Sequence Stratigraphic Distribution of Coaly Rocks:
Fundamental Controls and Paralic Examples1
Kevin Bohacs2 and John Suter3
ABSTRACT
Significant volumes of terrigenous organic mat-
ter can be preserved to form coals only when and
where the overall increase in accommodation
approximately equals the production rate of peat.
Accommodation is a function of subsidence and
base level. For mires, base level is very specifically
the groundwater table. In paralic settings, the
groundwater table is strongly controlled by sea
level and the precipitation/evaporation ratio. Peat
accumulates over a range of rates, but always with
a definite maximum rate set by original organic
productivity and space available below deposition-
al base level (groundwater table).
Below a threshold accommodation rate (nonze-
ro), no continuous peats accumulate, due to falling
or low groundwater table, sedimentary bypass, and
extensive erosion by fluvial channels. This is typi-
cal of upper highstand, lowstand fan, and basal
lowstand-wedge systems tracts. Higher accommo-
dation rates provide relatively stable conditions
with rising groundwater tables. Mires initiate and
©Copyright 1997. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
rights reserved.
1Manuscript received September 7, 1995; revised manuscript received
November 25, 1996; final acceptance May 5, 1997.
2 Exxon Production Research Company, 3120 Buffalo Speedway,
Houston, Texas 77096.
3 Exxon Production Research Company, 3120 Buffalo Speedway,
Houston, Texas 77096. Present address: Conoco, Inc., P.O. Box 2197,
Houston, Texas 77252.
We benefited from the input and assistance of many people. Of special
assistance were the teams involved in collaborative studies with Esso
Australia and Esso Malaysia: P. Moore, M. Sloan, J. Emmett, B. Burns, A.
Partridge, S. Creaney, Hanif Hussein, R. Hill, R. Lovell, and M. Feeley. We
also thank the Rock Springs team: R. Beauboeuf, P. McLaughlin, W. Devlin,
A. Carroll, Y. Y. Chen, G. Grabowski, Jr., K. Miskell-Gerhardt, M. Farley, R.
Webster, and J. Schwalbach. Group members D. Curry and J. Yeakel were
always helpful.
We also enjoyed and profited from many discussions of these concepts
with our colleagues outside Exxon: C. Diessel, R. Boyd, K. Shanley, B.
Zaitlin, P. McCabe, M. Hendricks, A. Cohen, and M. Kirschbaum.
We thank the reviewers of company reports, whose careful comments on
several generations of this work improved it: S. Creaney, M. Feeley, J. Van
Wagoner, F. Wehr, J. Yeakel, and A. Young. F. Weber and J. Zullig provided
extensive management support. K. Linke translated our sketches into the fine
figures herein. We value all the help.
1612
thrive, quickly filling local accommodation vertical-
ly and expanding laterally, favoring accumulation of
laterally continuous coals in paralic zones within
both middle lowstand and middle highstand sys-
tems tracts. If the accommodation increase bal-
ances or slightly exceeds organic productivity,
mires accumulate peat vertically, yielding thicker,
more isolated coals most likely during of late low-
stand–early transgressive and late transgressive–early
highstand periods. At very large accommodation
increases, mires are stressed and eventually inun-
dated by clastics or standing water (as in middle
transgressive systems tracts).
These relations should be valid for mires in all
settings, including alluvial, lake plain, and paralic.
The tie to sea level in paralic zones depends on
local subsidence, sediment supply, and groundwa-
ter regimes. These concepts are also useful for
investigating the distribution of seal and reservoir
facies in nonmarine settings.
INTRODUCTION
Coaly rocks can be important sources of liquid
and gaseous hydrocarbons (Durand et al., 1983;
Powell and Boreham, 1991) and substantial reser-
voirs of gas (e.g., Rightmire, 1984). Predicting the
occurrence, distribution, and volume of coaly
rocks is key in many areas of current exploration
and exploitation.
Coaly rocks contain organic matter from both
aquatic and land plants that grow and accumulate
in most terrestrial environments. At present, thick
accumulations of terrigenous organic matter
(peats) occur in many areas, from the mountains of
Tierra del Fuego to the shores of the Sea of Galilee
(Gore, 1983). Coals are found in the deposits of
many environments in the rock record, from allu-
vial fans and braided streams to estuaries and
lagoons (Diessel, 1992).
This paper addresses two main points: (1) deter-
mining where significant volumes of terrigenous
organic matter accumulate and (2) how one can
predict their occurrence and geometry within a
AAPG Bulletin, V. 81, No. 10 (October 1997), P. 1612–1639.

sequence-stratigraphic framework. We first discuss
the fundamental controls of terrigenous organic mat-
ter accumulation that are applicable to all environ-
ments and tectonic settings. We then concentrate on
paralic settings, the most important coal-forming
areas. These low-lying coastal terrains contain most
of the 480 million ha of peatlands formed in the
Holocene (Kivinen and Parkarinen, 1981). We exam-
ine the effects of relative sea level on paralic settings
and propose a model for the occurrence and distri-
bution of coaly rocks within a depositional sequence
that integrates accommodation, groundwater and
surfacewater flow, and shoreline changes. These
concepts are useful also for investigating the distri-
butions of seal and reservoir facies in these settings.
Coal distributions consistent with this model are
observed in multiple sequences in the Carboniferous
of the Black Warrior and Appalachian basins; the
Permian of the Sydney and Gunnedah basins; the
Cretaceous of New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming; the
Tertiary of the Gippsland basin, southeastern Asia,
and northern California; and the Holocene of the
Mississippi and Rajang river deltas (see, among oth-
ers, Sears et al., 1941; Speiker, 1949; Young, 1955;
Fassett and Hinds, 1971; Levey, 1981; Ryer, 1981,
1984; Partridge, 1982; Thompson, 1985; Shanley,
1991; Tadros and Hamilton, 1991; Arditto, 1992;
Diessel, 1992; Roberts and McCabe, 1992; Gastaldo
et al., 1993; Hamilton, 1993; Kosters and Suter,
1993; Aitken and Flint, 1994, 1995; Staub and
Esterle, 1994; Beauboeuf et al., 1995; Heckel, 1995;
Sullivan et al., 1995; Tyler and Hamilton, 1995).
These observations, combined with considerations
of fundamental controls and depositional process-
es, yield a robust integrated model that predicts
broad patterns of coal distribution and character.
The model is not intended to explain all the details
of individual coal seams; such seams certainly
respond to the same controls, but are much more
sensitive to local variations in subsidence, sediment
supply, and flora.
ACCUMULATIONS OF SIGNIFICANT VOLUMES
OF TERRIGENOUS ORGANIC-RICH ROCKS
Ultimately, the accumulation of significant vol-
umes of terrigenous, organic-rich rocks depends on
the production and preservation of terrigenous
organic matter from freshwater aquatic and land
plants. The accumulation of significant amounts of
terrigenous organic matter is analogous to the
accumulation of marine source rocks and is con-
trolled by the very same primary elements of depo-
sition: (1) primary organic productivity, (2) preser-
vation of organic matter, (3) dilution by mineral
matter, and (4) subsidence. Table 1 summarizes
these major controls.
Bohacs and Suter 1613
Wetland environments with ecosystems that
accumulate significant amounts of land-plant debris
are generically termed “mires” (or “peatlands”)
(Moore, 1989). We use the term “peat” for concen-
trated accumulations of terrigenous plant material.
Although bedded peats or coals may not become
effective hydrocarbon source rocks, most of the
conditions that lead to peat accumulation also are
those that affect preservation of hydrogen-rich
components that yield liquid hydrocarbons (Curry
et al., 1992). In general, circumstances that gener-
ate significant coals will enhance preservation of
liquid-hydrocarbon-prone organic matter.
Influence of Accommodation on
Peat Accumulation
Significant volumes of terrigenous organic-rich
rocks (peats) can be preserved to form coals only
when and where the overall increase in accommo-
dation approximately equals the accumulation rate
of peat (see discussions in Speiker, 1949; Young,
1955; Teichmüller, 1962; Bloom and Ellis, 1965;
Rampino and Sanders, 1981; Tissot and Welte,
1984; Courel, 1989; Allen, 1990; McCabe, 1991).
Organic production just fills the space available for
sediments, preserving the plant material below the
water table. Clastics must be excluded, which may
occur in areas of stable fluvial channels or raised
mires. When the increase in accommodation great-
ly exceeds the peat production rate, the mires are
inundated by mineral debris or are drowned by
lake or sea water. When the increase in accommo-
dation is much less than the peat production rate,
organic matter is more likely to be oxidized and
eroded by migrating channels (Figure 1).
Accommodation in paralic and nonmarine set-
tings generally changes as base level and subsi-
dence change. Base level is commonly discussed in
terms of hypothetical graded-stream profiles or
inclined peneplains (Powell, 1875; Wheeler, 1964;
Jervey, 1988), thereby perpetuating the confusion
among base level, stream grade, and landscape pla-
nation started by Powell’s (1875) original ambigu-
ous description of base level. Strictly speaking,
base level in nonmarine settings is the lower limit
of subaerial erosion, which is effectively sea level
(Davis, 1902; Schumm, 1993). As used in many
recent works, the term “base level” is more synony-
mous with Twenhofel’s (1939, p. 8) definition of
the term as, “base level of deposition: the highest
level to which a sedimentary deposit can build.”
The existence of this theoretical equilibrium ero-
sion surface is much debated and difficult to locate
in actual landscapes. For mires and the accumula-
tion of peat, however, the base level of deposition
is very specifically the groundwater table: plants
1614 Distribution of Coaly Rocks
Table 1. Basin to Local Controls on Accumulation of Terrigenious Organic Matter
Primary Element Major Controls
Primary organic productivity Supply of water and nutrients
Type of plants
in mire
Preservation of organic matter Location of groundwater table
Dilution by mineral matter Location of clastic
dispersal systems
Subsidence/accommodation Space available for
mire formation and
peat accumulation
that form mires that thrive in areas of groundwater
discharge; organic preservation requires a water
table at or very near the surface (as is summarized
in Table 1) (see Frenzel, 1983; Diessel, 1992). Peat
accumulation is most dependent on preservational
conditions where “physical conditions…reduce
the rate at which detritovores and decomposers
can consume the available organic resource”
(Moore, 1989, p. 89). Of the many factors that
retard consumption, the lack of oxygen is domi-
nant (Gore, 1983; Moore, 1989). Oxygen diffuses
much more slowly in water than in air; hence, a
high, stable, or rising water table significantly
reduces oxygen availability. The importance of
waterlogging to peat accumulation has long been
noted. Davis (1911) focused on protection from
desiccation, regular and abundant rainfall, and con-
sistently high humidity. Potonié (1920), Gore
(1983), Ingram (1983), Moore (1989), Diessel
(1992), and Winston (1994), among many others,
all indicated the importance of hydrology and high
water tables. “The best environments for coal pre-
cursors have biomass accumulation, a continuously
Explanation
Nutrient supply is enhanced by
water supply from groundwater
and overland flow
Mires thrive in areas
of groundwater discharge
Amount and hydrogen content of peat
is a strong function of local flora,
which vary with geological age,
climate, and nutrient supply
Significant accumulations of
terrigenous organic matter occur
only below water table because of low
O2 supply (telmatic and
limnotelmatic settings)
Decomposition of plants generates
low pH and antiseptic compounds that
further enhance preservation
Stable river channels and shorelines
and raised mires minimize
dilution of organics
Accommodation rate must
closely match organic
accumulation rate to generate
peats or concentrated
terrigenous organic matter
rising water table within the mass, and minimum
inf lux of clay and silt” (Cameron et al., 1989,
p. 105).
The location of the groundwater table in paralic
settings is controlled by sea level and the precipita-
tion/evaporation ratio (Freeze and Cherry, 1979;
deMarsily, 1986). Farther inland, the groundwater
table is controlled by topography, type and stratifi-
cation of surficial sediments, and the ratio of pre-
cipitation to evaporation. Note that a very high pre-
cipitation/evaporation ratio may generate a raised
mire with a local groundwater table perched above
the general topography and relatively insensitive to
regional groundwater conditions (see discussion in
Winston, 1994).
Base-level fall also may produce significant
accommodation on portions of the coastal plain
where incised valleys form via fluvial erosion and
groundwater sapping. The locations and sizes of
the incised valleys depend on the location and
strength of both preexisting fluvial systems and
coastal-plain drainages formed during base-level
fall. These valleys may be more than 100 m deep

