Conventional porosity

logging methods
edited by G. Pethő & P. Vass
For Petroleum Engineer & Geoengineer MSc
Students
 Porosity measurements
There are three conventional porosity logging methods:
• sonic or acoustic logging,
• density logging,
• and neutron logging.
Two of them, the density and neutron logging, belong to the group of
nuclear measurements.
Although they are called “porosity” logging methods, none of them
measures the porosity directly.
For all the three methods the value of the measured quantity is influenced
by not only the formation porosity but also the fluid content and rock
matrix.
If the types of fluid and matrix are known or can be determined from other
log curves, the porosity of the formation can be calculated from the
porosity logs.
Their depth of investigation is very shallow (only a few centimetres from
the borehole wall), so they generally measure the effect of the flushed
zone.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Acoustic wave theory
Rocks can be considered as elastic bodies from the perspective of
acoustic wave propagation.
The acoustic logging method is based on the fact that high frequency
(tens of kHz) ultrasonic waves coming from a transmitter are able to
propagate through rocks.
The acoustic wave propagation is a spatial and temporal variation of
the stress and strain fields within the rock formations.
There is a very close interaction between the stress and strain fields.
A change in one of them causes the change of the other, and vice
versa.
It is important to note that not the particles travel through the medium
during the propagation of an elastic wave, but the change in the stress
and strain fields.
The particles of a medium are oscillating about their equilibrium
positions during the wave propagation.
 Sonic or acoustic log
There are two principal types of elastic waves:
• body waves
• and interface or surface waves.

Body waves travel three-dimensionally through an elastic medium.

Interface or surface waves propagate along and near by the interfaces of
different media (e.g. along the borehole wall).

Body waves
Two types of deformation pattern can propagate as a body wave through a
solid medium.
When periodic alternations of contraction and expansion are taking place
during the wave propagation, the particles are oscillating along axes
parallel to the direction of the wave propagation.
That type of body wave is called compressional wave or P-wave (primary
wave).
 Sonic or acoustic log
Body waves
The compressional wave belongs to the group of longitudinal waves.
Compressional wave motion entails both volume change and deformation.
It can propagate in both solids and fluids.

The figure illustrates the deformation

pattern during the propagation of a
compressional wave.

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
 Sonic or acoustic log
Body waves
The other type of body waves is called shear wave or S-wave (secondary
wave)
In the case of a shear wave only the shear component of the stress field
plays role in the shear wave motion.
The particles of the medium are oscillating along axes perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation.
So, that type of wave belongs to the group of transverse waves.
The propagation of shear waves entails only deformation without any
volume change in the medium.
A shear wave cannot propagate in fluids because fluids are not able to
resist shear forces.
 Sonic or acoustic log
The deformation pattern of the propagation of a shear wave.

