rigorous prospective confirmation to determine
for multiple inhalations daily of rescue β2 agonist, nightly awaken- its predictive value.70 Little improvement in pulmonary function is
ings from asthma symptoms, or FEV1 less than 60% predicted, observed, so lung function testing is not a good monitoring tool to
should start at step 4, 5, or 6 and be referred for consultation with assess omalizumab response. Measurement of serum IgE levels
an asthma specialist (an allergist or pulmonologist).12,13 Medica- after initiating treatment is not useful. The primary clinical out-
tion options for these patients include medium- or high-dose comes by which response may be judged are asthma exacerbations
inhaled corticosteroid plus long-acting β2 agonist combinations, and symptoms.
inhaled long-acting muscarinic agonists (tiotropium),23 and bio- Interleukin 5 is centrally involved in the synthesis, maturation,
logic therapy.11-13 homing, and activation of eosinophils, suggesting a role for anti-
Long-acting bronchodilators should never be prescribed IL-5 in managing eosinophilic airway disease. Anti-IL-5 monoclonal
without an accompanying inhaled corticosteroid. The US Food antibodies (mepolizumab and reslizumab) have recently been
and Drug Administration–approved package insert of each long- approved in the United States for patients with severe asthma and
acting β2 agonist contains a black box warning of the increased peripheral eosinophilia.11 Mepolizumab reduces the rate of exacer-
286 JAMA July 18, 2017 Volume 318, Number 3 (Reprinted) jama.com
AIRWAY LUMEN
Biologic therapy Standard therapy
Allergen
Anti-IgE therapy
SMOOTH
EPITHELIUM Omalizumab MUSCLE
Binds free IgE EPITHELIUM
Decreases expression
of FcεR1 receptor Mast cell
B cell Corticosteroids
IgE Degranulation
Allergen processing and and release of Reduce inflammatory
T cell differentiation inflammatory Airway inflammation gene expression
and activation mediators Eosinophilic inflammation
FcεR1 receptor
IL-4
Histamine Antileukotrienes
IL-13 IL-5 Cysteinyl
leukotrienes Montelukast
AIRWAY
Airway Zafirlukast
ILC2 cell activation LUMEN
by epithelial cell hyperresponsiveness Zileuton
TH2 cell Decrease smooth
IL-25 and IL-33
muscle contraction
Cytotoxic Decrease inflammation
Anti-IL-5 therapy proteins
IL-5
IL-5 Bronchoconstriction
Mepolizumab Airway obstruction β2-Agonists
ILC2 cell Reslizumab
IL-5 Antimuscarinics
Binds IL-5
Prevents IL-5 receptor Eosinophil Bronchodilation
activation
Inhibits IL-5 signaling
Airway remodeling
Eosinophil inflammatory response
Eosinophil maturation in bone marrow
BLOOD
VESSEL
Migration through blood vessels
Activation in airway wall
Standard asthma therapy is commonly delivered via the airway, by therapeutic lymphoid cells (ILC2), and by activated mast cells. IL-5 has protean effects on
aerosols of inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) or bronchodilators, and by design eosinophil poesis, maturation in the bone marrow, emigration into the
have effects largely limited to the environment of the airway. The cysteinyl circulation, migration to sites of inflammation, and activation to produce
leukotriene receptor (type 1) antagonist montelukast (and others) is delivered oxidative damage and toxic eosinophil granule protein release. Mepolizumab
to the airway by the systemic circulation and reduces smooth muscle and reslizumab reduce the activity of IL-5 at all these sites and reduce
contraction and inflammation, particularly that due to activated eosinophils. eosinophilic inflammatory responses. Individually and collectively, airway
Biologic therapy in asthma acts upstream of the inflammatory process in the inflammation, airway hyperresponsiveness, and bronchoconstriction may
airway.11 Omalizumab reduces mast cell activation and release of mediators of produce structural airway changes of increased smooth muscle mass, thickened
bronchoconstriction (principally histamine and cysteinyl leukotrienes) and lamina reticularis, and mucus gland hypertrophy, collectively known as airway
reduces production of proinflammatory cytokines, including IL-5. IL-5 is wall remodeling. It has not been proven than that any asthma therapy reduces
produced by several types of cells, including TH2 lymphocytes and type 2 innate or eliminates airway wall remodeling.
