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Partial Discharges in Transformer Insulation
by
Task Force 15.01.04•
SUMMARY
This paper discusses the opportunities for realising the
full potential of modern digital partial discharge detec-
tors in the condition monitoring of large oil-filled trans-
formers, through the correlation of discharge patterns
with typical discharge-inducing defects. The types of
discharge which can be present in transformers are
analysed and this leads to a discussion on appropriate
test instrumentation to accurately and objectively ac-
quire, store and process discharge data. The range of
discharge-inducing defects to be found in transformers
is discussed and this leads into the results of three in-
vestigations by task force members of model geometries
representing such defects variously. In these studies
correlations were sought among the patterns of dis-
charge activity and the nature/form of defect model. On
the basis of these investigations, key parameters are
elucidated to include the phase angle of discharge ac-
tivity (start, mean and end phase), discharge repetition
rate and discharge magnitude. No evidence has been
found to support the use of mathematical distributions
of these primary parameters. In addition, from these in-
vestigations, the parameters which may influ-
ence/control the results obtained (and hence which must
be controlled) are discussed.
Keywords
Transformer, Impregnated Insulation, Paper, Oil, Dis-
charges, Patterns, Defects, Moisture, Gassing.
1. INTRODUCTION
Generally, transformers are considered to be reliable
apparatus. However, recent trends to improve quality
*
L.E.LUNDGAARD – SINTEF Energy Research, Sem Saelandsvei 11, N-7465 Trondheim Norway
Session 2000
© CIGRÉ
control during factory testing, and a growing concern
for the technical condition of an ageing transformer
population has led to a focus on diagnostic methods.
According to IEC 60076-3 partial discharge measure-
ment may be used for the commissioning test of a trans-
former. For transformers in service it would be useful to
obtain a more detailed analysis based on partial dis-
charge measurement in cases where gas-analyses has
given warnings of internal discharges.
In 1996 Cigré WG 15.01 established TF 15.01.04 to
consider the possibilities for “Characterisation of differ-
ent discharges and their harmfulness to transformer in-
sulation”.
Partial discharge measurement has drawn much atten-
tion during recent years. Many studies relevant to GIS
and machine insulation have been published. However,
surprisingly little work has been published on dischar-
ges in liquid impregnated insulation systems relevant to
power transformers. (Although problems associated
with the complex nature of the transformer circuit in
measuring partial discharges have been recognised [1].)
In this paper the task force wishes to draw attention to
some fundamental aspects of PD initiation and occur-
rence in impregnated insulation systems.
*Members:
L.E.Lundgaard (NO) secretary, J.Poittevin (FR)(SC12),
J. Schmidt (SC12)(HU), D.Allen (AU), T.R.Blackburn
(AU), H.Borsi (DE), N.Foulon (FR), J.Fuhr (CH),
N.Hosokawa (JA), R.E.James (AU), I.J.Kemp(GB),
O.Lesaint(FR), B.T.Phung(AU)
Also some aspects of measuring techniques are dis-
cussed. Finally some examples of representative defects
and their characteristic PD-signatures will be discussed
in the framework of some simple – but robust – physi-
cal models. Our main goal is to create a datum for fur-
ther research in this field.
2. INSULATION SYSTEM AND DISCHARGES IN
TRANSFORMERS.
2.1. The insulation system of a transformer
The insulation system in a transformer consist of oil and
solid insulation (i.e. pressboard, paper and wood) used
for creating supports and cooling ducts for the wind-
ings. Deterioration of the cellulose is an irreversible
process, while the oil may be considered, at least par-
tially, as self-healing.
An impregnated insulation system is very complex.
Moisture varies from one transformer to the other, and
will also vary with time and temperature. Therefore dif-
ferences in conductivity of solid and liquid insulation is
to be expected. Liquid motion due to forced cooling and
field enhanced charge injection will move space charges
around in the open oil volumes, thus influencing the lo-
cal electric field stresses. The liquid movement may
