energies

Article
Analysis of Pressure Rise in a Closed Container Due
to Internal Arcing
Peng Li, Jiangjun Ruan, Daochun Huang *, Ziqing OuYang, Li Zhang, Mingyang Long and
Mengting Wei
School of Electrical Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China; lipeng19891102@126.com (P.L.);
ruan308@126.com (J.R.); 18817512573@163.com (Z.O.); 2015202070026@whu.edu.cn (L.Z.);
whulmy@126.com (M.L.); me_mengtingwei@163.com (M.W.)
* Correspondence: huangdc99@163.com; Tel.: +86-134-6999-2745

Academic Editor: Akhtar Kalam

Received: 30 October 2016; Accepted: 25 February 2017; Published: 2 March 2017

Abstract: When an arc fault occurs in a medium-voltage (MV) metal enclosed switchgear, the arc heats
the filling gas, resulting in a pressure rise, which may seriously damage the switchgear, the building
it is contained in, or even endanger maintenance personnel. A pressure rise calculation method based
on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has been put forward in this paper. The pressure rise was
calculated and the arc tests between the copper electrodes were performed in the container under
different gap lengths by the current source. The results show that the calculated pressure rise agrees
well with the measurement, and the relative error of the average pressure rise is about 2%. Arc volume
has less effect on the pressure distribution in the container. Arc voltage Root-Mean-Square (RMS)
has significant randomness with the change of arc current, and increases with the increase of gap
length. The average arc voltage gradients measure at about 26, 20 and 16 V/cm when the gap lengths
are 5, 10 and 15 cm, respectively. The proportion (thermal transfer coefficient kp ) of the arc energy
leading to the pressure rise in the container is about 44.9%. The pressure is symmetrically distributed
in the container before the pressure wave reaches the walls and the process of the energy release is
similar to an explosion. The maximum overpressure in the corner is increased under the reflection
and superimposition effects of the pressure wave, but the pressure waves will be of no importance
any longer than a few milliseconds in the closed container.

Keywords: switchgear; arc fault; closed container; pressure rise; arc voltage; computational fluid
dynamics (CFD); pressure wave

1. Introduction
Switchgear plays a very important role in electrical energy transport, which has wide application
in the power system [1]. If an arc fault occurs in the medium-voltage (MV) switchgear, a considerable
amount of energy will be released within a short period of time. Parts of the released energy will
increase the thermal energy of the gas in the switchgear and cause the pressure to build-up, which
may cause catastrophic consequences to the switchgear, the building it is contained in, or even the
maintenance personnel [2]. In order to evaluate the pressure stress on the wall, the internal arcing
classification (IAC) tests have been put forward to verify the quality and safety of the switchgear [3].
However, the arc tests require a long test period, as well as substantial manpower and material
resources. Hence, the appropriate calculation methods and the small-scale tests were designed and
carried out to get the pressure effect caused by the arc fault in the closed container.
At present, the calculation methods for the pressure rise include the standard calculation
method (SCM), improved standard calculation (ISCM), CFD and magneto-hydrodynamic (MHD)
calculation [4–7]. When the model size is small and the structure is relatively simple, the SCM and

Energies 2017, 10, 294; doi:10.3390/en10030294 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017, 10, 294 2 of 17

ISCM can produce good results because the propagation time of the pressure wave can be neglected.
The arc plasma itself is modeled in the MHD, which can get an accurate result for the pressure and
temperature distributions, but the computational time is longer for a real switchgear. Hence, CFD is a
suitable tool for calculating the pressure rise caused by the arc fault in the switchgear.
In order to obtain the change of the pressure rise, the arc tests and calculation in simple and small
closed compartments were carried out. Anantavanich et al. [8,9] put forward a method to calculate
the pressure rise, which considered the variation of gas properties according to the SF6 concentration.
The high current (10 and 20 kA, single phase) arc tests in the small container were performed and the
pressure rise was obtained by measurement and calculation. Zhang et al. [2,10] performed the arc
fault tests under different conditions, and presented a theoretical approach to calculate the thermal
transfer coefficient (kp ). Iwata et al. [11–13] carried out the arc tests in a closed container with varying
currents, and the change of the kp and pressure rise with arc current, arc energy, and electrode materials
were obtained. Wahle & Pietsh [14] and Rochette et al. [15,16] proposed a porous filter and energy
absorption device to reduce the pressure rise in the switchgear when the arc fault occurred, and the
efficiency was analyzed by calculation and measurement. Although the arc fault has been studied
widely, there are few pieces of research on the arcing characteristics and the variation of pressure
rise in the container. The arc voltage data from the arc tests with larger gap lengths in the closed
container shows lesser values, which is usually 5 cm or less. However, when the arc fault occurred
in a real switchgear, the gap lengths are usually more than 10 cm. Hence, the studies of the arcing
characteristics and the change rule of the pressure rise with large gap lengths in the closed container
need to be researched further.
In this paper, the simplified energy balance of the arc fault in the switchgear is described, and
the multi-physics coupling analysis method based on CFD is put forward to calculate the pressure
distribution. The arc fault tests are performed in a closed container, and the short-circuit current was
provided by a series circuit of capacitance and inductance. The accuracy of the calculation method was
validated by the arc test. The arcing characteristics and the pressure rise were analyzed under different
conditions. This research can provide a reference for the pressure rise calculation of a real switchgear.

2. Energy Balance of Arc Fault in an MV Switchgear

When an arc fault occurs, the energy (Qarc ) released from the arc will be transferred to its
surroundings via various ways [2,10]. A simplified energy balance of the arc fault in a closed switchgear
is illustrated in Figure 1 [17]. Part of the energy (Qe ) heats up the copper electrodes through heat
conduction. Another part (Qrad ) is radiated by means of electromagnetic waves and is absorbed by the
switchgear walls. A further part is consumed by electrode melting and evaporation (Qmv ). Metal vapor
may react chemically with the insulating gas, resulting in energy release or absorption (Qchem ). The last
part of the energy (Qtherm ) contributes to the surrounding gas by means of heat conduction, convection,
and radiation, which leads to pressure rise in the switchgear. The Qtherm mainly contains: (1) the
part of the energy absorbed directly from the arc by heat transfer; (2) the part of the energy from
the electrodes or the radiation absorbed within the metal vapor cloud; (3) or the energy from the
exothermic chemical reactions. The forms of energy mentioned above can be expressed as:

Qarc ± Qchem = Qe + Qrad + Qmv + Qtherm (1)

Because of the complex process of the arcing, it is difficult to calculate each part of the energy
mentioned above. In order to simplify the analysis, the proportion of the arc energy leading to the
pressure rise (dp) in the switchgear has been used, the term of which is the thermal transfer coefficient
or “kp -factor” [4,5], and it is defined in Equation (2).

k p = Qtherm /Qarc (2)

Energies 2017, 10, 294 3 of 17

Energies 2017, 10, 294 3 of 17

The kThe iskusually

p 2017,
Energies is 294
p 10,
determined
usually determinedbybyfitting
fitting the
the calculated pressure
calculated pressure rise
rise to to
thethe experimental
experimental result result
3 of 17
before the pressure-relief device is open [11], which is related to the arc current, arc
before the pressure-relief device is open [11], which is related to the arc current, arc voltage,voltage, electrode
material, gas
The density,
electrode kmaterial,and
p is usually the volume
gasdetermined
density, offitting
andby
the the test
volumethecontainer.
ofcalculated pressure rise to the experimental result
the test container.
before the pressure-relief device is open [11], which is related to the arc current, arc voltage,
electrode material, gas density, and the volume of the test container.
Qmv Qtherm Qmv

Qmv Qtherm Qmv

arc Qe
Qe
Copper electrode Qarc Copper electrode
Qe arc Qe
Qchem
Copper electrode Qarc Copper electrode
Qrad Enclosure
Qchem
Figure
Figure 1. Simplified
1. Simplified energy
energy balanceof
balance ofthe
the arc Qradbefore
arc fault
fault before the
thepressure
pressure
Enclosure relief device
relief is open.
device is open.

3. Calculation
FigureMethod of the
1. Simplified Pressure
energy Rise
balance Caused
of the bybefore
arc fault Internal Arcing in
the pressure thedevice
relief Switchgear
is open.
3. Calculation Method of the Pressure Rise Caused by Internal Arcing in the Switchgear
3. Calculation
3.1. Calculation Method
Process ofofPressure
the Pressure
Rise Rise Caused by Internal Arcing in the Switchgear
3.1. Calculation Process of Pressure Rise
Generally, the development process of the internal arcing is characterized by four stages: the
3.1. Calculation Process
Generally, of Pressureprocess
Rise
compressionthe development
stage, expansion stage, of the stage,
emission internalandarcing
thermal is stage
characterized by four stages:
[18]. The pressure rise at the
compression
different stage,is
Generally,
stages expansion
thedepicted instage,
development Figure emission
process
2 [19].ofItthestage,
can and
internal
be seen thermal
arcing
that stagetime
theisinfluence [18].of
characterized byThe
four
the pressure
stages:and
pressure rise at
the
compression
different
thermalstages isstage,
effects is notexpansion
depicted theinsame. stage,
FigureWhen emission
2 [19].
the It canstage, and
be seen
switchgear thermal
that
is closed, the stage [18].effect
theinfluence
pressure The of
time pressure risethe
the pressure
is larger on at and
different
switchgear,
thermal stages
effects is is depicted
butnot
the thermal
the same.in Figure
effect
When 2the
[19].switchgear
is smaller. ItThe
canthermal
be seen that the
iseffect hasinfluence
closed, a great
the time of
impact
pressure inthe
thepressure
effect later and
period
is larger on the
thermal
of the effects
arcing. is not
Sweeting the same.
[20,21] When
also the
indicated switchgear
that the is closed,
thermal the
energy pressure
in the effect
plasma
switchgear, but the thermal effect is smaller. The thermal effect has a great impact in the later period is larger
cloud on
(after the of
switchgear,
arc butconstitutes
extinction) the thermal theeffect
thirdismajor
smaller.
hazardThe thermal
the arceffect has a great impact in the later period
the arcing. Sweeting [20,21] also indicated that theofthermal faults.
energy in the plasma cloud (after the arc
of the arcing. Sweeting [20,21] also indicated that the thermal energy in the plasma cloud (after the
extinction) constitutes the third major hazard of the arc faults.
arc extinction) constitutes the third major hazard of the arc faults.
pressurepressure

