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Wager
1. Ecosystem concept and sustainability-
1. About sustainability as a management principle
Motivation: why should forest management be sustainable?
Islands of the Pacific have been colonized uniformly by people originating from Papua/Fiji.
That is, Easter’s collapse was not because its people were especially improvident but because
they faced one of the Pacific’s most fragile environments.
 Relatively low, small and dry
 Highest latitude
 Makatea
 Lowest tephra (rock fragments and particles ejected by a volcanic eruption)
 Greatest isolation
 Low islands
 Island age
 No makatea
a. Elevation was inversely associated with deforestation and forest replacement: high
islands supported more forest and more native trees than low islands.
b. At least four factors are probably involved: orographic rain is generated at high
elevations, descends in streams and thus makes the lowlands effectively wetter than
indicated by lowland rainfall; nutrients and soil eroded at high elevation are similarly
carried in streams to the lowlands; orographic rain captures atmospheric dust; and
agriculture (hence land clearance) decreases with elevation because of cool
temperatures (unfavourable for tropical crops), steep slopes and difficult access.
c. Area was inversely associated with deforestation and forest replacement: large islands
retained more forest and more native tree species than small islands. Multiple factors
probably contribute, including the fact that larger islands have greater habitat and tree
species diversity (hence higher likelihood of some species being spared from logging),
tracts of inaccessible land, and lower perimeter/ area ratios (hence fewer coastal
resources to support human population).
d. Rainfall is often the most important single determinant of plant growth rates. In addition,
low rainfall increases forest vulnerability to fire and hence to the formation of deforested
grassland and fernland.
e. Deforestation increased with latitude in all analyses, as expected from the decrease in
temperature and hence in plant growth rates with latitude.
In contrast, forest replacement decreased with latitude, undoubtedly because two of the
most important introduced trees (breadfruit and Tahitian chestnut) are tropical species
whose cultivation decreases with latitude.
f. Island or terrain age is relevant because soil nutrients become lost from volcanic surfaces
with time, especially by rain leaching.
In our statistical analyses deforestation increased with age, but the relation of forest
replacement to age was inconsistent.
g. Islands consist of a terrain called makatea. This uplifted reef formation of sharp, fissured
coral bears little soil and is painfully difficult to walk on. Not surprisingly, all seven islands
provide controlled natural experiments: makatea terrain retained forests, whereas non-
makatea terrain became deforested.
Low forest replacement associated with makatea, which is difficult to use for
arboriculture.

2. What is the meaning of “sustainability”?

•Rio convention (United Nations, 1993):

–'sustainable use' means the use of components of biological diversity in a way and at a
rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biological diversity, thereby
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future
generations;

 Why Rio convention is really powerful becasues species, genetic and

ecosystem they considered.
o Strong sustainability: constant natural capital rule (argument is what about
economic and socio-cultural sustainability)
o Weak sustainability: nature not important, we can replace in future. We must
give importance to human need.
o Difference between weak and strong sustainability
 No one knows what future generations demands for? So
Sustainability is not connected with the nature but to the utilisation by human.

3. How can we achieve a sustainable management?

•Multi service approach –the dilemma of time span

•Ecosystem performance approach

 a. Multi service approach: (somehow related to weak sustainability)
The goal to fulfil ecological, economic and social functions in the future or to meet
the needs and aspirations of future generations may be pursued today by a multi
service approach. This would mean to treat and develop forests of the present to
serve multi functional purposes in future.
Argument:
 Small scale: Very hard to provide all services in small scale.
 Future uncertainty: This approach suffers from the length of time span which lies
between today's and tomorrows demands. How can we know the demands of people
in 150 years?
 Trade off between use and conservation: if you look for natural resources, human
needs will be overlooked and if you looked for human needs you may loose natural
capital.
b. Ecosystem performance approach

 To keep the forests in a working condition which allows people of the future to
treat and develop them to any direction they would like.
 Depends on its ability to be adapted and this ability is linked to structural
features like biodiversity, productivity, regeneration capacity, and vitality and
these components are all inherent in the ecosystem concept.

4. Why trees are keystone species of the forests?

 Element which if is missing then the whole ecosystem suffer. For example: light,
moisture…tree controls the light penetration into ground and hence control energy
flux.
 A forest ecosystem is characterized by its own climate (e.g. temperature, humidity,
radiation), soil (e.g. humus), and organisms (e.g. plants, animals). All of these aspects
depend on the nutrient and the water cycle, as well as the radiation fluxes.
 The nutrient and the water cycle, as well as the radiation fluxes are dominated by the
trees. Thus, simply speaking “working on trees” means to influence the entire
ecosystem.

Important to know for exam: definition of ecosystem by different authors ( Lindeman, 1942,
Whittaker 1962, Odum, 1971) and which definition you prefer and why?

Lindeman (1942) proposed that "an ecosystem is any system composed of physical,
chemical and biological processes active within any space-time unit.
Whittaker (1962) suggested that "an ecosystem is a functional system that includes
an assemblage of interacting organisms (plants, animals and saprobes) and their
environment, which acts on them and on which they act."

(Odum, 1971) Any unit that includes all of the organisms (i.e., the community) in a
given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads
to a clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e.
exchange of materials between living and non-living parts within the system) is an
ecological system or ecosystem”.

Lindeman:
 physical, chemical and biological processes.
Whittaker:
 functional system with assemblage of interacting organisms and their
environment.
Odum:
 systems approach" to the study of ecosystems, allowing them to study the flow of
energy and material through ecological systems.
 requires one to focus on food habits and food relationships exclusively.
 Trophic structure, biotic diversity, material cycles

2. Introduction to temperate forests of the region

 Different to Eastern North America, high mountain ranges in the south of Europe (e.g.
the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians) and the Mediterranean Sea, blocked the southward
movement of the tree species to escape coldness, and this caused extinction in many
cases. Near to nature oriented forest mngement.
 Temperate’ means predominantly deciduous broadleaved species (e.g. beech, oaks,
maples, lime, cherry and ash).
 In temperate Europe, conifers (i.e. spruces and pines) are restricted to the poorest
sites in terms of soil fertility and temperature by nature

3. Silviculture and Biodiversity
Maintenance of biodiversity by silvicultural operations(strategies)

 The three-filter approach (reserve, retain and restore)

o Core reserves
o Structural elements
o Species
 Multiple services including biodiversity
o The issue of compatibility
o Segregation
 o Integration
•   Conservation biology mainly follows three underlying principles that guide the
preservation of biodiversity in forests. They include the maintenance and restoration of the
following:
Û Ecosystem integrity by supporting natural composition, succession, and disturbance;
Û Structural complexity by supporting within and among stand heterogeneity in structure
and composition, long rotation cycles, and a variety of elements such as old, diseased, and
decaying trees;
Û Habitat connectivity by supporting a landscape with interconnected forest patches as well
as within-forest connectivity of structural elements so as to allow for sufficient individual or
genetic exchange between forest biota.