even give rise to electrostatic charge generation.
The water content in the insulation, and the dynamic
fluctuation of humidity in pressboard and oil with trans-
former temperature is an important feature of the insu-
lation system [2, 3, 4]. In particular humidity at the sur-
face of the paper is important for the occurrence of dis-
charges.
Typically a new transformer will have a moisture con-
tent less than 1% (by weight). Before the vapour phase
technique was introduced in the 1960's the drying could
be less thorough. Over time the moisture content will
increase, both due to breathing and to ageing of the
cellulose in the insulation. The humidity of an old trans-
former can typically reach the 3% range.
The field distribution will be homogeneous (e.g. be-
tween windings) or semi-homogeneous (e.g. wedges
between turns and in-take leads). Typically the maxi-
mum fields occurring during service, (occurring e.g. at
intake leads and at the windings’ ends), can be some 6
kVRMS/mm. In a core-form transformer the voltage will
– also in service - be in the order of 0.1 - 5 kVRMS be-
tween turns and some 4 – 5 kVRMS between discs. In
shell-form transformer, the voltage between “discs” in
service is greater than this. The highest voltage would
be in the order of 30 kVRMS. This is due to the differ-
ence in winding arrangement. The number of “discs” in
shell-form transformer is smaller than that of discs in
core-form transformers. Therefore, the voltage distrib-
uted between “discs” (and therefore also clearances)
becomes greater than that between discs in core-form
transformer.
The acceptance criteria for the discharge level set in a
commissioning test, is 300/500 pC measured at 1.5 UM
during a 30 minute period after a short time over-stress
to 1.7 UM. However, the measured magnitude of a dis-
charge will, as with rotating machines, depend on the
coupling of the discharge pulse to the terminals. Fur-
thermore, the level referred to in the standards (e.g. IEC
60270), is the largest repeatedly occurring apparent dis-
charge (measured with a quasi-peak detecting instru-
ment with a time constant less than 0,44 second). This
has to be distinguished from the maximum PD level re-
corded with modern instrumentation, which is able to
detect every single discharge occurring within the test-
ing period.
The apparent charge is not always the best unit to quan-
tify the magnitude of a discharge in an insulation sys-
tem, because a different apparent charge can be attrib-
uted to the same discharge source depending on its lo-
cation in the local field and its coupling to the winding.
The distances in the insulation system (i.e. voltage
class) influence this coupling [5]. As an example a de-
fect showing some 10,000 pC in a 20 kV system will
show some 1000 pC if located similarly in a 200 kV
system. Theoretically, the acceptance level should
therefore be reduced for the higher voltage classes.
Referring to the IEC standard 60270, integrating the en-
ergy dissipation that takes place over one period is an
alternative of focusing on the discharge magnitude. The
dissipated energy may be estimated by summing the
charge multiplied by the instantaneous voltage (Σqi⋅Vi),
provided a proper calibration has been made and the
polarities of both charge and voltage are considered.
However, one should bear in mind that for many small
distributed discharges and for one large localised dis-
charge the dissipated energy may sum up to same.
The “scaling” of the discharge severity with the voltage
class may therefore be done in two ways:
§ By adapting the acceptance limit of the apparent
charge to the voltage class.
§ By use of the energy dissipated in the discharge.
It has been assumed that surges may initiate discharges
that afterwards will continue because the ac stress was
above the PD-extinction level. However, it has been
found that the ac level had to be very close to the PD-
inception to make it possible for an impulse to trigger
sustained discharges [6, 7, 8].
2.2. Discharge types.
One may divide the discharge types in transformer in-
sulation into two types:
• Discharges in an open oil volume (e.g. sliding dis-
charges on surfaces).
• Discharges occurring within a confined space (e.g.
bubble, delamination or wedge).
Often, discharges are thought of as very short duration
