Circuit theory

This tutorial is the first in the series for the course circuit theory. This tutorial has the
following contents.

1. Introduction to Electrical Engineering

2. DC systems
3. Kirchhoff’s laws.
4. Capacitance.

1.1 Electric charge

In all atoms there exists number of electrons which are very loosely bounded to its
nucleus. Such electrons are free to wander when specific forces are applied. If any of
these electrons is removed, the atom becomes positively charged. And if excess electrons
are added to the atom it becomes positively charged.
The total deficiency or addition of electrons in an atom is called its charge. A charged
atom is called Ion. An element containing a number of ionized atoms is said to be
charged. And accordingly the element consisting of that atom is said to be positively or
negatively charged.

Particle Electric charge possessed by Atomic charge

particle of one number (C)
Protons +1.6022 10-19 +1
Neutrons 0 0
Electrons -1.6022 10-19 -1

The unit of measurement of charge is coulomb (C). It can be defined as the charge
possessed by number of electrons i.e number of electrons.

Hence if an element has a positive charge of one coulomb then that element has a
deficiency of number of electrons.

1.2: Electric Current (I)

All electrons in an atom have certain potential energy. Given a suitable medium in which
to exist, they move freely from one energy level to another when small external effort is
applied. And this flow takes place from higher energy level to lower energy level. A
negative terminal is higher energy level for electron and lower energy level for proton.
Similarly a positive terminal is higher energy level for proton and lower energy for
neutron.
Electricity is the flow of charge. Conventionally the flow of protons from positive
terminal to negative terminal is considered as Electric current.
Practically protons cannot flow as they are bound compactly in the nucleus. But then,
the flow of electrons is considered as reverse flow of protons i.e. if an electron is given
out from A to B point, it can be considered that a proton is moving from B to A point.
Because, ultimately A is getting positively charged and B is getting negatively charged.

Current can be defined as the rate of flow of charge in an electric circuit or in any
medium in which charges are subjected to an external electric field. Unit of current is
Amperes (A).
Charge (C) = Current (A) Time (sec)
I.e. Q = I t

Problem: A charge of 30 C flows through a given point P in a circuit in 130ms.

Determine the current in the circuit.

Q=I t, implies I =

=230.76

1.3 Resistance (R): It is the property of electric circuit resisting or preventing the flow of
electrons (current). Due to resistance some electrical energy is lost as heat. It depends on
various factors.

; is length in meters; a: Area in square meters.

Unit of resistance is Ohm (Ω)

1.4 Electromotive force (EMF):

It is the voltage generated by a battery and is measured in volts. EMF is not a force but
the work done in moving +1 C charge around a circuit. The EMF pushes the electrons
through the wires of the circuit. It is denoted by E.

1.5 Potential difference (V)

Potential of a particle at a point is the amount of work done in bringing that particle
from infinity position to that point. Hence potential difference between two points is
defined as the difference in their potential. And accordingly, there exists either repulsive
 or attractive force between them which is caused by potential difference. Two like
charged particles attract each other and unlike charges repel each other. It is also
measured in volts and is denoted by V.

V= =

According to Ohm’s law

V and thus V= I R where R is the constant and is equal to resistance of the conductor.

Voltage =Current Resistance

Ohms law is not applicable for non metallic conductors and for non linear devices.

Problem: A resistor dissipates energy at the rate of 40 W and the current in it is 20 A.

Determine the energy of each coulomb of charge in the circuit.

V= =V= = 2 Joules.

W= VQ = 2 =2J

Problem: A circuit delivers 5A current to a resistance of 8 Ohm. Determine the rate of heat
dissipation and heat dissipated in 30s.

P= R = 25 8 =200 W; W = P t = 200 = 6000J

Problem: A 200 ton locomotive experiences wind resistance equivalent to 62.5 N/ton. The
efficiency of driving motors is 87% and the cost of electrical energy is 8p/kWh. What is the
cost of the energy required to make the train travel 1km? If the train velocity is 80km/h and
the supplied a constant voltage of 1.5 kV, determine the supply current.

In moving 1km

Amount of energy required to overcome wind energy is W = Fl

W=200 =12.5 J

Energy to be generated by motors Wm = = = 14.4 x J

1kWh = 3.6 x J, hence Wm =4 kWh

p.

Work done in 1 hr when moving at 80kmph is 14.4 x x 80 J

Hence Work done in 1 sec is =

 = 320 = Pin

Pin = V I

2 In general DC systems consist of only resistor elements. Capacitors acts as open circuit to
DC supply and Inductor elements act as short circuit for DC voltage supply. Hence in this
unit we only see circuits consisting of resistor elements.