3.1 Species diversity measurements:

Key elements of biodiversity conservation:
1) Habitat trees: key elements for forest biodiversity
2) Deadwood: quantitative and qualitative requirements for the
conservation of saproxylic biodiversity
3) Natural disturbances and forest dynamics
4) Conservation and management of specialised species: sustaining
legacies of natural forests and cultural landscapes
3.1.1. Direct: Counting
3.1.2. Indirect:
a. Presence of coarse woody debris
b. Presence of structural elements (habitat trees)
c. Distance and pattern of structural elements (key stone elements)
d. Disturbances
e. Canopy gap.
f. Connectivity and fragmentation: island biogeography and meta-population
applied to old-growth elements
g. Managing for target species
A. Coarse Woody Debris:
 Naturally falled down big sized woody debris prone to decomposition.
 It is important because for many specialists species this is the only
habitat for living to get food, water and humidity.
 For example:
o beetle can only survive in big volume than fine debris
branches.
o Snag tree and fungi
B. Importance of distance of structural elements for organisms?
 Maintaining genetic diversity
 Food availability
 Forests species are not too often mobile.
 Nesting sites
 Therefore, the abundance and pattern of structural elements determines
species diversity in a given area.
 Farther the structural elements, lesser the species richness. For example: snell
C. Disturbances:
 Growth without light?
 How 10 cm height species even reach 50m height where amount of light
penetration is only 1 to 2%?
o Ans: Disturbances: throwfall, windthrow, human disturbances.
 Strategies to adapt in dark forests: strangling and coming in canopy gap.
3.1. Maintain biodiversity by three filter approach: (Coarse, Meso and Fine)
3.1.1. Coarse filter
 The concept of conserving representative samples of all the ecological
communities in a region (Coarse-filter) can facilitate conservation of the
majority of species.
 Take large untouched area and protect it so that it will remain until the future.
 They evolute over time and remains there ( National Park, strict nature
reserves)
 We don,t know why species are there but if we protect it they will be there.
3.1.2. Meso filter
 We don’t have any untouched forest around the globe. So, what we can do is if we
don’t have coarse filter (untouched) then go with meso- filter keeping eyes on
structural elements which are already there in touched forests which is very
important for bd.
3.1.3. Fine filter
 The approach focused on conserving individual rare or specialized species
 If second approach doesnot fitted for some specific species, then look for species.
 For example:
o Rhino in Nepal: relocation, translocation, reintroduction
o Elephant in captive breeding
3.1.4. Summary:
 Coarse and meso filter approach is the most important and powerful approach
to protect bd.
 Use both filters: Use a Coarse-filter to create a network of representative
protected areas and manage surrounding areas in a way that most closely
emulates natural processes. Use a Fine-filter to fill in the gaps by conserving
ecosystems, features and species not adequately protected through the coarse
filter approach.
Reasons:
 Fine filter is expensive and only suitable for large and charismatic species.
 Coarse and meso filter approach keeps balance between timber production and bd.
 Also provide habitat for small species.
 A coarse filter component to land management planning is necessary to improve
planning efficiency and avoid a complete species by species planning process.
Management strategies for conservation of old-growth elements: “the triple R”
 Reserve: safeguard existing relics of old-growth (or other patches with high value
or potential) from harvest, by conserving them in delineated areas such as forest
reserves and national parks, but also in smaller delineated patches, often called
“set-aside patches”, “key habitats”, or “il.ts de sc.nescence”.
 Retain: intentionally keep a number of dead, old, or other habitat trees in the
stand during thinning and final harvests. Such retention trees are key elements in
the managed forest “matrix”.
 Restore: even when none such old-growth elements are present at the moment,
a policy can be applied to allow them to develop in a premeditated pattern and
network.

3.2. Multiple services and biodiversity

 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA, 2005) has pointed to biodiversity as
being a prerequisite for ecosystem services.
 However, as the link between biodiversity and functions as such is not entirely
disentangled yet, the conservation of biodiversity still is an issue of its own besides
service provisioning.
 Forest management should thus aim to combine both the maintenance of
biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services in particular forests.
 As protection of biodiversity and service provisioning are aimed for simultaneously,
the issue of compatibility of both aspects arises
3.3. The issue of compatibility
Compatible forest management is a strategy that harmonizes different
aims/services on one area. The ability to do so depends on scale:
The scale-dependence of compatibility is due to the existing link between service and
structure. Multiple structures are thus a prerequisite for multiple services.

To integrate or to segregate: what are the best approaches for the conservation of forest
biodiversity?

There are two different main approaches for forest biodiversity conservation on a
larger scale (landscape, regional, national scale).
The segregative approach
Separates large areas for nature reserves without any management from other areas
with intensive forest management for economic purposes.
The integrative approach
Tries to combine nature conservation and economic management by including the
provision of e.g. structural heterogeneity, species mixtures and DWD in a more
extensive, so-called 'close-to-nature' forestry.

Integrating services” means to combine structural elements on a small scale, e.g.

within a single stand, to provide different services by the site simultaneously.

Typically, those stands are mixed uneven-aged and harvesting operations are of
lower impact than clear cutting is, e.g. shelterwood or selection system. Enrichment
plantings are frequent, old and dead trees, snags and logs, cavity trees, gaps and
groups of valuable trees are mixed within stands.
Advantages of integration concepts are:
–all of the area has a value in terms of the anticipated purposes

–the concept does not rely on reserve areas and may thus be applied in many parts of
crowded countries.

–the entire area may be managed/protected for different services in the future more easily;
reversibility of management decisions is given with the consequence of high adaptability.
Disadvantages of integration concepts are:
–rules for management are difficult and educational level of the forest managers has to be
high, i.e. salaries are higher and this makes management more expensive.

–spatial optimization techniques are hardly applied anywhere.

–old-growth areas are not kept which may be an irreversible loss.

–since high impact logging is not appl ied, e.g. strip-cutting, ecological niches for pioneer
species may be missing.

4. Biodiversity in tropical forestry-oheimb

Why do we need biodiversity?
 Ecosystem stability: all are connected to each other, population and role balance.
 Food, medicines, scientific and academic purposes, cultural importance.
 Ecosystem proviosion: nutrient recycle, pollination…
A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment
relative to its abundance.[1] Such species are described as playing a critical role in
maintaining the structure of an ecological community, affecting many other organisms in an
ecosystem and helping to determine the types and numbers of various other species in the
community. A keystone species is a plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the
way an ecosystem functions. Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be
dramatically different or cease to exist altogether.
Example: wolf is a predator of herbivores. If the wolf extinct then herbivores which used to
feed on vegetation in small small amount in many locations and used to keep balance
between vegetation growth and browing…no if hervores don’t see wolf anymore then they
start feeding all vegetation in the same place making extinction of vegetation species there.

Umbrella species are species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically
because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the
 ecological community of its habitat. Species conservation can be subjective because it is
hard to determine the status of many species.
Umbrella species can be used to help select the locations of potential reserves, find the
minimum size of these conservation areas or reserves, and to determine the composition,
structure and processes of ecosystems.[

An indicator species is any biological species that defines a trait or characteristic of the
environment. For an example, a species may delineate an ecoregion or indicate an
environmental condition such as a disease outbreak, pollution, species competition or climate
change. Indicator species can be among the most sensitive species in a region, and sometimes
act as an early warning to monitoring biologists.

Selective logging and biodiversity

Species richness of invertebrates, amphibians, and mammals decreases as logging intensity
increases.
Birds exhibit an opposing trend as their total species richness increases with logging
intensity. An analysis of forest bird species, however, suggests that this pattern is largely due
to an influx of habitat generalists into heavily logged areas while forest specialist species
decline.
Mammals: reasons
Increased hunting and poaching pressure, often associated with the increased incursion into
forests through logging roads.
Amphibians:
1. Due to their high sensitivity to hotter and drier microclimates created by selective
logging .
2. The lower vagility of amphibians.
3. Direct mortality of amphibians during a logging operation might be higher than that
for other, more vagile, taxa.
Birds:
1. To some extent, the positive response of total bird species richness to logging
intensity could be also explained by an observational bias.
2. Birds are more easily detected in disturbed habitats, including logged forests [33].
Additionally, some bird species, being more mobile, might be overall less susceptible
 to logging, as they might be using different patches of (logged) forests for different
resource needs.
3. Certain frugivorous and nectarivorous species may successfully forage in forests
logged at intermediate intensities, where food is more abundant, while still nesting in
primary forests [
Continental Difference
Neotropical fauna appears to be more sensitive to logging intensity than Afrotropical and
Indomalayan fauna.
Mammals, which decline even more steeply in richness in Africa than in the Neotropics.
Pohris
1. Tropical secondary forest formations-
1.1. Definitions:
1. Ecological succession:
It is the process of ecosystem development as the sequence of plant, animal, and
microbial communities that successively occupy an area over a period of time.
2. Primary succession:
It is called primary succession when it begins in environments that lack organic
matter and which have not yet been altered in any way by living organisms
(KIMMINS, 1997). Primary forest development
3. Secondary succession:
It is termed secondary succession when the succession begins in an environment that
has already been modified by a period of occupancy by living organisms. Secondary
forest development
1.2. Problems:
1. Natural disturbance regime:
Any event that creates an opening in the forest canopy or causes a certain area wide
destruction of the forest.
• Small scale (102 - 105 mÇ)
 single tree fall; multiple tree fall; lightning; windstorm
• Large scale (105 – 107 mÇ)
 􀃆 fire; volcanism; flood; hurricane/typhoon
2. Anthropogenic disturbance regime:
Human activities, exacerbated by poverty, population pressure or greed for money are by far
the dominant factors in forest disturbance and degradation.
• Small scale (103 - 105 mÇ)
 􀃆 slash- and burn shifting cultivation; low impact logging
• Large scale (105 – 108 mÇ)
 􀃆conversion of forest tracts to pasture; uncontrolled, excessive timber extractions;
uncontrolled excessive fuelwood collection

1.3. History of forest succession theory:

Monoclimax Theory= postulates a defined linear development of plant communities
towards the climatic climax (1916 CLEMENTS )
Polyclimax Theory= include the environmental factors acting to prevent convergence to
the climatic climax: pyral climax (fire), edaphic climax (soil), biotic climax (animal
influence), 1935 TANSLEY
1 Group: successional change by autogenic processes (endogenous factors) = Forest
stand dynamics
2 Group: successional change by allogenic processes (exogenous factors) = forest
disturbance events
3 Group: Successional change (alternative pathways) by combination of autogenic and
allogenic processes= forest stand dynamics + forest disturbance events.

