Math 207 Second Midterm Solutions

November 17, 2006

1. Note: this problem has multiple parts, and for each part you may assume
any result from previous parts.

(a) Let (X, d) be a metric space. A contraction is a map f : X → X

such that for some fixed 0 ≤ α < 1, d(f(x), f(y)) ≤ αd(x, y) for all
x, y ∈ X. Prove that a contraction is continuous.

Proof. Pick x ∈ X and let  > 0. Let δ = . Then if d(x, y) < δ,

d(f(x), f(y)) ≤ αd(x, y) < α < .

(b) Let (X, d) be a metric space, let f : X → X be a contraction, and

let x ∈ X. Let a1 = f (x) and an+1 = f (an ) for n ≥ 1. Prove that
(an ) is a Cauchy sequence.

Proof. Let r = d(x, f(x)). Then by induction, we see that d(an , an+1 ) ≤
αn r. Therefore, if m, n > N ,

d(am , an ) ≤ d(am , am+1 ) + d(am+1 , am+1 ) + . . . + d(an−1 , an )

n−m
X
≤ rαm αk
k=0
N
rα
< .
1−α
Since this quantity can be made arbitrarily small, the sequence is a
Cauchy sequence.

(c) Let (X, d) be a complete metric space, let f : X → X be a contrac-

tion. Show that there is a unique x ∈ X such that f (x) = x.

Proof. Since X is complete, the Cauchy sequence above has a limit,

x. Since f is continuous, x = limn an = limn an+1 = limn f (an ) =
f (limn an ) = f (x), so x is a fixed point. Now, assume that f (y) = y.
Then d(x, y) = d(f(x), f(y)) ≤ αd(x, y) which can only happen if
d(x, y) = 0, or x = y.

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2. Consider R as an ordered field with the least upper bound property. Let
(X, d) be the metric space where X = R and d is the discrete metric.
(a) Does X have the least upper bound property?

Proof. Yes. Whether a set is bounded above or whether a set has

a least upper bound is determined by the ordering, and not by the
metric.

(b) What is the closure of Q in X?

Proof. In a discrete metric space, every set is closed, so Q = Q.

3. Let (X, d) be a metric space, and let A, B ⊂ X.

(a) Prove A ∩ B ⊂ A ∩ B.

Proof. Since A ∩ B ⊂ A, A ∩ B ⊂ A. Similarly, A ∩ B ⊂ B. There-

fore, A ∩ B ⊂ A ∩ B.

(b) Give a counter example to show that the reverse inclusion need not
hold.

Proof. Let X = R in the usual metric and let A = (0, 1), B = (1, 2).
Then A ∩ B = ∅ and A ∩ B = {1}.

4. Let (X, d) be a metric space and let A ⊂ X. For each of the following
statements, either give a proof or a counterexample.
(a) A = A ∪ ∂A
(b) A = A◦ ∪ ∂A

Proof. Note that since A◦ ⊂ A, it suffices to prove the second equal-

ity. However,

A◦ ∪ ∂A = A◦ ∪ (A ∩ AC )
= (A◦ ∪ A) ∩ (A◦ ∪ AC )
= (A◦ ∪ A) ∩ X
= A

where the final equality follows from A◦ ⊂ A ⊂ A.

5. Let (X, d) and (X 0 , d0 ) be metric spaces, and let f : X → X 0 be a contin-

uous map. For each of the following statements, either give a proof or a
counterexample.
(a) If A ⊂ X is closed, then f (A) is closed.

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 Proof. False. Let X be R with the discrete metric, let X 0 be R
with the usual metric, and let f be the identity function. Then f is
continuous, A = (0, 1) ⊂ X is closed, and f (A) is not closed.

(b) If B ⊂ X 0 is closed, then f −1 (B) is closed.

Proof. True. Since B is closed, B C is open, and since f is continuous,

f −1 (B C ) = f −1 (B)C is open, hence f −1 (B) is closed.

(c) If A ⊂ X is bounded, then f (A) is bounded.

Proof. False. Let X be R with the discrete metric, let X 0 be R with

the usual metric, and let f be the identity function. Let A = X.
Then A is bounded, but f (A) is not.

(d) If (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence in X, then (f (xn )) is a Cauchy sequence

in X 0 .

Proof. False (though it would be true if X were complete). Let X =

X 0 = R+ in the usual metric, let f (x) = 1/x and let (xn ) = (1/n).
Then f is continuous, but (f (xn )) = (n) is not a Cauchy sequence.

(e) If A ⊂ X is compact, then f (A) is compact.

Proof. True. Let U = {Uα } be an open covering of f (A). Then

{f −1 (Uα )} is an open covering of A. Since A is compact, we have
some finite subcover, {f −1 (U1 ), . . . , f −1 (Un )}. Then {U1 , . . . , Un } is
a finite subcover of U.

6. Let A = {(x, y, z) ∈ Q3 | x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1} ⊂ R3 where R3 is given the

usual metric. Prove that A = S 2 = {(x, y, z) ∈ R3 | x2 +y 2 +z 2 = 1} ⊂ R3

Proof. This is left as an exercise to the reader.