2.1 Series circuits:

Circuits consisting of two or more resistance connected in series to a source are called
series circuits. In the circuit shown four resistances R1, R2, R3, R4 are connected in series.
Two resistances in series carry same amount of current. And the voltage supplied is equal to
the sum of the voltage drop across each resistance.

If V is voltage supplied then, V = V1 +V2 + V3 + V4

I.e. V= I*R1 + I*R2 + I*R3 + I*R4

V = I*(R1 + R2 + R3 + R4)

Let Req be the equivalent resistance across the DC source. Then V = I Req

Hence Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4

The above equation holds good for any number of resistances in series.

Problem: A 220v supply is applied across two resistances 10kΩ and 20kΩ each in series.
Find the current in the resistances.

Current I= =

I= ×
I= 7.3 mA in both the resistances

Problem: Three resistances 8Ω, 4Ω, 2Ω are in series. A current of 1A is flowing through
them. Find the voltage across each resistor and also total supply.

Voltages across individual resistances are

V1= I R1= 1 × 8 Ω =8V

V2= I R2 = 1 × 4 =4 V

V3 = I R3 = 1 ×2 =2 V

Hence the total supply is 8 + 4 + 2 = 14v

2.2 Parallel circuits:

Circuits consisting of two or more resistance connected in parallel to a source are called
parallel circuits. In the circuit shown four resistances R1, R2, R3 are connected in parallel.
Two resistances in parallel dissipate same amount of voltage. And the total current given out
from the source is equal to the sum of the voltage drop across each resistance.

If V is voltage supplied then, IT = I1 +I2 + I3

Let Req be the equivalent resistance across the DC source. Then I

As V1 = V2 = V3 = V

Hence,

The above equation holds good for any number of resistances in parallel.
Problem: A 100v supply is applied across two resistances 10 and 20 in parallel. Find the
currents through each resistance. And find the effective resistance.

V1 = = 10A

V2= 5A

Effective resistance = = 3.3 ohm

Problem: A current of 10A is shared between two resistances in the circuit shown below.
Find the currents in each resistance

I1 = I = =6 A

I2 = I = =4A

Combination of series and parallel circuits:

Problem: In the circuit shown find the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

In the above circuit R1, R2 are parallel and R3, R4 are parallel. And hence the circuit can be
deduced as follow
Ra = = 71.42 Ω

Rb = = 127.27

Now Ra, Rb are in series, Hence equivalent resistance is Ra + Rb

Req = Ra + Rb =71.42 + 127.27 =198.69

Problem: Find the total current when two resistances 10 Ω and 20 Ω are connected in series
and parallel across a supply of 100 V.

i) Series
I= = = 3.33A
ii) Parallel
I= = × 30 = 15A

From the above results it can be understood that parallel connection offers less resistance
compared to series connection of any set of resistors.

Problem: Find the equivalent resistance of the figure shown below.

It is to be understood that the resistors 4 and 5 are not in parallel as 2 and 8 are in between.
As well 1 and 7 are NOT parallel to each other because the 4 is in between. So, the only
possibility to start with the problem is to resolve the combination of 3, 6 and 9 which are in
series to each other. so, the above figure can be redrawn as below.

Here 5 and 18 are parallel which are replaced by their equivalent 3.9.
After that 2, 3.9, and 8 will be in series. These three will be equivalent to 13.9. Then 4 and
13.9 are in parallel equivalent to 3.1. Finally we get three resistances which will be in series.
Thence net equivalent resistance is equal to 11.1.

Req = 1 + (4 || {2 + [5 || (3+6+9)] + 8}) + 7

= 11.1 ohms

3. Kirchhoff’s Laws:

Kirchhoff’s current law: The total current entering into any node (junction) has to be equal to
the total current leaving out that node (junction). This is true for any node in a circuit, no
matter how many branches lead into or out of the node.

It can also be stated as the algebraic sum of currents entering into a node is zero. Different
signs are given to currents going into the junction and out of the junction.

∑ (I) = 0

i.e. I1 + I2 + (-I3) + (-I4) + (-I5) =0

Currents entering are taken as positive and leaving the node is taken negative.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law: In a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the voltages drops is equal to
the Voltage sources acting round the loop. Or The algebraic sum of voltages taking the
polarities into consideration.
E= V1 + V2 + V3 + V4

Voltage rise is taken as positive and drop as negative. It is to be noted that voltage drops
across a resistance.