In ecology, allogenic succession is succession driven by the abiotic components of an

ecosystem.[1]

An allogenic succession can be brought about in a number of ways which can include:

 Volcanic eruptions
 Meteor or comet strike
 Flooding
 Drought
 Earthquakes
 Non-anthropogenic climate change[2]

In contrast, autogenic succession is driven by the biotic components of the ecosystem.[1]

The plants themselves (biotic components) modify their own environment and thus causing its
own replacement by new communities.

 Light captured by leaves

 Production of detritus
 Water and nutrient uptake
 Nitrogen Fixation
 anthropogenic climate change
1.4. Main autecological characteristics of tropical pioneer, successor and climax tree
species

Characteristics Pioneers Successor Climax

Light-demander, Shade Half-shade bearer, Semi-shade- Shade-bearer, Shade-

Synonyms
intolerant tolerant tolerant

Presence Early secondary forest Late secondary forest Primary forest

Site plasticity High Intermediate Low

Small, produced in high Medium, produced in medium Large, produced in low
Seeds
numbers annually numbers almost annually numbers not annually
Dispersal of
Very wide Wide Narrow
seeds
Viability of
Long Medium to short Short
seeds
Dormancy of
Very often, orthodox Often, orthodox Seldom, recalcitrant
seeds

Germination
In full light, open area In semi-shade, below canopy. In shade, below canopy
of seeds

Fast growing during the Restrained growing during the Slow growing during the
Growth immature phase, Early immature phase, Intermediate immature phase, Late
behaviour culmination of the current culmination of the current culmination of the
annual increment annual increment current annual increment
Final tree
height < 20 m 20 – 30 m > 30 m
Wood density Low Variable Variable to high
Short-lived, high turnover Medium-lived, intermediate Long-lived, low turnover
Leaves rate, evergreen turnover rate, many deciduous rate, evergreen
Photosynthetic
rate High Intermediate Low
Susceptible, little chemical
Leaf predation defense Less susceptible, more Very less susceptible,
Branches Scare, few orders Intermediate, some orders Copious, many orders
Roots More superficial More variable to deep More variable to deep
Medium beginning of the
Early beginning of the maturity phase, Intermediate Late beginning of the
Development maturity phase, Short longevity (50 - 100 yr.) maturity phase, Long
behaviour longevity (< 50 yr.) longevity (> 100 yr.)
Syzium cumini , alnus
Examples: enpalenesis Shorea robusta
Summary:

1.5. Importance of secondary forests

1. Worldwide, most forest utilization by humans takes place in forests with a history of
natural disturbance and human intervention.
2. However, degraded primary forests and secondary forests are providing a wide range of
valuable goods and services close to human settlements.
3. They can serve as „safety nets“ for the poor.
4. The shifting cultivation system is currently practiced in tropical secondary forests by 250-
500 million farmers on one-fifth of the world‘s tropical forest area.
5. Most fuelwood is collected in degraded and secondary forests for subsistence use.
6. Non-timber forest products are frequently extracted from degraded primary forests and
secondary forests, because they are usually more accessible.
7. So far, there is little experience in the large-scale and sustainable management of these
forest types for timber production. (Excepting: Aucoumea klaineana (Africa), Cordia
alliodora (America), Shorea leprosula (Asia))
8. After proper restoration and management these forest types protect soils from erosion,
regulate the water regime, reduce water run-off, fix and store carbon, offer refuges for
biodiversity in fragmented landscape, provide templates for forest rehabilitation,
contributing to fire risk reduction and help conserve genetic resources.
9. These forest types may reduce pressure on primary forests and decrease the
deforestation rates.

1.6. Specifically silvicultural situation

Summary characteristics:
A. Degraded primary forests:
1. Retain many site and structural characteristics of the former primary forest.
2. Without silvicultural practice, natural succession can restore most of the
characteristics of primary forests.
3. Poor in stand quality and stand quantity because of former logging operations.
4. Contains more timber species than secondary forests, but they tend to be less
uniform in tree size and canopy structure.
5. Ecologically important species may occur in all strata.
6. The risk of the genetic degradation of favoured tree species over time is most likely.
Note: Stand quality: species composition, high value timber species, stem form, pest and
disease damages
Summary: (NRM REP)
I. Retain site and structural characteristics
II. Natural suuccesion restore without silviculture practice
III. Poor stand quality and quantity
IV. More timber species but less uniform in size and canopy structure
V. Risk og genetic degradation
VI. Ecologically important species.
B. Secondary forests:
1. Comprise all succession stages (early pioneer stages to the late successor).
 2. The initial forest is dominated by short-lived, fast-growing pioneers (with less
heterogeneity and rapid changes in structure and species composition).
3. The gradual occupation of the site by more shade-tolerant species during the
process of succession.
4. The first 15 years of secondary forest development are characterized by rapid
biomass accumulation (up to 100 t/ha) followed by slower rates until maturity.
5. Presence of distinct regeneration strategies (resprouting, root suckering,
seedling)
Summary:
I. All succession stages
II. Initial by pioneers with less heterogeneity and rapid change in structure and species
composition
III. First 15 years is rapid biomass accumulation
IV. Distinct regeneration strategies
C. Degraded forest land:
1. Eroded or nutrient-deficient soils, hydrologic instability, reduced productivity
and low biological diversity.
2. Barriers to natural forest regeneration
 seed and seedling predation
 extreme microhabitats for plant establishment
 low soil nutrient availability
 absence of fungal or bacterial root symbionts
 root competition with grasses and fire
3. Reached to an ecological threshold where the recovery is impossible
1.7. Management strategies

A. Degraded primary forest: Forest restoration =Leave to regenerate

1. Initial situation analysis (ecological, technological, social, cultural, political
issues) as prerequisites.
2. Identification of key corrective measures or improvements to avoid further
3. Accelerate natural processes of forest regeneration (establish resilience)
4. Assisting regeneration by enrichment planting
5. Silviculture of forest restoration (multiple use management)
 Establishing nurse tree species for basic site protection (experiments)
 Retention of remnant trees
 Prefering species capable of soil improvement and coppicing, with
resistance to fire, pests and diseases
6. Integrated harvesting systems
Summary:
1. Initial situation analysis
2. Key corrective measures
3. Natural process of regeneration
 4. Enrichment planting
5. Integrated harvesting systems
6. Refining forest structure
7. Nurse crops for soil protection
8. Species with coppincing, soil improvemenz, fires and disease resistant

B. Secondary forest:
1. Forest rehabilitation in early ecosystem development, forest stabilization
in intermediate ecosystem development and forest restoration in late
ecosystem development
2. manage as part of an agroforestry system for producing mixed/multi-
purpose trees
3. manage as a high-forest production system for wood or multiple-use
4. Accelerate natural processes of forest succession stages
5. Establishment and promoting growth of desired tree species
6. Assisting regeneration by enrichment planting
7. Weeding and tending of target tree species
8. Favouring plant species diversity for multiple use
9. High variability and scattered distribution of secondary forests require
both, stand diagnostic sampling and socioeconomic surveys
Summary:
I. Rehabilitation-stabilisation-restoration
II. As part of AF= multi purpose trees
III. As high forest production system= wood and multi uses.
IV. Enrichment planting
V. Weeding and tending
VI. Favour plant species diversity

C. Degraded forest land:

1. Protect from degrading forces and leave to regrow (to become a future
land reserve).
2. Introduce lightly managed plantings:
a. involving a variable number of (nurse) species to catalyze natural
forest succession and ecosystem restoration primarily for
environmental benefits (such as soil conservation and watershed
stabilization) in the near term but offering multiple economic,
social and ecological benefits in the longer term.
3. Less intensively managed tree plantations:
a. To yield economically valued wood and non-wood forest products
4. Intensively managed single- or mixed-species plantations:
a. primarily for timber or fuel production.
 5. Manage under a multiple-use system:
a. (agro-sylvo-pastoral, agroforestry), combining tree crops for
timber, fuelwood, fodder production and soil amelioration with the
cultivation of food crops and high-value species such as medical
plants and/or fodder.