and tens of kilometers wide (Van Wagoner et al.,
1990). Incised valleys tend to have groundwater
tables very near the ground surface; hence, mires
preferentially initiate and thrive in these areas (e.g.,
Staub and Esterle, 1994; Aitken and Flint, 1995).
The other component of accommodation, sub-
sidence, is a function of plate-tectonic setting,
basin type and local evolution, loading, and com-
paction. Subsidence varies much more slowly
than does the groundwater table and is thus com-
monly the major long-term control of accommoda-
tion in nonmarine settings.
Clastic sediment supply is also an important
control on peat accumulation. Clastic sediment
supply enhances plant growth by supplying nutri-
ents and a stable substrate, but a large, rapid
influx dilutes the organic matter and can kill the
vegetation. Local clastic accumulation, however,
is influenced by the same factors as peat accumu-
lation. At low accommodation rates, little or no
clastics accumulate. At larger accommodation
rates, clastics and peat compete to fill available
space. Clastics and peat are typically segregated
areally, commonly strongly influenced by the flora
itself (e.g., Staub and Esterle, 1994): the vegeta-
tion is not solely a passive element in the deposi-
tional system. Peat can accumulate in areas of rela-
tively high clastic supply. Diessel (1992), among
others, reported braided-stream conglomerates
coeval with robust coal measures. At high rates of
accommodation, large shallow depressions devel-
op that may contain standing water and accumu-
late large amounts of clastics due to gradient
advantage and trapping by standing water. Peat is
Bohacs and Suter 1615
Figure 1—Peat accumulation
requires that accommodation
balance peat formation. The areas
on the graph represent conditions
of accumulation for various forms
of terrigenous organic-rich rocks
(derived mainly from equation 1).
The limits for each field are set by
substituting the weight percent
(dry basis) of organic matter
required for coals (100–75% as
defined by the American Society
for Testing and Materials) and
coaly shales (75–25%; fundamental
changes in geochemical character
and behavior occur at approximately
25–30% organic matter content).
The upper limit of coals with low
oil potential is set by empirical
observations on the bounding rates
of coal formation summarized in
Diessel and Boyd (1994), wherein
the minimum rate of peat
formation, on average, is one-half
of the maximum rate.
not likely to accumulate under such conditions,
due to deep standing water or burial by clastics.
In all these cases, the mire responds to local space
available for accumulation; this local space inte-
grates clastic influx into the accommodation, as
do our model formulations.
Peat production rate is controlled by water and
nutrient supply, mire type, vegetation type, and flo-
ral community successions (Frenzel, 1983; Ingram,
1983; Teichmüller, 1989). These factors are con-
trolled at a larger scale by geological age (through
plant evolution), paleolatitude, and climate.
All these factors can be combined in a mathe-
matical expression that describes conditions for
peat accumulation. Using a frame of reference that
moves with base level, one may calculate the
changes in elevation of mire using this Lagrangian
formulation for the change in local elevation with
time (after Allen, 1990).
dE dSmin dSorg dBL dC dSub
= + − − − (1)
dt dt dt dt dt dt
where dE/dt = change in elevation of local sedi-
ment surface with time; for the sediment input
rate, dS min /dt = mineral sedimentation rate and
dS org /dt = organic sedimentation rate; for the
accommodation rate, dBL/dt = change in base level
(upward = positive), dC/dt = long-term com-
paction rate (greater than seasonal), and dSub/dt =
regional subsidence.
By definition, when the system is in dynamic equi-
librium, with all accommodation filled, dE/dt = 0
1616 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Table 2. Defining Limits for Coaly Rock Lithotypes—Organic Matter Content and Normalized Accommodation Rate

Lithology Wt. % Limit of

Organic Matter k Accommodation/Peat Production
Coal 100 0 1:1
Coal 75 0.18 1:1.18
Coaly Shale 25 0.53 1:1.53

Lower Bound Upper Bound

Acc/PPR** Lithology Acc/PPR** Source of Relation
0.5 Coal + coaly shale (poor preservation) 1 Empirical*
1 Coal 1.18 Equation 1
1.18 Coaly shale (good preservation) 1.53 Equation 1
1.53 Terrigenous shale >1.53 Equation 1
*After Diessel and Boyd, 1994. Empirical relation is based on observations that minimum rate of peat formation, on average, is one-half of the maximum
rate (average = 0.55, n = 31).
**Acc/PPR = accommodation/peat production rate.

because the frame of reference moves with the sed- Equation 5 quantifies the widely made statement
iment surface. Then that peat production must be balanced with “subsi-
dence” if coal is to form.
dSmin dSorg dBL dC dSub Other important insights can be gained from this
+ = + + (2) formulation. By substituting the various limiting
dt dt dt dt dt conditions of organic matter content into this equa-
tion’s constant, k, we may determine the exact
Based on the American Society for Testing and ratio of accommodation to peat production for the
Materials definition, peat contains a set maxi- equilibrium deposition of coals, coaly shales, and
mum amount of mineral matter (ash) per dr y terrigenous shales. Table 2 summarizes the results
weight, so from these substitutions for the various lithotypes,
and Figure 2 diagrams the results.
dSmin  dSorg  Data from Holocene peat-forming environments
=k  (3) (Boyd and Diessel, 1995) indicate that peats accu-
dt  dt  mulate at rates of from less than 1 to about
7 mm/year; hence, peats may thrive in areas
where k may be defined as [(1 – wt. % total organic with total subsidence rates of approximately
carbon)(ρ min /ρ org )(Φ)]. Note that k depends on 1–177 m/m.y. (thickness of rock divided by the
weight percentage of organic matter required by duration in m.y., uncorrected for time-interval dif-
definition (≥75%), density of organic matter and ferences, as discussed in a following section).
minerals, and porosity of deposited material before These rates include environments such as passive
long-term compaction. Typical peats have organic- margins, foreland basins, some strike-slip basins,
matter contents of between 75 and 100%, quartz- and extensional basins in prerift, rift, and thermal
density mineral matter, and an average porosity of phases (P. Rumelhart and E. Goodman, 1992, per-
0.4; thus, k = 0 to 0.18. sonal communication).
Substituting this identity (equation 3) into the The peat production rates, reported in millime-
previous equation, we get ters per year, are derived from Holocene mires
with cool, warm-temperate, and tropical climates
dSorg 1  dBL dC dSub 
(based on data for the last 120 yr). In contrast,
=  + +  (4) reported accommodation rates from a variety of
dt 1 + k  dt dt dt  tectonic settings reflect mainly long-term subsi-
dence rates. These rates are usually reported in
Because the value of k is small, the coefficient is meters per millions of years. Such rates must be
approximately equal to 1. Thus, to deposit a peat, adjusted to a time interval equivalent to the peat
production rates because of the significant effect
of time interval on rate calculations [see extensive
( )
dSorg 1 (5)
≥ Accommodation Rate discussions in Sadler (1981), Gardner et al. (1987),
dt 1+k and Algeo (1993)]. This adjustment is significant