Pressure-relief device is open

period period

Pressure-relief device is open

period period

expansion
compression

expansion

emission period
compression

thermal period

emission period time

thermal period
Figure 2. Different stages of the pressure rise before and after the pressure relief device is open.
time

AtFigure
the same time, the
2. Different stagesdestructive power
of the pressure riseof highand
before pressure
after theon the switchgear
pressure is isquite
relief device open.serious,
Figure 2. Different stages of the pressure rise before and after the pressure relief device is open.
having the potential to cause a severe explosion phenomenon, and may cause the hot airflow to
escapeAtfrom
the same time, the destructive
the compartment. Hence, inpower
order to ofsimplify
high pressure on the switchgear
the computation, is quite
the pressure serious,
effect in the
having
At the can
the same
switchgear potential
time, thetodestructive
be considered causefirstly.
a severe Theexplosion
power of highphenomenon,
multi-physicspressure
couplingon theandswitchgear
maymethod
analysis causeisthe
quite
based hoton airflow
serious,
CFD hasto
having
escape
been
the potential from
put the compartment.
forward
to cause to calculate
a severe Hence,
the inphenomenon,
pressure
explosion order
rise,to
assimplify
is shownand the
in computation,
mayFigure
cause3. thethe
hotpressure
airfloweffect in thefrom
to escape
switchgear
the compartment. canHence,
The thermal besource
considered
inoforder firstly.
power tothatThecauses
multi-physics
simplify coupling
thecomputation,
the pressure analysis
rise can
the be method
obtained
pressure based
by
effect inon
the “kpCFD
the has
-factor”.
switchgear
been put forward
Through the to calculate
transient coupled the pressure
solution rise, asthe
between is shown in Figure
temperature 3. and fluid field, the pressure
field
can be considered firstly. The multi-physics coupling analysis method based on CFD has been put
The thermal
distribution in thesource of power
switchgear can bethatobtained,
causes the andpressure rise can
the pressure canbebeobtained
correctedbybythe “kp-factor”.
changing the
forward to calculate the pressure rise, as is shown in Figure 3.
Through
value the“ktransient
of the p-factor”.coupled
Since thesolution between
arc itself the temperature
is not modeled field and fluid
and the movement field, theof
characteristic pressure
the arc
The thermalinsource
distribution the of power
switchgear canthat causes the
be obtained, andpressure
the pressure rise can
can bebe obtainedbybychangingthe “kp -factor”.
in the magnetic field and airflow field is not considered, it follows thatcorrected
the processes of mutual the
Through the
value of the
coupling transient
“kp-factor”.
between coupled solution
Since the arc itself
the electromagnetic between
andis not the temperature
modeled and
temperature thethe
fields, field
movement and fluid field,
characteristic
electromagnetic field,ofthe
thepressure
and arc
the
distribution
flow in the
in thefield
magnetic switchgear
field and
are neglected in can
this be
airflow obtained,
field is
method. not
The and the pressure
considered,
calculation time iscan
it follows be that
greatly corrected by changing
the processes
reduced using the value
of method
this mutual
of thecompared
“kp -factor”.
coupling withSince
between MHD, the
the arctheitself
localispressure
electromagnetic
and notandmodeled and the
temperature
distribution movement
isfields,
solved the characteristic
in electromagnetic
the switchgear. of the
field, andarc
thein the
flow field
magnetic field areandneglected
airflow in thisismethod.
field The calculation
not considered, time is
it follows greatly
that reduced using
the processes this method
of mutual coupling
compared
between with MHD, andand
the electromagnetic the local pressure distribution
temperature is solved in the switchgear.
fields, the electromagnetic field, and the flow field are
neglected in this method. The calculation time is greatly reduced using this method compared with
MHD, and the local pressure distribution is solved in the switchgear.
Energies 2017, 10, 294 4 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 294 4 of 17

Start

3D Multi-physics
field model

Fluid-thermal field set

Arc power
kp
Fluid-thermal coupled
Thermal source solution
transient
solution N
Convergence?

Y
Correction
Pressure distribution

End

Figure 3. Flowchart of the pressure rise calculation method.

Figure 3. Flowchart of the pressure rise calculation method.
3.2. CFD Calculation Method
3.2. CFD Calculation Method
3.2.1. Governing Equations
3.2.1. Governing Equations
The method based on CFD is used to obtain the pressure distribution in a switchgear due to arc
The
fault,method
which isbased
based onon CFD is usedhydrodynamic
fundamental to obtain theconservation
pressure distribution in continuity,
laws, such as a switchgearthe due
to arcNAVIER-STOKES equations,
fault, which is based and energy conservation.
on fundamental hydrodynamic Theconservation
general formlaws,
of the conservation
such as continuity,
equations can equations,
the Navier-Stokes be written as [6,7]:
and energy conservation. The general form of the conservation equations
can be written as [6,7]:     t   (v)   ()  S (3)
∂(ρΦ)/∂t + ∇ · (ρvΦ) = ∇ · (ΓΦ ∇Φ) + SΦ (3)
where Φ is the conserved variables under consideration (such as mass, momentum, or enthalpy), ρ is
Φ gas
wherethe is the conserved
density, variables
v is the underΓconsideration
gas velocity, Φ is the corresponding (such as transport
mass, momentum,
coefficient, or
andenthalpy),
SΦ is the ρ is
the gas
source term.v For
density, is the
thegas velocity, Γfluid
compressible Φ is the
in the corresponding
container, the transport
equations of coefficient,
the mass, and SΦ is the
momentum, andsource
term.energy
For theconservations
compressible canfluid
be written
in theas follows: the equations of the mass, momentum, and energy
container,
conservations can be written as follows:
 t   v  0

  v  t ∂ρ/∂t
    v+ v ∇   p= 0  v  +S

· ρv (4)


     


∂(ρv)/∂t  +
h ∇t ·
+ ( 
ρvv h)v = = 
−∇ k · p
T + ∇
k p  ·
Q ( 
η∆v
arc q) + S (4)
 ∂(ρh)/∂t + ∇ · (ρhv) = ∇ · (k∇ T ) + k · Q + q

p arc η
where h is the enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity, η is the dynamic viscosity, S is the component
whereofhthe momentum source term, qη is the viscous dissipation, and Qarc is the energy released from arc.
is the enthalpy, k is the thermal conductivity, η is the dynamic viscosity, S is the component
The whole 3-D region of the switchgear is discretized into small cells with structured or
of the momentum source term, qη is the viscous dissipation, and Qarc is the energy released from arc.
unstructured grid. The coupled problem between the temperature and fluid fields in the switchgear
The whole 3-D region of the switchgear is discretized into small cells with structured or unstructured
can be solved by the finite volume method (FVM).
grid. The Incoupled
order toproblem
solve thebetween the temperature
partial differential equationsand fluid fields
as mentioned in the
above, theswitchgear
equation ofcan
statebe solved
(gas
by thedensity
finite volume method (FVM).
ρ) as function of pressure and temperature should be added [17]:
In order to solve the partial differential equations as mentioned above, the equation of state
=f  p, T  (5)
(gas density ρ) as function of pressure and temperature should be added [17]:
For ideal gas, the equation can be written as:
ρ = f ( p, T ) (5)
pM  RT (6)
For ideal
where R isgas, the constant,
the gas equationwhich
can be
is written
related toas:
the gas type, M is the molar mass of the gas.
The ideal gas state equation is valid when the process of dissociation or ionization is ignored.
Namely, when the interactions between the pM = ρRT are small, Equation (6) can be used. If the
gas molecules (6)
volume of the gas molecules and the interactions between them are considered, the real gas model
wherebyRminimizing
is the gas constant,
Gibbs freewhich
energyisshould
relatedbetoused
the [13].
gas type, M the
Because is the
arcmolar
itself ismass of the gas.
not modeled and the
The ideal gas state equation is valid when the process of dissociation or ionization is ignored.
Namely, when the interactions between the gas molecules are small, Equation (6) can be used. If the
volume of the gas molecules and the interactions between them are considered, the real gas model by
Energies 2017, 10, 294 5 of 17

minimizing Gibbs free energy should be used [13]. Because the arc itself is not modeled and the mean
temperature rise in the container is small before the pressure-relief device is open, the ideal gas state
equation is used to simplify the calculation.

3.2.2. Energy Input and Boundary Conditions

In this method, the arc is regarded as an isolated air thermal source with fixed volume. The power
of the thermal source (P) is calculated by Equation (7), which is homogeneously fed into a small
volume. The volume is smaller with respect to the arcing room.

P = kp × Parc = kp × u × i (7)

where Parc is the arc power, u and i are the arc voltage and current, respectively.
Because the “kp -factor” is applied, the complex energy transfer process is changed to the energy
transfer between the thermal source and air in the container. At the same time, the arc duration is short,
so the walls (such as the container and electrodes) are supposed to be adiabatic during the calculation,
and the thickness of the container wall can be neglected [6].

