Constructivism

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning that solely focuses on learning from experiencing.

"By reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in"
(Funderstanding, 2008). Constructivism emphasizes the importance of the knowledge, beliefs
and skills that an individual develops through different experiences throughout their lives. It
recognizes the creation of new understanding as a combination of prior learning, new
information, and readiness to learn (Education Broadcasting Cooperation, 2004). In the case of
constructivism individuals therefore make choices about what new ideas to accept into their
understanding and how to incorporate these new ideas and perceptions into their pre-established
outlook on the world. "Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models
to accommodate new experiences (Funderstanding, 2008).

Constructivism in the Classroom

"Constructivist philosophies focus on what students can do to integrate new knowledge with
existing knowledge to create a deeper understanding of the mathematics" (Stiff, 2001). In the
classroom, constructivism takes the idea of combining what they already know, with what they
newly learn through experiential learning and applies it to a variety of teaching methodologies.
Through this idea of teaching and learning students are encouraged through active learning
techniques (e.g. group-work, real-world problem solving) to create more knowledge and then to
reflect on and talk about what they are doing and how their understanding is changing
(Education Broadcasting Cooperation, 2004). This type of learning is defined as a "constructive
process in which students attempt to resolve problems that arise as they participate in the
mathematical practices of the classroom" (Anderson, Reder & Simon, 2000). Therefore,
constructivism in the mathematics classroom is learning mathematics by experiencing them
through active/ engaging activities.

The Practise of Constructivism

Constructivism cannot be defined as one specific philosophy as there exists several forms
thoroughly described throughout the literature. For example; Good, et al. (1993) describes 15
different forms of constructivism including; contextual, dialectical, empirical, humanistic,
information-processing, methodological, moderate, Piagetian, post-epistemological, pragmatic,
radical, rational, realist, social, and socio-historical (p. 74). To take a look at just two of these
forms that shed light on the teaching of mathematics in schools I will focus on radical and social
constructivism.

As discussed by Lee V. Stiff, from the national centre of teachers of mathematics (2001);
Radical constructivism is the philosophy that knowledge cannot be provided in some final form
from parent to child or from teacher to student but must be actively assembled in the mind by
each learner in his or her own way. What he is saying therefore is that students learn by
constantly experiencing and developing their knowledge base through activity and reflection
based on their own interpretation and how they process and perceive information rather than
directly taking passed on information interpreted by another source as a final form of new
knowledge without one's own elucidation. "The responsibility for expanding what one knows, or
for constructing new knowledge, rests primarily on the learner and his or her efforts to achieve
understanding" (Stiff, 2001).

Following from this, Stiff provides an outlook into Social constructivism. He explains that this
form of constructivism states that "students can better build their knowledge when it is
embedded in a social context" (2001). Thus, the interaction between teacher and students is
enhanced when it involves a broader community of learners such as students working together.
In this type of environment students are provided with the opportunity to engage with eachother
and work together to achieve common goals. Through this active approach students can help one
another create richer meanings for new mathematical content by offering up different ideas and
views on different concepts. An example of where social constructivism can be incorporated into
the mathematics classroom is through problem solving where interaction should take place
between the students where they are encouraged to develop their own strategies for solving
problem situations.

The Mathematics Teacher as a Constructivist

From the readings it is clear to say that the philosophy of constructivism identifies the students as
an "active participant in the teaching and learning process" (Stiff, 2001). Taking this into
account, the main role of the teacher is therefore, to facilitate the active engagement of all pupils
through developing engaging learning activities where students interact with one another and
"foster the integration and extension of knowledge among students" (Stiff, 2001). Teachers are
advised to and should constantly vary their teaching styles and strategies in order to foster
student engagement and interaction. "Good teachers use different strategies at different times for
different purposes" (Stiff, 2001).

Constructivist teachers have many characteristics that set them apart from the 'traditional'
teacher. As outlined by the Education Broadcasting Company (2004) what sets a constructivist
teacher apart from a traditional teacher is that; constructivist teacher's have a dialogue with
students in helping them to construct their own understanding and knowledge, their role is
therefore interactive and rooted in negotiation, teachers set assessment that includes a variety of
the students' work, observations, and points of view, as well as tests (emphasis on the process
rather than product), and teachers use a variety of raw materials and interactive materials in an
effort to facilitate discovery learning and prevent the students losing interest and becoming
demotivated to learn mathematics. "The constructivist teacher sets up problems and monitors
student exploration, guides the direction of student inquiry and promotes new patterns of
thinking" (SEDL, 1995).