and necessary when the measured time intervals
of the two processes differ by more than 10 3 to
104 yr.
We adjusted the subsidence rates by using the
relation derived by Gardner et al. (1987) for rates of
tectonic movement:
Corrected Rate = (Reported Rate) × (Time
Interval in Years)0.255
Measured process rates follow a fractal power
distribution and statistically depend on the time
intervals of measurement; apparent rates decrease
as the time interval of measurement increases. For
example, sedimentation rates apparently may slow
by a factor of 30 or more when mm/y to m/m.y.
measurements are compared; however, this differ-
ence is due to the different time intervals of mea-
surement. This apparent slowing is also due, in
part, to averaging in many more periods of process
inactivity (hiatuses) and unconformities (McShea
and Raup, 1986; Gardner et al., 1987).
Control of Accommodation on Peat
Thickness, Geometry, and Continuity
Recognizing the balance between accommoda-
tion and production required for the creation of
peat, we now examine how accommodation con-
trols peat thickness and continuity. Peat thickness
is not directly controlled by accommodation rate or
by the absolute amount of peat produced, but by
the ratio of the rates of accommodation and peat
production. This relative balance determines
whether a local depositional environment will
Bohacs and Suter 1617
Figure 2—Relation of
peat production rate to
accommodation rate with
ranges of rates for major
climate zones and tectonic
settings. Peat production
rates from Diessel and
Boyd, 1994.
accumulate peat and how thick the peat will be.
This ratio may be considered a “normalized” or rel-
ative accommodation rate, making the relations
shown in Figures 3 and 6 nondimensional and uni-
versally applicable; therefore, in a given environ-
ment with a particular flora, peat may accumulate
over a range of rates, but always with a definite
maximum rate set by two factors: original organic
production capacity and space available below
depositional base level (the water table).
Figure 3 shows the expected general relation
among peat thickness, geometry, continuity, and
the normalized accommodation rate (accommoda-
tion rate/peat production rate). Figure 3 contains
four important regions.
(1) Below a threshold (nonzero) normalized
accommodation rate, continuous peats do not accu-
mulate, due to falling or low groundwater table, sed-
iment bypassing, and the potential for extensive
erosion and reworking of sediments by fluvial chan-
nels, making the preservation of any fine-grained
sediments problematic. Some isolated, relatively
thin, oxidized peats or coals may accumulate at
accommodation rates just below this threshold.
(2) Above a critical threshold, mires can initi-
ate and thrive because of relatively stable condi-
tions and a rising groundwater table. The mires
quickly fill the local accommodation vertically
and then extend laterally into suitable areas (away
from significant clastic deposition) for room to
grow (analogous to case 1 of Winston, 1994).
Continuous coals accumulate. [The vertical limit
of accommodation space may cause the widely
observed evolution of mires from ever-wet (tel-
matic) to prolonged dry conditions, which yields
the commonly observed “dulling-upward” trends
1618 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

peats may accumulate, most likely in areas of high

Figure 3—(A) Relation of the ratio of accommodation
rate/peat production rate (“normalized” accommoda-
tion) with peat thickness. Peat accumulates with maxi-
mum thickness when the two rates are approximately
equal. (B) Relation of ratio of accommodation rate/peat
production rate to coal geometry. The most widespread
coals accumulate at low to moderate values of this ratio.
in coal seams; e.g., Smith (1962), Teichmüller
(1962), Smyth and Cook (1976).]
(3) At higher increases of accommodation rate,
when and where accommodation balances or
slightly exceeds the peat production rate, the mire
can accumulate peat to its full capacity in place,
and does not need (and may not be able) to extend
laterally. These conditions favor relatively thick but
isolated coals.
(4) Above these rates of accommodation, mires
are stressed and eventually inundated by clastics or
rainfall (domed mires).
These four relations should be valid for mires in
alluvial, lake-plain, and paralic setting.
Figure 4 shows an example of these changes
within a single coal seam (zone) as accommodation
changes laterally. This figure clearly illustrates the
relation of accommodation to coal thickness and
quality, because only accommodation varies signifi-
cantly and most other variables remain constant
(f lora, climate, environment, etc.). Analogous
examples occur in many settings; for example, the
Permian of New South Wales (Warbrooke, 1981),
the Carboniferous of the Cumberland basin, Nova
Scotia (Calder, 1993), and the Holocene Mississippi
delta (Fisk, 1958; Frazier and Osanik, 1969). These
examples clearly show that coal accumulation has
definite lower and upper bounds.
Figure 5 illustrates these changes in a vertical
section where accommodation increases with
time; this section has braided streams at the base,
interbedded fluvial sandstones and coals in the
middle, and lacustrine mudrocks at the top. Note
the thickest coals are in the middle of the section,
at intermediate rates of accommodation.
The general, nondimensional relation shown on
Figure 3 illustrates overall trends for all mires. The
exact values of accommodation and peat produc-
tion depend on floral assemblages, their produc-
tion capacity, and the nature of the depositional
systems surrounding the mire (availability of clas-
tics, size and sorting of clastics, and seasonal water
supply); however, all mire ecosystems demonstrate
definite lower and upper limits to the formation
and accumulation of peats. Peats and coals do not
continue to thicken indefinitely with increasing

,,,,,,,

,,
accommodation rates.
standing water (as discussed in the previous sec- Other workers have observed similar classes of
tion); preservation also decreases. A few isolated coal distributions that have been attributed to

,

,,



Figure 4—Relation
Increase in Subsidence Rate of accommodation
toward fault (subsidence) and coal
thickness, Brunner seam,
m New Zealand. Coal peaks
10 in thickness and quality
0 at intermediate values
250 m
(after Titheridge, 1993).

High Ash Low Ash High Ash Carb. Mudrock

Coal
Thickness

Channel Belt Crevasse Splays Flood Basin - Lake Paleosol


Figure 5—Control of accommodation rate on coal
thickness, Permian Patchawarra Formation, central
Australia (after Wehr and Johnstone, 1990, personal
communication).
various causes. Ferm (1974) recognized three typi-
cal coal distributions—relatively thin but
widespread, thick but lenticular, and thin and
erratically distributed—which he related to deposi-
tion in various deltaic depositional environments.
Horne et al. (1978) and Ferm and Staub (1984),
among others, also noted the importance of opti-
mum balance. Horne et al. (1978) suggested the
site of thickest coal occurrence is a transition zone
between the lower and upper delta plain. Ferm
and Staub (1984, p. 275) suggested that “The sites
of maximum peat accumulation appear to be deli-
cately balanced between areas which are topo-
graphically low and…those which are topographi-
cally too ‘high.’” They remarked that topography
appears to be controlled by sediment compaction
and contemporaneous faulting, both of which are
important components of accommodation (as
noted in terms 2 and 3 in the right side of equation
2). The work of Ferm and Staub (1984), along with
that of their colleagues in the Appalachian plateau,
underscores the strong control of local accommo-
dation on coal thickness and continuity. However,
Bohacs and Suter 1619
all of these workers generally attribute the ulti-
mate control of coal distribution to autocyclic
processes and not to the more general control of
accommodation due to both autocyclic and allo-
cyclic processes.
Thickness and Geometry of Peats Within One
Accommodation Cycle
Combining all these processes helps us under-
stand how peat thickness and geometry may vary
through one cycle of accommodation. Figure 6
illustrates the changes in peat thickness and
geometry expected during a cycle of low to high
to low accommodation rates. Note that the upper
cur ve is a cycle of aggradation rate, the first
derivative or rate of change of the position of
base level. Mires should respond mainly to rate of
change and not be as sensitive to the direction of
change, so we predict symmetrical pairs of thickness-
geometry attributes throughout the cycle. Table 3
describes the nature of coal occurrence during
each portion of the accommodation cycle, rela-
tive rates, and ke y processes. Note that the
accommodation rates are nondimensional and are
scaled to the peat production rate; thus, these
relations should apply to any mire or setting. We
derived the numbers in Figure 3 by assuming an
active clastic depositional system that fills any
“leftover” accommodation to regional base level
of deposition, which is the defining assumption
of nonmarine base level of deposition (Powell,
1875; Barrell, 1917; Twenhofel, 1939; Wheeler,
1964). For example, the upper limit of peat for-
mation is set by the definition of peat as contain-
ing less than 25% mineral matter. Substituting this
value into equation 4 indicates that the upper
limit of peat production occurs when the ratio of
accommodation to peat production equals 1.18.
As ever, the exact timing of peat formation and
the nature of peat accumulation during an accom-
modation cycle are functions of the local f lora,
climate, physiographic setting, and so on.
EXAMPLES
We highlight four examples of coal distribution
within a sequence framework: the Rock Springs
Formation (Cretaceous, Wyoming), the Ferron
Sandstone (Cretaceous, Utah), the Illawarra Coal
Measures (Per mian, New South Wales), and
the Mississippi delta (Holocene, Louisiana). These
are just a few of many examples that span var-
ious tectonic and climatic settings from the
Carboniferous to the Holocene.
1620 Distribution of Coaly Rocks
Figure 6—Relation of rate of change of base level to coal thickness and geometry for a given peat production rate.
Rock Springs Formation: Lowstand to
Highstand Systems Tracts
The Rocks Springs Formation accumulated dur-
ing the Campanian at about 48°N in a warm-
temperate climate (Hendricks, 1981; Levey, 1981;
Beauboeuf et al., 1995). The upper portion of the
Rock Springs Formation (Figure 7) contains the
no. 1 and Brooks-McCourt depositional sequences
having significant coal seams. Coals are moderate-
ly bright, high-volatile bituminous C, ranging from
1 to 4 m thick in a zone 5–27 km wide behind
their contemporary shorelines (Levey, 1981). The
strata accumulated in a foreland basin that was
tectonically active during deposition (Devlin et
al., 1994). Depositional environments ranged from
coastal-plain streams and mires, through wave-
and river-dominated shorelines, to a shallow-
marine shelf.
The lower sequence is informally termed the
no. 1 sequence because it encloses the Rock
Springs no. 1 coal seam (Beauboeuf et al., 1995).
This sequence comprises an aggradational stack of
two parasequences, a retrogradational stack of two
parasequences, and an aggradational to prograda-
tional stack of three parasequences. Together, they
constitute a complete depositional sequence: low-
stand, transgressive, and highstand systems tracts.
The occurrence and distribution of coals are
strongly tied to the shoreline-stacking patterns.
Table 4 and Figure 8 detail the distribution of coals
within the no. 1 sequence. A relatively thick and
 Bohacs and Suter 1621