In summary:
 forest restoration, which is the principle management strategy for degraded
primary forests;
 the management of secondary forests, applied where conditions are such that
active forest management leads to the desired output; and
 the rehabilitation of degraded forest land, applied where the site is so heavily
degraded that the spontaneous regeneration of tree and shrub species is severely
limited.

3. Major tropical silviculture systems

3.1. High forest (generative origin)

3.1.1. –Clear cutting method
3.1.2. -Seed-tree method
3.1.3. –Shelter wood method
3.1.4. –Selection method
3.2. Low forest (vegetative origin)
3.2.1. One-storied coppice system
3.2.2. Multi-storied coppice system
3.3. Middle forest (generative/vegetative origin)
3.3.1. Two-storied coppice system

3.1. High forest (generative origin)

a. Clear cutting method: Pure, even-aged, single-canopied stands regenerated by
nursery-grown plants after clearcutting in plantation silviculture or conversion
systems in natural forest silviculture.
Positive
 Simplest of all high forest systems
 Amelioration of deficiencies of a site
 Introduction of superior indigenous and exotic species
 Complete overhead light is used
 Rapid establishment of new forest crop
 High stem number with uniform quality parameters
 Felling and extraction of timber before new forest crop establishment
 Utmost concentration of silvicultural and harvesting work(economic)
Negative
 On steep slopes risk of soil erosion and landslides
  Clearance of forest cover produces extreme site conditions for forest crop
establishment
 Accumulated slash after clearcutting favours pest outbreaks
 Reduction of growth potential of individual trees
 Reduced resistance to damages caused by abiotic factors

b. Seed-tree method: Pure, uneven-aged, two-canopied stands performed by

silvicultural method, where only a few trees are left primarily for seeds without any
canopy closure.
Positive
 Felling operation is simpler to carry out than in the following systems
 Soil is partly protected
 Selection of best trees as seed trees (additional yield)
 Partly reduction of extreme climatic conditions by seed trees
 Better adapted seedlings to site conditions
Negative
 More skill and time required than for clearcutting method
 Felling operation is expensive
 Seed trees are susceptible to wind throw
 Seedling establishment takes more time than under the clearcutting method

c. Shelter wood method: Pure or mixed, uneven-aged, two canopied stands with the
overhead shelter of the old stand and the establishment of the young stand on
ground conducted by a special cutting system.
Positive
 Shelter provides protection to sensitive seedlings (light, drought)
 Soil is more effectively protected
 Less risk of erosion on steep slopes
 Vigorous trees produce added increment
 Less breeding material for injurious insects
Negative
 More skill and time required than for clearcutting method
 Work is less concentrated and felling is expensive
 Damage occurs by felling and extraction of trees over young stand
 Seedling establishment can take more time than planting
 Rate of cutting and regeneration are more difficult to control

d. Selection method: Mixed, uneven-aged, multi canopied stands with special emphasis
on regeneration of VTSs, recruitment of PCTs of the different diameter classes and
development of FCTs.

Positive
  Permanent forest cover protects the soil
 Damage by wind and other abiotic factors is minimized
 Permanent seed production for seed and seedling bank
 Full use of site and stand conditions
 No need for equal areas of each age class(PCT, FCT)
 Liberation of positive phenotyps for valuable wood increment
 Possibility to stabilize species diversity
Negative
 Considerable silvicultural and harvesting skill is needed (TSI, LIL)
 Stand damage is unavoidable
 The system is only applicable to half-shade and shade bearers
3.2. Low forest (vegetative origin)
1. One-storied coppice system: Pure, even-aged, single-canopied stands regenerated
by clear cutting and coppicing.
Positive

 Very simple in application and cheaper regeneration

 Coppice grows more rapid in earlier stages than seedlings
 Coppice has shorter rotation length with earlier returns
 Possibility of an intermediate crop cultivation is given
 Less subject to attack by insects and fungi
Negative
 Produces material of comparatively small size
 Coppice draws heavily on the store of nutrients in the soil
 Young coppice shoots are sensitive to browsing
 Conservation of soil and water on hill sides is not assured
 Coppice is monotonous in appearance

2. Multi-storied coppice system: Pure or mixed, uneven-aged, multi-canopied stands

created by FCT-selection according to harvestable diameters and coppicing.
Positive

 Possibility of the higher-quality timber production

 Permanent forest cover favours soil and water conservation
 Forest stand protects young coppice shoots from climatic extremes
Negative
 Cutting of large shoots can damage the smaller ones
 Poorer development of shoots due to some tree competition
 Forest grazing may have to be limited or entirely forbidden
3.3. Middle forest (generative/vegetative origin)
1. Two-storied coppice system: Pure or mixed, uneven-aged, two canopied stands
with a lower even-aged storey treated as coppice and an upperstorey of standards
treated as high forest.
Positive
1. Provides material of different sizes (fuelwood, timber, NTFPs)
2. Allows early returns from the coppice
3. Cover from standards protects soil better than simple coppice
4. Coppicing reduces expenditure by replanting
5. Diversity of species and age classes
Negative

1. Maintening the balance between coppice and standards

2. Standards are often more branchy and short-stemmed
3. Coppice grown under standards is less vigorous
4. Harvesting is more complicated than in simple stands
5. Coppice suffers from browsing and old stems are wind firm
2.4 Silvicultural system development
a) Overall forest management plan
 The silvicultural system determined should fit into the overall forest management
plan ensuring the collective goals, strategies, expected outcomes and service
functions.
b) Silvicultural decision making
 The search for the most suitable silvicultural techniques considers systematic
program for the stand treatment as regeneration or reproductive method and
tending or intermediate cutting method during the rotation lengths(MHD) of tree
species. (Silvicultural system+ Harvesting system= SFM)
c) Silvicultural system
 SMITH et al. (1997) define a silvicultural system as "a planned program of
silvicultural treatments extending throughout the life of a stand it includes the
regeneration treatments and any tending operations, protective treatments, or
intermediate cuttings“.

2.5 Elements of silvicultural systems (SMITH et al., 1997): HOP3E CEM

1. Harmony with goals and characteristics of ownership
2. Provision for regeneration
3. Efficient use of growing space and site productivity
4. Control of damaging agencies
5. Protection of soil and water resources
6. Provision for sustained yield
7. Optimum use of capital and growing stock
8. Concentration and efficient arrangement of operations
9. Maintenance of desired plant and animal populations
10. Execution of policies about landscape, scenery, and aesthetic considerations
 2.6. Silvicultural discussion
►Forest inventory: Tropical forest stand analysis (General silvicultural diagnostic
sampling, pre-harvest inventory, post-harvest inventory, special diagnostic sampling
for TSI)
►General silvicultural diagnostic sampling: Site diagnosis, Stand diagnosis,
Bioecological requirements of ecosystems and forest landscape, Diagnosis of
accompanying set of conditions, Diagnosis of human needs and demands
►Formulation of the silvicultural goal: Taking over (direct taking over into goal-
oriented, sustained-yield forest management), Transformation (goal-oriented
homogenization of composition and/or structure of the natural forest) or Conversion
(replacement of non-productive initial stands by clear felling and regeneration or
reforestation)
►Development of the silvicultural system: This is to derive from a mixture of proven
fact and unproven opinion which flow into a working hypothesis considering all
available information. Therefore, the silvicultural system should be built where it is to
be used and refined as it becomes necessary to change the practices in conformity to
circumstances.