http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/waves.html
 Sonic or acoustic log
Physical principles of the measurement
High frequency (tens of kHz) acoustic pulses are emitted periodically from
a transmitter installed in the logging tool.
The impulse-like ultrasonic wave packets (or wave trains) propagate
through the mud and arrive at the borehole wall.
Here, each wave train divides into different types of acoustic waves which
travel on their own way with their own velocities along the borehole wall or
inside the rock formation.
The deformation patterns of the waves entail the oscillating movement of
the borehole wall.
Thus, the points of the borehole wall act as secondary sources of waves.
These secondary waves propagate in the mud and can be detected by the
receiver located at some distance from the transmitter in the logging tool.
The time elapsed between the generation of a wave train and the
detection of the first arrival at the receiver is recorded and processed to
produce an interval transit time called delta t (t or DT).
The delta t gives the transit time needed for the wave front of the
compressional wave to travel one foot distance in the formation (s/ft). It is
also known as the slowness, because it is the reciprocal of the velocity.
 Sonic or acoustic log
If a new acoustic pulse is generated by the transmitter, a synchronizing
signal is sent to each receiver to start listening.
The time between two subsequent acoustic pulses is selected in such a
way that a receiver can not detect a later arrival of the wave train
belonging to the previous pulse.
When not only the first arrival but the entire acoustic waveform is
captured, arrival times and amplitude attenuations (energy decrease) of
several portions of the waveform can be measured.
Each of these parts of the full waveform represents one type of the
acoustic waves, which has its own deformation pattern and way of
propagation.
The most important ones are the following:
• compressional wave or P wave (it gives the standard delta t, because it
is the fastest of all waves, DTC),
• shear wave or S wave (it follows the compressional wave in most
cases, DTS),
• and Stoneley wave (it is an interface wave propagating along the
borehole wall, and generally slower than the shear wave).
 Sonic or acoustic log
Acoustic pulse generation
• a single pulse typically ranges from 100 to 200 s depending on the
type of logging tool,
• the time gap between two neighbouring pulses is about 50 ms (at least
250 times longer than the duration of a pulse,
In practice, more than one pulse is used to determine a single (average)
interval transit time value for a given depth level.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Sonic or acoustic log
Full acoustic waveform recorded by a receiver
Conventional acoustic logging used for porosity determination records only
the first arrival time of the waveform, which belongs to the compressional
wave.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Sonic or acoustic log
Borehole-compensated acoustic tool geometry (BHC)
It has two transmitters located at the lower and upper parts of the logging
tool (T1, T2).
Two receivers belong to each transmitter (R1 & R3  T1, R2 & R4  T2)
The receiver which is closer to its transmitter is called near
receiver, and the farther one is the far receiver.
The first arrival of the far receiver is detected later than that of
the near receiver.
The time difference gives how long it takes for the
compressional wave to run a distance identical with the
distance between the receivers in the formation collaterally
with the borehole.
The time difference is divided by the distance between the
receivers, so we get the interval transit time of compressional
wave (or compressional slowness).
For two transmitters , two independent interval transit times
are measured for each depth level.
If the diameter varies near the logging tool and/or the logging
tool is not centralized perfectly, the values of interval transit
Malcolm Rider: The Geological time belonging to the different transmitters will not be identical.
Interpretation of Well Logs
 Sonic or acoustic log
Borehole-compensated acoustic tool geometry
By computing the average of two interval transit time data, the unwanted
effects of the borehole geometry and logging tool position can be
eliminated. 𝑡1,3 − 𝑡1,1
Δ𝑡1 =
𝐿1,3
t1,3 first arrival time measured by R3
t1,1 first arrival time measured by R1
L1,3 distance between R1 and R3
t1 interval transit time for T1
𝑡2,2 − 𝑡2,4
Δ𝑡2 =
𝐿2,4
t2,2 first arrival time measured by R2
t2,4 first arrival time measured by R4
L2,4 distance between R2 and R4
t2 interval transit time for T2
Δ𝑡1 + Δ𝑡2
Δ𝑡 =
2
t borehole-compensated interval transit time
(compressional slowness)

Malcolm Rider: The Geological

Interpretation of Well Logs
 Sonic or acoustic log
Operational constraints of borehole-compensated acoustic logging (BHC):
• the sonic porosity logging can be applied only in open holes,
• it requires centralization in holes smaller than 16 inches (frequently
used with a three-arm caliper tool),
• it requires decentralization in holes larger than 16 inches (to minimize
the signal attenuation),
• the tool must not push to the borehole wall (some stand-off is needed)
to avoid the generation of acoustic noise during the movement of the
tool,
• the borehole is needed to be filled with some kind of liquid (water or
water-based mud, oil or oil-based mud) in order that the coupling of
acoustic waves between the logging tool and the borehole wall will be
provided.
• in air- or gas-filled borehole the measurement can not be implement.

Remark:
a special sonic tool geometry with a single transmitter and two receivers is
used for cement bond logging (CBL) in cased and cemented holes.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Interpretation goals
• determination of porosity (from interval transit time, DT),
• lithology identification (with density and/or neutron logs),
• production of synthetic seismograms (with the density log),
• determination of formation mechanical properties (from the full acoustic
waveform, with density log),
• detection of zones with abnormal formation pressure,
• permeability identification (from the full acoustic waveform),
• determination of cement bond quality (in a cased hole after cementing).