Table 3. Relation of Accommodation and Coal Thickness

Accommodation
Rate Acc/PPR* Coal Thickness Coal Geometry Processes
Negative or ~0.5 No significant coal Restricted, Low or falling groundwater table;
low increase (0.5 m) isolated oxidation and degradation of
organic matter; extensive erosion
and channel amalgamation
Low to moderate ~1.0 Relatively thin to Widespread, Peat** accumulation exceeds
increase moderately thick continuous local capacity, so mire
(1–3 m) (100s of km2) spreads out under relatively
stable conditions and rising
water table
Moderate to high ~1.18 Thick to very thick Relatively restricted; Peat accumulated matched or
increase (3 m) relatively isolated slightly exceeded by
to isolated accommodation, so mire grows
(100 km2) vertically in place
High to very high ~1.53† Relatively thin Restricted, scattered Organic matter is immediately
increase (~1 m) buried and greatly diluted by
clastics
Very high increase 1.53 No significant coals Possible scattered Clastic input dominates system;
plant fragments no mires formed
*Acc/PPR = accommodation/peat production rate.
**Peat, by definition, contains more than 75% carbon on a dry basis (ASTM, 1989).
†Coaly mudrocks show fundamental changes in geochemical character and behavior at ~25–30% organic-matter content.

widespread coal occurs at the top of the lowstand; The upper sequence is composed of the
thin, discontinuous coals are in the transgressive sys- Brooks sandstone, Coulson shale, and McCourt
tems tract; and relatively thick but isolated coals form sandstone members. In the area of the cross sec-
in the basal highstand systems tract. tion, this upper sequence contains three major

Figure 7—The upper portion of the Cretaceous Rock Springs Formation contains two major depositional sequences
with significant coal seams: no. 1 and Brooks-McCourt. The best developed and most widespread coals occur at the
top of the lowstand systems tracts. Stratigraphic cross section is along east side of Rock Springs uplift, southwest-
ern Wyoming.
1622 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Table 4. Sequence Stratigraphic Distribution of Paralic Coaly Rocks

Parasequence Coastal Plain Coaly Rock Coaly Rock Organic

Systems Tract Stacking Sedimentation Thickness Geometry Preservation

Late highstand, Strongly progradational, Amalgamated channels, No significant Restricted, Minimal

lowstand fan, bypass and erosional subaerial exposure coals (≤0.5 m) isolated
early lowstand wedge truncation

Middle to late Moderately Valley fill, low to Relatively thin Widespread, Moderately
lowstand wedge aggradational moderate overbank to moderately continuous good
flow thick (1–3 m) (100s of km2)

Late lowstand to Strongly aggradational Frequent overbank Thick to very Relatively Good to
early transgressive to moderately flow, floodplain thick (≥3 m) scattered excellent
retrogradational aggradation

Middle Strongly Frequent overbank Relatively thin Restricted, Moderate to

transgressive retrogradational flow, ponding, some (≤1 m) scattered poor;
erosion by retreating potentially
shoreface high sulfur
content
Late transgressive Slightly retrogradational Frequent overbank Thick to very Relatively Good to
to early highstand to strongly aggradational flow, floodplain thick (≥3 m) restricted; excellent
aggradation relatively
isolated to
isolated
(≤100 km2)

Early to middle Aggradational Moderate overbank Relatively thin Widespread, Moderately

highstand flow, floodplain to moderately continuous good
aggradation, soil thick (100+ km2)
formation (1–3 m)

parasequences, one each in the lowstand, trans-
gressive, and highstand systems tracts. The most
widespread, moderately thick Rock Springs no. 3
coal zone occurs at the top of the Brooks sand-
stone, at the change in stacking from aggradational
to retrogradational just beneath the major flooding
surface interpreted as the top of the lowstand sys-
tems tract. Locally thick, but isolated, coals are
found behind the shoreline of the retrogradational
parasequence (transgressive systems tract). Thin,
isolated, generally dull, and poorly preserved coals
occur behind the strongly progradational parase-
quence at the top of the package (highstand sys-
tems tract).
Ferron Sandstone: Lowstand to Transgressive
Systems Tracts
The coals in the Ferron Sandstone member of the
Mancos Shale accumulated during the late Turonian
in a foreland basin at about 46°N in a warm-temperate
climate on a river- to wave-dominated delta plain
(Cotter, 1976; Ryer, 1981, 1984; Thompson, 1985).
In the Emery coalfield of central Utah are five signifi-
cant seams of moderately bright to moderately dull,
high-volatile bituminous C coal, ranging from 1 to 10
m thick, in zones 6–25 km wide behind contempora-
neous shorelines (Doelling, 1972; Ryer, 1981, 1984).
Distributions of coal similar to those in the Rock
Springs Formation occur in analogous positions in
the Ferron Sandstone, illustrated here in Figure 9.
Ryer’s (1981) maps of the extent and thickness of
the coals associated with the Ferron’s river-domi-
nated parasequences clearly showed the controls
of accommodation. No significant coals are associ-
ated with the strongly progradational stack of
parasequences at the base of the unit, just above
the major sequence boundary we interpret to be
there. The superjacent weakly progradational
parasequence contains relatively thin, but continu-
ous, coal (seam A, Figure 9). The overlying strongly
aggradational stack of parasequences corresponds
to seams that increase in thickness but decrease in
lateral extent (seams C, G, I, Figure 9). This stack
culminates in the thickest seam (I), which occurs
in what we interpret as the top of the lowstand
wedge, just as the parasequences begin to stack
 Bohacs and Suter 1623

Early Highstand (Bowman, 1970; McMinn, 1985; Arditto, 1992).

100 Figure 10 shows the upper portion of the Illawarra
Coal that contains three complete depositional
% of Systems Tract

80
sequences with both well-developed, widespread
60 coals and thin, dirty, discontinuous coals. Coal
40 seams vary from generally bright to rather dull, and
20
range in thickness from 1 to 12 m, covering up to
3000 km2 (Bunny, 1972).
0 Sequence boundaries are erosion surfaces over-
SP54
SP53
SP43
SP135
LC167
LC119-7
LC10412
LC90-1
LC82-2
LC67-35
LC39
LC19-27
LC193
LC42
LC198
LC200
LC15-29
LC203
LC213
LC205
LC209
LC12-25
LC21-35
lain by sharp-based coarse to pebbly sandstones in
<-Sea Land-> fining-upward packages, representing basinward
Coal Mudrock
~20 km shifts of fluvial/estuarine environments (Arditto,
1992). Widespread, uniform coals up to 12 m thick
Transgressive occur above the fining-upward packages and below
100 the first superjacent coarsening-upward packages
(parasequences), and are interpreted to have
% of Systems Tract

80
formed within the upper lowstand and basal trans-
60
gressive systems tracts. Very little coal is associated
40 with retrogradationally stacked shoreline parase-
20 quences, and was probably deposited within mid-
dle transgressive systems tracts. The midsequence
0
downlap surface is placed at the change from ret-
SP54
SP53
SP43
SP135
LC167
LC119-7
LC10412
LC90-1
LC82-2
LC67-35
LC39
LC19-27
LC193
LC42
LC198
LC200
LC15-29
LC203
LC213
LC205
LC209
LC12-25
LC21-35
rogradational to progradational parasequence stack-
<-Sea Coal Mudrock Land-> ing. Only thin, discontinuous, and dirty coals are
found within the progradationally stacked parase-
Late Lowstand quences interpreted as the highstand systems tracts.
100
% of Systems Tract

