Microgrid Standards and Technologies
Benjamin Kroposki, Senior Member, IEEE, Thomas Basso, Member, IEEE, and Richard DeBlasio,
Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Microgrids are intentional islands formed at a
facility or in an electrical distribution system that contain at least
one distributed energy resource and associated loads. Microgrids
that operate both electrical generation and loads in a coordinated
manner can offer benefits to the customer and the local utility.
The loads and energy sources in a microgrid can be disconnected
from and reconnected to the utility system with minimal
disruption, thereby improving reliability. Any time a microgrid
is implemented in an electrical distribution system, it must be
well planned to avoid problems. This paper discusses current
microgrid technologies and standards that are being developed to
address implementation of microgrids.
Index Terms—Microgrid, Intentional Islanding, Distributed
Energy Resources, Distributed Generation, Distributed Storage,
Interconnection
I. INTRODUCTION
MICROGRIDS are intentional islands formed either at a
customer facility or location that includes parts of the local
utility distribution system that have at least one distributed
energy resource (DER) and associated loads. Figure 1 shows
a schematic diagram for two types of microgrids: utility
microgrids which contain parts of the utility and
industrial/commercial microgrids which only include
customer facilities [1]. DER can be either distributed
generation (DG) or distributed storage (DS) and are often
both used to provide energy within the microgrid. In a
microgrid, the loads and energy sources can be disconnected
from and reconnected to the utility with minimal disruption to
the local loads. There are many potential benefits to
customers from the use of microgrids including improving
reliability by providing power to the islanded portion of the
electric power system (EPS) during a utility outage and
resolving power-quality issues by reducing total harmonic
distortion at the loads. There are also utility benefits such as
resolving overload problems by removing load from the EPS
by allowing a part of the EPS to intentionally island and
allowing for maintenance on the utility system while
intentionally islanded customers still remain powered.
This work was supported at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory by
the Department of Energy under Midwest Research Institute Contract No. DE-
AC36-99GO10337.
B. Kroposki (e-mail: benjamin_kroposki@nrel.gov), T. Basso (e-mail:
thomas_basso@nrel.gov), and R. DeBlasio (e-mail: richard_deblasio@nrel.gov)
are with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO 80401 USA.
©2008 IEEE.
Any time a microgrid is implemented in an electrical
distribution system, it must be well planned to avoid
problems. For microgrids to work properly, a switch must
open and the DER must be able to carry the load on the
islanded section. This includes maintaining suitable voltage
and frequency levels for all islanded loads. Depending on the
switch technology, momentary interruptions may occur during
transfer from grid-parallel to islanded mode. If power is lost,
the DER assigned to provide power to the intentional island
should be able to restart and pick up the island load after the
switch has opened. Power flow analysis of island scenarios
should be performed to ensure that proper voltage regulation
is maintained and establish that the DER can handle inrush
currents from large loads. The DER must be able to load-
follow during islanded operation and sense if a fault current
has occurred downstream of the switch location. When power
is restored on the utility side, the switch must not close unless
the utility and islanded portions are in synchronism. This
requires measuring the voltage on both sides of the switch to
allow synchronization of the island and the utility [2].
Open for a Utility
Distributed
Generation
Microgrid DG Load
Distribution Feede r
from S ubstation
Interconnection Interconnec tion O pe n for a Indus trial/
Switc h Sw itch Comm erical Microgrid
Poss ible
Control S yste ms
DG DS Lo ad Lo ad
Distributed
Ge nera tion
D istributed
Storage
Figure 1. Microgrid Diagram
II. MICROGRID TECHNOLOGIES
Microgrids consist of several basic technologies for
operation these include: distributed generation, distributed
storage, interconnection switches, and control systems. One
of the technical challenges is the design, acceptance, and
availability of low-cost technologies for installing and using
microgrids. Several technologies are under development to
allow the safe interconnection and use of microgrids shown in
Figure 1.

Distributed generation (DG) units are small sources of
energy located at or near the point of use. DG technologies
typically include photovoltaic (PV), wind, fuel cells,
microturbines, and reciprocating internal combustion engines
with generators. These systems may be powered by either
fossil or renewable fuels. Some types of distributed
generation can also provide combined heat and power by
recovering some of the waste heat generated by the source.