3.3. Determination of the “kp -factor”

For a symmetric and simple container with small volume, the “kp -factor” can be obtained with
Equation (8):
V · dp V · M · cv · dp
kp = = (8)
(κ − 1) · Qarc R · Qarc
where V and κ are the volume of the gas in the container and the adiabatic coefficient of the insulating
gas, respectively. For air at ambient temperature, the adiabatic coefficient κ is about 1.4 [22]. cv is the
specific heat of the gas at constant volume.
This equation is from the SCM [5], which is based on the energy conservation and ideal gas laws.
It is effective only if the pressure in the container is uniformly distributed at the end of the arcing,
and the pressure difference can be ignored. Hence, this method will yield good results if the structure
of the container is simple and the size is comparatively small. In this case, the pressure gradients
are equalized immediately, and the pressure measured in one position can represent the pressure
distribution in the closed container at the time of arc extinction.
However, if the volume of the container is larger and the structure is more complex, such as the
modern commercial air-insulated switchgear, the propagation time of the pressure wave cannot be
neglected. The pressure difference is significant at different positions before the pressure-relief device
is open, and the distribution characteristics of the pressure in the switchgear should be considered.
Hence, the determination method of the “kp -factor” in Equation (8) is not suitable under this condition,
which should be determined by the CFD method, as shown in Figure 4.
In the flowchart, dp1 and dp2 are the pressure rise of the monitoring point obtained by
measurement and calculation, respectively. The initial value (k0 ) of kp can be approximately determined
by Equation (8). In order to obtain the kp as soon as possible, during the calculation, the convergence
precision can be reduced. Namely, the computational time step can be increased, and the computational
time will be decreased greatly. After the kp is determined, the high precision calculation results of the
pressure distribution can be obtained by recalculation.

3.4. Influence of the Arc Volume on the Calculation of Pressure Rise

When the arc fault happens in the switchgear, the arc shape changes significantly under the action
of electromagnetic, thermal buoyancy, and airflow fields. Because the arc is the input region of the
thermal source, the choice of the arc volume is an important factor in the calculation of pressure rise.
The simulation model has been established to analyze the influence of the arc volume, which is a
closed cylindrical container with a diameter (d) of 30 cm and length (l) of 30 cm, and the axial plane
Energies 2017, 10, 294 6 of 17

of the container is shown in Figure 5. Two identical cylindrical electrodes with diameter of 2 cm are
Energies
arranged 2017, 10, 294
symmetrically in the central of the container, and the gap length is about 5 cm. The 6arc of 17
shape
Energies 2017, 10, 294 6 of 17
is assumed to be cylindrical, the diameter (D) of which is 1 and 2 cm, respectively. The arc current and
The arc shape is assumed to be cylindrical, the diameter (D) of which is 1 and 2 cm, respectively. The
voltage
The iscurrent
5 kA
arc arc shape
rms isand
and
200 V, respectively.
assumed
voltage isto5 kA
The
be cylindrical,
rms and 200 √
kpdiameter
is assumed
therespectively.
V, oftowhich
(D)The be 0.55.
is 1The arc
andto
kp is assumed 2 bepower
cm, then varies
respectively.
0.55. The with
The arc power
time arc
(t) and
current
then is expressed
variesand
with voltage as: 0.55
is and
time (t) 5 kAis× 200 × 5 2 × sin(100πt) kW.
rms and 200 V, respectively. The kp is assumed to be 0.55. The arc power
expressed as: 0.55 × 200 × 5√2 × sin(100πt) kW.
then varies with time (t) and is expressed as: 0.55 × 200 × 5√2 × sin(100πt) kW.
Start
Start Thermal source
Thermal source
Arc power
CFD
Arc power
CFD
Fluid-thermal coupled
Initial value solution
Fluid-thermal coupled
kp=k
Initial value
0 transient
solution
solution
kp=k0 transient
solution
Pressure distribution
kp=k0±dk Pressure distribution
kp=k0±dk
N
|dp2-dp1|/dp1≤10%？
N
|dp2-dp1|/dp1≤10%？
Y
kpY
kp
Figure 4. Flowchart of the kp- determination method.
Figure 4.4.Flowchart
Figure Flowchart of the kkpp- -determination
of the determination method.
method.

Symmetry axis
Symmetry axis
d

arc
d

electrode electrode
arc
electrode electrode

l
l

Figure 5. Cross-section of the simulation model.

Figure5.5.Cross-section
Figure Cross-section of ofthethesimulation
simulation model.
model.
The pressure distribution of the cross section is shown in Figure 6. From the results, we can find
thatThe the pressure
pressuredistribution
is symmetrically of the cross sectioninis the
distributed shown in Figure
container, 6. From
which the results,
indicates that the we can find
pressure
The the
that pressure
pressuredistribution
is of the cross
symmetrically section
distributed in istheshown
container,in Figure
which 6.indicates
From the results,
that the we can find
pressure
wave is symmetrically developed around the arc. The energy release is similar to the explosion
that the
wave pressure is symmetrically
is symmetrically developed distributedthe in arc.
the container, which indicates that the pressure wave
process, and the thermal buoyancyaround of the air has lessThe energy
of an effectrelease
on the is similar
propagation to ofthethe explosion
pressure
is symmetrically
process, and the
wave. According developed
thermal around
to the buoyancy
results, it ofthethe
is arc.
air The
revealed hasthatenergy
less of an
the release
effect onis
calculated similar
the totime
propagation
propagation the ofexplosion
ofthethepressureprocess,
pressure
and the
wave. thermal
Accordingbuoyancy
to the of the
results, air
it is has less
revealed of an
that effect
the on
calculated the
wave from arc to the container wall is about 0.4 ms, indicating that the propagation velocity of the propagation
propagation timeof the
of thepressure
pressure wave.
wave
According
pressure from
to thearc
wave to the
results, container
is similar,it iswith
revealedwall is about
that the
an average 0.4 ms,
calculated
value indicating
of 375 m/s. that the propagation
propagation time of the pressure wave fromvelocity of the
arc topressure Thewave
the container iswall
pressure similar, with an
is about
distribution isaverage
0.4 almost value
ms, indicating
the sameof 375
that
underm/s.
the twopropagation
different arcvelocity
diameters.of theAt thepressure
time ofwave
Thethe pressure distribution
0.4 ms,
is similar, with maximum
an average value is
pressure almost
ofwith
375arc m/s.the same under
diameters of 1 and two2 different
cm is 2.170 arcand
diameters.
2.276 kPa, Atrespectively,
the time of
0.4
and ms,thethe maximum
relative error pressure with arc
is aboutis4.9%. As thediameters of 1 and 2 cm is the 2.170 and 2.276 kPa, respectively,
The pressure distribution almost thearcsameduration
under increases,
two different difference declines.
arc diameters. At
Atthe
thetime
time of
and
of the
10 relative
ms, the error
maximum is about 4.9%.
pressure As
is the
about arc duration
93.4 and increases,
94.6 kPa, the difference
respectively, and declines.
the At the
relative timeis
error
0.4 ms, the
ofonly
10 ms,
maximum
theAlthough
maximum
pressure with arc diameters of 1 and 2 cm is 2.170 and 2.276 kPa, respectively,
0.3%. thepressure
positionisofabout 93.4 and 94.6
the maximum kPa, is
pressure respectively,
different, the and the relative
values error is
of the pressure
and the
only relative
0.3%. error is about
Although the 4.9%. of
position Asthe themaximum
arc duration increases,
pressure is the difference
different, the values declines.
of the At the time
pressure
have less difference. The maximum and minimum pressure rise is about 94.3 and 92.9 kPa
of 10have
ms, the lessmaximum
difference. pressure is about 93.4minimum and 94.6 kPa, respectively, and the relative92.9 error is only
respectively when theThe arc maximum
diameter is and 1 cm, and the percentagepressure rise
erroris isabout
1.5%. 94.3
The and
position ofkPa the
0.3%.respectively
Although the
when position
the arc of the
diameter maximum
is 1 cm, pressure
and the is different,
percentage
maximum pressure is associated with the propagation characteristics of the pressure wave, such error the
is values
1.5%. The of the
position pressure
of theashave
maximum
less difference.
the reflection pressure
Theand is
maximum associated
superposition with
andeffects. the
minimum propagation
pressure
Compared characteristics
rise isofabout
the result of the
these 94.3 pressure
and 92.9arc
two different wave,
kPa such as
respectively
diameters,
whenthethe reflection
the pressure and
arc diameter superposition
is 1 cm,
distribution effects.
and
is closer, the Compared
percentage
indicating thatthe result
error
the of1.5%.
arcisdiameterthese Thetwo
has different
of anarc
position
less diameters,
ofeffect
the on
maximum
the
the
pressure pressure
pressure distribution
is associated with
distribution is propagation
the
when closer,
the indicating
arc takes that
characteristics
up less spacetheinarc ofdiameter
the the has
pressure
container dueless
wave, of such
to the an
higheffect
as theonreflection
the
propagation
pressure distribution when the arc takes up less space in the container due to the high propagation
and superposition effects. Compared the result of these two different arc diameters, the pressure
Energies 2017, 10, 294 7 of 17

distribution is closer, indicating that the arc diameter has less of an effect on the pressure distribution
when the arc takes up less space in the container due to the high propagation velocity of the pressure
wave. In aEnergies 2017, 10, 294
real switchgear, the volume of the arc is smaller compared with the larger 7volume of 17 of the
switchgear,velocity
so theofarc volume has less influence on the pressure distribution, which can
the pressure wave. In a real switchgear, the volume of the arc is smaller compared with be determined
approximately by volume
the larger the realofarcing parameters
the switchgear, (arc
so the arc current,
volume electrode
has less influencesize,
on theetc.). However,
pressure different arc
distribution,
volumes maywhich can
have
Energies be
2017,an determined approximately by the real arcing parameters (arc current,
effect on the temperature distribution in the switchgear due to the7change
10, 294 electrode size,
of 17 of the
etc.). However, different arc volumes may have an effect on the temperature distribution in the
contact area between the arc and the surrounding air.
switchgear
velocity of due to the change
the pressure wave.ofInthe contact
a real area between
switchgear, the arc of
the volume andthethe
arcsurrounding air.
is smaller compared with
the larger volume of the switchgear, so the arc volume has less influence on the pressure distribution,
which can be determined approximately by the real arcing parameters (arc current, electrode size,
etc.). However, different arc volumes may have an effect on the temperature distribution in the
switchgear due to the change of the contact area between the arc and the surrounding air.