80

60 Mississippi Delta: Late Transgressive to Early

Highstand Systems Tracts
40

20 The Mississippi delta accumulated significant

0 peat beds during the Holocene on a passive margin
SP54
SP53
SP43
SP135
LC167
LC119-7
LC10412
LC90-1
LC82-2
LC67-35
LC39
LC19-27
LC193
LC42
LC198
LC200
LC15-29
LC203
LC213
LC205
LC209
LC12-25
LC21-35

at about 30°N in a warm-temperate climate on a

Core Holes/Measured Sections
<-Sea
Figure 8—Lateral distributions of coals within the no. 1
Rock Springs depositional sequence. The late lowstand
contains relatively thick and widespread coals; the
transgressive systems tract holds thin, discontinuous
coals; and the early highstand contains relatively thick
but isolated coals.
retrogradationally. The next-younger seam (J) is dis-
tinctly thinner and associated with marked retrograda-
tion (basal transgressive systems tract). No significant
coals are found in the strongly retrogradational stack
of parasequences at the top of the Ferron unit in this
area (middle transgressive systems tract).
Illawarra Coal Measures: Middle to Late
Transgressive Systems Tracts
The Illawarra Coal accumulated during the Late
Permian at about 60°S in a cool, humid climate
river-dominated delta plain (Fisk, 1958; Frazier and
Osanik, 1969). The peat beds range from 1 to 4 m
Coal Mudrock Land-> thick across a zone up to 60 km wide (Kosters and
Suter, 1993).
Sediments of the Teche, St. Bernard, and La-
fourche complexes of the Holocene Mississippi
delta were deposited around the transition from
retrogradation to progradation. Marine reworking
of distributary sands of retrogradational delta
complexes formed backstepping shorelines.
The youngest and most landward of these, the
“Teche shoreline,” overlies the Teche complex.
This shoreline represents maximum transgression.
Subsequently, younger highstand delta lobes of the
Lafourche complex prograded the delta plain.
(Progradation and abandonment of a single delta
lobe creates a parasequence. Related groups of
delta lobes (that is, a delta complex) can be consid-
ered a parasequence set. Stacking patterns of delta
complexes classify them into systems tracts.)
Figure 11 illustrates the occurrence, thickness,
and distribution of peats in this setting. Only scat-
tered, thin, high-ash peats occur in the strongly ret-
rogradational Teche delta complex (Figure 12).
1624 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

,








,,
,,,
,,
,,,










,,

,,,
,,

,,


,
 
5 Early
J Coal (PS1)
0 TST Blue Gate Shale
Mid ps7
10 TST
I Coal (PS4) Early J ps6
Total Coal Thickness (m)

5 TST
I ps5



0 G





Late Late
5 LST TST ps4
C

Ferron Ss
G Coal (PS3)
0 ps3
5 Mid A
C Coal-n (PS2) LST ps2
0
Mid
5 LST Early LST
A Coal (PS1) ps1
0
-15 km -10 -5 0 5 km 10 Tununk Shale ~10 m
Distance from Updip Shoreline Pinch-Out ~10 km
<-Land Sea->

Figure 9—Stratal stacking in the Ferron Sandstone member of the Cretaceous Mancos Shale, Emery coalfield, Utah.
The occurrence and distribution of coals are strongly tied to shoreline-stacking patterns. Coals change from rela-
tively thin and widespread, through thick and isolated, to thin and discontinuous as the system evolves under
increasing accommodation.

Open-bay sediments dominate the upper part of conditions, organic productivity balances accom-
this complex, attesting to very high accommoda- modation, allowing peat accumulation.
tion rates within its delta-plain environments. In summary, we, along with others (see the refer-
Relatively thick peats of high organic content are ences cited in the introduction), observe that the
found landward of the shoreline of maximum thickest and most extensive coals are associated
transgression, just above the change from ret- with aggradational to slightly retrogradational
rogradation to progradation (upper transgressive parasequence sets in both the lowstand and the
to basal highstand systems tracts). Slowly rising highstand systems tracts. Coals are also well devel-
relative sea level created accommodation and oped on a larger scale in aggradational sequence
resulted in discharge of nutrient-rich groundwater sets [see, for example, observations in Ryer (1984)
within the delta plain. This created favorable con- and in Beeson (1984)].
ditions for producing and preserving high-quality
organic facies as hypautochthonous f lotants
(Kosters and Suter, 1993). Thin, organic-poor sedi- PREDICTING COAL OCCURRENCE AND
ments are accumulating currently within the GEOMETRY WITHIN A SEQUENCE
progradationally stacked parasequences of the STRATIGRAPHIC FRAMEWORK
LaFourche complex (highstand systems tract).
Fresh water and nutrients from groundwater are Having considered how changes in accommoda-
discharged into the Gulf of Mexico, forcing forma- tion inf luence the occurrence, thickness, and
tion of brackish and salt-marsh environments unfa- geometr y of peats, we can now examine how
vorable to peat accumulation. Active highstand accommodation in paralic settings relates to rela-
delta complexes, the Plaquemines-Moder n tive sea level and propose a model for the distribu-
(Birdfoot delta) and Atchafalaya, are all salt-marsh tion of coals within a depositional sequence. This
dominated (Kosters and Suter, 1993). Neither tie of accommodation to relative sea level is best
complex has significant quantities of in-situ peat, revealed by the stacking patterns of shoreline
although numerous occurrences of drift peats, or parasequences, which record the same net combi-
“coffee ground” beaches, attest to continuing nation of subsidence, base level, and sediment
high-organic productivity. accumulation that controls peat accumulation. To
The Mississippi delta demonstrates that high-qual- complete the tie to paralic mires, we also must
ity organic facies can accumulate in temperate envi- consider the effect of sea level on the base level of
ronments even in high-sediment-yield systems. the mire, the groundwater table. The resultant
However, the best organic facies occur away from sequence stratigraphic model must account for the
active sediment input and tidal exchange. Barataria integrated effects of changing relative sea level on
basin peats accumulated in fresh marsh settings on the nearshore and paralic environments to explain
an abandoned delta complex, landward of the shore- the occurrence of coals in this setting.
line of maximum transgression in a zone of ground- The stacking patterns of parasequences depend
water discharge. Here, under these depositional on the ratio of sediment accumulation rates to
 Bohacs and Suter 1625

Figure 10—Distribution of
coals within the upper
Illawarra Coal Measures,
Sydney basin, Australia.
Coals are best developed
and most widespread
at the top of aggradational
packages, just below
significant retrogradation,
which is interpreted to be
at the top of the lowstand
systems tract (well logs
from Arditto, 1992).


,
,



,

,
accommodation rates (Jervey, 1988; Van Wagoner et develop; however, this ratio controls parasequence
al., 1990; Soreghan and Dickinson, 1994). Sediment stacking. The control of this ratio on the stacking of
accumulation rates vary significantly among deposi- shoreline parasequences that inf luence paralic


tional systems and change as depositional sequences coaly settings is shown in Figure 13. This figure also

ppi R iver
Alluvial ssi
Mis s i New Orleans
Valley
At
3
ch
af Lac Des

al Allemands
ay
30˚ aR N
ive
r Ba
you
Laf
our
che
Mi Lake
ssi Salvador
ssi
pp
6 iR
ive 0 20
r 3 km
2 Bay
o uL
af
Gulf of Mexico 5 Peat Thickness
ourc

1 0 - 300 cm
he

29˚ 4
300 -> 400 cm Barataria
Bay
92˚ 91˚ 90˚ 89˚ Intrabasinal Prodelta Mud
1 Maringouin Lake Borgne Fault
2 Teche
3 St. Bernard Teche Shoreline Gulf of Mexico
4 Lafourche 0 30 60
Pleistocene km
5 Plaquemine - Balize
6 Atchafalaya

Figure 11—Location map of Mississippi River delta-plain complexes and isopachous map of peat in the Barataria
basin, Louisiana (after Kosters and Suter, 1993).










1626



 





(A),





,

Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Strike Strike
S
Gulf of Mexico
0




 




 

Rangea cuneata 6m
Lac des Allemands Lake Salvador Bayou Perot
Lake
Borgne Fault
Teche Shoreline Grand Isle
N S
(B) PS2 Peat
0

, 

PS1 PS2 Clastics
PS1 Clastics PS2
PS1 Peat TST 6m
TST Coastal Plain
Coastal Plain
0 50 100 130 km

(A) (B)


Open Water Peat/Carbonaceous Mud
True Peat (75% organic matter)
Lithofacies

Parasequence
Delta Plain Clastics
Organic-Rich Material (35-75% OM) Transition Bed
Channels and Crevasses Shoreline Sandstone
Basin Fill/Overbank Max. Flooding Surface
Open Bay Flooding Surface
Barrier Island

Figure 12—Lithofacies and sequence stratigraphic interpretation cross section of the Teche, Saint Bernard, and
LaFourche delta-plain complexes (after Kosters and Suter, 1993). Significant peat deposition is associated with
aggradational parasequence stacking in the late transgressive to early highstand systems tracts.

illustrates the postulated tie between accommoda-

tion at the shoreline and coal thickness and geometry.
Integrating the controls on peat accumulation
with accommodation as recorded by the shoreline
parasequences, we postulate a tie to relative sea
level. This allows us to discuss the implications for
the distribution of paralic coaly rocks within a
cycle of relative change of sea level; that is, one
depositional sequence. The proposed model of the
distribution of coaly rocks within a depositional
sequence (one cycle of relative change of sea level)
is outlined in the following paragraphs and illustrat-
ed in Figures 14, 15, and Table 5.
Falling sea level (late highstand to early low-
stand, part 1 on the base-level curve on Figure 14)
promotes rapid shoreline progradation, incision,
and amalgamation of fluvial systems forming the
sequence boundary and lowstand systems tract.
Significant f luvial accumulation may begin in
incised valleys. Coaly organic-rich rocks are
absent to very thin, isolated, and poorly preserved
because of falling groundwater tables, oxidation, Figure 13—Link between shoreline-stacking patterns
and subaerial erosion. During the deposition of and paralic coal geometries, which are both governed
lowstand wedges (parts 2 and 3 on the base-level by the amount of accommodation relative to sediment
curve), rising sea level and groundwater tables, supply.