Kapp: = Basic concept, frequency of basal area, formation of forests/ species

names/ succession (pioneer to climax)/Characteristics

2. Silviculture stand analysis in tropical forest

1.1. Silviculture stand analysis:
 It provides the quantitative description and interpretation of the situation and
dynamics of a defined forests area based on the forest inventory data.
 It is the major basis for planning the silvicultural goal and forests operations.
1.2. Forest Stratification for Silviculture stand analysis
i. Forest inventory
ii. Stand analysis and management plan.
a. Analysis of stand parameters
 b. Silvicultural options to increase growth and yield
c. Calculation of harvesting volumes.
iii. Sampling procedures
a. Include atleast all of representatives
b. Plot size (rule of thumb): have at least 15 trees of desired stratum inside the plot.
c. Plot number decide.
iv. Stand Description = Forest stand analysis (Abundance)
 Relative: share of stems in total stem no. (%)
 Absolute: no. of stems per area
The end
3. Silviculture system for tropical dry forests (Covers 35 % of global land area)

2.1. What characterises drylands and what differs these from humid areas?
a. Water becomes a limiting site factor for the vegetation
 relatively low rainfall between 0 and approx. 1300 mm/a (“RF”)
 frequently unfavourable rainfall distribution
 high rainfall density (drops/area): soil erosion/clay accumulation/soil
compaction/ low water infiltration/waterlogged/low oxygen exchange

b. Specific Conditions of Soil Formation

 limited chemical weathering of rock because water is indispensable
 predominantly physical weathering due to high diurnal extremes of
temperature
o frost weathering: frequently high temperatures at day and deep
temperatures at night
o hydration weathering: dissolving and solidifying of the salts
partly with condensation water
 additional new-formation of CaCO3, CaSO4, NaCl, NaCO3 and other Na-
salts
c. Soil Comparison Arid-Humid
Arid
• carbonatisation
• salt accumulation
• high pH-value
• ascending soil water
• high Na-content
 2.2. What opportunities are there for forestry? / Or what to consider when you think of
afforestation in drylands?
 Drought/salinity/oxygen problem
prerequisites:
 Improvement of salt conditions in soil
 mechanical techniques (i.e. profile inversion)
 biological techniques (input of organic substances,
 cultivation of halophytes with further discharge)
 chemical techniques (i.e. application of gypsum exchange of CaCO3)
 hydro-techniques (i.e. salt off-draining, open-surface and pipe drainage)
 Improvement of site water conditions
 by water surplus (irrigation)
o Flood irrigation
o Basin irrigation
o Contour ditch irrigation
o Border irrigation
o Furrow irrigation
o Konat irrigation
o Subsurface irrigation
o Drip irrigation
o Sprinkler irrigation
 by site water preservation
o Forest shelter belts
o Dry “farming“
o Mulching
o Troughs furrowing (“media luna“)
o Cuvettes
o Limanes (runoff “farming“)
o Artificial water storing foams and gels.
2.3. Where are the limits of our intervention capabilities? / Limits of Forestry in Drylands?
 Climatic limit (RF 250 mm)
 Limit of soil salinities (concentration of soil solution)
 Limit of biomass accumulation (intolerable rotation periods)
 Economical limit (cost profit)
2.4. Conclusions: Matching species to site
The end
4. Drivers of deforestation in Vietnam-tuan n kapp
3.1 Drivers of Deforestation & Forest Degradation
a) proximate/direct causes:
-land conversion into other land uses

-Overexploitation

-Forest fire & disease

-Illegal logging
b) Indirect causes:
 the end
5. Payment for forest environmental services in Vietnam-tuan kapp
4.1. Definition:
 These are incentives offered to farmers or landowners in exchange for managing
their land to provide some sort of ecological service.
 The basic idea of PES, is to create incentives for individuals and communities to
protect environmental services by compensating them for any costs incurred in
managing and providing those services.
 PES link managers of ecosystems or “sellers” to “buyers” who benefit from the
services of the ecosystem.
These include:
 Watershed protection (Irrigation, drinking water, hydropower, flood and
sedimentation control)
 Biodiversity Conservation
 Recreational use and contribution to scenic beauty
 Water quality maintenance

For example: A PES scheme can involve, for example, flood control services between up-
stream and down-stream users in a river catchment or a mechanism for land users rewarding
biodiversity conservation, water protection or carbon sequestration in soils or forests.
4.2. Challenges:
i. PES or like PES ? Only one mechanism.

ii. Only 02 (water conservation for Hydropowers and

water factories and landscape for ecotourism) of 4
types of ESs ( noted in Decree 99) has been implemented.
iii. The FES payment levels are fixed not reflecting market price fluctuations.
iv. The average disbursement rate of PFES revenues is low: about 60% of the total
revenues collected to date.
v. Transaction costs are high because of:
+ Large number of forest owners
+ Complexity of Administrative system: national –Provincial- distric-
communal
+ Requirement of professional foresters for watersheld boundary demarcation
and M&E (high cost of consultancy)
 vi. High opportunity cost (compared to other land uses)
Income from PFES in some provinces is still low (provinces Thanh Hoa, Bac
Kan, Bac Giang…); meanwhile the opportunity cost for other types of
cultivation is high (Central highland: coffee; Northwest: corn).
vii. Regulations on payment methods for FES according to each basin are creating huge
disparities, leading to unequal payment.
Challenges in Nepal case:
 Poor compliance of contractual obligations
 Limited number of buyers of services and less willingness to pay
 Free availability of services, poor conservation awareness
 Poor economic conditions of buyers and sellers.
 The fund concept has been widely used, however, limited funds have been generated.
 Most have been utilized for the management or regulation of services.
 Absence of true economic valuation and poor cost and benefit analysis on designing
and implementing schemes often possess challenge for making investments on
conservation
 High dependency on ecosystem services, especially on forest products
 Equitable sharing of conservation benefits among different community institutions
4.3 Way forward:
b. Bundle of services:
Focus on bundle of services such as biodiversity conservation, tourism, water use
regulation and carbon finance within the specified geographical are a instead single
services such that perverse incentives could be reduced.
c. Conducive government policy
d. Other livelihood opportunities
e. Capacity building
f. Informed decisions and consultative processes:
Payment should be determined on the basis of willingness to pay and willingness to
accept best on negotiations between buyers and sellers guided by cost benefit of
investment decisions.
6. REDD
5.1. Advantages and disadvantages of emission trading and their impacts on forestry?
Summary advantages:
1. Emissions reduction
2. Cost effective abatement.
 a. Decoupling emissions from growth: During the first year of operation, emissions
in California’s ETS decreased by 0.6% while the state’s GDP grew by more than 2%.
Tokyo ETS has resulted in energy efficient low carbon technologies in the building
sector (particularly LED lights and efficient air conditioning units).
3. Development and innovation of low carbon technology
4. Generates revenues with various uses including further climate action, reform the tax
system, or to compensate low-income households.
5. Data production and gathering through MRV systems and information sharing among
stakeholders.
6. Helps to raise awareness about climate change issues at the management level of firms
and facilitates information exchange among key stakeholders.
7. Emissions trading can provide a global response to a global challenge.
8. Co-benefits:
a. ETS has the potential to create synergies with public health, natural resources,
energy security and land use change policy. In particular, public health savings
from improved air quality could be substantial.
Disadvantages:
 carbon trading “encourages the industries most addicted to coal, oil and gas
to carry on much as before” because it is possible to purchase cheap offsets or
carbon credits rather than to switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy.
 However, our study found that strengthened forest-conservation policies and
economic expansion often increased the demand for imported timber and
agricultural products, which contributed to deforestation abroad."
 Gaps in information, transparency, monitoring and verification, insufficient or
wrong incentives, low prices and/or uncertainty about the long-term price of
carbon, and high transaction costs, and inadequate monitoring and
enforcement

5.2. What is the concept of Environemental Kutznets Curves?

Deforestation may follow a Kuznets curve (cf. forest transition curve). Among countries with
a per capita GDP of at least $4,600, net deforestation has ceased to exist.[20] Yet it has been
argued that wealthier countries are able to maintain forests along with high consumption by
‘exporting’ deforestation.[21]

In many developing countries, forest restoration at home has led to deforestation abroad.
However, our study found that strengthened forest-conservation policies and economic
expansion often increased the demand for imported timber and agricultural products, which
contributed to deforestation abroad."