0.4 ms 0.4 ms

0.4 ms 0.4 ms

10 ms 10 ms
(a) (b)
Figure 6. Pressure distribution at different time. (a) D = 1 cm; (b) D = 2 cm.
Figure 6. Pressure distribution at different time. (a) D = 1 cm; (b) D = 2 cm.
4. Internal Arc Fault Experiment
10 ms and Pressure Rise Calculation in a10Closed ms Container
(a) (b)
4. Internal Arc Fault Experiment and Pressure Rise Calculation in a Closed Container
4.1. Expermental Method and
Figure 6. Arrangement
Pressure distribution at different time. (a) D = 1 cm; (b) D = 2 cm.
TheMethod
4.1. Expermental current circuit is shown in Figure 7. It mainly demonstrates the capacitance C (4.2 mF) and
and Arrangement
4. Internal Arc
inductance FaultmH),
L (2.412 Experiment and Pressure
and a large Rise aCalculation
current with frequency in
of a50Closed
Hz canContainer
be generated by the
The current
oscillationcircuit is shown
of both. The arc in Figure
current can7.beIt mainly
adjusted demonstrates
by changing the the capacitance
charging voltage ofC (4.2
the mF) and
4.1. Expermental Method isand Arrangement
inductancecapacitance
L (2.412C.mH), The CBand aavacuum
large circuit
currentbreaker
with with a rated short-circuit,
a frequency of 50 Hz making
cana be
current of 80
generated by the
kA, andThe its initialcircuit
current state isisshown
open. inA Figure
rog (Rogowski Coil,
7. It mainly Powertek, Warwickshire,
demonstrates the capacitanceUK)
C (4.2is mF)
usedand
to
oscillation of both. The arc current can be adjusted by changing the charging voltage of the capacitance
measure
inductancetheLarc current.
(2.412 mH),Aand Tektronix-P6015A
a large current HV with(high-voltage)
a frequency ofprobe
50 Hz(Tektronix Inc., Beaverton,
can be generated by the
C. The CBOR, is aUSA)
vacuum
oscillation isofused circuit
The breaker
to measure
both. arc the arcwith
can aberated
voltage.
current short-circuit,
adjusted by changingmaking a current
the charging voltage ofof80the
kA, and its
initial statecapacitance
is open. C. A TherogCB (Rogowski Coil, Powertek, Warwickshire, UK) is used to
is a vacuum circuit breaker with a rated short-circuit, making a current of 80 measure the arc
kA, and its initial state is open. A rog
current. A Tektronix-P6015A HV (high-voltage) probe (Tektronix (Rogowski Coil, Powertek, Warwickshire, UK) is used to
Inc., Beaverton, OR, USA) is used to
L Uc
measure the arc current. A Tektronix-P6015A HV (high-voltage) probe (Tektronix Inc., Beaverton,
measure the arc voltage. C
OR, USA) is used to measure the arc voltage.
Arc voltage

CB
L Uc
C
HV probe
Arc voltage
A B
CB
Rog Int Closed container

HV probe
Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the current circuit.
A B
Rog Int Closed container

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the current circuit.

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of the current circuit.
Energies 2017, 10, 294 8 of 17

The design of the cylindrical closed container is given in Figure 8, with a cross-section diameter
of 70The
cm design of the cylindrical
and a length of 80 cm, and closed container
is made is given
of iron. The in Figure relief
pressure 8, withcover
a cross-section
with a sizediameter
of 29 cmof ×
29 cm located at the top of the container, which is fixed by the high strength bolts, will not be×
70 cm and a length of 80 cm, and is made of iron. The pressure relief cover with a size of 29 cm 29 cm
opened
located at
during thethearcing.
top of the
Thecontainer,
volume of which
this iscontainer
fixed by the high strength
is about 0.311 mbolts, will not be
3. According toopened during
the electrode
the arcing. The volume of this container is about 0.311 m 3 . According to the electrode material when
material when the arc fault occurred in a real switchgear, two identical cylindrical copper electrodes
the arca fault
with occurred
diameter of 2incm a real
are switchgear, two identical cylindrical
arranged symmetrically in the center copper electrodes
of the withThe
container. a diameter
copper
electrodes are fixed on both ends of A and B, and connected with the current circuit byfixed
of 2 cm are arranged symmetrically in the center of the container. The copper electrodes are the
on both ends cables.
high-voltage of A and B, and
The gap connected
length (g) with the current
between circuitelectrodes
the copper by the high-voltage cables. The
can be adjusted, and gap
the
length (g)ofbetween
location the arc the copper
is in electrodes
the center of thecan be adjusted,
container. Theand thebetween
parts location the
of the arc is electrodes
copper in the center of
and
the container. The parts between the copper electrodes and container are insulated
container are insulated by the epoxy resin casing to prevent gas leakage during the arcing. Other by the epoxy resin
casing to prevent
measures are alsogas leakage
taken duringgas
to prevent theleakage,
arcing. Other
such asmeasures
sealant are
andalso takenwashers.
sealing to preventThegas leakage,
gas in the
such ascontainer
closed sealant and sealing
is air with washers. The gas in the closed container is air with ambient pressure.
ambient pressure.

Pressure relief
#3 cover

#4
#2
copper electrode
70 cm

A arc #1

dp B

80 cm

Figure 8. Closed container.

Figure 8. Closed container.

The arc was ignited by the solder wire with a diameter of 0.5 mm, the physical parameters of
whichThearearc was ignited
shown by 1.
in Table theThe
solder wire with
pressure in thea diameter
containerofwas0.5 mm, the physical
measured with a parameters of
piezoresistive
which aresensor,
pressure shown with
in Table
an 1. The pressure
Omega in the container
PX409-100G-5 V (OMEGA was measured
Engineering with a piezoresistive
Inc., Stamford, CT, pressure
USA),
which was installed on the inner wall of the container (dp), as shown in Figure 8. The signals ofwas
sensor, with an Omega PX409-100G-5 V (OMEGA Engineering Inc., Stamford, CT, USA), which the
installed
arc on the
current, arcinner wall of
voltage, and thepressure
containerwere
(dp), as shown in
collected byFigure
an NI8. (National
The signalsInstruments)
of the arc current,
data
arc voltage,card
acquisition and pressure were collected
and LabVIEW software by an NI (National
(LabVIEW8.6, Instruments)Austin,
NI Corporation, data acquisition
TX, USA),cardandand
the
LabVIEW software (LabVIEW8.6, NI Corporation, Austin, TX, USA), and the sampling
sampling frequency is set to 5000 Hz. During the tests, in order to reduce the random fluctuations frequency is set
of
to 5000
the data,Hz.
theDuring the tests,
test number wasin order to when
increased reducethethegap
random
lengthfluctuations
is 10 and 15ofcm.
the data, the test number
was increased when the gap length is 10 and 15 cm.
Table 1. Physical parameters of the solder wire.
Table 1. Physical parameters of the solder wire.
Melting Point (°C) Density (g/cm3) Specific Heat Capacity (kJ· kg−1·K−1) Electrical Resistivity (Ω·m)
Melting183
Point (◦ C) 8.4
Density (g/cm3 ) 0.19 (kJ·kg−1 ·K−1 ) Electrical
Specific Heat Capacity 14.5 × 10−8 (Ω·m)
Resistivity
183 8.4 0.19 14.5 × 10−8
4.2. Change of the Arc Voltage with Current
Because
4.2. Change of of
thethe
Arclow melting
Voltage point of the solder wire, the energy required for fusing it is low.
with Current
Thus, the existence of the solder wire has less of an effect on the arcing characteristic. The typical
Because of the low melting point of the solder wire, the energy required for fusing it is low. Thus,
waveforms of the current and arc voltage at different arc energy values are shown in Figure 9 when
the existence of the solder wire has less of an effect on the arcing characteristic. The typical waveforms
the gap length is 10 cm.
of the current and arc voltage at different arc energy values are shown in Figure 9 when the gap length
is 10 cm.
Energies 2017, 10, 294 9 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 294 9 of 17

4 300 5 500
Arc voltage
3 4 400
200
2 3 300

Arc voltage (V)

Arc voltage (V)
2

Current (kA)
Current (kA) 100 200
1
1
0 0 100
0
-1 0
-100 -1
-2 Current -2 -100
-200 -200
-3 -3
Solder wire fused
-4 -300 -4 -300
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (ms) Time (ms)
(a) (b)
7 400 8 500
300 6 400
5
200 300
4

Arc voltage (V)

Arc voltage (V)