This can significantly increase the efficiency of the DG unit.
Some of the DG technologies require a power electronics
interface in order to convert the energy into grid compatible
AC power. The power electronics interface contains the
necessary circuitry to convert power from one form to
another. These converters may include both a rectifier and an
inverter or just an inverter. The converter is compatible in
voltage and frequency with the electric power system to which
it will be connected and contain the necessary output filters.
The power electronics interface can also contain protective
functions for both the distributed energy system and the local
electric power system that allow paralleling and disconnection
from the electric power system. These power electronic
interfaces provide a unique capability to the DG units and can
enhance the operations of a microgrid. If a power electronics
interface is not used, the DG will typically have a set of
protective relays and switches to safely interconnect with the
EPS.
Distributed storage (DS) technologies are used in
microgrid applications where the generation and loads of the
microgrid cannot be exactly matched. Distributed storage
provides a bridge in meeting the power and energy
requirements of the microgrid. Storage capacity is defined in
terms of the time that the nominal energy capacity can cover
the load at rated power. Storage capacity can be then
categorized in terms of energy density requirements (for
medium- and long-term needs) or in terms of power density
requirements (for short- and very short-term needs).
Distributed storage enhances microgrid systems overall
performance in three ways. First, it stabilizes and permits DG
units to run at a constant and stable output, despite load
fluctuations. Second, it provides the ride through capability
when there are dynamic variations of primary energy (such as
those of sun, wind, and hydropower sources). Third, it
permits DG to seamlessly operate as a dispatchable unit.
Moreover, energy storage can benefit power systems by
damping peak surges in electricity demand, countering
momentary power disturbances, providing outage ride-
through while backup generators respond, and reserving
energy for future demand.
There are several forms of energy storage available that
can be used in microgrids; these include batteries,
supercapacitors, and flywheels. Battery systems store
electrical energy in the form of chemical energy. Batteries are
DC power systems that require power electronics to convert
the energy to and from AC power. Many utility connections
for batteries have bi-directional converters, which allow
energy to be stored and taken from the batteries.
Supercapacitors, also known as ultracapacitors, are electrical
energy storage devices, which offer high power density and
extremely high cycling capability. Flywheel systems have
recently regained consideration as a viable means of
supporting critical load during grid power interruption
because of their fast response compared to electrochemical
energy storage. Advances in power electronics and digitally
controlled fields have led to better flywheel designs that
deliver a cost-effective alternative in the power quality
market. Typically, an electric motor supplies mechanical
energy to the flywheel and a generator is coupled on the same
shaft that outputs the energy, when needed, though a
converter. It is also possible to design a bi-directional system
with one machine that is capable of motoring and regenerating
operations.
The interconnection switch is the point of connection
between the microgrid and the rest of the distribution system.
New technologies in this area consolidate the various power
and switching functions (e.g., power switching, protective
relaying, metering, and communications) traditionally
provided by relays, hardware, and other components at the
utility interface into a single system with a digital signal
processor. Grid conditions are measured both on the utility
and microgrid sides of the switch through current
transformers and potential transformers which determine
operational conditions. The interconnection switches are
designed to meet grid interconnection standards (IEEE 1547
and UL 1741 for North America) to minimize custom
engineering, site-specific approval processes, and lower cost.
To maximize applicability and functionality, the controls are
also designed to be technology neutral and can be used with a
circuit breaker, as well as faster semiconductor-based static
switches like thyristors and integrated gate bipolar transistor
technologies and applicable to a variety of DG assets with
conventional generators or power converters. NREL has
worked with ASCO Power Technologies [3], General
Electric[4][5], and Northern Power Systems [6] to develop
advanced interconnection technologies that allow distributed
generators to parallel with the Area EPS for uninterrupted
electrical service and sell electricity to the Area EPS.
The control system of a microgrid is designed to safely
operate the system in grid-parallel and stand-alone modes.
This system may be based on a central controller or imbedded
as autonomous parts of each distributed generator. When the
utility is disconnected the control system must control the
local voltage and frequency, provide (or absorb) the
instantaneous real power difference between generation and
loads, provide the difference between generated reactive
power and the actual reactive power consumed by the load;
and protect the internal microgrid.

