Complex Numbers

Algebra of Complex Numbers

The quadratic equation
x2 + 1 = 0,
whose solutions as given by the quadratic formula are
p √
0 ± 0 − 4 (1) (1) −4 √
x= =± = ± −1.
2 2
In the notation of Euler, who was the first to set i2 = −1, we have

x = ±i.

Since there is no real number whose√ square is −1, and since −1 is not in the domain [0, ∞) of
the square root function, f (x) = x, those roots are discarded as “impossible” or considered
to be “imaginary.” A precise definition of the mysterious so-called imaginary unit, denoted by
i. A clear understanding of the nature of complex numbers of the standard form (or called the
Cartesian form)
a + bi, where a and b are real numbers.

A further review of the terminology and notation for complex numbers:

I. The real part of a complex number z = a + bi is a and is denoted by Re z.

II. The imaginary part of z = a + bi is the real number b and is denoted by Im z.

III. The conjugate of z = a + bi is z̄ = a − bi.

VI. The complex numbers z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di are equal if and only if a = c and b = d,
that is, if and only if Re z1 = Re z2 and Im z1 = Im z2 .

V. The sum of z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di is z1 + z2 = (a + c) + (b + d) i.

VI. The product of z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di is z1 z2 = (ac − bd) + (ad + bc) i.

VII. A complex number z = a + bi is zero if and only if a = b = 0, this is, if and only if
Re z = Im z = 0.

VIII. The negative of z = a + bi is −z = −a − bi.

IX. If z2 = c + di is subtracted from z1 = a + bi, the difference is z1 − z2 = (a − c) + (b − d) i.

1. Obtain (i) z1 + z2 and (ii) z1 − z2 , for the following complex numbers

(a) z1 = 1 + 5i, z2 = 3 + 2i (b) z1 = 3 − 4i, z2 = 1 + 6i

2. Determine the products of the following complex numbers

(a) 2 + 5i, 1 − 2i (b) 3 + 5i, −2 + 3i (c) −2 + 2i, 4 + 3i (d) 1 + 2i, 5 − 2i

3. Simplify the following complex numbers and give the answers in Cartesian form

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 3+i 6 + 5i 4 (3 − i)
(a) (c) (e) (5 − 3i) (2 + i) −
3−i 7i 1−i
1 + 4i 1
(b) (f)
(d) (2 + i) + (2 − i)
−2 −2

2 − 6i (4 + 2i) 2 − 3i
2 (x + yi) 2 (x − yi) 5 (1 + i)
4. If x and y are real numbers and + = , find x and y.
1−i i 2−i
5. Show that f (z̄) = f (z), where

f (z) = a0 + a1 z + · · · + an−1 z n−1 + an z n

is a polynomial with real coefficients a0 , a1 , · · · , an using the result of z + w = z̄ + w̄ and

zw = z̄ w̄. Hence, if the polynomial equation f (z) = 0 has a root equal to α, the conjugate
ᾱ is also a root of the equation.

Polar Form and Exponential Form

To represent complex numbers geometrically, we first establish a rectangular xy coordinate
system in a plane. With each complex number x + yi we associate the point P : (x, y). This
sets up a one-to-one correspondence between complex numbers and points of the plane. The
x-axis consists of the real numbers x + 0i = x and is called the real axis. We call the y-axis the
imaginary axis because each of its points corresponds to a complex number of the form yi, y is
real. A Cartesian plane used for graphing complex numbers in this fashion is called an Argand
diagram and is commonly referred to simply as the complex plane.

Im
b
P : (x, y)
z
y = r sin θ
θ Re
O x = r cos θ

The line segment OP which represents the complex number z = x + yi has two important
geometric attributes besides its components, x = Re (z) and y = Im (z). The first of these is its
length, p
r = x2 + y 2 ≥ 0, for all x and y,
called the absolute value of z, written |z|, or the modulus of z. The other is its direction angle
θ. Interpreting r and θ as polar coordinates of the point P : (x, y) representing z, we have

x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ,

then the formulas

z = r cos θ + ir sin θ = r (cos θ + i sin θ) .
Either of these is known as the polar form of z.
The angle θ is called an amplitude of z or, more commonly, an argument of z, written arg z.
The formula
y
θ = tan−1 , where 0 ≤ θ < 2π,
x

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is used to find an argument of z. It is important to note that tan−1 (y/x) denotes two sets of
angles in opposite quadrants, the angles of one set being angles of z, the other not. Hence, we
must be careful to select angles in the proper quadrant, as determined by the sign of x and y.
Consider the Taylor Series of the exponential, sine and cosine functions,

x2 x3 xn
ex =1 + x + + + ··· + + ···;
2! 3! n!
x3 x5 (−1)n x2n+1
sin x =x − + − ··· + + ···;
3! 5! (2n + 1)!
x2 x4 (−1)n x2n
cos x =1 − + − ··· + + · · · , where n = 1, 2, . . . ,
2! 4! (2n)!

and the polar form becomes

z =r (cos θ + i sin θ)
θ2 θ4 θ3 θ5
   
=r 1 − + + ··· + i θ − + + ···
2! 4! 3! 5!
" #
(iθ)2 (iθ)3 (iθ)4
=r 1 + (iθ) + + + + ···
2! 3! 4!
=reiθ .

That shows the angle θ of a complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) is indeed an exponent, and
yields the so-called exponential form reiθ of z.

