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Chapter 2
Fundamentals
1
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( )
(c) I = 5 / 2 ∠ − 15° + 4∠ − 60° = ( 3.42 − j 0.92 ) + ( 2 − j 3.46 )
= 5.42 − j 4.38 = 6.964∠ − 38.94°
− j6 6∠ − 90°
2.4 (a) I1 = 10∠0° = 10 = 7.5∠ − 90° A
8 + j6 − j6 8
I 2 = I − I1 = 10∠0° − 7.3∠ − 90° = 10 + j 7.5 = 12.5∠36.87° A
V = I 2 ( − j 6 ) = (12.5∠36.87° ) ( 6∠ − 90° ) = 75∠ − 53.13° V
(b)
2
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(d) Z = − j 25 Ω
I = V Z = ( 277∠30° ) ( 25∠ − 90° ) = 11.08∠120° A
i(t ) = 11.08 2 cos (ω t + 120° ) = 15.67cos (ω t + 120° ) A
(b) Z = 3 + j8 − j 4 = 3 + j 4 = 5∠53.1° Ω
(c) I = (100∠0° ) ( 5∠53.1° ) = 20∠ − 53.1° A
The current lags the source voltage by 53.1°
Power Factor = cos53.1° = 0.6 Lagging
3
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4
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( 2)
2
(c) P = V 2 R = 359.3 10 = 6455 W Absorbed
X = ( 359.3 2 )
2
(d) Q = V 2 25 = 2582 VAR S Delivered
( 2 ) 10 = 889.8 W
2
(c) P = I 2 R = 13.34
5
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2.15 (a) I = 4
( )
2 ∠60°
( 2∠30°) = 2 ∠30° A
6
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2
2.17 (a) S = V I * = Z I I * = Z I = jω LI 2
Q = Im[ S ] = ω LI 2 ←
di
(b) υ (t ) = L = − 2ω L I sin (ω t + θ )
dt
p(t ) = υ (t ) ⋅ i(t ) = −2ω L I 2 sin (ω t + θ ) cos (ω t + θ )
= −ω L I 2 sin 2 (ω t + θ ) ←
= − Q sin 2 (ω t + θ ) ←
Average real power P supplied to the inductor = 0 ←
Instantaneous power supplied (to sustain the changing energy in the magnetic field) has
a maximum value of Q. ←
2.18 (a) S = V I * = Z I I * = Re Z I 2 + j Im Z I 2
= P + jQ
∴P = Z I 2 cos ∠Z ; Q = Z I 2 sin ∠Z ←
(b) Choosing i(t ) = 2 I cos ω t ,
Then υ (t ) = 2 Z I cos (ω t + ∠Z )
∴ p(t ) = υ (t ) ⋅ i(t ) = Z I 2 cos (ω t + ∠Z ) ⋅ cos ω t
= Z I 2 cos ∠Z + cos ( 2ω t + ∠Z )
= Z I 2 [ cos ∠Z + cos2ω t cos ∠Z − sin 2ω t sin ∠Z ]
= P (1 + cos2ω t ) − Q sin 2ω t ←
7
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1
(c) Z = R + jω L +
jωC
From part (a), P = RI 2 and Q = QL + QC
1 2
where QL = ω LI 2 and QC = − I
ωC
which are the reactive powers into L and C, respectively.
Thus p(t ) = P (1 + cos2ω t ) − QL sin 2ω t − QC sin 2ω t ←
If ω 2 LC = 1, QL + QC = Q = 0
←
Then p(t ) = P (1 + cos2ω t )
*
150 5
2.19 (a) S = V I * = ∠10° ∠ − 50° = 375 ∠60°
2 2
= 187.5 + j 324.8
P = Re S = 187.5 W Absorbed
Q = Im S = 324.8 VAR SAbsorbed
(b) pf = cos ( 60° ) = 0.5 Lagging
(c) QS = P tan QS = 187.5 tan cos−1 0.9 = 90.81VAR S
QC = QL − QS = 324.8 − 90.81 = 234 VAR S
1 1
2.20 Y1 = = = 0.05∠ − 30° = ( 0.0433 − j 0.025 ) S = G1 − jB1
Z1 20∠30°
1 1
Y2 = = = 0.04∠ − 60° = ( 0.02 − j 0.03464 ) S = G2 + jB2
Z 2 25∠60°
P1 = V 2 G1 = (100 ) 0.0433 = 433 W Absorbed
2
8
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2.21 (a)
1 1 1
2.22 (a) Y1 = = = = 0.16∠ − 51.34°
Z1 ( 4 + j 5 ) 6.4∠51.34°
= ( 0.1 − j 0.12 ) S
1 1
Y2 = = = 0.1S
Z 2 10
P 1000
P = V 2 ( G1 + G2 ) ⇒ V = = = 70.71 V
G1 + G2 ( 0.1 + 0.1)
P1 = V 2 G1 = ( 70.71) 0.1 = 500 W
2
9
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The complex power delivered by the source is equal to the total complex power absorbed
by the load.