3
Current (kA)

200

Current (kA)
100
2 100
1 0
0 0
-100
-1 -100
-200 -2
-200
-3 -4
-300 -300
-5 -400 -6 -400
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (ms) Time (ms)
(c) (d)
Figure 9. Signals of current and arc voltage under different charging voltages. (a) 3 kV; (b) 4.35 kV;
(c)Signals
Figure 9. 6 kV; andof(d)
current
6.8 kV. and arc voltage under different charging voltages. (a) 3 kV; (b) 4.35 kV;
(c) 6 kV; and (d) 6.8 kV.
As can be seen from Figure 9, the current changes with sine function over arc duration, and the
frequency is about 50 Hz. With the increase of the charging voltage, the arc current and arc duration
As can be seen from Figure 9, the current changes with sine function over arc duration, and the
both increase. The amplitude of the arc current is declined gradually with the energy attenuation of
frequencythe is about 50 Hz.
capacitance. ThereWith the increase
are fluctuations of the
in the arc charging
voltage duringvoltage, the arc
the arcing. Thecurrent and arc
gap voltage has duration
a
both increase. The amplitude of the arc current is declined gradually with the
larger value due to the transient overvoltage and the process of the solder wire fusing, especially at energy attenuation of
the capacitance. There
the initial stage. are fluctuations
Afterwards, in theisarc
the arc voltage voltage
nearly during
constant thethe
because arcing. The
arc burns gap The
stably. voltage
arc has a
voltage
larger value duehastoa significant difference
the transient at different
overvoltage andarcing
the stages.
process According to the local
of the solder wireamplified signal
fusing, especially at
at the starting point of the arcing, as shown in Figure 9a, it can be found
the initial stage. Afterwards, the arc voltage is nearly constant because the arc burns stably. The arc that the gap voltage
decreases in the initial stage and then increases. This is mainly associated with the fusing process of
voltage has a significant difference at different arcing stages. According to the local amplified signal at
the solder wire. The resistance of a solder wire with a length of 10 cm is about 73 mΩ. When the
the starting
currentpoint
goesofthrough
the arcing,
the gap,as shown
the solderin wire
Figure 9a, it gradually
is fused can be foundand thethat the gap voltage
conductivity decreases
of the gap
in the initial
increases, which causes the gap voltage to reduce from a large value at the initial stage. After about solder
stage and then increases. This is mainly associated with the fusing process of the
wire. The0.2 resistance
ms, the solder wire iswire
of a solder fused, anda length
with the arc ofappears
10 cm in the gap.
is about Due to
73 mΩ. Whenthe decreasing
the current goes
throughU-I-characteristic
the gap, the solder of thewire
arc, the arc resistance
is fused graduallyis greater
and than the resistance ofofthe
the conductivity thesolder
gap wire at the which
increases,
beginning of the arcing, and makes the arc voltage increase. With the increase of arc current, the arc
causes the gap voltage to reduce from a large value at the initial stage. After about 0.2 ms, the solder
temperature rises and maintains a high value, which cause the arc resistance to decline. Hence, the
wire is fused, and the arc appears in the gap. Due to the decreasing U-I-characteristic of the arc, the arc
arc voltage is reduced, and remains stable in each arcing cycle.
resistance isWhen
greaterthethan the resistance
charging voltage is 3ofkV, thethe
solder
curvewireof theatarc
thevoltage
beginning of the smooth,
is relatively arcing, and makes the
and the
arc voltage increase.
fluctuations areWith
small.the
With increase of arc
the increase of current, the arc the
charging voltage, temperature
fluctuationsrises
of theand maintains
arc voltage are a high
intensified,
value, which causeand thethe
arcnumber
resistance of spike pulses increases.
to decline. Hence, the Thearcarcvoltage
voltage ishas obvious and
reduced, fluctuations,
remains stable
especially
in each arcing at the end of arcing, as shown in Figure 9c,d, which show a large difference compared
cycle.
with the arcing in an open-air environment. The total energy released by the arc increases with the
When the charging voltage is 3 kV, the curve of the arc voltage is relatively smooth, and the
increase of charging voltage and arc duration, and the pressure in the container will increase
fluctuations are small.
gradually. In general,With the increase
the higher of charging
pressure will voltage,
have an influence theparameters
on the fluctuationsof theofarc
the arc voltage
plasma,
are intensified, and the number of spike pulses increases. The arc voltage has obvious fluctuations,
especially at the end of arcing, as shown in Figure 9c,d, which show a large difference compared
with the arcing in an open-air environment. The total energy released by the arc increases with the
increase of charging voltage and arc duration, and the pressure in the container will increase gradually.
In general, the higher pressure will have an influence on the parameters of the arc plasma, such as
conductivity, density, etc. [23]. Higher pressure also has a significant effect on the motion characteristics
 Energies 2017, 10, 294 10 of 17

such as conductivity, density, etc. [23]. Higher pressure also has a significant effect on the motion
characteristics of the arc due to the heated air movement [24]. However, because the maximum
Energiesamplitude of the arc voltage has no significant change and the pressure in the container is not very
2017, 10, 294 10 of 17
large, the effect of pressure on the arc parameters is lower. Hence, the ups and downs of the arc
voltage curve may be mainly related to the arc motion caused by the higher pressure at the end
of theperiod
arc dueof to the heated
arcing. In orderair
to movement [24]. However,
analyze conveniently, the arcbecause the maximum
voltage RMS at each halfamplitude
wave of the of the
arcing has
arc voltage is defined:
no significant change and the pressure in the container is not very large, the effect of
pressure on the arc parameters is lower. tHence, the ups n and downs of the arc voltage curve may be
 t   ihigher
Qarc  byuthe  u  k   i atk  the
 t  d t  pressure
2

mainly related to the arc motion caused / f end period of arcing. In order
(9) to
t1
k 1
analyze conveniently, the arc voltage RMS at each half wave of the arcing is defined:
n (10)
Z t2 uarc  Qarc  f / n  
i k
k 1
Qarc =
t1
u(t) · i (t)dt = ∑ u(k) · i (k)/ f (9)
where t1 and t2 are the time of the arc current passing across k =1 zero, u(k) is the arc voltage of sampling
point k, i(k) is the arc current of sampling point k, n is the number of sampling points, f is the
n
arc = Qarc · f / ∑ i ( k )
sampling frequency, and uarc is the arcu voltage RMS. (10)
The change of the arc voltage with the current peak k =1at different gap lengths is shown in Figure
10. It can be seen from the results that the change of the arc voltage with the arc current is relatively
where t1 and t2 are the time of the arc current passing across zero, u(k) is the arc voltage of sampling
complex, and neither have any definite relation, which indicates the randomness of the arc voltage is
k, i(k) for
point larger is the arc current of sampling point k, n is the number of sampling points, f is the sampling
longer gap lengths. However, according to the change trend of the arc voltage, we can see
frequency, and
that the arcuarc is theincreases
voltage arc voltage
withRMS.
the arc current, but the rate of rise is smaller. When the gap
The change
lengths are 5,of10theandarc15voltage
cm, the with the current
variation ranges ofpeak at different
the arc gap
voltage are lengths188–238,
116–143, is shown in Figure
223–304 V, 10.
It canand
be the
seen from the
standard results of
deviations that the are
which change
11.06,of theand
17.16 arc 25.32,
voltage with the The
respectively. arc fluctuation
current is ofrelatively
the
arc voltage
complex, and neitheris intensified
have anywith the relation,
definite increase of gap indicates
which length, which is mainly attributed
the randomness of the arctovoltage
the is
largerfluctuation
for longerofgap the lengths.
arc itself when the gap
However, length is larger.
according to the change trend of the arc voltage, we can see
that the arc The influence
voltage of the with
increases gap length
the arconcurrent,
the arc but
voltage is larger
the rate than
of rise the arc current,
is smaller. When the and gap
the arc
lengths
voltage is obviously increased with the increase in gap length. When the gap lengths are 5, 10 and 15
are 5, 10 and 15 cm, the variation ranges of the arc voltage are 116–143, 188–238, 223–304 V, and the
cm, the average potential gradients of the arc are 26, 20 and 16 V/cm, respectively, which is
standard deviations of which are 11.06, 17.16 and 25.32, respectively. The fluctuation of the arc voltage
gradually decreased with the increase in gap length. The potential gradient of the arc in the closed
is intensified with the increase of gap length, which is mainly attributed to the fluctuation of the arc
container is greater than that of an open-air environment [25]. Hence, for a real switchgear, the arc
itself when the
voltage should gap belength is larger.
obtained by reference to the actual arc test.

350
Gap length-5 cm Gap length-15 cm
Gap length-10 cm
300
Arc voltage RMS (V)

250

200

150

100
2 4 6 8 10
Current Peak (kA)

Figure 10. Change of the arc voltage with current peak under different gap lengths.
Figure 10. Change of the arc voltage with current peak under different gap lengths.
4.3. Pressure Rise in the Container
The influence of the
The pressure gap length
signals due to on
thethe arc voltage
arcing is larger
in a closed thanare
container theshown
arc current,
in Figureand11the arc the
when voltage
is obviously
chargingincreased with
voltages are 4.35the increase
and 6 kV (g in gap
= 10 length.
cm). Whenatthe
The signals gapvalues
other lengths
are are 5, 10only
similar; andthe
15 cm,
the average potential gradients
amplitudes are different. of the arc are 26, 20 and 16 V/cm, respectively, which is gradually
decreasedFrom
with these
the increase
results, in gapbe
it can length. The the
seen that potential gradient
pressure is closeof
tothe arc variation
linear in the closed
with container
the arc is
duration,
greater butof
than that the
ansignals show
open-air large fluctuations.
environment These are
[25]. Hence, formainly
a real related to the the
switchgear, complex changeshould
arc voltage of
be obtained by reference to the actual arc test.