bations by almost 50%; the need for oral corticosteroids is also Special Considerations
reduced by 50%, with little effect on lung function.26,27 No specific Consultation with an asthma specialist is warranted for patients who
level of peripheral blood eosinophilia is listed in the package insert, are at step 4 or higher in the US guideline13 or who have a life-
but the referenced clinical trials required at least 150 eosinophils/μL. threatening exacerbation, poor responsiveness to prescribed treat-
This level of eosinophilia has not been prospectively assessed as ment, occupational triggers, atypical presentation, need for more
a predictive biomarker of therapeutic response. Mepolizumab than 2 bursts of oral corticosteroids, or who need specialized test-
is administered by injection every 4 weeks, at a standard dose of ing for allergies, lung function, or bronchoscopy.12,13 Asthma may pre-
100 mg subcutaneously. sent with symptoms predominantly in association with exercise. The
Reslizumab is administered every 4 weeks by intravenous in- timing of symptoms is generally within a few minutes of cessation
fusion, using weight-based dosing (3 mg/kg). Reslizumab reduces of exercise and is termed “exercise induced bronchospasm.” Pre-
the rate of exacerbations by about 50%, reduces symptoms, and treatment with albuterol 15 minutes prior to anticipated exercise can
improves FEV1 by 110 mL.28,29 Clinical trials referenced in the pack- minimize or eliminate these symptoms.12,13 Management of comor-
age insert required at least 400 eosinophils/μL for entry, but this re- bid conditions (allergic rhinitis, sinusitis, gastroesophageal reflux,
quirement has not been validated as a predictive biomarker. Both obstructive sleep apnea) improves asthma control.12,13 Adding ex-
mepolizumab and reslizumab reduce biologic activity of IL-5 in the ercise as a component of lifestyle change in overweight patients with
pathogenesis of eosinophilic inflammation (Figure 4). asthma appears to improve asthma control.71
Oral steroids are an effective option for uncontrolled disease and
for asthma exacerbations but have significant adverse effects, in- Selected Current Controversies
cluding glucose intolerance, weight gain, and salt and water reten- All long-acting β2-agonists marketed in the United States carry a
tion, if used continuously (Table 2). black box warning for increased risk of death and serious adverse
jama.com (Reprinted) JAMA July 18, 2017 Volume 318, Number 3 287
events, based primarily on results from a large observational study that treatment for an extended period will likely be necessary. In
with important limitations in study design.72 More recent evidence patients with mild-moderate asthma whose disease is controlled
suggests that the appropriate use of long-acting β2-agonists in with a daily regimen of low-medium dose of inhaled corticoste-
combination with inhaled steroids is not associated with increased roids, the administration of these agents only at the time that
serious adverse events.69 Additional well-controlled studies may short-acting β2-agonists are used for relief of symptoms provides
clarify this matter. control not different from that achieved with daily inhaled corti-
All biologic agents marketed in the United States require par- costeroids, using a reduced dose of inhaled corticosteroids; how-
enteral administration and are costly ($15 000-$30 000 annu- ever, this approach has not yet been incorporated into formal
ally). Omalizumab and reslizumab carry black box warnings for the guidelines.76
risk of anaphylaxis, and their use is generally limited to asthma spe- Accelerated loss of lung function is seen in some, but not all, pa-
cialists. No data are available regarding direct comparisons of these tients with asthma.77 Loss of lung function is principally observed
agents, the optimal duration of therapy, or whether combinations in patients in whom exacerbations are frequent (2% predicted
of biologics are superior to individual treatments.11 greater annual loss of FEV1 in patients with exacerbation compared
Bronchial thermoplasty, a procedure approved in 2010 for se- with those without),78 highlighting the potential importance of pre-
vere asthma, delivers radiofrequency energy to the airway. The venting exacerbations. However, no long-term controlled trials hav-
mechanisms by which this procedure affects the pathogenesis of ing trajectory of lung function as the primary outcome have been
asthma remain unclear; changes in adaptive immunity and airway published, so the effects of guideline-based treatment on loss of lung
smooth muscle have been suggested but not proven.73 Reduced ex- function remain unclear.
acerbations (50%) and emergency department visits (85%) are seen
for at least 1 year after treatment.74 Trials of up to 5 years were not
rigorously controlled, so evidence for long-term benefit is limited.30
Conclusions
The GINA,13 but not the NAEPP,12 specify a role for bronchial ther-
moplasty. The American Thoracic Society and European Respira- Asthma is characterized by variable airway obstruction, airway hy-
tory Society have recommended that bronchial thermoplasty be con- perresponsiveness, and airway inflammation. Management of per-
ducted within the context of a clinical trial or registry.75 sistent asthma requires avoidance of aggravating environmental fac-
tors, availability of short-acting β2 -agonists for rapid relief of
Prognosis symptoms, and daily use of inhaled corticosteroids. Other control-
Asthma continues to be an important cause of morbidity and some ler medications, such as long-acting bronchodilators and biologics,
mortality in the United States (Table 1). Rates of asthma mortality may be required in moderate and severe asthma. Patients with se-
are particularly elevated among non-Hispanic African American pa- vere asthma generally benefit from consultation with an asthma spe-
tients (25.4 per million per year) compared with white patients cialist for consideration of additional treatment, including inject-
(8.8 per million per year).2 able biologic agents.
Controller agents appear not to modify the natural history of
asthma.12,13 Patients with persistent disease should be counseled
288 JAMA July 18, 2017 Volume 318, Number 3 (Reprinted) jama.com
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