PL = 120 kW
pfL = 0.85 Lagging
θ L = cos−1 0.85 = 31.79°
10
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QL = PL tan ( 31.79° )
SL = PL + jQL = 141.18∠31.79° kVA
I = SL / V = 141,180 / 480 = 294.13A = 74.364 kVAR
= 86.512 kVAR
∴ SS = PS + jQS = 120 + j ( 74.364 + 86.512 ) = 200.7∠53.28° kVA
The input voltage is given by VS = SS / I = 682.4 V (rms)
The power factor at the input is cos53.28° = 0.6 Lagging
(b) Applying KVL, VS = 480 ∠0° + j1.0 ( 294.13∠ − 31.79° )
= 635 + j 250 = 682.4∠21.5° V (rms)
( pf )S = cos ( 21.5° + 31.79° ) = 0.6 Lagging
Pold = 50 kW; cos−1 0.8 = 36.87° ; θOLD = 36.87°; Qold = Pold tan (θ old )
= 37.5 kVAR
∴ Sold = 50,000 + j 37,500
11
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2.28 S1 = 15 + j 6.667
S 2 = 3 ( 0.96 ) − j 3 sin ( cos −1 0.96 ) = 2.88 − j 0.84
S3 = 15 + j 0
STOTAL = S1 + S2 + S3 = ( 32.88 + j 5.827 ) kVA
(i) Let Z be the impedance of a series combination of R and X
*
V V2
Since S = V I = V = * , it follows that
*
Z Z
( 240 )
2
V2
Z =
*
= = (1.698 − j 0.301) Ω
S ( 32.88 + j 5.827 )103
∴ Z = (1.698 + j 0.301) Ω ←
Then R= = 1.7518 Ω
( 32.88)103
( 240 )
2
X= = 9.885 Ω
( 5.827 )103
∴ Z = (1.7518 j 9.885 ) Ω ←
2.29 Since complex powers satisfy KCL at each bus, it follows that
S13 = (1 + j1) − (1 − j1) − ( 0.4 + j 0.2 ) = −0.4 + j1.8 ←
S31 = − S13* = 0.4 + j1.8 ←
12
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V 2 (1000 )
2
V1∠δ1 − V2 ∠δ 2 V1 V
2.31 (a) I12 = = ∠δ1 − 90° − 2 ∠δ 2 − 90°
X ∠90° X X
V V
Complex power S12 = V1 I12* = V1∠δ1 1 ∠90° − δ1 − 2 ∠90° − δ 2
X X
V12 V1V2
= ∠90° − ∠90° + δ1 − δ 2
X X
∴ The real and reactive power at the sending end are
V12 VV
P12 = cos90° − 1 2 cos ( 90° + δ1 − δ 2 )
X X
V1V2
= sin (δ1 − δ 2 ) ←
X
V12 VV
Q12 = sin 90° − 1 2 sin ( 90° + δ1 − δ 2 )
X X
V
= 1 V1 − V2 cos (δ1 − δ 2 ) ←
X
Note: If V1 leads V2 , δ = δ1 − δ 2 is positive and the real power flows from node 1 to
node 2. If V1 Lags V2 , δ is negative and power flows from node 2 to node 1.
(b) Maximum power transfer occurs when δ = 90° = δ1 − δ 2 ←
V1V2
PMAX = ←
X
2.32 4 Mvar minimizes the real power line losses, while 4.5 Mvar minimizes the MVA power
flow into the feeder.