Problem: Calculate the amount of voltage between points A and B in this circuit. As well
identify polarities and voltage magnitude at those points.

The 1k and 1k resistors in parallel are replaced by their equivalent i.e. by = .5k.

Now all these resistances are in series. Hence the equivalent resistance is

R= 2 +2 + .5 + 3 = 7.5k

Total current from the voltage source = = 4 mA

Voltage drop across two 2k resistance is = 2 × 4 = 8v.

Hence the voltage at A is V (A) = 8v.

Voltage at point B is V (B) = 30v because there is only one battery in the circuit and B is
directly connected to its positive terminal which is at 30v.

Hence voltage between two points V (AB) = V (B) – V (A) = 30 – 8 = 22v.

And regarding the polarity, as the B terminal is at higher potential with respect to A terminal.
B is +ve and A is considered as –ve terminal.

Problem: Calculate the amount of voltage between points A and B in this circuit. Also
identify the polarities and voltage magnitude at those points
The resistors 1k, 4k, 3k are in series hence they can be replaced by a (1 + 4 + 3) = 8k resistor.

This 8k will be parallel to 5 k. hence both of these can be replaced by = 3.07 k

Now 3.07k and 2k will be in series and hence the equivalent resistance is = 3.07 + 2 = 5.07k

So the total current given out by 100v source is = = 19.69mA.

Current through 5k is = 19.69 × = 12.12 mA

So the current through 1k, 4k, 3k is = 19.69 -12.12 =7.56mA

Voltage at B is given by sum of voltage drop at 1k and 4k. =7.56 × (1 + 4) = 37.84.

And it is clear from the figure that voltage at A, V (A) is Zero

Thus the voltage difference V (AB) = V(B) – V(A) = 37.84.

And B will have +ve polarity and A will have –ve polarity.

Problem: In this circuit, determine the polarities at A and B, and the voltage drop across the
resistor:

In the above circuit 6v and 8v batteries are additive, whereas 12v battery is opposing in
nature.

Hence the three batteries can be replaced by a single battery of 6 + 8 -12 = 2v.
It is to be understood that why the 2v battery is having its positive terminal connecting A and
why not it’s negative terminal.

And the voltage across the resistor is 2v and the polarities of A and B are +ve and –ve
respectively.

Problem: Find the currents in the circuit for the following network.

Let’s assume currents entering node B as shown in the below circuit.

Using the Kirchhoff’s current Law for the node B gives the equation

I1 + I2 = I3.
It can be understood that for the node E we will get the same equation. Then we use
Kirchhoff's voltage law for loop EFAB

-4 I1+ (-30) -5 I1 - 10I1 +60 +10I2 =0

In the loop BCDE, Kirchhoff's voltage law will yield the following equation:

-30 I3 + 120 -10I2+60 =0

Now we have three equations with three unknowns:

I1 + I2 - I3 =0
-19 I1 +10 I2 = - 30
-10 I2 -30 I3 = -180

The above three equations can be solved and we get the currents as below

I1 =2.8302
I2 =2.3774
I3 =5.2075
4. Capacitance:

A capacitor stores the energy in form of electrostatic field. It is denoted by C and it is

measured in Farads (F). The common form energy storage is parallel plate capacitor. If the
charges on the plates are +Q and –Q, V is the voltage between two plates then,

C= =

Where,

Permittivity of free space =

A = Area of cross-section of plates.

d= Distance between two plates.

And if current (I) flowing through the capacitor with applied voltage V then,

V= and

And the energy stored is given by

W= = dt = C

W= Joules.
Series connection :
The current passing through the circuit is denoted by i. In series connection, voltage changes
but current remains the same.

By Ohm's law,
i= C1 (dv1/dt); I = C2(dv2/dt)

i( + ) = d(v1+v2)/dt

i= dv/dt

Thus, Cseries=

And the voltage distribution is given by V1 = V and V2 = V

Parallel connection:

The current passing through C1 is i1 and the current passing through C2 is i2. In a parallel
connection, the voltage remains the same, but the current varies.

By Ohm's law,
i1=C1 dv/dt, i2=C2 dv/dt; the total current i= i1+i2= (C1+C2) dv/dt
Thus, Cparallel= C1+C2.

Problem: find the total capacitance when three capacitors of 2, 4 and 8µF are connected in
i) series ii) parallel

i) Cseries = = = = 1.14 µF

ii) Cparallel= C1+C2 +C3 = 2 + 4 + 8 =14 µF.