events. However, studies of discharges in open oil vol-
umes at impulse stresses, has shown that the final
propagation length of such a discharge is related to the
total charge injected [9]. During the propagation many
current pulses (of some 10 nanoseconds duration) occur
and reilluminations are seen along the stems of the
streamer discharge structure [10, 11].
Figure 1 and Figure 2 show the structures of positive
and negative discharges in open oil volumes, together
with oscillograms of applied voltage, current and inte-
grated charge. The oscillograms show that, due to the
time to reach the final size of the discharge, long time
constants are needed in the measuring impedance to
obtain the properly integrated charge. The initiation
voltage and the propagation velocity are different for
positive and negative discharges [11]. In addition, for ac
stressing, two major types of discharges, namely the
bubble- and the filamentary- type, both occurring at
positive and negative polarity, can be distinguished:
• The slow bubble-type discharge, where the
“discharge” channel/void contain mainly vaporised
liquid [12].
• The faster filamentary discharge [12], where there
is a high temperature plasma - resulting in full dis-
sociation - within the channels [13].
Studies have shown that the discharges occurring in a
point to plane gap under impulse and ac condition are
similar [14]. For this discharge type it is normal to dif-
ferentiate between the initiation and the propagation
phase of the discharges (or streamers).
Figure 1: a): Discharge from an earthside positive point,
b): oscillogram from positive discharge.
Figure 2: a): Discharge from an earthside negative point
b): oscillogram from negative discharge.
In the case of voids occurring in the insulation system
(e.g. bushing, delaminations), the discharge type will be
more similar to gas discharges occurring in solid insu-
lation. There will normally be one single current pulse
associated with the gap breakdown [15], depositing a
charge at the opposite side that reduces the voltage
across the void. This discharge type may, depending on
local conditions, be either a Townsend- or a streamer-
type discharge if it occurs in a vapour filled void. If it
occurs in oil in a wedge, the event will - because the
distance is short - develop over a short time. For these
discharge types a measuring impedance with short time
constant is adequate for a correct integration.
3. INFLUENCE OF MEASUREMENT AND TEST
CONDITION
3.1. General considerations
3.1.1. The frequency response of the measuring im-
pedance and discharge signatures.
When the instrumentation used is in accordance with
IEC 60270 one can, because the instrumentation can be
calibrated, talk about a real measurement. However, as
shown in Figure 3, even in the 10 – 1000 kHz regime,
the PD-magnitude measured in a liquid insulation –
even in a calibrated system – is a highly questionable
parameter [16]. As shown, if the integration time con-
stant is too small the discharge magnitude will be meas-
ured as smaller than it in reality is.
This may, as shown, have a significant effect especially
when, in an attempt to eliminate interference due to ex-
ternal “noise”, very high frequencies are chosen for the
detector.
100
80
Air
60
[%]
40
20
Oil
0
1E+004 1E+005 1E+006
Frequency
Resonance [ Hzf0] [Hz]
frequency
Figure 3: Percentage of the “real” PD charge measured
with RLC impedances of various resonance frequency
(corona discharges in air (upper trace) and oil (lower
trace) in a point-plane gap)
As a further exemplar of this phenomenon, consider
Figure 4 and Figure 5. Figure 4 illustrates the typical
phase resolved amplitude distribution of discharges in a
point-plane gap and shows major variations in the am-
plitude and repetition rate between positive and nega-
tive half cycles. The ratio between the level of positive
and negative discharges is a characteristic feature in the
discharge pattern from a sharp point. By changing the
frequency response of the measuring chain this ratio
will be influenced as shown in Figure 5. This fact shows
that a documentation of frequency response for a meas- given measurement, the resolution has to be better than
uring system is essential. In particular this is of rele- that which can be achieved with an 8 bit converter.
vance when taking modern VHF and UHF methods into
use. 3.2. Test Condition