13
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2.33
Qcap MW Losses Mvar Losses
0 0.42 0.84
0.5 0.4 0.8
1 0.383 0.766
1.5 0.369 0.738
2 0.357 0.714
2.5 0.348 0.696
3 0.341 0.682
3.5 0.337 0.675
4 0.336 0.672
4.5 0.337 0.675
5 0.341 0.682
5.5 0.348 0.696
6 0.357 0.714
6.5 0.369 0.738
7 0.383 0.766
7.5 0.4 0.801
8 0.42 0.84
8.5 0.442 0.885
9 0.467 0.934
9.5 0.495 0.99
10 0.525 1.05
2.35
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2.36 Note that there are two buses plus the reference bus and one line for this problem. After
converting the voltage sources in Fig. 2.29 to current sources, the equivalent source
impedances are:
=
( 0.5099∠78.69°)( 0.1∠ − 90°) = 0.1237∠ − 87.27°
0.4123∠75.96°
= 0.005882 − j 0.1235 Ω
The rest is left as an exercise to the student.
2.37 After converting impedance values in Figure 2.30 to admittance values, the bus admittance
matrix is:
1 −1 0 0
−1 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 − j1 −
1
− j1
−
1
2 3 4 3 4
Ybus = 1 1 1 1 1
0 − − j1 3 − j1 + j + j − j
4
3 4 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 − − j + j 4 − j 3
4 4 4
Writing nodal equations by inspection:
1 −1 0 0 V10 1∠0°
−1 ( 2.083 − j1) ( −0.3333 + j1) −0.25 V20 = 0
0 ( −0.3333 + j1) ( 0.3333 − j 0.25 ) − j 0.25 V30 0
0 ( −0.25 ) − j 0.25 ( 0.25 − j 0.08333) V40 2∠30°
15
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where Y11 = y10 + y12 + y13 ; Y22 = y20 + y12 + y23 ; Y23 = y13 + y23 + y34
Y44 = y34 ; Y12 = Y21 = − y12 ; Y13 = Y31 = − y13 ; Y23 = Y32 = − y23
2.39 (a)
−14.5 8 4 2.5 V1 0
8 −17 4
5 V2 0
(b) j =
4 4 −8.8 0 V3 1∠ − 90°
2.5 5 0 −8.3 V4 0.62∠ − 135°
YBUS V = I ; YBUS
−1
YBUS V = YBUS
−1
I
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240
2.40 (a) VAN = ∠0° = 138.56∠0° V (Assumed as Reference)
3
VAB = 240∠30° V; VBC = 240∠ − 90° V; I A = 15∠ − 90° A
VAN 138.56 ∠0°
ZY = = = 9.24∠90° = ( 0 + j 9.24 ) Ω
IA 15∠ − 90°
IA 15
(b) I AB = ∠30° = ∠ − 90° + 30° = 8.66∠ − 60°A
3 3
VAB 240∠30°
Z∆ = = = 27.71∠90° = ( 0 + j 27.71) Ω
I AB 8.66∠ − 60°
Note: ZY = Z ∆ / 3
208 Z∆
Van = ∠ − 30° = 4 + j 3 = 5∠36.87° Ω
3 3
Van 120.1∠ − 30°
Ia = = = 24.02∠ − 66.87° A
( Z ∆ / 3) 5∠36.87°
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2.43 (a) Transforming the ∆-connected load into an equivalent Y, the impedance per phase of
the equivalent Y is
60 − j 45
Z2 = = ( 20 − j15 ) Ω
3
With the phase voltage V1 = 1203 3 = 120 V taken as a reference, the per-phase equivalent
circuit is shown below:
18
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(c) The current per phase in the Y-connected load and in the equiv.Y of the ∆-load:
V2
I1 = = 1 − j 2 = 2.236∠ − 63.4° A
Z1
V2
I2 = = 4 + j 2 = 4.472 ∠26.56° A
Z2
2200 3
Phase voltage at the load terminals is V2 = = 2200 V taken as Ref.
3
Total complex power at the load end or receiving end is
SR( 3φ ) = 560.1( 0.707 + j 0.707 ) + 132 = 528 + j 396 = 660∠36.87° kVA
19
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= 12 kW + j81kVAR
(c) The three-phase sending power is
SS (3φ ) = 3V1 I * = 3 ( 2401.7∠4.58° )(100∠36.87° )
= 540 kW + j 477 kVAR
2.45 (a)
SS 25.001 × 103
IS = = = 30.07 A
3VLL 3 ( 480 )
(b) The ammeter reads zero, because in a balanced three-phase system, there is no neutral
current.