Presentation of conventional acoustic log data

Interval transit time (DT) is usually displayed in tracks 2 and 3 of a log.
A computed, sonic-derived porosity curve (SPHI or ϕS) is sometimes
displayed in tracks 2 and 3, along with the DT curve.
Track 1 usually contains a caliper (CALI), a gamma ray (GR) and a
spontaneous potential (SP) curve.
 Sonic or acoustic log

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Sonic or acoustic log
The main factors influencing the value of interval transit time:
• the composition of rock matrix,
• the porosity and the type of fluids filling the pore space,
• the rock microstructure (includes the texture and the small scale rock
structures),
• the vertical effective stress acting on the rock,
• the temperature.

The composition of rock matrix

The velocity of compressional wave in a rock depends on the density and
the elastic properties (bulk modulus, shear modulus) of the minerals
building up the solid rock framework.
If the rock matrix is made up of more than one mineral, the effect of a
component on the interval transit time of the entire rock matrix is
proportional to its volume fraction and its own interval transit time.
 Sonic or acoustic log
It can be described by the following formula:
1 2 𝑛
Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 = 𝑉1 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 + 𝑉2 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 +…+𝑉𝑛 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎

The interval transit time of minerals with higher density have lower interval
transit time (it means that the compressional wave propagates faster
inside them).
The interval transit time of the most important minerals were determined
by laboratory measurements, and the values can be looked up in tables.

The effect of porosity and the type of fluids filling the pore space
As the porosity of the rock increases, the interval transit time decreases.
This is because the fluids filling the pore space have significantly higher
interval transit time than the solid components of a rock.
As for the fluids, the interval transit time depends on their density similarly
to the solid materials.
So, the natural gas (because of its lowest density) increases the interval
transit time of a porous rock in the greatest measure.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Velocities of compressional wave and interval transit times for different
rock matrix and fluids.

George Asquith and Daniel Krygowski: Basic Well Log Analysis

 Sonic or acoustic log
The effect of rock microstructure
The propagation of acoustic waves in a porous rock is influenced by
among other things:
• the grain size distribution of the sediment,
• the shapes and arrangement of grains,
• the type of porosity,
• the pore size distribution.
In the case of rocks with low primary porosity (< 5-10%), mostly the rock
matrix determines the interval transit time of the rock.
For unconsolidated near-surface sediments with high porosity (40-50%),
the measured interval transit time characterizes the fluid filling the pore
space rather than the solid components.
Acoustic logging is not sensitive to the secondary porosity of rocks,
because acoustic waves are able to pass round the larger cavities and
fractures during their propagation through the rock.
So, the porosity derived from acoustic logs gives the primary porosity of
rocks.
 Sonic or acoustic log
The influence of vertical effective stress acting on the rock
The effective vertical stress is the difference between the lithostatic (or
overburden) pressure and the pore pressure at any given depth.
𝑃𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜 − 𝑃𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑒
Because the vertical effective stress compresses the rock, it influences the
compaction of the rock and the size of the surface by which the grains are
in direct contact with each others.
With increasing vertical effective stress, the compressional wave
propagates faster in the rock (the interval transit time becomes lower), and
the wave velocity approaches an asymptotic upper limit (velocity limit).

The effect of temperature

It was proven by the results of laboratory measurements that the velocity
of compressional wave decreases with the increase of temperature.
The change in wave velocity depends on the type of rock, the porosity and
the fluid content of the pore space.
 Sonic or acoustic log
Determination of porosity (from interval transit time, DT)

The equation used for calculating the total, primary porosity is based on a
very simple rock model which is made up of a homogeneous rock matrix
and a single fluid phase filling the pore space:
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 𝜙 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 1 − 𝜙 ∙ Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
 porosity, tlog interval transit time in the formation, tma interval transit
time in the solid rock matrix, tfluid interval transit time in the fluid.
By the arrangment of the linear equation above, we can get the so-called
Wyllie time-average equation (Wyllie et al., 1958):
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
𝜙𝑆 =
Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎
where S is the sonic-derived porosity.
The formula is valid for clean, water-filled, consolidated rocks with primary
porosity.
Relation between interval transit time and porosity in
a dolomite formation