3.2.1. Voltage shape

To control the voltage shape is important. The shape of
the applied voltage is frequently seen to be distorted
both during an induced test for a transformer and during
model tests in the laboratory using test transformers.
Distortion of the test voltage may heavily influence the
PD-pattern [17]. Since a distorted voltage-shape does
not necessarily show in the crest-value of the voltage,
the shape must be inspected on an oscilloscope. This
effect, in real transformer testing, is illustrated in Figure
6. Here it is seen that the highest pulse rates occur
where the voltage gradient is steepest. The pattern will
be different without overharmonics.
100
100

80

Number of discharges
50
Voltage p.u.[%]

60
0
Figure 4: Phase-resolved signature from a sharp metal- 40
lic point recorded over a 300 second period. -50
20
4,5
-100
Qavg(+)/Qavg(-)
4,0 0
Qmax(+)/Qmax(-)
3,5
0 90 180 270 360
3,0 Phase angle [deg]
2,5
Figure 6: PD-pulse number (full drawn curve) vs. phase
2,0
for distorted voltage shape (dotted curve) during in-
1,5
duced test.
1,0
0,5
4. PD PATTERN ANALYSES TECHNIQUES.
0,0
8 MHz

10 MHz

20 MHz

45 MHz

75 MHz

90 MHz
IEC 60270

Pattern recognition of signatures from partial discharges

involves no single technique. There are a multitude of
Center Center freq.
freq. of of narrow band
narrowband (3 Mhz BW)
(3 MHz BW) filter
filter signatures and ways of analysing these.