5.3. Do you perceive emission trading as equitable? Or is it a cheap way for industrialized
countries to ‘buy their way out’ of their obligations?
 Indigenous people rights.

5.4. How is forestry linked to emission trading and how did this involvement perform?
5.5. Forest transition theory:
According to this hypothesis, a country’s forest cover is first declining during the course
of time, and after reaching a turning point at a specific forest cover, increasing again.
The more serious issue is when historical deforestation systematically under-or
overestimates the rate of deforestation in a BAU scenario. The forest area (change) may
follow a pattern suggested by the forest transition (FT) theory (Mather 1992; Angelsen
2007): initially, the country is characterised by a high percentage of land under forest
cover and a low rate of deforestation. Then deforestation accelerates, slows down,
forest cover stabilises and eventually starts recovering. This pattern is illustrated in
 Figure 6.2. Some countries at early
stages in this transition, such as Papua
New Guinea and the Democratic
Republic of Congo, can be expected to
have high forest area values and low,
but accelerating, deforestation rates. Others in the middle of the transition, such as
parts of Indonesia and Brazil, will have high rates, but these are expected to slow down
as forest is getting scarcer. Finally, countries late in the forest transition, such as China
and India (and a number of high-income countries), have increasing forest areas.
Figure illustrates the problem of setting baselines based on historical deforestation
only. An extrapolation of historical rates underestimates future BAU deforestation for
counties at the early stages in the transition, while it overestimates BAU deforestation
for countries at the later stages.
5.6. What are the elements of a REDD+ Baseline?
a. Historical national deforestation
b. National circumstances
c. Historical global deforestation
d. Carbon stock

a. Historical national deforestation

How good is past deforestation to predict the future one?
First, due to poor time series data for most developing countries, we do not know as
much as we would like to know.
Second, what we know suggests that past deforestation is not a precise predictor of
future deforestation (New Zealand submission, April 2008). Unlike emissions from fossil
fuels, which are closely linked to one variable (gross domestic product, or GDP),
deforestation is ‘multicausal’ and can be highly variable from year to year. It can also
show systematic trends over longer periods (5-10 years) which depart from past
deforestation. Annual fluctuations are of less concern and can be addressed by, for
example, using running averages (e.g. last three years) or mechanisms to address non-
permanence and liability.
The third and most serious issue is when historical deforestation systematically under- or
overestimates the rate of deforestation. Same under transition theory explained above.
b. National circumstances
 A. development adjustment factor (DAF)= low level GDP per capita get more generous
baseline.
B. countries in early stage of transition high deforestation
C. REDD implementation capacity inverse with GDP per capita= large transfer needed.
D. transfer of resources to the very poorest countries

The second element of baseline-setting suggested in the Bali Action Plan (and several
submissions) is to take ‘national circumstances’ into account. There is still a need to
identify which factors constitute legitimate national circumstances. One prominent
proposal in the debate is to include a development adjustment factor (DAF).
A practical application of this might be that countries with low levels of GDP per capita will
get more generous baselines, which may be justified by several arguments:
(i) the poorest countries are presumably at an earlier stage in FT, and therefore
deforestation (and degradation) is likely to accelerate rather than slow down in a
BAU scenario;
(ii) the capacity to implement REDD may be inversely related to GDP per capita, and
larger transfers are needed;
(iii) based on the UNFCCC principle of ‘common but differentiated responsibilities’ the
REDD requirements should be lower for the poorest countries; and
(iv) REDD should contribute to a transfer of resources to the very poorest countries (co-
benefits).

c. Historical global deforestation (policies)

Another option is to use historical global deforestation rates to set individual country
baselines. They suggested that countries with a rate of deforestation lower than half the
global average use that as a national baseline, while countries with a higher deforestation
rates use a national historical baseline. Different scenarios can also be generated by
differing the weights put on historical global deforestation and national deforestation.
Assumptions:
* Differences in rates of deforestation reflect differences in policies, and countries
should not be rewarded (punished) for bad (good) policies by getting higher (lower)
baselines.
* Over the long run all developing countries would deforest at the average global
rate.
The end
7. Tropical primary forest formations.
a. Overview and definitions
b. Theoretical setting
c. Classification systems
d. Forest formations
i. Tropical moist evergreen forest
ii. Tropical moist semi-evergreen forest
iii. Tropical moist deciduous forest
iv. Tropical dry deciduous forest
v. Woodland savanna
A. Tropical moist evergreen forests:
1) Amazon basin of Brazil and Andean foothills, Congo basin of DRC, Madagascar,
Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, western India.
2) Opportunity for tree growth and development all year round.
3) Most tree species with periodic shoot growth
4) Rare presence of growth rings in the wood
5) Living processes of tree species are regulated mainly endogenously
6) Local microclimate with reduced light conditions (1% light on forest floor)
7) Enormous diversity (species composition)
8) Multistoried stand structure (filter effect)
9) Rapid leaf material decomposition (nutrient release)
10) Highly effective fine root network (filter effect)
11) Nitrogen fixation by root nodules and mycorrhizal symbiosis
12) High net primary productivity
13) Further,
a. High self pruning capacity
b. Zoochorous seed dispersal
c. Long trunk development
d. Dormancy of seedling
e. Buttress formation
f. Half shade bearer
g. Permanent seed production
h. Chemical content in leaves.
B. Tropical moist semi evergreen forests: Terminalia, dipterocarpus, albizia, bauhinia
1) Lower Amazon basin, Lower Congo basin, Parts of continental Southeast Asia,
Australian tropical moist forest
2) Occurs where, regular annual period of moisture stress is present, due to rainfall
seasonality and/or particular soil conditions.
3) Deciduous trees comprise up to one-third of the taller trees, but not all are necessarily
leafless at the same time
4) Mainly evergreen and partly leaf-exchanging trees
5) Trees of upper canopy moderately drought-resistant
6) Leave shedding during dry period
7) Smaller trees usually evergreen
8) Living processes of the tree species mainly endogenously regulated
9) Forest microclimate with reduced penetration of radiation
 10) Upper story shows smallest tree species spectrum!
11) Highest stem and species numbers per hectare are found in the lower and middle
stories!
12) Irregular diameter distributions and inadequate regeneration and recruitment of a
certain number of tree species!
C. Tropical moist deciduous forest: Sal, teak, dalberigia latifolia, adina cordifolia. Simal, champ
1) a pronounced annual period of moisture stress is present (dry period).
2) In the margin of the Amazon basin, Indian subcontinent (e.g., Tectona grandis), the
northern and eastern coasts of Australia
3) Forests formed by completely deciduous trees, shedding their leaves during the dry
period.
4) Many species flower towards the end of the dry period and start to ripen at the
beginning of the rainy season
5) Living processes of the tree species partly exogenously regulated
6) Forest microclimate with modified light conditions during rainy season
7) The dominant tree species show frequently a regular horizontal distribution e.g., Sal -
forest
8) Irregular diameter distribution and inadequate regeneration, recruitment of a certain
number of tree species
D. Tropical dry deciduous forest: Semicarpus, sal, acacia
1) South America on the Pacific side and the Atlantic side, Bolivia, Paraguay and N
Argentina, Africa to the south of the Sahara, Western dry monsoon zone of the
Indian subcontinent, Dry basin landscape of central Myanmar and Thailand.
2) Completely leaf shedding during dry period
3) Living processes of the tree species exogenously regulated
4) Tree species with stress-evading and stress controlling strategies
5) Soil moisture and plant water supply are the most limiting factors
6) Limited diversity (spps. Composition)
7) One storied stand structure (reduced competition)
8) Water saving physiognomy (site adaptation)
9) Extensive tap root development (water pumping)
10) Nitrogen fixation by root nodules and mycorrhizal symbiosis.
11) 􀃆Often only a few tree species are dominating the forest
12) Sometimes one tree species is characterizing the forest: Sal-forest (Shorea robusta)

E. Woodland savanna
1) Large part of N and S Africa, Central part of S. America, Large part of Indian
subcontinent
2) Vegetation adapted to a pronounced climatic rhythm, actively growing during the
rainy season, and dormant in the dry period.
3) Completely leaf shedding during dry period (deciduous tree species)
4) Sclerophyllous leaves with thick cuticle (evergreen tree species)
 5) Living processes of tree species exogenously regulated
6) Tree species with stress-evading and stress controlling strategies
7) Most limiting factors are soil water supply, perennial grass competition and periodic
fires

Phenomenon of irregular diameter distribution

1. Climax mosaic theory by Aubreville
This theory suggests that a climax is not a static equilibrium but it is a dynamic
community with periodic alterations in its constituent units.
2. Long-lived pioneer species hypothesis
Long-lived pioneers (i.e., lifespan >50 yr) are gap-dependent, but their taller, emergent
adults generally persist in later successional stages by attaining the upper strata before
canopy closure. Such large trees are relicts of past forest disturbance
3. Species-specific behavioral pattern hypothesis by Lamprecht :
 Very long upper canopy phase of trees requires only little replacements, hence very low
number of younger tree candidates is sufficient.