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Sonic or acoustic log
Correction for unconsolidated rocks
If the value of vertical effective stress at a given depth is not enough for
the compressional wave to approach the (upper) velocity limit of the rock,
the rock is unconsolidated.
Unconsolidated rocks are characterized by interval transit times greater
than 100 s/ft (~330 s/m).
These high measured values results in higher sonic-derived porosity than
the actual one.
In order to correct the effect of unconsolidated rocks, an empirical
compaction factor (Cp) must be added to the Wyllie equation:
Δ𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 1
𝜙𝑆 = ⋅
Δ𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − Δ𝑡𝑚𝑎 𝐶𝑝
The compaction factor is obtained from the following formula:
Δ𝑡𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑒 ∙ 𝐶
𝐶𝑝 =
100
tsh is the interval transit time in a shale adjacent to the formation of
interest,
C is the compaction coefficient of shale (a constant which is normally 1.0)
 Sonic or acoustic log
Correction for hydrocarbon
The presence of hydrocarbon in the pore space increases the interval
transit time of a formation.
If the effect of hydrocarbons is not corrected, the sonic-derived porosity
will be higher than the actual porosity.
The following empirical corrections are proposed to eliminate the effect of
hydrocarbon on the sonic-derived porosity (Hilchie,1978):

 = S  0.7 (for gas)

 = S  0.9 (for oil)
Some typical acoustic log responses

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Density log
Physical principles of the measurement
Medium-high energy gamma rays (0.2-2.0 MeV) are emitted from a
chemical source (usually Cesium 137) screwed on the skid plate of a
density logging tool (the source is installed before lowering down the tool,
and removed after pulling up the tool).
A focused stream of gamma rays reaches the formation and the gamma
photons interact with the electrons of the atoms in the formation.
Two interactions have important role from the point of view of formation
density logging:
• Compton scattering,
• photoelectric effect.
For Compton scattering, a gamma photon of medium energy (0.5-1.5
MeV) collides with one of the electrons of an atom. The gamma ray
transfers a portion of its energy to the electron, and a gamma ray of
reduced energy leaves the site of the collision in a modified direction. Both
the energy and the direction of propagation of the gamma ray changes
due to the interaction. As a result of successive scattering events, the
energy of gamma photons gradually decrease below 150 keV.
 Density log

Schematic of Compton scattering Schematic of photoelectric effect

If the energy level of a gamma photon decreases below 150 keV, the
occurrence of a photoelectric effect will become more and more probable.
In the course of a photoelectric effect, a gamma photon with lower energy
collides with an electron.
The electron absorbs the gamma ray, which disappears and transfers its
entire energy to the bound electron. If the energy of the incident gamma
ray is not so low, the exited electron can leave the atom.
Due to the gamma ray absorption, the photoelectric effect decreases the
number of gamma photons in the formation.
 Density log
As a result of these two interactions, both the number and the average
energy of gamma rays decreases with the distance from the source.
The rate of change depends on the properties of the formation (rock
matrix, porosity, fluid content etc.).
Two detectors (a near and a far detector) in the tool count the number of
returning gamma rays in the unit of counts per second (cps).
The ratio of near-to-far detector count rates is related to the average
electron density of the formation.
For the most frequent elements in the Earth’s crust, the electron density is
proportional to their bulk density.
In spectral density tools, both detectors measure the count rate at two
different energy ranges simultaneously.
The count rates of higher energy gamma rays (from Compton scattering)
are related to the bulk density, while the count rates of lower energy
gamma rays (strongly influenced by the photoelectric effect) are used to
determine formation lithology.
The lower energy gamma rays are related to the lithology of the formation
and show little dependence on porosity or fluid type.
 Density log
Operational constraints of density logging:
• the tool can be run either in open holes or in cased holes,
• it requires an eccentric position in the borehole because of its shallow
investigation depth (15-20 cm),
• there is no limit for the types of borehole fluids (gas or air, water or
water-based mud, oil or oil-based mud can be used).

A DC motor actuated backup

arm opposite the skid plate
(including the sensors and
source) holds the density tool
against the borehole wall.
The movement of the arm is
calibrated to indicate borehole
diameter.

http://www.gowellpetro.com/product/litho-density-logging-tool-ldlt.html
 Density log
Figure: Spectral density tool, SDL (Halliburton)

The ratio of near-to-far detector count rate is

calibrated to density by means of calibrator blocks
with known densities (a magnesium block with a
density of 1.78 g/cm3, and an aluminium block with a
density of 2.804 g/cm3).
In relation to density logging, it is important to
distinguish between:
• bulk density (b or RHOB),
• and matrix density (ma).
The bulk density is the density of the entire formation
(solid and fluid parts) as measured by the logging
tool.
The matrix density is the density of the solid
framework of the rock.
The bulk density of a rock without any porosity is
identical with the matrix density of that rock.