Figure 5: The effect of the frequency response on the
ratio of discharge amplitudes observed in positive and
negative half cycles
3.1.2. Measuring time
This must be as long as is feasible since discharge repe-
tition rates in oil can be very low (see Figure 4). Cer-
tainly >10 minutes and, as with factory tests, preferably
from one half to one full hour. This allows the pattern to
develop. However, it must be remembered that this is a
presentation of “statistical” phase position and masks
any temporal effects, e.g. bursts of discharge activity.
3.1.3. Dynamic range
Discharges in oil do appear with a large dynamic range.
To get both a good depiction of a pattern of large dis-
charges and small ones typically prevalent within a
The first significant “expert system”, developed for
analyses PD signatures observed on an CRT, was pub-
lished by CIGRÉ in 1969 [18]. In the late 80’s comput-
erised data acquisition became commonly available, fa-
cilitating effective acquisition, storage and processing
of discharge patterns, e.g.:
• Phase-Resolved Partial Discharge recording [19]
which has been combined with various computer-
ised pattern recognition methods, e.g. statistical
analyses [20], neural network analyses [21], and
fractal analyses [22]. The basic concept is that the
discharge occurrence is statistically variable, but
over time locked to the power cycle. Patterns from
sources with low discharge rates are easily re-
vealed.
• Frequency resolved discharge patterns have been
used to find “slots” in the frequency domain where
• noise is low. It has also been proposed for distin-
guishing between different defects in electrical ma-
chines [23, 24, 25].
• Pulse sequence analyses with “voltage difference”
plots have proved useful for revealing space charge
effects due to discharges in solid insulation [26].
For transformers it has been shown that discharge
data of this type gives patterns with clear structures
such as that shown in Figure 7. The method is less
suited for situations with low discharge rates (i.e. <
1 per cycle) and for cases where conduction cur-
rents are significant compared to the charges re-
leased in the discharges. It has also been reported
that these signatures are sensitive to the threshold
of the data acquisition system.
• Time resolved partial discharge recording [27] will
in principle offer possibilities to establish all of the
patterns mentioned above.
Phase resolved partial discharge plots are the most
common in use. Their advantage is that they easily may
be combined with simple physical models and reason-
ing (in addition to or instead of synthetic intelligence),
and they resemble what has previously been observed
on a CRT.
In liquid dielectrics, discharges have been seen to ap-
pear stochastically in bursts, and also to change with
time in a systematic way. In addition, the electric field
distribution is influenced by space charges injected into
and carried by the liquid. For these reasons, it is ex-
pected that time resolved discharge recording will sup-
ply a new and necessary axis for an improved charac-
terisation of discharge behaviour in impregnated insu-
lation in the future.
Ui+1 - Ui
Ui – Ui-1
Figure 7: Pattern experienced during transformer test-
ing, believed to origin from a 100 – 150 pC surface dis-
charge.
5. EXAMPLES OF PD PRODUCING DEFECTS IN
TRANSFORMERS AND THEIR PATTERNS
5.1. PD sources in a transformer.
In a well-designed transformer insulation, which is
properly dried and impregnated, it is very difficult to
initiate discharges. However, discharges do occur in
transformers as found both from PD-measurement dur-
ing commissioning and from gas analyses from trans-
formers in the field. To initiate discharges there has to
be a defect in the insulation system. Such defects in-
clude:
Delamination may occur when thinner pressboard
sheets are glued together to form thicker barriers. Voids
within delaminations may remain for a very long time.
Voids may occur variously. They may occur in glue and
in connections with enamelled thread, furthermore in-
sufficient impregnation may give rise to voids. Some-
times (i.e. during commissioning) it is found that voids
disappear from one day to the next, as gas is absorbed
by the oil and the cavity is filled with oil. Voids may
also occur in bushings. High moisture content combined
with heat and high fields may create local high water
vapour pressure and “puffing” effect of boards and
winding insulation. Discharges in this spongy material
may start thereafter.
Bubbles may occur due to gas evolution from dis-
charges, and evaporation of water droplets. Experience
shows that a gas bubble in an open oil volume will be
ripped into smaller bubbles which will quickly vanish
when the first discharge occurs inside this bubble. Bub-
bles will therefore only exist at locations where they are
supported mechanically by solid insulation (e.g. in
wedges).
Free metallic particles may be left from the production
process. Smaller particles will be carried by oil flow,
while larger ones will sink to the bottom. Dielectropho-
retic forces will attract high permittivity and conductive
particles towards high stress regions. However, free
particles can easily adhere to surfaces e.g. the surface of
a winding.
Fixed metallic particles (e.g. in wood details, or fixed to
paper in windings) may occur.
Moisture may occur due to ageing and may also be in-
troduced into the insulation during site erection. Mois-
ture will contribute in several ways to discharge incep-
tion and extinction. During a heating cycle in service
(e.g. when energising a transformer that has been off-
line), moisture may be pressed out of the solid insula-
tion. Due to poor solubility in the oil there will be a su-
per-saturation of the oil next to the cellulose surface re-
sulting in water droplets and bubbles [3]. Evaporation
of the water will give micro-bubbles giving rise to dis-
charges. Increased moisture content in the cellulose will
make the cellulose more conductive. In these condi-
tions, cellulose fibres will start acting like metallic par-
ticles. Fibres sticking out from paper surfaces and fibres
moving in the oil may initiate discharges. Increased
moisture content will also increase the dielectric losses.
During a cooling cycle, water may condense and be lo-
cally absorbed by pressboard. Pressboard has been seen
to “puffed up” due to heat developed by dielectric
losses and evaporation of water within the pressboard.
As a consequence internal discharges may become
prevalent in the cavities within the pressboard.
Bad connection of electrostatic shields will give large
discharges because the capacitance of the defect is
large. The “bad connection” will usually have a defined
breakdown voltage (UBD). The result is discharges ap-
pearing on the rising flank with voltage independent
amplitudes (Q= C⋅UBD).
Static electrification will give rise to local charge depo-
sition. The resulting field enhancement may initiate dis-
charges. Discharge tracks due to such discharges have
been seen along pressboard surfaces.
Surface tracking resulting from discharge propagation
has been found along barrier surfaces and along sup-
ports. Carbonised tracks can act as conductive protru-
sions, and may over time increase in length.
charge effects from the preceding half cycle are mini-
mal. The discharge amplitudes do increase with voltage
along the rising flank. Sometimes Trichel-like behav-
iour can be seen if there is more than one discharge per
half cycle.
Once the discharges occur in a void or in a wedge,
space charge effects start to move the centre of the pat-
terns and the phase start point for discharges down the
rising flank of the applied voltage, and even into the
preceding half cycle.
110.000mm 110.000mm