,

, ,



,,,



,

,,
,

 ,





, ,


5
6 sediment supply, and
TS
4
Fluvial Channel
Floodplain
Coal
Nearshore Sandstone
Offshore Mudstone
5 6
1 4
2 3
1 2 3 4
stable fluvial channels, and coastal-plain aggrada-
tion lead to relatively thick, continuous, and moder-
ately well-preserved coaly organic-rich rocks. These
become thicker and more isolated during contin-
ued sea level rise, until accommodation increases
more rapidly and shorelines translate landward
(part 4 of the base-level curve). Mires become
restricted and scattered; increased overbank flow
and clastic sedimentation is not conducive to organic
deposition, whereas rapidly rising groundwater
tables and saltwater wedges may drown the coastal
plain, forming lakes and bays. Shoreface erosion hin-
ders preservation of those organic facies that are
deposited. After the transgressive maximum, less-
ened rates of sea level and groundwater-table rise
combine with greater stability of the paralic envi-
ronments to allow establishment, production, and
preservation of relatively thick, relatively isolated
coaly organic-rich facies and overall aggradation of
the coastal plain during the early highstand (part 5
of the base-level curve). Stable groundwater tables
and fluvial systems result in thinner and more con-
tinuous organic facies through mid-highstand (part
6 base-level curve), until relative fall of sea level ter-
minates the cycle.
With this general model in mind, we now dis-
cuss some of the important processes that influ-
ence the accumulation of coaly organic-rich rocks
within different portions of a depositional
sequence: groundwater response to changing sea
level, shoreline evolution, and sediment supply.
Bohacs and Suter 1627
Figure 14—Occurrence
and distribution of paralic
coals within a depositional
sequence. This is a
representative depositional
sequence with moderate
subsidence, slowly varying
average rates of change
of sea level.
DLS
3 (mfs)
2
1
SB
High
Base Level
Low
5 6
Our generalized inferences about shoreline evolu-
tion and sediment supply are based on glacio-
eustatic processes that clearly were important dur-
ing the Permian–Carboniferous and the Tertiary,
major times of coal accumulation (Dalrymple et al.,
1992; Suter, 1994; Willis and Behrensmeyer, 1994).
Specific morphologies and environments of indi-
vidual systems vary greatly depending upon local
conditions, but within an overall sequence frame-
work, we can predict general shoreline and coastal-
plain response to eustatic fluctuations. For exam-
ple, barrier islands and estuaries are common
depositional environments within transgressive
systems tracts, whereas falling sea level enhances
shoreline regression and promotes fluvial incision
(e.g., Dalrymple et al., 1992). Obviously, climate is
an important factor, and we consider it in our dis-
cussions on groundwater. Wanless and Shepard
(1936) and Heckel (1995), among others, dis-
cussed possible ties between climate and eustasy
for Carboniferous coal-forming settings.
The behavior of the groundwater system on the
coastal plain is the major control on the initiation,
location, and development of mires. The main con-
trols on the location of the groundwater table in a
coastal phreatic aquifer are topography, precipita-
tion/evaporation ratio, permeability structure of the
aquifer, sea level, and the location of the under-
ground saltwater wedge (Freeze and Cherry, 1979).
Where local relief is negligible, as on a construction-
al coastal plain, only single regional groundwater

,



Late Highstand Transgressive


5 6 5 6
High High
1 4 1 4
Base Level Base Level
2 3 Low 2 3 Low
Peat Zone
1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
ead
BayhDelta
Bay Valley)
ed
(Incis

Plain
al Delta
Flo od Tid Inlet lta
Tidal al De
on Ebb Tid
Lago r Island
Barrie

al
ast
c

t Co
Deltaiadland
He

rgen
E me
2 3
1

Coaly organic-rich rocks are absent to very thin, isolated, and poor- Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be relatively thin, restricted, and
ly preserved because groundwater table falls as the sea and subsur- scattered; the rapidly rising groundwater table due to rising sea

,,,
,

, 


face salt wedge withdraw, fluvial systems incise, channels amalga- level and advancing subsurface salt wedge may drown the mire
mate, and because nonchannel facies are minimally preserved. On and form ponds or lakes. Near the coast, the mire may be sub-
the coastal plain, there is also widespread subærial exposure, exten- merged beneath brackish or salt water, elevating sulfur content.
sive soil formation, and very infrequent overbank flow of low inten- Also, accumulation of peat on initial and rapid transgressions is
sity. discontinuous and scattered due to the detailed kinematics of a
transgression.

Middle Lowstand Early Highstand


5 6 5 6
High High
1 4 1 4 Base Level
Base Level
2 3 Low 2 3 Low

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

Peat Zone

Peat Zone

TS 5

2 3
DLS
2 1 (mfs)
1

SB

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be relatively thin to relatively Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be thick to very thick, relatively
thick, continuous, and moderately well preserved because of rising isolated, and well preserved because the rate of rise of water table

,


,


,
groundwater table (due to rising sea level and advancing subsurface slows to a rate that can be balanced by peat accumulation. High
salt wedge), stable fluvial channels, and enhanced preservation of groundwater table and stable fluvial channels enhance mire estab-
overbank environments. lishment, production, and preservation. On the coastal plain, fre-
quent overbank flow of high intensity spreads abundant fine-grain-
ed clastic sediments. Fluvial avulsion is common and coastal plain
streams form in abandoned trunk streams and at drainage divides.

Late Lowstand Middle Highstand

,

5 6 5 6
High High
1 4 Base Level 1 4 Base Level
2 3 Low 2 3 Low

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

Peat Zone

Peat Zone

TS
TS
5
6

2 3
1 DLS
2 3 (mfs)
1

SB
SB

Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be thick to very thick, relatively Coaly organic-rich rocks tend to be relatively thin to relatively
isolated, and well preserved because of continued rising ground- thick, continuous, and moderately well preserved because the
water table, stable fluvial channels, and enhanced vertical accretion groundwater table stabilizes at relatively high levels, rising only
and preservation of overbank facies. slowly, at rates equal to or slightly less than peat accumulation rate.
Stable fluvial channels restrict clastic input. Mires may shift lateral-
ly to continue vigorous growth.

Figure 15—Proposed model of the distribution of paralic coaly rocks within a depositional sequence.

Table 5. Distribution of Coals in the Rock Springs Formation
Systems Coal
Parasequence Tract Occurrence
1 Early-middle lowstand Locally present
2 Late lowstand Present
3 Transgressive Locally present
4 Transgressive Locally present
5 Early highstand Present
6 Early highstand Present
7 Late highstand Locally present
systems develop, graded to sea level (e.g., Back,
1966). Indeed, one defining attribute of paralic
environments is their hydrologic connection to the
sea (Diessel, 1992). Lowlands and valleys tend to
be discharge areas, providing beneficent conditions
for mire growth.
Within an unconfined coastal aquifer, given
these considerations, one can calculate the shapes
of the freshwater/saltwater interface and the free
surface of the groundwater table (Rumer and Shiau,
1968; Verrujiat, 1968). These equations yield
insights not only into the distribution of the water
table, but also into the major controls on its shape
and location. These mathematical relations also
enable us to calculate the effects of changing sea
level on the coastal groundwater regime.
The shape of the free surface of the groundwater
table in a heterogeneous (anisotropic) coastal
aquifer is a segment of a parabola of the form
(Freeze and Cherry, 1979)
 βQ  sentative examples; see also the list in Frenzel,
z 2 = −2 x
(
 λK z 1 + β ) 
(6)
where z = elevation of water table (0 = sea level),
β = relative density of groundwater and sea water
[(ρ sw – ρ fw )/ρ fw = 0.03)], Q = groundwater dis-
charge, λ = anisotropy ratio of aquifer, horizontal to
vertical conductivity [≡ (Kx /Kz)1/2], and Kz = verti-
cal hydraulic conductivity.
Figure 16A shows the form of the water table for
a representative coastal aquifer (data from U.S. mid-
Atlantic coast in Meisler et al., 1984). Note that the
groundwater table is at or very near the ground sur-
face, with a net upward flow in a zone approxi-
mately 35 km wide behind the mainland shoreline
(“bayline”). This is the zone that responds most
rapidly to changes in sea level and groundwater
flow. We also observe that coals are commonly best
developed in this zone behind the shoreline (e.g.,
Bohacs and Suter 1629
Coal Coal
Thickness Distribution
<0.5 m Widely scattered, isolated
Thin to relatively Very widespread and
thick (1–4 m) continuous (6 × 27 km)
Thin (<1 m) Isolated, discontinuous
Thin (<1 m) Isolated, discontinuous
Thin to thick Isolated thicks,
(1–3 m) discontinuous (5 × 8 km)
Thin to thick Isolated thicks,
(1–3 m) discontinuous (5 × 8 km)
Thin (0.5–1 m) Widely scattered
Partridge, 1982; Roberts and McCabe, 1992; data in
Frenzel, 1983).
Figure 16B illustrates the effects of a 5-m relative
rise of sea level in a representative coastal aquifer.
Rising sea level pushes the interface between salt
and fresh water landward and upward, reestablish-
ing a water-table profile adjusted to the new bound-
ary conditions. This effect propagates landward
throughout the coastal aquifer to its updip limit or
the first regional groundwater divide, but with
decreasing amplitude. The newly established water
table is at or near the ground surface 20–30 km far-
ther inland. This distance is in accord with field
observations made on numerous modern coastal
plains (Back, 1966; Meng and Harsh, 1988; Krause
and Randolph, 1989; Meisler, 1989; Zapecza,
1989). Thus, we postulate that relative rises of sea
level affect accommodation and the accumulation
of peats at least 40 km inland. This range of influ-
ence of rising sea level on coastal-plain mires is
documented by many workers (Table 6 lists repre-
1983). Of course, local topography and precipita-
tion/evaporation ratios modify the regional ground-
water flow calculated with equation 6. The local
topographic effects on a constructional coastal
plain, however, should be minimal, and conditions
should be generally favorable for mire growth with
slowly rising sea level.
In stark contrast, lowered sea level rapidly draws
down the coastal aquifer and flattens and lowers
the groundwater table (Dunham, 1969; Wilson,
1975; Meisler et al., 1984). These effects tend to
restrict areas of subaerial groundwater discharge
and move them seaward. The net effect of a sea
level fall is to restrict the occurrence and robust-
ness of coastal-plain mires and decrease accommo-
dation, diminishing the likelihood of accumulating
significant peat deposits.
The effects of falling sea level are diagrammed in
Figure 17. The relations governing this case require
the consideration of the full Navier-Stokes flow
1630 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 16—Groundwater
table in representative
constructional coastal
plain: (A) base case (data
from Meisler et al., 1984);
(B) effect of 5-m rise of
sea level on representative
groundwater table.
Note effects propagate far
inland, with a 3.5-m rise of
the water table 50 km from
the shore.