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Density log
Presentation of density log data

The bulk density curve (RHOB in g/cm3) is displayed in tracks 2 and 3.

A correction curve (DRHO in g/cm3) is also displayed in either track 2 or
track 3.
This curve indicates how much correction has been added to the bulk
density curve in order to decrease the effects of the borehole on the
measurement (primarily the effect of mud cake thickness is corrected).
The density correction curve is used primarily as a quality control (QC)
indicator of the measurement.
Whenever the absolute value of the correction curve (DRHO) exceeds
0.15 g/cm3, the value of the bulk density (RHOB) is not reliable.
A density-derived porosity curve (DPHI) is sometimes present in tracks 2
and 3 along with the bulk-density (RHOB) and correction (DRHO)
curves.
Track 1 usually contains a gamma ray (GR) and a caliper log curve (CAL).
 Density log

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Density log
Interpretation goals
• determination of porosity (from bulk density, RHOB),
• lithology identification (with acoustic and/or neutron logs)
• gas indication (with neutron logs).
• production of synthetic seismograms (with acoustic logs).
• determination of formation mechanical properties (with fullwave
acoustic logs).
• determination of clay content (shaliness) (with neutron logs).
• borehole size (from an attached caliper).

Determination of formation porosity

The measured bulk density (b) depends on the matrix density, the
porosity, and the density of the fluid in the pores.
To determine the density porosity of a clean formation, the matrix density
and the type of fluid in the formation must be known.
 Density log
The formula by which the density (-derived) porosity can be calculated is
based on the relationship below:
𝜌𝑏 = 𝜙 ∙ 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + (1 − 𝜙) ∙ 𝜌𝑚𝑎
where  is the total porosity, fluid is the density of the fluid in the pore
space, ma is the density of matrix, and b is the measured bulk density.
By the arrangement of the formula, we can calculate the density-derived
porosity of a clean formation saturated with a single fluid phase:
𝜌𝑚𝑎 − 𝜌𝑏
𝜙𝐷 =
𝜌𝑚𝑎 − 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

Because the values of matrix density

vary in a wider range than the values
of fluid density, errors in estimating the
matrix density have a larger effect on
the calculated porosity.

George Asquith and Daniel Krygowski: Basic Weil Log Analysis

 Density log
Correction for hydrocarbon
Where the depth of invasion is very small, the measured bulk density
includes the effect of formation fluid.
In the case of low density hydrocarbons, the density-derived porosity is
greater than the actual porosity.
Oil (~0.8 g/cm3) has not a significant effect on density-derived porosity, but
low pressure gas has (gas effect).
In formations saturated with gas in the vicinity of the borehole, the
substitution of actual density of gas (gas) in the porosity formula as a
density of fluid (fluid) is not enough to compensate the effect of gas.
An apparent gas density (a,gas) must be computed by taking into account
the composition and the actual density of gas, as well as the formation
temperature and pressure.
Some typical density log response

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

 Neutron log
Physical principles of the measurement

Neutron is a subatomic particle without electric charge.