1. Mark on an Argand diagram the points representing the following numbers

(a) 3 + 4i (b) −2 + 3i (c) −3 − 2i (d) 2 − 4i

2. Find the complex number z such that

π π
(a) arg z = and |z − 3| = 4 (b) arg z = and |z − 3 + 2i| = |z + 3i|
4 4
3. Find the modulus and argument of the following complex numbers and rewrite each num-
ber in polar form
√
(a) −1 + 3i (b) 3 + 4i (c) 4 − 2i

4. Express the following complex numbers in polar form

√ √
(a) 3 (c) −1 (e) 3 + i (g) 2 + 2 3i
√ √
(b) 2i (d) −2i (f) 2 − 2i (h) −1 − i

5. Express the following complex numbers in Cartesian form

√  π π
(a) 2 cos + i sin (b) 2e−i5π/6
4 4

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De Moivre’s Theorem
Multiplication and division of complex numbers is especially easy to carry out when the numbers
are given in polar form. In particular, if we have two complex number z1 and z2 given in polar
form, their product and quotient are
z1 z2 = [r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )] [r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 )] = r1 r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 )]
z1 r1 (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 ) r1
= = [cos (θ1 − θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 − θ2 )] , where r2 6= 0.
z2 r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2 ) r2

The behavior of the angles of complex numbers when the numbers are multiplied or divided is
concisely expressed by the formulas
z1
arg z1 z2 = arg z1 + arg z2 and arg = arg z1 − arg z2 .
z2

Returning to the property of the multiplication of complex numbers, it can be extended at once
to products of more than two factors, giving
z1 z2 . . . zn = r1 r2 . . . rn [cos (θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 + · · · + θn )] .
In particular, if all the z’s are the same, then
z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ) = rn einθ .
This important result is known as De Moivre’s Theorem.
The extension of z n to roots of integral order is now an easy matter. In fact, an n-th root of
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ) is defined to be any number w = R (cos φ + i sin φ) such that wn = z, that
is,
Rn (cos nφ + i sin nφ) = r (cos θ + i sin θ) .

Since two complex numbers which are equal must have the same modulus, it follows that
Rn = r or R = r1/n .
It should be noted that only real numbers are involved in the determination of R since r1/n is
the real n-th root of the positive quantity r and can always be found by an ordinary logarithmic
calculation. Furthermore, the angles of equal complex numbers must either be equal or differ
by an integral multiple of 2π. Hence,
θ + 2kπ
nφ = θ + 2kπ or φ= .
n
For k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1, these values of φ define n distinct angles which identify n different
complex numbers. But as k takes on the values n, n + 1, . . . , or the values −1, −2, . . . , the
same angles are repeated again and again, each time with an irrelevant difference of 2π in their
measures. Thus there are exactly n distinct values of w = z 1/n :
 
1/n 1/n θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
w=z =r cos + i sin , where k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1.
n n

A complex number of unit modulus (r = 1) is of the form eiθ or cos θ + i sin θ, where θ is real.
In the complex plane these points are represented by the points on the circumference of the unit
circle x2 + y 2 = 1. Consider the equation
z n = 1,

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where n is a positive integer. A solution of this equation is called an n-th root of unity. Evidently,
z = 1 is a solution, for any positive integer n, and this is clearly the only real positive solution.
When n is even, z = −1 also satisfies the equation, but no real number other than ±1 can
possibly occur among the roots of unity for any n. However, the situation is quite different,
when we admit complex number as solutions. Suppose now that the complex number z is a
solution. Then by taking moduli for z n = 1, we find that z n = |z|n = 1. Thus |z| is a positive
solution and hence |z| = 1. Therefore, a root of unity is necessarily a number of unit modulus,
and we may put z = eiθ . Our equation now becomes

z n = einθ = cos nθ + i sin nθ = 1.

By De Moivre’s Theorem, the solution must be of the form zk = ei(θ+2kπ/n) . If we plot all the
solutions on the complex plane, the solutions are uniformly distributed on the unit circle and
the solutions become the vertices of a regular polygon with n sides.

Im
z2 z1
b 1 b

z3 z0
b b

2π
n
θ
2π
n b zn−1
Re
−1 1z
b
n−2

−1

1. Simplify the following expression into a + bi form by De Moivre’s Theorem

√ i3π/4
2
2
3
5
2e 2e−i2π/3 3eiπ/3 2e−iπ/4
(a) (b)
2e−iπ/6 4eiπ/2
2. Simplify the following expression into polar form by De Moivre’s Theorem
◦
2 ◦
3 √
2
3ei15 2ei40 (−1 + i)2 −1 − 3i
(a) (b) √
(6ei25◦ ) (4ei35◦ ) 3−i

3. Evaluate the following items

(a) i1/4 (b) (2 + 2i)1/3

4. Find the following n-th roots and plot all the roots on the complex plane

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 (a) three cube roots of 1 (c) three cube roots of −8i
(b) two square roots of i (d) six sixth roots of 64

5. Find all the roots of the equation z 4 − 4z 3 + 6z 2 − 4z + 5 = 0 given that z = i is a root.

6. Find all roots of the following equations

(a) z 4 − 2z 2 + 4 = 0 (c) z 4 + 4z 2 + 16 = 0
(b) z 6 + 2z 3 + 2 = 0 (d) z 4 + 1 = 0