6.1. Overview and definitions

Forest:
Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of
more than 10 %, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that
is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
Primary, i.e. forest of native species, in which there are no clearly visible indications
of human activity, and ecological processes are not significantly disturbed (36% of
total forest area)
Or Forest which has never been subject to human disturbance, or has been so little
affected by hunting, gathering and tree cutting that its natural structure, functions
and dynamics have not undergone any changes that exceed the elastic capacity
“(resilience)" of the ecosystem.
Modified natural, i.e. forests of naturally regenerated native species in which there
are clearly visible indications of human activity (53%)
Semi-natural, i.e. forests comprising native species, established through planting,
seeding or assisted natural regeneration (7%)
Plantations, i.e. forests of introduced or native species, established through planting
or seeding (3% productive & 1% protective)

Other wooded land:

Land not classified as forest, spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees, higher than 5 m
and a canopy cover of 5–10 %, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ; or with a
combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10 percent. It does not include land that
is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use.
Forest ecosystem: (FSCIT)
Forests are ecosystems in which trees with a certain number and with a sufficient density
standing constitute the determinant life form. The ecosystem components are connected
together by an internal and external metabolism and energy flow as well.
Forest ecosystems characterized by 5 attributes:
 - Structure (of biotic and abiotic subcomponents)
- Function (the exchange of matter and energy)
- Complexity (a multiple set of events and conditions)
- Interaction based on interdependency (any change will result in a subsequent
change)
- Temporal change (of structure and function)
Change following disturbance = ecological succession

Forest type:
Except at the extremes of moisture, temperature or nutrient conditions, a given site type will
carry different tree species or mixture of tree species. Commonly the dominant taxonomic
group is used for its indication, e.g., Dipterocarp forests in Southeast Asia or Legume forests
in South America.
6.2. Theoretical setting
6.3. Classification system
No generally accepted classification system:
 Geographic-climatic: vegetation sequence approach
 Physiognomic-structural
 Floristic: plant community approach
 Multi-factor: plant physiological approach
Preference: Climatic approach with representative physiognomic features

6.4. Forest formations

6.4.1. Moist evergreen forests (lowland and mountains cloud forests)

7. Community based management of forest resource in Nepal.

8. Tropical management forests and silviculture Nepal
What do you know about the most imprtant tree species of the mountain forests of
<Nepal takin th example of Mustang District (growth conditions, succesional stages,
uses?

1) Semi Natural Mountain Forest: mostly blue pine forest and mixed coniferous forest

2) 􀃆Trends to form purely pine forests

3) 􀃆Over maturity of mixt coniferous forests
4) 􀃆Abundance of certain genera of conifers (Agathis, Araucaria, Abies, Pinus,
Podocarpus) and broadleaved families and genera (Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Ilex,
 Hippocastanaceae, Quercus
5) Increased presence of epiphytes and tree ferns, maximum in cloud forest (hotspots of
vascular plants)
6) Tropical / subtropical montane forests above 800-1,000 m a.s.l. with a gradual
transition up to the tree line
7) Higher tree density (750/ha of trees equal of more than 10 cm DBH
8) Less rich in tree species (40-50 / ha) than lowland forests
9) Less tall (30-35 m) than lowland forests
10) 􀃆Vertical structure with up to three stories
11) 􀃆Both buttresses and cauliflory rare
12) Above ground biomass (t/ha) 100-550
13) Basal areas (m²/ha) 9-57
14) Multiple use: Firewood, timber, leaf litter for cattle, wood and non wood forest
products, Charcoal, kindling, grazing and browsing, manure from leaf litter from the
forest
15) Stem forms of broadleaves usually less straight
16) 􀃆 Total evaporation decreases with altitude

8.1.
Roth= pollinator/ pollination issues in trees

I. Biological forest protection

Processes Relevant for the Maintenance of Ecosystems
Herbivory
Pollination
Seed dispersal
Parasitism
Predation
Litter decomposition
Mycorrhization
Soil formation
Formation and distribution of resources

Animals are essential for maintaining ecosystems processes and thus ecosystem services.
(The organisation of animals in food webs causes ecosystem relevant processes)
A. Effects of herbivory
i. Promotion of (compensatory) growth, increased net primary production
  Irradiation of formerly shaded leaves after herbivory minimizes photosynthetic
losses
 Feeding on shaded leaves improves the balance between photosynthesis and
respiration
ii. Effects on the species composition
 Of the vegetation by selective foraging a valuable tool for nature conservation to fight
against shrub encroachment in open and semi-open landscapes
 Valuable tool for biological control of weeds.
iii. Effects on nutrient cycling
 Fast cycling occurs when herbivores excrete readily decomposable organic matter
whose chemical elements can be quickly taken up by plants within a single growing
season.
 Slow cycling occurs when selectively foraging herbivores avoid plants with chemical
or structural defences.
 This can result in a community dominated by species that produce litter that is very
recalcitrant to decomposition (high C:N or C:P ratios).
v. Increased natural regeneration
B. Animals as pollinators
About 70% of tropical crops seem to have at least one variety for which production is
improved by animal pollination.

 insects (e.g. bees, butterflies, flies, beetles, ants): No chocolate without

flies
 mammals (e.g. bats - tropical cacti, tropical trees)
 birds (e.g. humming birds – red and orange flowering ornamental plants)
C. Seed Dispersal

What are the advantages of seed dispersal by animals?

1) Protection from predators:
2) Better access to sunlight and nutrients:
3) Colonization of new regions:
4) Diversity of vegetation in any given location
5) Selection of big sized and energy rich seeds.
 Epizoochory:
o dispersal of seeds due to the attachment on animal surfaces (e.g. fur, feathers,
bills, legs)

 Endozoochory:
o The passage of seeds through the intestinal tract of animals ensures their
germination
 o At least a third of tree species in west African forests depend on seeds passage
through elephant’s intestinal tract.
o Small ungulates promote germination of seeds by feeding on them
o Oak seeds in temperate forests by the jay (Garrulus glandarius)
D. Classification of soil fauna acc. to functional guild:tem

a) Ecosystem engineers:
o Effects on soil structure and the availability of resources for other organisms
o Macrofauna: Lumbricidae, Isoptera, Formicidae, Diplopoda
o Mesofauna: Enchytraeidae
b) Litter Transformers
o Effects on nutrient cycling, soil structure and the availability of resources for other
organisms
o Mesofauna: partly Collembola, Oribatida, Enchytraeidae
o Macrofauna: Lumbricidae, Isopoda, Isoptera, Diplopoda
c) Microbial feeders:
o Effects on nutrient cycling
o Microfauna: Nematoda
o Mesofauna: Collembola, Oribatida, Enchytraeidae
E. Species Diversity and Ecosystem Functioning:
The Hypothesis: (species redundancy, rivet, keystone, equally important)
1. Species redundancy hypothesis:
 Species (within a functional guild) are at least partially substitutable.
 Each new species causes only a small increase of ecosystem process efficiency
 Redundancy hypothesis entails that the more species are present in an ecological
unit, the rate of ecosystem function also increases but up to some point, beyond
this point species become redundant and does not have any additional affect to the
ecosystem functions, thereby the loss of certain species has no primary effect to
the diversity of an ecosystem. There are no fixed relationship between diversity and
ecosystem yet the functions of an ecosystem are the results of interaction among
species.
 Ecological Redundancy Hypothesis are sometimes refer to as functional
compensation wherein particular species are characterized to its efficiency in
providing services in the community when conditions are stressed in order to
 maintain and sustain comprehensive stability in the ecosystem. An increase in
stressed improve the species susceptibility to the following disturbances, thereby
species enhances to the ecosystem resilience.
2. Equally important species hypothesis:
 All species are of the same relevance concerning ecosystem processes.
 Each new species increases the functionality of ecosystems
3. Rivet hypothesis
 If certain biological areas lose several important species it can lead to a total collapse
of ecosystem functions.
 For example, using pesticide to remove non-specific density independent mortality
of species would haphazardly remove many species that are more likely to have
unfavorable effects in agro-ecosystem than to targeted control tactics that only
removed few species.