4.3. Pressure Rise in the Container

The pressure signals due to the arcing in a closed container are shown in Figure 11 when the
charging voltages are 4.35 and 6 kV (g = 10 cm). The signals at other values are similar; only the
amplitudes are different.
From these results, it can be seen that the pressure is close to linear variation with the arc duration,
but the signals show large fluctuations. These are mainly related to the complex change of the arc
Energies 2017, 10, 294 11 of 17

energy (the arc power has large fluctuations during the arcing in the container), and the reflection of
the pressure waves
Energies 2017, 10, 294on the walls. For a further study of the signals, it can be found that the 11 maximum
of 17
pressure does not stop rising immediately at the time of arc extinction (the last time the arc current
the arc energy (the arc power has large fluctuations during the arcing in the container), and the
passes across current zero and the arc current is interrupted), but appears as a small increase of about
reflection of the pressure waves on the walls. For a further study of the signals, it can be found that
1 kPa. For these reasons, the pressure increase after arc extinction may be due to three conditions:
the maximum pressure does not stop rising immediately at the time of arc extinction (the last time
(1) there still exists energy input, e.g., a continuous evaporation of the electrode material and the
the arc current passes across current zero and the arc current is interrupted), but appears as a small
effectincrease
of the post-arc
of about period;
1 kPa. For (2)these
the reflection
reasons, theand superposition
pressure of the
increase after arc pressure
extinctionwaves;
may be anddue to(3) the
disturbances of the measuring
three conditions: system.
(1) there still existsHowever, by the
energy input, time
e.g., of arc extinction,
a continuous the pressure
evaporation balance has
of the electrode
been material
established and with uniform
the effect of thedistribution (almost
post-arc period; no reflection
(2) the pressure and difference) in theof
superposition container because
the pressure
waves; and (3)
the propagating the disturbances
velocity of the wave
of the pressure measuring system. However,
is equivalent by the
to the speed oftime of arc
sound. If extinction,
there is nothe energy
pressure balance has been established with uniform distribution (almost
input after the arc extinction, the magnitude of the pressure will not be increased, but fluctuation no pressure difference) in
the container because the propagating velocity of the pressure wave is equivalent
due to the reflection of the pressure wave on the walls will be experienced. In Section 3.4, during the to the speed of
sound. If there is no energy input after the arc extinction, the magnitude of the pressure will not be
calculation, the arc power is set to zero after the arc duration exceeds 10 ms, and the pressure curve is
increased, but fluctuation due to the reflection of the pressure wave on the walls will be experienced.
fluctuating under the reflection of the pressure waves, but the maximum amplitude of the pressure is
In Section 3.4, during the calculation, the arc power is set to zero after the arc duration exceeds 10 ms,
of almost no change. Hence, the reflection of the pressure waves may not be the main reason for the
and the pressure curve is fluctuating under the reflection of the pressure waves, but the maximum
pressure increase
amplitude after
of the the arcisextinction.
pressure of almost no change. Hence, the reflection of the pressure waves may
At
notthe
be thesamemaintime, a frequency
reason analysis
for the pressure of the
increase pressure
after the arc signal during different periods has been
extinction.
analyzed At by the
fastsame
Fourier transform (FFT). The results show that
time, a frequency analysis of the pressure signal during the electromagnetic
different periods shielding
has beenof the
analyzed by
measurement Fast Fourier
system worksTransform
well, so the(FFT). The results
increase show that the
of maximum electromagnetic
pressure after theshielding of the has
arc extinction
measurement
nothing to do withsystem works well, of
the disturbances so the
the increase
measuring of maximum
system. pressure after the arc extinction has
nothing
After thetoarc
do with the disturbances
current is interrupted, of the
themeasuring
temperature system. of the gap needs time to decay under the
After the arc current is interrupted, the temperature of the gap needs time to decay under the
action of the post-arc current and residual plasma cloud, which may still be higher than the melting
action of the post-arc current and residual plasma cloud, which may still be higher than the melting
temperature of the copper electrodes [21]. Hence, the energy released by the glowing metal droplets,
temperature of the copper electrodes [21]. Hence, the energy released by the glowing metal droplets,
the post arc current,
the post arc current,andand residual
residual plasma
plasmamaymay bebe the reasonsfor
the reasons forthe
the pressure
pressure increase
increase withwith a small
a small
valuevalue
after after
the arc
the arc extinction. Although the released energy is less, the pressure rise will obviously be
extinction. Although the released energy is less, the pressure rise will obviously
due tobe due to thevolume
the small of theofcontainer.
small volume the container.

15 20

15
10
Pressure (kPa)
Pressure (kPa)

10
End of arcing
5 Relative
pressure Arc 5 Arc
duration duration
0 50 ms 60ms
0

Starting point of arcing

-5 -5
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (ms) Time (ms)
(a) (b)

Figure 11. Change of the pressure rise with arc duration for different charging voltages. (a) 4.35kV;
Figure 11. Change of the pressure rise with arc duration for different charging voltages. (a) 4.35kV;
(b) 6 kV.
(b) 6 kV.
4.4. Relationship Between Pressure Rise and Arc Energy
4.4. Relationship Between Pressure Rise and Arc Energy
The pressure rise in the closed container is closely related to the energy release from the arc.
The pressure
Therefore, it is rise in thetoclosed
necessary analyzecontainer
the changeisofclosely
pressure related to the
rise with energy
respect to therelease fromThe
arc energy. the arc.
energyitrelease
Therefore, during the
is necessary toarcing can the
analyze be calculated
change of by pressure
Equation (9).riseDue to the
with energytoconsumption
respect the arc energy.
of fusing
The energy the solder
release during wire
thebeing
arcingonly
canabout 15 J, its effect
be calculated can be negligible
by Equation compared
(9). Due to with
the energy the arc
consumption
energy (the minimum arc energy is about 5.982 kJ in the experiments). The relationship between
of fusing the solder wire being only about 15 J, its effect can be negligible compared with the arc energy
pressure rise and arc energy for different gap lengths is given in Figure 12. It is observed that the
(the minimum arc energy is about 5.982 kJ in the experiments). The relationship between pressure
pressure rise is close to a linear increase in arc energy, and the change is relatively consistent under
rise and arc energy for different gap lengths is given in Figure 12. It is observed that the pressure rise
is close to a linear increase in arc energy, and the change is relatively consistent under different gap
Energies 2017, 10, 294 12 of 17

lengths. It implies that the pressure rise in the container is mainly related to the arc energy under the
Energies
current 2017, 10, 294 conditions, and the impact of the gap length is smaller. However, the
experimental 12 of 17
increase
of arc energy is nearly in linear variation with the initial gap length [26]. The relationship between
different gap lengths. It implies that the pressure rise in the container is mainly related to the arc
pressure riseunder
energy (dp) and the arc energy
current (Qarc ) is obtained
experimental by and
conditions, the least squareofcurve-fitting
the impact method,
the gap length as shown
is smaller.
in Figure 12, which can be expressed as follows:
However, the increase of arc energy is nearly in linear variation with the initial gap length [26]. The
relationship between pressure rise (dp) and arc energy (Qarc) is obtained by the least square
dp = 0.5789
curve-fitting method, as shown (kPa/kJ)
in Figure ·Qarc
12, which can(kJ) + 0.8642 (kPa)
be expressed as follows: (11)

dp = 0.5789 (kPa/kJ)·Qarc2(kJ) + 0.8642 (kPa)

The square of the fitting correlation coefficient R is 0.989 and the standard deviation is(11) 0.5258,
proving the Thevalidity
square of of the
thefitting
fitting.correlation
As can becoefficient
seen fromR2Figure
is 0.98912,
and
thethe standard
curve deviation
obtained is 0.5258,
by linear fitting is
proving the
well aligned with validity of the fitting.
the original data. As can be seen from Figure 12, the curve obtained by linear fitting
is well aligned with the
Since the size of the container original data.
is smaller and the structure is relatively simple, the kp can be
Since the size of the container is smaller and the structure is relatively simple, the kp can be
determined by Equation (8). The specific heat cv is mainly related to the gas temperature and pressure.
determined by Equation (8). The specific heat cv is mainly related to the gas temperature and
However, in this experiment, the pressure has less of an effect when the value of which is not as large.
pressure. However, in this experiment, the pressure has less of an effect when the value of which is
By measuring the air temperature in the container, we found that the average temperature is only
not as large. By measuring the air temperature in the container, we found that the average
abouttemperature
323 K when the arc
is only aboutenergy
323 Kiswhen
33.326 thekJ.
arcThe temperature
energy is 33.326 kJ.has
Theatemperature
large effecthason athe specific
large effect heat
whenon it the
exceeds
specific1000 K when
heat [27]. Hence,
it exceedsthe1000
specific
K [27].heat in Equation
Hence, (8)heat
the specific canin still take the
Equation (8)value at take
can still a normal
temperature,
the value i.e.,
at a 0.717
normalJ/(g ·K).
temperature, i.e., 0.717 J/(g·K).
FromFromEquationEquation
(11), (11),
the dp/Qthe dp/Q arc (the
arc (the slopeslope of curve)
of the the curve) is close
is close to a constant
to a constant of 0.5789.
of 0.5789. According
According to Equation (8), the k is about 0.449 when the arc energy is larger.
to Equation (8), the kp is about 0.449 when the arc energy is larger. Hence, the proportion of the arc
p Hence, the proportion
energyof leading
the arc energy leading
to pressure risetoinpressure
the containerrise inisthe container
about 44.9%.isAt about 44.9%.time,
the same At the
thesame
changetime, the
of pressure
change of pressure rise with arc energy is similar for different gap lengths. It indicates that the kp is
rise with arc energy is similar for different gap lengths. It indicates that the kp is not strongly influenced
not strongly influenced by the gap length and arc energy when the value of arc energy is smaller, as
by the gap length and arc energy when the value of arc energy is smaller, as described in this paper.
described in this paper. However, if the arc energy continues to increase, the change of kp needs to be
However, if the arc energy continues to increase, the change of kp needs to be researched further.
researched further.