Its mass is almost the same as that of a proton (slightly larger).
Normally, neutrons are located in the nuclei of atoms.
Generally, a chemical neutron source (a mixture of americium-beryllium,
Am-Be) is used for emitting high energy neutrons (4-6 MeV) with high
initial velocity (> 103 km/s).
The emitted neutrons penetrate into the formation and collide with the
nuclei of the atoms.
Due to the successive collisions, neutrons gradually lose their energy,
which entails their slowing down.
Below a certain energy level, the nuclei of the atoms are already able to
absorb (or capture) the neutrons, which transmit the rest of their kinetic
energy to the nuclei.
 Neutron log
From an energetic point of view, the „lifetime” of a free neutron (the length
of time between its emission and capture) in the formation can be divided
into three phases:
• fast neutron phase,
• slowing-down phase,
• diffusion phase,
• and absorption phase.
All these phases generally take less than a millisecond.
The classification of neutrons is based on their energy:
high energy > 10 MeV
fast neutrons 10 keV – 10 MeV
intermediate 100 eV – 10 keV
slow 10 eV – 100 eV
epithermal 0.2 eV – 10 eV
thermal 0.025 eV
As a neutron is getting farther from the source its energy is decreasing, so
the number of higher energy neutrons decreases with the distance from
the source.
 Neutron log
Depending on the energy of a neutron and the properties of a nucleus,
different types of interactions can be occurred between them.
In the fast neutron phase, the neutrons have sufficient energy to excite or
activate the nuclei.
The exited nuclei emit gamma rays with their characteristic energies in
order to calm down. The activated nuclei decay into other isotopes.

In the course of inelastic scattering, an incident fast neutron collides with

a nucleus. The neutron transmits some part of its energy to the nucleus,
which gets into an excited state. The neutron leaves the atom in a
modified direction, with reduced energy . After a while, the excited
nucleus emits a gamma photon. The energy of the gamma ray is specific
to the nucleus.
 Neutron log
After the neutron has lost a significant part of its initial energy, it enters the
slowing down phase.
In that phase, the typical interaction between neutrons and nuclei is the so
called elastic scattering.
During elastic scattering, an incident neutron has not enough energy to
excite a nucleus, but it can increase the kinetic energy of the nucleus by
their collision.
After the collision, the neutron of reduced energy leaves the nucleus in a
modified direction.
As a result of successive interactions, neutrons have slowed to thermal
velocities corresponding to energies of around 0.025 eV within a few
microseconds.
 Neutron log
Thermal neutrons are already in the absorption (or thermal capture)
phase.
Here, the movement of the neutron follows the law of diffusion.
It travels randomly without losing more energy until it is captured by the
nucleus of an atom such as chlorine, hydrogen, or silicon.
A nucleus which captures a low energy neutron gets into an excited state
(that is it has some extra energy).
Because the nucleus is not able to stay in such a state, calms down after
a while by releasing some plus energy in the form of gamma ray.
The energy of emitted gamma ray is specific to the emitting nucleus.
Neutron log
From the perspective of porosity
determination, the elastic scattering of
neutrons is the most important
interaction.
In that process, the relative mass of
the nucleus determines how much
energy the neutron loses due to the
collision.
The smaller the relative mass of the
nucleus the larger the average energy
lost per collision.
Because the nucleus of hydrogen is a
single proton, whose mass is very
similar to that of a neutron, hydrogen
has the greatest capability of neutron
slowing down.
A collision with a nucleus of a heavy
atom changes rather the direction of
movement of a neutron than its kinetic
energy.
 Neutron log
The table shows how many elastic collisions with the nuclei of different
elements are needed, on average, for a neutron with an initial energy of 2
MeV to slow down to thermal energy of 0.025 eV.

Chemical Atomic number Average number of

element (Z) elastic collisions
hydrogen 1 18
carbon 6 114
oxygen 8 150
silicon 14 257
chlorine 17 329
calcium 20 368

On the basis of the table, it is clear that slowing down of neutrons

depends largely on the amount of hydrogen in the formation.
 Neutron log
In the case of a widely used (borehole)
compensated neutron tool geometry (CNL), two
detectors with different distance from the neutron
source are located in the tool.
Both the near and far detectors count the number of
returning thermal neutrons.
The detector count rates are inversely proportional
to the amount of hydrogen in the formation.
By assuming that all the hydrogen resides in the
pore space of the formation (as water or
hydrocarbons), the amount of hydrogen can be
related to the formation porosity.