2.46 (a)
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Z∆ / 3
Using voltage division: VAN = Van
( Z ∆ / 3) + Z LINE
208 10∠30°
= ∠0°
3 10∠30° + ( 0.8 + j 0.6 )
=
(120.09 )(10∠30°) = 1200.9∠30°
9.46 + j 5.6 10.99∠30.62°
= 109.3∠ − 0.62° V
Z eq = 10 ∠30 ° || (− j 20)
= 11.547 ∠0 °Ω
Z eq
VAN = Van
Z eq + Z LINE
(
= 208 3 ) (11.54711.547
+ 0.8 + j 0.6 )
1386.7
= = 112.2∠ − 2.78° V
12.362∠2.78°
Load voltage Line-to-Line VAB = 3 (112.2 ) = 194.3 V
2.47
15 × 103
(a) I G1 = ∠ − cos−1 0.8 = 23.53∠ − 36.87° A
8 ( 460 )( 0.8 )
460
VL = VG1− Z LINE1 I G1 = ∠0° − (1.4 + j1.6 )( 23.53∠ − 36.87° )
3
= 216.9∠ − 2.73° V Line to Neutral
Load Voltage VL = 3 216.9 = 375.7 V Line to line
21
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30 × 103
(b) I L = ∠ − 2.73° − cos−1 0.8 = 57.63∠ − 39.6° A
3 ( 375.7 )( 0.8 )
I G 2 = I L − I G1 = 57.63 ∠ − 39.6° − 23.53∠ − 36.87°
= 34.14∠ − 41.49° A
VG 2 = VL + Z LINE 2 I G 2 = 216.9∠ − 2.73° + ( 0.8 + j1)( 34.14∠ − 41.49° )
= 259.7∠ − 0.63° V
Generator 2 line-to-line voltage VG 2 = 3 ( 259.7 )
= 449.8 V
(c) SG 2 = 3VG 2 I G* = 3 ( 259.7∠ − 0.63° )( 34.14∠41.49° )
2
2.48 (a)
3 ( 480 )
2
X∆ = = 49.37 Ω
14 × 103
(e) I C = VLL / X ∆ = 480 / 49.37 = 9.72 A
PL 23 × 103
I LINE = = = 27.66 A
3 VLL 3 480
22
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Z ∆ = Z AB = Z BC = Z CA
Using equations in Fig. 2.27
ZY2 + ZY2 + ZY2
Z∆ = = 3 ZY
ZY
and
Z ∆2 Z
ZY = = ∆
Z∆ + Z∆ + Z∆ 3
(b) Z A =
( j10 )( − j 25)
= − j 50 Ω
j10 + j 20 − j 25
ZB =
( j10 )( j 20 ) = j 40 Ω; Z =
( j 20 )( − j 25) = − j 100 Ω
C
j5 j5
2
2.50 Replace delta by the equivalent WYE: ZY = − j Ω
3
Per-phase equivalent circuit is shown below:
2
Noting that j 1.0 − j = − j 2 , by voltage-divider law,
3
− j2
V1 = (100∠0°) = 105∠0°
− j 2 + j 0.1
173.2∠30°
Then I A′B′ = = 86.6∠120°
− j2
∴ i2 (t ) = 86.6 2 cos (ω t + 120° )
= 122.5cos (ω t + 120° ) A ←
23
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1
2.51 On a per-phase basis S1 = (150 + j120 ) = ( 50 + j 40 ) kVA
3
( 50 − j 40 )103 =
∴ I1 = ( 25 − j 20 ) A
2000
Note: PF Lagging
Load 2: Convert ∆ into an equivalent Y
1
Z 2Y = (150 − j 48 ) = ( 50 − j16 ) Ω
3
2000∠0°
∴ I2 = = 38.1∠17.74°
50 − j16
= ( 36.29 + j 11.61) A
Note: PF Leading
1
S3 per phase = (120 × 0.6 ) − j 120 sin( cos−1 0.6 ) = ( 24 − j 32 ) kVA
3
( 24 + j32 )103 =
∴ I3 = (12 + j 16 ) A
2000
Note:PF Leading
Voltage at the sending end: VAN = 2000∠0° + ( 73.29 + j 7.61)( 0.2 + j 1.0 )
2160
2.52 (a) Let VAN be the reference: VAN = ∠0° ≃ 2400∠0° V
3
Total impedance per phase Z = ( 4.7 + j 9 ) + ( 0.3 + j1) = ( 5 + j10 ) Ω
2400∠0°
∴ Line Current = = 214.7∠ − 63.4° A = I A ←
5 + j10
With positive A-B-C phase sequence,
I B = 214.7∠ − 183.4° A; I C = 214.7∠ − 303.4° = 214.7∠56.6° A ←
24
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25
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26
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