25
Gap length 5 cm
Gap length 10 cm
20
Gap length 15 cm
Fitting
Pressure (kPa)

15

10

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Arc energy (kJ)
Figure 12. Change of the pressure rise with arc energy under different gap lengths.
Figure 12. Change of the pressure rise with arc energy under different gap lengths.
4.5. Simulation Results Verification and Pressure Distribution in the Container
4.5. Simulation Results Verification and Pressure Distribution in the Container
4.5.1. Verification of the Simulation Method
4.5.1. Verification of the Simulation Method
In order to verify the accuracy of the calculation, the results between calculation and
measurement
In are compared.
order to verify the accuracyWhen thecalculation,
of the charging voltage of the
the results capacitance
between is 6 kVand
calculation andmeasurement
the gap
are compared. When the charging voltage of the capacitance is 6 kV and the gap length is of
length is 10 cm, with the pressure signal obtained by measuring shown in Figure 11b, the change 10 cm,
with arc
thepower withsignal
pressure arc duration is shown
obtained in Figure shown
by measuring 13, which
in is obtained
Figure 11b,by thechange
the arc voltage
of arctimes
powerarc with
current (the arc voltage and arc current are obtained by measuring as described in Section 4.2). The
arc duration is shown in Figure 13, which is obtained by the arc voltage times arc current (the arc
arc energy is about 27.488 kJ. The results show that the change rule of arc power is consistent with
voltage and arc current are obtained by measuring as described in Section 4.2). The arc energy is about
the arc current, which varies with sine function, and the oscillation period is about 10 ms. In each
27.488 kJ. The results
occurrence show that
of the current thebeing
value change
zero,rule
the of
arcarc power
power is consistent
is also with
at zero. The the arc current,
fluctuations which
of the arc
varies with sine function, and the oscillation period is about 10 ms. In each occurrence of the current
value being zero, the arc power is also at zero. The fluctuations of the arc power are large, especially at
Energies 2017, 10, 294 13 of 17

the initial of arcing, which is related to the sudden increase of arc voltage near a current value of zero.
In order to simplify the analysis, the arc power at each cycle is taken as sine rule changing with the arc
duration, and can be calculated as follow:
Energies 2017, 10, 294 13 of 17
Energies 2017, 10, 294 13 of 17
power are large, especially Parcat=the t) × i (oft)arcing,
u(initial = Pmax · |sinis(100πt
which related)|to .(W the) sudden increase of arc (12)
voltageare
power nearlarge,
a current value at
especially of the
zero.initial
In order to simplify
of arcing, which theisanalysis,
related to thethe arcsudden
power at each cycle
increase of arcis
taken
where u(t) and
voltage asnear
sine
i(t) arule
are changing
the
current arc
value with
voltage theand
of zero. arc duration,
current,
In order and canthe
beanalysis,
respectively,
to simplify calculated
andthe Pasmax
follow:
arc is the at
power maximum
each cycle of is the arc
taken asatsine rule changing with the arctime
duration, and can bereaching
calculatedthe as follow:
power signal each arcing cycle (atParc  u  t   i  t   Pmax  sin 100πt  .(W)
the of arc current peak value). (12)
The simulation parameters areParc setbyu  treference
  i t   Pmaxto Section
sin 100πt3.4,
 .(Wand
) the “kp -factor” is about (12) 0.51 in
where u(t) and i(t) are the arc voltage and current, respectively, and Pmax is the maximum of the arc
this experimental condition according to Equation (8). Considering the symmetry of the experimental
power u(t)
where signaland at i(t)
each arcing
are cycle
the arc (at the
voltage andtime of arc respectively,
current, current reaching andthe Pmaxpeak
is thevalue).
maximum of the arc
container, inThe order to simplify the calculation,
simulation
the 1/4 model3.4, has been built to calculate the pressure
power signal at eachparameters
arcing cycleare (atset
theby reference
time to Section
of arc current reaching andthe thepeak
“kp-factor”
value). is about 0.51 in
distribution
this Thein the
experimental container by the
condition according
simulation parameters CFD-method. to Equation
are set by reference The pressure
(8). 3.4,
to Section obtained
Considering
and the “kpthe by the measurement
symmetry
-factor” is about of0.51the
in and
calculation is shown
experimental
this experimental in Figure
container, 14. It can
in orderaccording
condition be seen
to simplifytotheEquationthat the
calculation, change of
(8).theConsideringthe
1/4 model hasthe pressure
been with arc duration
built to calculate
symmetry of the by
the
calculation pressure
is in accord
experimental distribution
with that
container, in the
of the
in order container
measurement,
to simplify by the CFD-method.
but the
the calculation, The
thefluctuations
1/4 model has pressure
ofbeen obtained
the built
pressure by the
rise obtained
to calculate
measurement
the pressure are
by the experiment andlarger.
calculation
distribution isis
in the
This shown in Figure
container
mainly dueby to 14.the
the It can be seenchange
CFD-method.
complex that
The the change
pressure
of of the
the obtained
arc pressure
energy by during
the the
with arc duration and by calculation is in accord with14.that of the measurement, but the fluctuations of
arcing, measurement
so the fluctuations calculation
of the isarcshown
power in Figure
are bigger It can
in be
theseen that the change
process of arcing.of However,
the pressure
in order
the pressure
with rise obtained
arc duration by the experiment
by calculation is in accordare withlarger.
that of This
theismeasurement,
mainly due to but the complex change of
the fluctuations
to simplify theenergy
arc
the pressure
calculation,
riseduring
obtained
the
the fluctuations
arcing,
by
ofare
so the fluctuations
the experiment
the arc power
larger.ofThis
the is are
arcmainly
power ignored.
duearetobiggerHence,
in thethe
the complex
fluctuation of
process
change of
the calculated
arcing.
the pressure
arc However,
energy during rise
in order is
the tosmaller.
simplify
arcing, When the
thefluctuations
so the calculation, ofarc duration
thethe
fluctuations is 60
arc powerofare ms, the
thebigger average
arc power
in theare pressure
ignored.
process of rise
obtained by measurement
Hence,
arcing. the fluctuation
However, and
in order calculation
of the
to calculated
simplify the are about
pressure
calculation,rise18.37
isthe and 17.89
smaller. WhenkPa,
fluctuations the
of the respectively,
arc duration
arc power is 60
are and
ms,thethe relative
ignored.
average
error is Hence,
only about pressure
the 2%. rise
fluctuationTheof obtained
error by measurement
the calculated
is mainly pressure
from the and
rise calculation
is smaller.
estimation ofare
When kp theabout
by arc 18.37 and
duration
Equation is 17.89
(8) 60
and kPa,
ms,thetheignored
respectively,
average
fluctuations theand
of pressure arcthe relative
rise
power obtainederror
during byismeasurement
onlycalculation.
the about 2%.and Thecalculation
errorthe
On is mainly from
are about
whole, the estimation
18.37
a rather and
good of kkPa,
17.89 p by
agreement on
Equation (8) and the relative
respectively, ignorederror
fluctuations of the2%.
is only about arc The
power errorduring the calculation.
is mainly On the whole,
from the estimation of kp by a
pressure rise between the calculation and measurement can be obtained, and the calculation method
rather good
Equation (8)agreement
and the ignoredon pressure rise between
fluctuations of the arc the power
calculation
duringandthe measurement
calculation. can be obtained,
On the whole, a
is verified.
and thegood
rather calculation
agreement method is verified.
on pressure rise between the calculation and measurement can be obtained,
and the calculation method is verified.
2000
2000

1500
(kW)(kW)

1500

1000
Arc power

1000
Arc power

500
500

0
-200
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
-200 Time (ms)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (ms)
Figure 13. Charge of the arc power with arc duration.
Figure 13. Charge of the arc power with arc duration.
Figure 13. Charge of the arc power with arc duration.
25
25
20
20
15
(kPa)

15
(kPa)

10
Pressure

10
Pressure

5
5
0 Calculated
0 Measured
Calculated
-5
20 30 0 10 40 Measured
50 60
-5
20 Time30(ms) 40
0 10 50 60
Time
Figure 14. Pressure rise obtained by(ms)
calculation and measurement.
Figure 14. Pressure rise obtained by calculation and measurement.
Figure 14. Pressure rise obtained by calculation and measurement.
Energies 2017, 10, 294 14 of 17

4.5.2. Pressure Distribution in the Container

The pressure distribution of the symmetry plane of the container at different times is shown in
Figure 15. From
Energiesthese
2017, 10,results,
294 we find that the pressure is symmetrically distributed in17the container
14 of

before the pressure waves

4.5.2. Pressure reach in
Distribution thethewalls.
Container The pressure is decreased gradually from the arc to the
wall and the maximum pressure is located in the vicinity of the arc zone. After the pressure waves
The pressure distribution of the symmetry plane of the container at different times is shown in
reach the wall, the15.reflection
Figure From these effect
results, of
we the
find pressure wave
that the pressure appears on distributed
is symmetrically the wall,inwhich obviously causes
the container
before the pressure waves reach the walls. The pressure is
the overpressure near the wall to increase, and the pressure amplitude is greater than decreased gradually from the arc to the the in areas
wall and
Energies the10,maximum
2017, 294 pressure is located in the vicinity of the arc zone. After the pressure waves 14 of 17
located in the middle
reach of the
the wall, container,
the reflection effectasofshown at the
the pressure wavetimes of 1.1
appears andwall,
on the 1.2which
ms. Hence,
obviouslythe reflection
and superposition
causes the overpressure near the wall to increase, and the pressure amplitude is greater than thewith
4.5.2. effects
Pressure of the
Distributionpressure
in the wave
Container should not be ignored in a switchgear in a complex
areas
structure, and the located in the middle of the container, as shown at the times of 1.1 and 1.2 ms. Hence, the
The pressure difference
pressure distribution of thewill be larger
symmetry plane offorthe different
container at positions
different timesinisthe
shownswitchgear
in [28].
reflection and superposition effects of the pressure wave should not be ignored in a switchgear with
Figure 15.
With the increase ofFrom
arc these results, we
duration, thefindpressure
that the pressure is symmetrically
difference is distributed
reduced at in the container
various positions in the
a complex structure, and the pressure difference will be larger for different positions in the
before the pressure waves reach the walls. The pressure is decreased gradually from the arc to the
container, and the pressure
switchgear [28]. With tends to be more
the increase of arc uniformly
duration, the distributed.
pressure difference is reduced at various
wall and the maximum pressure is located in the vicinity of the arc zone. After the pressure waves
positions in the container, and the pressure tends to be more uniformly distributed.
reach the wall, the reflection effect of the pressure wave appears on the wall, which obviously
causes the overpressure near the wall to increase, and the pressure amplitude is greater than the in
areas located in the middle of the container, as shown at the times of 1.1 and 1.2 ms. Hence, the
reflection and superposition effects of the pressure wave should not be ignored in a switchgear with
a complex structure, and the pressure difference will be larger for different positions in the
switchgear [28]. With the increase of arc duration, the pressure difference is reduced at various
positions in the container, and the pressure tends to be more uniformly distributed.