Operational Constraints :
The tool can be run in both open holes and cased holes.
But, it requires an eccentric position in the borehole, which is implemented
by means of a steel bow spring.
It can be used with any type of borehole fluids (gas or air, water or water-
based mud ,oil or oil-based mud).
 Neutron log
Calibration
A primary calibration standard for neutron tools was produced in the API
test pit of the University of Houston.
It contains four zones with different porosities:
• a zone of pure water, which represents a porosity of 100%,
• a zone of Carthage Marble with a porosity of 1.9%,
• a zone of Indiana Limestone with a porosity of 19%,
• a zone of Austin Limestone with a porosity of 26%.
By means of the standard pit, manufacturers can calibrate their neutron
tools in the so called limestone (or neutron) porosity unit during the
development, and make their own secondary workshop standards (water-
filled calibrating tanks by which environments with different porosities can
be simulated).
Wellsite verification of the tools is also performed before and after logging
by means of a portable calibrator providing a known thermal neutron
count rate.
For other lithology, the measured limestone porosity value can be
converted to a porosity value of a given rock matrix by using correction
data from lithology tables.
 Neutron log
Figure: the structure of API test pit used as
a primary calibration standard for neutron
logging tools.
The measured porosity value of a
calibrated CNL tool is valid for only a clear,
water-filled limestone formation.
In other cases, the measured value has to
be corrected to the effects of the factors to
be taken into account (e.g. lithology,
hydrocarbon, shale or clay).

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs

Presentation of neutron porosity logs

Neutron porosity curves are commonly displayed in tracks 2 and 3, in
porosity units (% or volume fraction).
Generally, the scale is from 45% (0.45) to -15% (-0.15).
 Neutron log
Presentation of neutron porosity logs
Since a neutron tool are generally run
with combination of a density tool, the
neutron porosity (NPHI) and the bulk
density (RHOB) or density-derived
porosity (DPHI) log curves are
displayed together.
Track 1 usually contains a gamma ray
(GR) and a caliper log curve (CAL).

Daniel A. Krygowski: Guide to Petrophysical Interpretation

 Neutron log
Interpretation goals:
• porosity determination,
• lithology identification (with sonic and/or density logs),
• gas indication (with density logs),
• determination of clay content (shaliness) (with density logs),
• correlation (especially in cased holes).
Porosity determination
The capability of matters for neutron slowing down is quantified by the so
called hydrogen index of the matters (HI).
It gives how rate the unit volume of a given matter slows down the neutrons
by elastic scattering compared to the unit volume of pure water at a
temperature of 24 °C.
Its value ranges from 0 to 1 (pure water has a HI value of 1).
For matters containing hydrogen, the value of HI strongly depends on the
amount of hydrogen.
But HI also depends on the atomic number of elements, namely HI
decreases with the increase of atomic number.
 Neutron log
Porosity determination
In the case of clear, water-filled limestone formations, the measured,
limestone calibrated, neutron porosity (NPHI or N) gives the true porosity
().
The neutron tool response equation for that case:
𝜙𝑁 = 𝜙 ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝑊 + (1 − 𝜙) ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝐿𝑀
where HIw is the hydrogen index of water (=1) and the HILM is the hydrogen
index of limestone.
If the rock matrix is different from limestone, the effect of the rock matrix
must be corrected by means of a graph similar to the one below.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological

Interpretation of Well Logs
 Neutron log
For the neutron porosity corrected for lithology (N,corr), the following
equation can be written:
𝜙𝑁,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 𝜙 ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 + 1 − 𝜙 ∙ 𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
where HIfluid is the hydrogen index of pore fluid and the HIma is the
hydrogen index of the given matrix.
By the arrangement of the equation, the porosity of the formation can be
calculated:
𝜙𝑁,𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 − 𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
𝜙=
𝐻𝐼𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 − 𝐻𝐼𝑚𝑎
The formula enables us to take into account the effect of fluids whose HI is
different from that of pure water (e.g. salt water, oil, gas).
However, for gas bearing formations, the application of additional correction
is needed to obtain a reliable porosity value.
The decrease in measured neutron porosity caused by the presence of gas
is called gas effect.
Because shale minerals contain hydrogen in their crystal lattice and are
able to adsorb a lot of water on their surface, the shale or clay content
increases the measured neutron porosity compared to the true porosity.
Therefore, shale correction is required for shaly formations.
 Some typical neutron log responses

Negative values of neutron

porosity indicate that correction is
needed for the lithology.
Neutron porosity values marked by
an asterisk refer to fresh water
filled formations and the
Schlumberger CNL tool.

Malcolm Rider: The Geological Interpretation of Well Logs