equations; these relations somewhat resist analyti-
cal solutions, but are readily solved with numerical
methods (Meisler et al., 1984). A sea level fall of
approximately 30 m on the mid-Atlantic coastal
plain results in discharge of fresh water through
the upper continental slope about 125 km seaward
of the shoreline. Meisler et al. (1984) also reported
the presence of a significant freshwater wedge in
the strata beneath the continental shelf of the mid-
Atlantic Bight. This widespread effect of falling sea
level is characteristic of most coastal-plain and
nearshore systems. The pronounced effects of sea
level fall on the groundwater system have long
been recognized in carbonate terranes (Fischer,
1964; Dunham, 1969; Wilson, 1975).
Shoreline evolution and changes in sediment
supply and distribution during sequence deposi-
tion also strongly influence coal distribution. In
paralic settings, the base of a coal is commonly not
physically correlative with a f looding surface
(parasequence boundary) (e.g., Diessel, 1992).
Although the inception of the mire reflects a rise of
the groundwater table in response to the beginning
rise of sea level, peat begins accumulating before
the actual landward translation of the shoreline that
forms the physical flooding surface, because any

Table 6. Inland Influence of Sea Level Rise on Mires

Distance Inland Location Gradient Age Reference

30–100 km South Florida, 0.004° Holocene Spackman et al. (1966)
Shark River (7.5 × 10–5)
75–130 km Rhine-Meuse delta, ~0.0035° Holocene Törnqvist (1993)
Netherlands (3.3 × 10–5 to
8.9 × 10–5)
24–36 km Ahlen-Falkenberger — Holocene Schneekloth (1970)
Moor, northwest
Germany
15–36 km Altcar Moss, — Holocene Tooley (1976)
west Lancashire,
England
~40 km Río Negro, Río — Pleistocene and Auer (1965)
Chubut, Patagonia Holocene
65 km Kaiparowits Plateau, — Late Cretaceous Shanley (1991)
Utah

Delaware Atlantic
Continental Shelf
River City
40
20
20 40
A 0
2000'
B N
Salt
4000' 0 25 mi
0 40 km
Vertical Exaggeration x 40
6000'
A Simulated Interface between salt & Fresh Water (Run A & Run B)
0 Line of Equipotentiometric Head for Run B
Figure 17—Effects of falling sea level on groundwater
table. This figure shows the results of numerical models
run to estimate the intrusion of fresh water into the con-
tinental shelf with a 15.25-m fall in sea level (after
Meisler et al., 1984).
finite sediment supply can outpace sea level rise for
a while, with the shoreline aggrading some before
transgressing. Also, the time of active shoreline
movement landward, the actual formation of the
flooding surface, does not support coal formation.
The depositional system seaward of the shoreline is
starved of clastics because those same clastics are
being stored on the coastal plain (Loutit et al.,
1988), and such an influx is incompatible with con-
tinued coal formation. Thus, as a practical matter, a
marine f looding surface is generally physically
traceable to and carried at the top of the coal in
this setting.
Similarly, middle transgressive systems tracts usu-
ally do not contain thick or widespread paralic
coals because depositional conditions are not sta-
ble for sufficiently long periods, mire locations shift
rapidly, and abundant clastic sediment is trapped in
the lower coastal plain. Coastal mires and accumu-
lation of peat develop discontinuously on initial
and rapid transgressions (e.g., Kraft, 1971; Sanders
and Kumar, 1975; Rampino and Sanders, 1981;
Belknap and Kraft, 1985; Finkelstein and Ferland,
1987; Finkelstein and Kearney, 1988). This patchy
distribution is inherent in the detailed kinematics
of a transgression. The initial flooding proceeds up
stream valleys, whose thalwegs actually may be
deepened by tidal currents, and eventually up onto
interfluves (Figure 18). Coastal fluvial systems may
adjust to rapidly rising base level by developing
decreased sinuosity (Schumm, 1993) and
increased thalweg depth scoured by enhanced
tidal currents (Oertel et al., 1992). The trans-
gressed topography is generally uneven, and
marshes first colonize steep estuarine banks and
then the broad interf luvial f lats at succeeding
times in the transgression, never occupying the
same area for very long (see discussion in Oertel et
al., 1992). Even the type of mire may change dur-
ing the course of the transgression (Finkelstein and
Bohacs and Suter 1631
Slope
1 Mainland Beach
SW NE
Sea
Level
A Fresh
B
2 Initial Rise = Marsh Rim
SW NE
N
3 Continued Rise = Marsh Platform
SW NE
N
4 Continued Rise = Marsh Fringe, Open Bays
SW NE
N
5 Continued Rise = Marsh & Barrier Rollback
SW NE
N
Figure 18—Effects of rapid transgression on paralic peat
accumulation. The detailed kinematics of a transgres-
sion force the mire to migrate frequently. The mire has
insufficient time to establish and accumulate significant
volumes of peat; hence, peat accumulation is discontin-
uous and scattered (after Oertel et al., 1992).
Ferland, 1987); therefore, the traditionally expected
continuous basal peat layer on a transgression may
actually be relatively uncommon.
Also, during the deposition of the middle trans-
gressive systems tract, overbank flows tend to be
frequent, and ponding and flood-plain aggradation
are widespread. This storage of fines on the
coastal plain is what starves the shelf of terrige-
nous sedimentation, generating the midsequence
condensed section (Loutit et al., 1988). The rapid
transgression and updip ef fects should also
enhance the formation of hydromorphic soils
(Wright and Marriott, 1993). Hence, any thin
coals that form probably would contain large
amounts of mineral matter and numerous splits.
Widespread mires become established only when
the rate of accommodation increase caused by the
transgression decreases into the range of achiev-
able peat production rates about the time of rela-
tive stillstands late in the transgressive systems
tract (see Kosters and Suter, 1993).
1632 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

Figure 19—For a given peat production rate, the occurrence of paralic coals may vary significantly due to the local rate
of change of accommodation. Lower accommodation rates favor initiation of mires earlier in the lowstand systems
tract and later termination in the highstand systems tract. Higher accommodation rates would delay initiation of
mires and, at very high rates, may prevent widespread peat accumulation, even in the transgressive systems tract.

Variations on the Model
Having considered what the distribution of
coals would be in a “typical” sequence (one
formed under moderate subsidence and sediment
supply), we can discuss common variations on
the sequence-scale model. These variations arise
because the occurrence and distribution of coaly
organic-rich rocks are the result of the interaction
of many nonlinear processes with complex feed-
back relations. The rate and relative strength of
these processes vary as a depositional sequence
develops. [For example, see discussions of non-
linear nature of vegetation changes in Smith
(1965), or of fluvial systems in Wescott (1993).]
The systems that produce coals are also sensitive
to local conditions; thus, numerous local excep-
tions of different kinds may occur.
The different phases of coal development are
assigned to systems tracts based on relative
changes of sea level; that is, with subsidence fac-
tored in. The tie of phases to eustatic sea level
depends upon the local subsidence regime (see
Jervey, 1988). Higher subsidence rates favor initi-
ation of mires earlier in the lowstand systems
tract and a later termination of mires in the high-
stand systems tract because of the timing of bal-
ance between accommodation and peat produc-
tion (Figure 19). For the same reason, lower
subsidence rates delay initiation of mires and, at
ver y low rates, may prevent widespread peat
accumulation, even in the transgressive systems
tract.
Peat-forming ecosystems require sufficient
time to establish and to accumulate organic mat-
ter (see collateral discussions in Shanley and
McCabe, 1994). If accommodation varies quickly
enough, no peat may accumulate, as in the
high-frequency sequences of the lower Sego
Sandstone of Colorado (A. Jennsen and J. Van
Wagoner, 1993, personal communication). A pop-
ular rule of thumb is that it takes 5000 yr to form
1 m of bituminous coal (e.g., Stach et al., 1982).
If environments shift more rapidly, little peat will
accumulate.
The combined effects of subsidence and sedi-
ment supply may favor selective preservation of
certain systems tracts during deposition of suc-
ceeding sequences. Relatively low values tend to
preserve mostly incised-valley and transgressive