III. MICROGRID STANDARDS
IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 21 (SCC21) is
supporting the development of IEEE P1547.4 Draft Guide for
Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource
Island Systems with Electric Power System [2] as part of the
further development of IEEE 1547-2003 Standard for
Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power
Systems [7]. Currently in draft form, this document will cover
microgrids and intentional islands that contain DER
connected with utility electric power systems. It provides
alternative approaches and good practices for the design,
operation, and integration of the microgrids and covers the
ability to separate from and reconnect to part of the utility
while providing power to the islanded electric power system.
The guide covers the DER, interconnection systems, and
participating EPSs. It is intended to be used by EPS designers,
operators, system integrators, and equipment manufacturers
when planning and operating microgrids. Its implementation
will expand the benefits of DER by enabling improved EPS
reliability and building on the requirements of IEEE 1547-
2003.
IEEE 1547.4 covers key consideration for planning and
operating microgrids. This includes: impacts of voltage,
frequency, power quality, inclusion of single point of common
coupling (PCC) and multiple PCCs, protection schemes and
modifications, monitoring, information exchange and control,
understanding load requirements of the customer, knowing
the characteristics of the DER, identifying steady state and
transient conditions, understanding interactions between
machines, reserve margins, load shedding, demand response,
cold load pickup, additional equipment requirements, and
additional functionality associated with inverters.
The guide also discusses the normal operating modes of a
microgrid. Under most cases, this guide should be followed
for strategies to maintain desirable operation of the system
under parallel and island modes. During normal parallel
operation with the utility, the DER operates in accordance
with IEEE 1547-2003. Knowledge of the operating
conditions of the system prior to islanding and control of
those conditions will facilitate a smooth transfer to an island
particularly in response to abnormal events and when parts of
the utility are included in the microgrid. The DER units in a
microgrid may be dispatched using a number of strategies.
The specific methodology will depend on operating
constraints, control of the DER, and the strategy of the local
utility operator. The generation control may be under the
utility operator or the DER owner. The monitoring,
information exchange, and control equipment required for the
microgrid should normally be in operation during parallel
mode. It is necessary to make this information available to
the microgrid control scheme such that a transition can be
planned in advance. This should include information about
the protective device status, generation levels, load levels, and
system voltages.
The transition to island mode can be a result of scheduled
or unscheduled events. Scheduled transitions are intentional
events with the time and duration of the planned island agreed
upon by all parties involved. Unscheduled transitions are
inadvertent events that are initiated by loss of utility and may
be automatically initiated by protective equipment, equipment
failure, etc.
When operating in the island mode, the microgrid must be
designed to provide the real and reactive power requirements
of the loads within the island and serve the range of load
operating conditions. The microgrid should also provide
frequency stability and operate within the specified voltage
ranges. Voltage regulation equipment within the microgrid
may need to be modified to meet the needs of the intentional
island. Once in island mode, generation and load
management become key. There should be an adequate
generation reserve margin that is a function of the load factor,
the magnitude of the load, the load shape, reliability
requirements of the load, and the availability of the
generation. To balance the load and generation, various
techniques (e.g., load management and load shedding) can be
used. If the load requirements are larger than the installed
DER generation, it may be necessary to disconnect some load
or reduce power consumption by other means. The microgrid
should have the proper amount of reactive load acceptance
and rejection to maintain system voltage stability and prevent
overvoltage excursions beyond the limits of the system.
During the island mode, voltage stability and dynamic reactive
capability must be adequate. For example, if there is a motor
start that requires a large amount of reactive power, there
should be sufficient reactive power capacity to correctly bring
the system back into stability. During the island mode,
transient stability also should be maintained for load steps,
DER unit outage, and island faults. All faults must be cleared
within the island. Protective device coordination should be
maintained but can be changed if needed through adaptive
relaying. The time it takes to change these settings should
also be examined. This may require additional
communications. There should also be sufficient monitoring
to operate and understand the status of the microgrid. If there
are multiple DER units in the microgrid, they may be operated
in an economic dispatch mode by managing which one will be
operated based on the cost of generation.
When reconnecting the microgrid back with the utility
system, monitoring should indicate that the proper conditions
exist. After a utility disturbance, reconnection should not
happen until the utility voltage is within acceptable limits and
phasing is correct. The integrity of the system grounding and
neutral system should also be verified prior to reconnection.