4. Keystone species hypothesis:

 Species differ with respect to the effects on ecosystem processes.

 The occurrence of keystone species results in a strong increase of ecosystem process

efficiency

5. Some definitions:

a. Keystone species:

 Pivotal species in a community that maintain the structure of the community. If they
are lost a large part of the existing community is lost with them.

 Example:

o Bats as pollinators in tropical forests.

o Large predators: Regulation of the population density of prey items

b. Umbrella species:

 Are indicator species with large area requirements; these species can be used in
conservation to ring many other species under protection
  Example:
o Red Deer as landscape managers in semi open pasture landscapes

c. Flagship species:

 Are popular, charismatic species that serve as conservation symbols and rallying
points for the protection of areas.

 Example: Giant Panda for WWF.

II. Pest in natural forests

Different types of pests:

Economic injury level: The smallest number of insects (amount of injury) that will cause yield
losses equal to the insect management costs. Or it is the damage caused by the insect equals
the cost of preventing that damage.

Economic threshold. The pest density at which management action should be taken to
prevent an increasing pest population from reaching the economic injury level."

The ET is the practical rule used to determine when to take management action. In fact,
some refer to the ET as the action threshold. It is essentially a prediction of when a pest
population is going to reach the EIL. It is assumed that once the ET is reached, there is a high
probability that the pest population will reach the EIL if no management action is taken.
1. Non economic pest: whose general equilibrium position and the highest
populations are below the economic threshold.
2. Occasional pest: GA is below the ET but whose highest population
fluctuations exceed the ET but not to injury level.
3. Key Pest: whose GE position is above the economic thereshold and
economic injury level, usually requiring insecticide application to prevent
economic damage.
a. Reasons for the Relevance of Insects as Herbivores
i. Insects make up about 75% of all known species
ii. Long-term coevolution between insects and vascular plants
iii. Acquisition of wings and the ability of flight
 iv. Small body size
v. Short life cycles and high birth rates
vi. Synchronization of life cycle with external environmental cycles
vii. Developmental stages with food reserves

b. Phases of Population Dynamic of Pests

i. Latency
ii. Pro-gradation
iii. Retro-gradation
iv. Latency
c. What case studies are telling...
1. All types of damage occurred in the undisturbed forest, although at very low
intensity.
2. In general evergreen tree species suffered less damage than moist deciduous species.
3. Examples:
a. Pest outbreaks in natural tropical forests: Lepidoptera
 Teak pests in India (Hyblea puera)
b. Pest outbreaks in natural tropical forests: Coleoptera
 Hoplocerambyx spinicornis (Cerambicidae): on Shorea robusta in India
4. Therefore, it is safe to conclude that pest outbreaks do occur in natural forests in the
tropics although they seem be less frequent and less severe than in plantations.

WHY?

A. The enemy hypothesis:

In a mixed stand, there is a greater action of the pests natural enemies. This
is facilitated by the diverse plant community providing:
1) alternative prey or hosts on which the natural enemies can sustain
themselves and build up during periods when the pest is not present in the
habitat.
2) a better supply of food such as pollen, nectar and honey dew for natural
enemies that enhances their reproduction and life span and overall
effectiveness.
3) the greater VARIATIONS IN MIROHABIATAT and micro climate that
provides that provides the large variety of shelter for natural enemies.

B. The crop disruptive hypothesis

 a. It is believed, that in mixed forests, other tree species associated with
a host tree may mask or interfere with its attractiveness for a pest.
Thus, herbivores are more likely to find and remain on host individuals
grown in monoculture than host plants grown in spatially diluted
systems.
b. Host concentration: Another notable feature of the insect outbreaks
in natural forests is that many of them have occurred in stands where
the host density was high.
Monoculture favors pest build up by providing
(1) a larger absolute supply of food resources
(2) the greater ease in host location due to physical proximity of the host
trees
(3) absence of interfering non- host volatiles.
(4) reduced dispersal mortality from the host patch.

d. Some major reasons for insect pest outbreaks in tropical forests

e. Low-level pest incidence is common in mixed tropical forests.

But!
i. Poor visibility of tree species pest damage in mixed stands with a
large number of tree species
ii. In the natural forest, it is often difficult to judge whether an insect
causes economical damage or not
iii. Systematic investigations on pest incidence in natural forests are
rare
iv. Poor knowledge on insect species of natural forests
f. Why is the world still green?
1. Host Plant Specialisation= Specialists: 90% and Generalists*:
10%

 Insects living on herbaceous plants often show a higher degree of

host specialisation than insects on shrubs and trees.
 Smaller species are generally more specialised than larger species.
 Specialist herbivores usually show a preference for young leaves,
whereas, polyphagous species prefer mature leaves of their various
host plant.
2. Insect sex affects food choice= (gypsy moth) male and female
 

 Males: preference for high-lipid diet (fuels for flight)

 Females: preference for high-protein diet (egg development)
3. Predation risks: factor affecting food selection of herbivores

4. Plant defence strategies against herbivory

4.1. Morphological defence:

4.1.1. Epicuticular, waxes, hairs, thorns
 Example: Thorny leaf edges of holly (Ilex aquifolia): Physical defence
restricted to the most susceptible sites
4.1.2. Features, promoting natural enemies: extrafloral nectarines, domatia
4.1.3. Chemical defence: - plant secondary metabolites
 Examples:
Alkaloids: inhibiting DNA and RNA synthesis
Toxic amino acids: loss of protein functionality
Terpenoids: inhibition of respiration
H. Biological Pest Control strategies
1. Naturally derived insecticides (plants, animal)
 Botanical families for insecticides:
Asteraceae
Rutaceae
Annonaceae
Labiatae
Canellaceae
Fabaceae
Meliaceae: Azadirachta indica oil called azadiractin has effects like
Feeding deterrency, repellency, growth disruptive (ecdysone antagonist) and sterilant
properities to numerous species and stages of insects of many orders.
2. Pathogens:
a. DNA viruses of family Baculoviridae
b. Fungi as Biological Pest Control Agents
i. Ability to infect host insects via penetration of the cuticule by exerting
mechanical pressure and producing cuticle-degrading enzymes
ii. Infection results in the starvation of host insects due to the uptake of
nutrients by the fungi from insect haemolymph combined by the release
of toxins
3. Pheromones
4. Natural enemies
i. Predators
ii. Parasitoids
Characteristic Features of Predators
1. In general, feeding opportunists with a broad prey spectrum; some feeding
specialists
2. The species spectrum is determined by the size relation of predator and prey
3. During the life cycle a plenty of prey objects are consumed
4. Examples:
Mammals: bats,
Birds: e.g. woodpeckers
Insects: ground beetles, rove beetles, ants
Arachnida: spiders, mites
Characteristic Features of Parasitoids
1. More or less feeding specialists*
 2. The species spectrum is determined by coevolution
3. During the life cycle one individual of the prey species is „consumed
4. Parasitoids are Holometabolic Insects with:
a. larval instars as the only parasitic developmental stage.
b. Pupae and adults live outside the host
Why are natural enemies only effective at low prey densities?
Single species of parasitoids and predators, are generally unable to cope with high pest
densities due to their fundamental host-finding behaviour: The sense of smell seems

8. Biodiversity in tropical forest-oheimb

Questions
Wagner= tree species diversity, how to safe guard these diversity, tree species.
Oheimb= slides questions/ general selective logging on biodiversity/Compare
case studies