In 1996, Paul Ernest outlined some 'pedagogical implications" of constructivism in the classroom
with the teacher as a facilitator. He claimed that the teacher must; provide sensitivity towards
attentiveness to the learners previous constructions, use cognitive conflict techniques to help
students challenge their own thinking, pay attention to the way that students learn and adapt their
thinking, use multiple representations of information, be aware of the importance of goals for the
learner and be aware of the importance of social contexts (street knowledge v school
knowledge). Ernest sets out clear guidelines for the role of the constructivist teacher but
characteristics can change with a changing classroom environment especially as pupils in a
constructivist environment have autonomy over their own learning, therefore teachers must be
ready to adapt and be prepared for changes in environment.

Overall, as outlined by Ishii (2003) constructivist teachers should; encourage and accept student
autonomy and initiative, use raw data and primary sources, use cognitive terminology, allow
student responses to drive lessons, inquire about students' understandings, encourage students to
engage in dialogue, encourage student inquiry and discussion by asking quality, open-ended
questions and nurture students' natural curiosity. By doing this, students will be provided with
the opportunity and necessary environment to promote critical thinking and problem solving of
mathematical concepts which will enhance their understanding and promote a possible liking and
interest in what is a negatively perceived subject.

The Benefits of Constructivism for Mathematics

Constructivism is the way forward for mathematics teaching. It is seen right throughout the new
project maths curriculum in secondary schools and throughout mathematics pedagogical
curricula in colleges. It provides countless benefits towards the implication and practise of
mathematics in the classroom. It has the potential to improve practice in the classroom for the
enhancement of pupil engagement and interpretation of the mathematical curriculum content.
Some noteworthy benefits include the following;

Children learn more and enjoy learning more when they are actively involved rather than passive
learners.

Education works best when it concentrates on thinking and understanding, rather than on rote
memorization

Constructivist learning is transferable throughout other subject areas.

Constructivism gives students ownership of what they learn.

Constructivist assessment engages the students' initiatives and personal interpretations.

By grounding learning activities in an authentic, real-world context, constructivism stimulates

and engages students.

Constructivism promotes social and communication skills by creating a classroom environment

that emphasizes collaboration and exchange of ideas.

Students must learn how to articulate their ideas clearly as well as to collaborate and negotiate on
tasks effectively by sharing in group projects, With all these benefits it is clear that pupils are
been taken away from the traditional alternative that offers merely; rote learning, passive
attention and limited student engagement.
Constructivism in the Mathematics Classroom Today
Whilst the benefits far outweigh the negatives, the implementation of the constructivist style of
learning faces numerous challenges today, starting with its acceptance among 'traditional style'
educators. As with everything, it is always going to be difficult to change the already indented
beliefs and values of a teacher. Traditional style teachers believe constructivism to de-value the
role of the teacher and 'expert knowledge'. But "contrary to criticisms by some
(conservative/traditional) educators, constructivism does not dismiss the active role of the
teacher or the value of expert knowledge" (Education Broadcasting Cooperation, 2004). Instead
constructivism alters the role of the teacher by emphasizing the student as more in charge of
constructing their own knowledge and the teacher taking a step back to guide the students in the
interpretation and building of this new knowledge, therefore students are not directly targeted
with piles of factual information that they cannot comprehend as their own. "Constructivism
transforms the student from a passive recipient of information to an active participant in the
learning process" (Education Broadcasting Cooperation, 2004).

Another limitation that constructivism faces is through the students. The students already will
have long-formed habits through the traditional style of teaching that will be hard to change and
some students may be pro-foundly against the new style of engaging and critical thinking their
way through maths whilst others will be more interested and value mathematics more as a
subject relevant for life. Other issues relating to students is; as students come from a variety of
backgrounds and ways of thinking which include pre-determined myths, beliefs on mathematics,
cultural influences, peer and family influences etc., "when presented with information in the
classroom that contradicts existing ideas, a student may try to accommodate both interpretations,
rather than change deeply held beliefs" (SEDL, 1995). The best way to counteract such a
problem is by easing the students in slowly to the new style of learning as "content is embedded
in culture and it is difficult to separate the two" (SEDL, 1995). Classrooms therefore need to
promote the exchange of personal views from all students so that students can learn from
eachother and build upon interpretation of their own knowledge against others' knowledge and
predetermined knowledge. Constructivist classrooms can provide this type of learning
environment through interactive and engaging activities.

Conclusion
So as we can see, throughout this essay, constructivism is a learning theory that most certainly
has the potential to improve practice in mathematics classrooms. "Constructivism has done a
service to science and mathematics education: by alerting teachers to the function of prior
learning and extant concepts in the process of learning new material, by stressing the importance
of understanding as a goal of science instruction, by fostering pupil engagement in lessons, and
other such progressive matters" (Matthews, 2000). Therefore, constructivism has made educators
aware that there needs to be a move from the 'traditional' style of mathematics in order for there
to be a deeper change in the teaching and learning of mathematics so that the beliefs and values
of all can be altered for the better of mathematics education for future generations.