If an unscheduled event triggered the disconnection from the
utility, the time before reconnection may be extended to Based Interconnection Technology, NREL Report No.
insure the utility is stable. Active synchronization is usually TP-560-37200, 2005. Available:
required to match the voltage, frequency, and phase angle of http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy05osti/37200.pdf.
the islanded system to the utility if a minimum disturbance on [6] J. Lynch, V. John, S. M. Danial, E. Benedict, I. Vihinen,
reconnection is desired. Another reconnection method B. Kroposki, C. Pink (2006). Flexible DER Utility
employs a synchronization check device which only Interface System: Final Report, September 2004--May
reconnects the systems within certain phase differences. The 2006, 222 pp.; NREL Report No. TP-560-39876.
microgrid should parallel with the utility without causing Available: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/39876.pdf.
excessive power disturbances. [7] IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed
Resources to Electric Power Systems, IEEE Standard
1547-2003.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Microgrids can provide improved electric service reliability VII. BIOGRAPHIES
and better power quality to end customers and can also
benefit local utilities by providing dispatchable load for use Benjamin Kroposki (S’90, M’93, SM’00) received his BS and MS
during peak power conditions or allowing system repairs in electrical engineering from Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA. Mr.
without effecting customer loads. Any time a microgrid is Kroposki is the Distributed Energy Systems Integration group
implemented in an electrical distribution system, it must be manager at NREL. He serves as chairman for IEEE P1547.4 Guide
well planned to avoid problems. IEEE SCC21 is developing a for Design, Operation, and Integration of Distributed Resource
guide to help electric power system designers, operators, Island Systems with Electric Power Systems. Mr. Kroposki is
currently pursuing his Ph.D. at Colorado School of Mines and is a
system integrators, and equipment manufacturers understand registered professional engineer in Colorado.
the considerations for implementing microgrids. Uniform
adoption of the IEEE P1547.4 guidelines for microgrids help Thomas Basso (M’80) is a senior scientist in the NREL Distributed
all parties understand the technical requirements for Energy and Electricity Reliability Program. Prior at NREL, he conducted
microgrids to operate. outdoor accelerated weathering of photovoltaic (PV) modules and was
NREL project leader for PV Management under the NREL/Department
of Energy PV Advanced R&D Project. He serves as secretary for IEEE
Standards Coordinating Committee 21, 1547, P1547.2, P1547.3,
V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT P1547.4, and P1547.6. He is also a Member of IEC JCG DRES, IEC
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions TC8, ASME, and American Solar Energy Society.
of the IEEE P1547.4 Working Group members and especially
Richard DeBlasio (M’65, SM’83) is technology manager of the
C. Abbey, D. Bassett, D. Beach, D. Birlingmair, D. Costyk,
NREL/Department of Energy Distributed Energy and Electricity
M. Davis, P. Della, G. Ello, A. Garsils, G. Johnson, J. Reliability Program, which includes Distribution and Interconnection
Koepfinger, B. Peterson, C. Rogers, D. Sammon, J. Stevens, R&D at NREL. Before joining NREL in 1978, he was with the US
C. Vartanian, and M. Vaziri for their work on the Atomic Energy Commission in Washington, D.C. (1974–1978) and
development of the IEEE P1547.4 standard. Underwriters Laboratories (1972–1974). He is an electrical engineer,
a senior member of IEEE, an IEEE SA Standards Board member, and
chair of IEEE SCC 21 on Fuel Cells, Photovoltaics, Distributed
VI. REFERENCES
Power, and Energy Storage.
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Magazine, May 2008.
[2] IEEE Draft Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration
of Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electric
Power Systems, IEEE Standard P1547 Draft 4.
[3] B. Kroposki, S. Englebretson, C. Pink, J. Daley, R.
Siciliano, D. Hinton, Validation of IEEE P1547.1
Interconnection Test Procedures: ASCO 7000 Soft Load
Transfer System; NREL Report No. TP-560-34870, 2003.
Available: http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy04osti/34870.pdf.
[4] Z. Ye, D. Finney, R. Zhou, M. Dame, B. Premerlani, B.
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http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy03osti/34676.pdf.
[5] Z. Ye, M. Dame, B. Kroposki, Grid-Connected Inverter
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