systems tracts, as seen in the Miocene of south-
central Louisiana (Van Wagoner et al., 1990).
Highstand coals are particularly prone to this sub-
sequent modification, both from falling ground-
water tables during late highstand and from ero-
sion during the ensuing fall of base level.
Climate differences also affect the distribution
of coals. Conditions may be conducive to peat
growth only during short portions of deposition
of the sequence, or not at all. Thus, there are
sequences with appropriate accommodation
rates and shoreline-stacking patterns that contain
no significant coals because the prevailing cli-
mate was adverse. In contrast, the high peat-
production rates in tropical areas may overwhelm
changes in accommodation and accumulate peats
throughout much of the sequence; indeed, entire
depositional sequences in some areas may be
exclusively coal (cf. Boyd and Diessel, 1995;
Diessel et al., 1995).
Note that this sequence stratigraphic model
strictly applies only to coals in paralic environ-
ments, those settings hydrologically connected
to the sea, which can extend more than 75 km
inland (see Table 6). The general controls of
accommodation on peat accumulation discussed
in the first section should apply to all environ-
ments, but the specific timing of peat accumula-
tion with respect to systems tracts may vary (see
the discussion in Diessel, 1992). Figure 5 pre-
sents an example of a completely nonmarine set-
ting that illustrates analogous inf luence of
accommodation.
Bohacs and Suter 1633
Figure 20—Sequence stacking
within composite sequences
and their relation to coal
accumulation. Coals tend to
develop best in sequence sets with
stacking that is aggradational to
slightly retrogradational because
the rates of accommodation and
peat production balance for the
longest time.
Occurrence and Distribution of Paralic
Peats/Coals Within Sequence Sets and
Supersequences
The same relations that govern the occurrence
and distribution of coals at the sequence scale
appear to operate at the larger stratigraphic scales
of the sequence set and composite sequence (or
supersequence; see Mitchum and Van Wagoner,
1991). Within a composite sequence, coals tend
to be best developed in sequence sets with stack-
ing that is aggradational to slightly retrogradation-
al. These are the sequence sets wherein the rates
of accommodation and peat production balance
for the greatest amount of time (see Figure 20).
Two examples with contrasting long-term
accommodation trends illustrate this concept.
The first, the Latrobe Group (Gippsland basin,
Australia) demonstrates an overall increase in
accommodation in a Cretaceous–Paleogene rift-
sag basin (Figure 21). Coals are best developed in
sequences that stack aggradationally to slightly
retrogradationally, with depositional shelf breaks
that show net movements in the range of 5.3
km/m.y. landward to 0.25 km/m.y. seaward. One
consequence of the overall retrogradation within
the composite sequence is the preferential
preservation of early to middle highstand coals
within the updip section.
The second example, the Blackhawk Formation
(Book Cliffs, Utah) illustrates an overall decrease
in accommodation in a Cretaceous foreland basin
(Figures 22, 23). Each member of the Blackhawk
1634 Distribution of Coaly Rocks

25.2

OLIGOCENE
L CHATTIAN P.turberculatus
30 30

E RUPELIAN
35 TOP LATROBE GROUP
36 UPPER N.asperus
36.5
L PRIABONIAN MIDDLE N.asperus
TERTIARY

40 39.4 39.5
BARTONIAN
EOCENE

42
M LOWER N.asperus
LUTETIAN
48
49 P.asperopolus
50 50.5
E YPRESIAN 51.5
U
M M.diversus
52.5 L
53.5
54 UPPER L.balmei
PALEOCENE

55.5
L THANETIAN
60 60.2 LOWER L.balmei
E DANIAN
66.5 66.5
UPPER T.longus
L 68
70 MAASTRICHTIAN LOWER T.lomgus
E
CRETACEOUS

74 73.5
L
SENONIAN

T.lilliei
LATE

80 CAMPANIAN 80
E
N.senectus WELL CONTROL
84 83.75
L
E 88 SANTONIAN T.apoxyexinus
87.5 DEPOSITIONAL
CONIACIAN
89 0 10 SHELF
90 M TURONIAN P.mawsonii BREAK
92 SEQUENCE
L 92.5 km
M CENOMANIAN A.distocarinatus SIGNIFICANT COAL ACCUMULATION
E 96 96

Figure 21—Retrogradational stacking of sequences in the Cretaceous–Paleogene Latrobe Group, Australia (after M.
Sloan, Esso Australia). Coals are best developed and most widespread within sequences that stack aggradationally to
slightly retrogradationally.

Formation generally corresponds to a deposition- Thus, we see that the concepts of balancing
al sequence within a highstand sequence set (see accommodation rate with peat production rate pro-
discussions in Taylor and Lovell, 1991; Howell et vide a framework for predicting the occurrence and
al., 1995). Coals are thick and well developed distribution of paralic coals at both the depositional
within the early, mainly aggradational, portion of sequence and supersequence scales. At larger scales
the sequence set from the Spring Canyon to of change, the tectonic component of accommoda-
Kenilworth members. The coals increase in later- tion becomes increasingly important, and basin
al extent and continuity as the overall accommo- architecture and subsidence history significantly
dation decreases through the Sunnyside member. affect coal distribution. In predicting coal distribu-
Coals become thin to absent in the strongly tion at this scale, one must consider the lateral distri-
progradational latest portion of the sequence set, bution of subsidence, as well as its temporal varia-
from the Grassy to Desert members. The changes tion. Map patterns of subsidence typical of rift, sag,
in coal distribution are mirrored in the degree of foreland, or other basin types also are important to
development of the sequence boundaries in the consider, as are local subsidence histories.
same interval, ref lecting the same decreasing
rates of accommodation: obscure to poor in the
Spring Canyon and Aberdeen, moderate in the CONCLUSIONS
Kenilworth and Sunnyside, and good to excellent
in the Grassy to Castlegate (J. Van Wagoner, 1994, The concepts presented in this paper can be
personal communication). An analogous pattern used to construct practical tools to locate terrige-
of sequence stacking, sequence boundary devel- nous organic-rich rocks, evaluate their hydrocarbon
opment, and coal distribution can be seen in sim- source potentials, and map and predict their
ilar age rocks in Wyoming, in the Rock Springs extents and volumes. The occurrence, distribu-
Formation (Devlin et al., 1994; Beauboeuf et al., tion, and character of coals vary systematically as a
1995). function of the relative rates of peat production







,,,,,,








,,,,,,




,,

,


 ,


Price River Canyon
Price River
Formation
Helper
Sunnyside
Bohacs and Suter

Green River
Horse Canyon
1635


,,,,,,



 
Sego
Castlegate Buck Tongue
Castlegate
Castlegate
Sequence B Desert Desert
oundary Grassy
Sunnyside



Coal-Bearing Rocks
Formation

Kenilworth
h
Kenilwort
Blackhawk

Aberdeen

,
Spring Canyon Member
Point SS

Mancos Shale Mancos Shale

Star

Storrs Tongue

Panther Tongue

Progradational Stacking Aggradational Stacking Retrogradational Stacking Coastal Plain Coal Rooted Zone Major Transgression

Figure 22—Aggradational to progradational stacking of sequences in the Cretaceous Blackhawk Formation,

Utah (after Young, 1955). Coals are best developed within sequences that stack aggradationally to slightly
progradationally. The most widespread coal (Sunnyside) occurs at the change in stacking from aggradational to
progradational.

and accommodation change. Accommodation likely balance. The sequence stratigraphic model
changes predictably throughout a depositional and its paleogeographic components also indicate
sequence; hence, the distribution of coals may be most likely areas and intervals of coal accumula-
predicted within a sequence stratigraphic frame- tion. Hydrocarbon source potential depends upon
work. The thickest, most isolated coals occur in organic preservation, so it is possible to use the
upper lowstand and basal transgressive systems sequence stratigraphic and paleogeographic con-
tracts; the most continuous coals are found in middle cepts herein to estimate coal character and source
lowstand and middle highstand systems tracts; and potential. The model also provides insights for
minimal, very isolated coals are found in basal low- mapping and extrapolating the extent of paralic
stand, middle transgressive, and upper highstand sys- coals and coaly rocks through its combination of
tems tracts. Thickest coals typically correspond to subsidence analysis, paleogeography, and sequence
best conditions for organic preservation, and com- stratigraphy.
monly have enhanced petroleum source potential. Finally, we recognize that mires are complex and
One may devise methods for predicting coal sensitive dynamic systems. This model is intended
occurrence in frontier areas using climate as a to aid in constructing a stratigraphic framework
proxy for peat production rate, combined with within which to consider and explain the myriad
subsidence analysis to highlight times and areas of complexities of coal occurrence and distribution.
1636 Distribution of Coaly Rocks
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Kevin M. Bohacs
Kevin M. Bohacs is a sedimentol-
ogist and stratigrapher with the
Petroleum Geochemistry section of
Exxon Production Research (EPR).
He received his B.Sc.(Honors) in
geology from the University of
Connecticut in 1976 and his Sc.D.
in experimental sedimentology
from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1981. At EPR, he
leads the application of sequence
stratigraphy to organic-rich rocks, from the deep sea to
swamps and lakes, in basins around the world. He has
written numerous papers on source rock stratigraphy.
Bohacs and Suter 1639
changes related to late Paleozoic cycles: Geological Society of
America Bulletin, v. 47, p. 1177–1206.
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Tomago and Lower Newcastle coal measures, New South
Wales: Ph.D. thesis, University of Newcastle, New South
Wales.
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Sedimentary Research, v. B64, p. 60–67.
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York, Springer-Verlag, 471 p.
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Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 66, p. 177–201.
John R. Suter
John R. Suter is a senior research
scientist with the predictive stratig-
raphy group of the integrated inter-
pretation center of Conoco, Inc., in
Houston, Texas. Suter obtained
bachelor’s and master’s degrees in
geology from the University of
Texas at Austin, and a Ph.D. in geol-
ogy from Louisiana State University.
Suter has worked as a marine geolo-
gist for the U.S. Geological Survey
and the Louisiana Geological Survey, and as a research
geologist for Exxon Production Research. He has pub-
lished extensively on clastic facies and sequence stratigra-
phy. Suter was awarded the SEPM Excellence of
Presentation Award in 1986 and 1987, the GCAGS Best
Published Paper Award in 1989, Best of AAPG for SEG in
1985, and the AAPG Jules Braunstein Award in 1986 and
1995. Currently, he works on the application of sequence
stratigraphy to exploration and production problems on
Conoco holdings worldwide.