0.1 ms 0.5 ms 0.8 ms 1.0 ms 1.1 ms 1.2 ms

Figure 15. Pressure distribution of the cross section in the container.

Figure 15. Pressure distribution of the cross section in the container.
In order to analyze the change of the pressure rise in the container, the monitor points #1–#4
have been selected, as shown in Figure 8. The monitor points are all located in the internal surface
In orderoftotheanalyze the change of the pressure rise in the container, the monitor points #1–#4 have
walls. Points #3 and #4 are located in the corner near the pressure relief cover, and point #1 is
been selected, as shown
located in
0.1the in Figure
ms corner 0.5 8.
between theThe
ms wall monitor
and0.8 ms points
electrode. Figure1.0are
16 all located
ms show 1.1 msinofthe
the change internal
the pressure
1.2 ms rise surface of the
walls. Pointswith arc duration
#3 and #4 arefor differentin
located monitor
the points, which
corner near have
the been compared
pressure with
relief
Figure 15. Pressure distribution of the cross section in the container.
the result
cover, and obtained
point #1 is located
by the SCM-method. After an arc duration of 5 ms, pressure waves are of no longer of any
in the cornerimportance
betweenand the wall and electrode. Figure 16 show the change
the pressure in the container is close to uniform distribution. Moreover, the pressure
of the pressure rise with
In order to analyze the change of the pressure rise in the container, the monitor points #1–#4
arc durationdifference
for different monitor
for different monitor points,
points iswhich have the
small. Hence, been compared
curves only show with thebefore
the results
have been selected, as shown in Figure 8. The monitor points are all located in the internal surface
result anobtained
arc by the
SCM-method. duration
After ofan5 ms.
arc From these results,
duration of 5 we
ms,findpressure
that the starting
waves timeare
of the
of pressure
no rise isof
longer theany
sameimportance
for and
of the walls. Points #3 and #4 are located in the corner near the pressure relief cover, and point #1 is
monitor points #1, #3, and #4, which is about 0.9 ms. The average propagation velocity of the
located
the pressurepressure in
in the wave the corner
container between the wall and electrode. Figure 16 show the change
is close to uniform distribution. Moreover, the pressure difference for of the pressure rise
by calculation is about 445 m/s, which is greater than the speed of sound under
with arc duration for different monitor points, which have been compared with the result obtained
different monitor
standard points is
conditions. small. Hence,
According to thethe curves only
propagation velocityshow and the
by the SCM-method. After an arc duration of 5 ms, pressure waves are of no longer of any
results before
the distance, the time an arc duration of
of the
pressureresults,
5 ms. From these wave reaching monitor point #2starting
is about 1.2 ms, which is pressure
the same asrise the starting time of
importance and the pressure in the container is close to uniform distribution. Moreover, the pressure for monitor
we find that the time of the is the same
the pressure rise in Figure 16. Hence, the greater starting time of the pressure rise for monitor point
difference
points #1, #3,#2and for different monitor points is small. Hence, the curves only
#4, which is about 0.9 ms. The average propagation velocity of the pressure wave show the results before an arc
is due to it being located further away from the arc.
duration of 5 ms. From these results, we find that the starting time of the pressure rise is the same for
by calculation is about 445 m/s, which
monitor points #1, #3, and #4, 3.5
is greater than the speed of sound under standard conditions.
which is about 0.9 ms. The average propagation velocity of the
According topressure
the propagation
wave by calculation is aboutthe
velocity and 445distance,
#m/s,
1 whichthe time of
is greater thanthethepressure
speed of wave reaching monitor
sound under
3
standard conditions. According
point #2 is about 1.2 ms, which is the same as the to the propagation velocity and the distance,
# 2 starting time of the pressure rise in Figure the time of the 16. Hence,
pressure wave reaching monitor2.5 point #2 is #about
3 1.2 ms, which is the same as the starting time of
the greater starting time of the pressure rise for#monitor point #2 is due to it being located further away
Pressure (kPa)

the pressure rise in Figure 16. Hence, 2 the greater

4 starting time of the pressure rise for monitor point
from the arc.#2 is due to it being located further away from SCM the arc.
1.5
3.5
1
#1
0.53
#2
2.5
0 #3
Pressure (kPa)

-0.52 #4
0 1 SCM 2 3 4 5
1.5 Time (ms)
1

0.5
0

-0.5
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (ms)

Figure 16. Change of the pressure with arc duration at different monitor points by computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) and standard calculation method (SCM).
Energies 2017, 10, 294 15 of 17

The propagation velocity (v) of the pressure wave is equal to the local speed of sound, which
depends on the temperature and pressure, and it can be calculated with the following equation:
p
v= κ · p/ρ (13)

where κ is the heat capacity ratio, p is the pressure, and ρ is the density. The propagation velocity is
proportional to the pressure and temperature, and the velocity increases with the arc duration due to
the increase of pressure.
It can be seen from the Figure 16 that the pressure development at the monitor points shows some
fluctuations before an arc duration of 5 ms, which is related to the reflections of the pressure wave on
the walls. The pressure difference for the monitor points is only large as the pressure wave reaches
the wall, and the difference is gradually decreased with continuous arcing, which indicates that the
pressure in the container is balanced immediately with a uniform pressure distribution due to the fast
propagation velocity of the pressure wave. Although monitor points #1, #3 and #4 are all located in the
corner of the container, the pressure at point #1 has a larger fluctuation and amplitude than the other
monitor points. The change trend of the pressure curves for #3 and #4 is similar. Hence, the reflection
effects of the pressure waves on the walls are different for different monitor points. At some time
values, the maximum pressure at monitor point #1 is greater than others due to the stronger reflection
and superposition effects of the pressure wave. When the arc duration is about 2.4 ms, the pressure
peak at point #1 is about twice as large as at other points. These results suggest that the pressure rise
in the position with a larger corner (i.e., the area of the surfaces that compose the corner is large) in the
container is increased significantly at some time values, and the maximum value is greater than other
areas with small corners within a given period of arcing (within a few milliseconds).
From Figure 16, we also know that the result obtained by the SCM-method cannot reflect the
reflection and superposition effects of the pressure wave at the beginning of the arcing, which can
only present the variation of average pressure rise in the container. For a real switchgear with a
pressure-relief device, the pressure difference will be larger at different positions due to the complex
structure. If the SCM-method is used to calculate the pressure rise in a real switchgear, it will lead
to an unreasonable result before the pressure-relief device is open. It is of significance to note that
when we want to know the location of the maximum pressure in the switchgear, the SCM-method has
obvious shortcomings when compared with the CFD method.

5. Conclusions
In order to study the arcing characteristic and the variation of pressure rise in a closed container
due to the arc fault, small-scale experiments were carried out, as well as spatial resolved pressure rise
calculations. The results are summarized as follows.

(1) Arc volume has less influence on the calculation of pressure distribution when the arc duration is
short and the arc length is relatively fixed. The relative error of the average pressure rise between
the measurement and calculation is about 2%. Hence, the CFD-method can produce a good
spatial pressure distribution in a closed container. The application in a real switchgear will be
carried out in the further research.
(2) The arc voltage shows fluctuations with the increase of pressure and temperature in a closed
container, especially at the end period of arcing (at low currents). Arc voltage RMS changing with
arc current shows a large degree of randomness, and the fluctuations of which increase with the
increase of gap length. When the gap lengths are 5, 10 and 15 cm, the average potential gradients
of the arc are about 26, 20 and 16 V/cm, respectively.
(3) The pressure rise in the container increases with the increase of arc energy, and both show a good
relation with linear function. The proportion (kp ) of the arc energy leading to pressure rise in the
container is about 44.9%. There is less influence of gap length and arc energy on kp when the
Energies 2017, 10, 294 16 of 17

arc energy is low. For higher arc energy, the change of the pressure rise and kp under different
electrode types (rod or plane electrodes) needs to be performed in further research.
(4) When the pressure waves reach the container wall, their reflection and superimposition effects
will appear on the wall, which causes the maximum overpressure near the wall to increase.
The peak value of the overpressure in the positions with a large corner is greater than in other
areas with a small corner at the beginning of arcing. After a few milliseconds, pressure waves are
no longer of any importance in a closed container.

Acknowledgments: This paper is supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities of
China (Grant No. 2042016gf0008).
Author Contributions: All authors contributed equally to the research described in this work. Peng Li carried
out the main research tasks and wrote the full manuscript. Jiangjun Ruan and Daochun Huang conceived and
designed the experiment and calculation methods; Ziqing OuYang and Li Zhang performed the experiments;
Mingyang Long and Mengting Wei analyzed the data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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