5.2. Models of defects 10.000mm 10mm

To investigate the likely behaviour of a plant insulation

23.000mm

1.000mm

1.000mm

1.000mm
system with defects, model studies are usually per-

23mm
a) b)
formed. In any model experiment sample preparation
should be well controlled [28] and the scaling problem R5mm R5mm

has to be considered. Even if relevant field stresses are

110.000mm 110.000mm
38mm
10.000mm

applied, the capacitive coupling between electrodes and

23.000mm

1.000mm
a defect will be different in a model. In a real HV trans-

1.000mm

1.000mm
c) d)

20mm
former the insulation distances are longer, thus the ca- R21mm

pacitances between the defect and the electrodes will be R5mm

R5mm

much smaller than when the same defect is introduced

2.662mm
110mm 40.000mm

in a small-scale experiment thereby limiting the dis- f)

26.000mm
charge currents. The charges created from charge sepa-

29.300mm
ration in the head of a propagating streamer must either e)

3mm

5mm
be compensated by conduction or displacement current
in the “other end”. R5mm

5.3. Behaviour and patterns from defects

Three investigations have been undertaken by members
of the TF to determine whether correlations exist among
the different types of the discharging defect which can
occur in power transformers and the associated dis-
charge patterns. It should be stressed that these were
independent studies and not undertaken as a TF group
activity. Differences in the outcome of the results may
among other things depend on the local field in the
tested models.
In the first, L.Lundgaard and colleagues have investi-
gated a range of geometries representing variously de-
fect conditions in a power transformer. Six of these
geometries are shown in the schematic diagram,
Figure 8. The remainder involved various plane-plane
gaps with either bare or insulated electrodes with con-
ducting particles present.
During the experiments, PRPDA (φ, q, n) recordings
were taken at different voltage levels, and the maximum
and average amplitudes and discharge frequency (repe-
tition rate) were calculated for each polarity and plotted
vs. voltage.
From these studies, a variety of observations can be
made, based on the specific measured parameters of
discharge activity. These are as follows:
Phase angle of discharge pattern; When discharges oc-
cur at a sharp point into the oil or along a pressboard
surface the largest amplitudes in the patterns are centred
around the voltage peaks like shown in Figure 4. Space
Figure 8: Some examples of pd-producing models.
a) point to plane gap, b) rod to plane with pressboard,
c) elevated rod, d) wedge with VDE electrode
e) oil-filled void, f) interturn
The pulse repetition rate is low for single large defects
like sharp points (possibly due to lack of starting elec-
trons), while it will be high for distributed defects (e.g.,
over-stressed wedge/multiple voids) and for
“capacitances” (e.g. large voids, floating objects) at
high overstress above the inception voltage.
The discharge level has been seen to be high (i.e. up to
thousands of pC) for larger injected bubbles and cavi-
ties where gaseous by-products are unable to escape.
Creeping (surface) discharges also produce large dis-
charges. Small voids and wedges show discharges of
some hundred pC.
Polarity dependent differences in discharge level are
seen from sharp electrode bound defects. At inception
the negative discharges may dominate, while at higher
voltages when patterns are seen in both half cycles, the
discharges will usually be bigger when the metal sur-
face has a positive polarity. This is attributed to easier
propagation for positive discharges.
Temporal instability/ burst behaviour is seen for many
types of defects. No systematic investigations of this
property have been done for these kinds of geometries.
However, at elevated moisture levels surface discharges
are seen to vanish with time, and reappear after a resting
period. This behaviour is attributed to drying of the pa-
per surfaces due either to dielectric losses or heat from
the discharges.
In addition to these general observations, the study gen-
erated some patterns which is considered worth repro-
ducing more completely here.
Wedge discharges
Typically, wedge discharges (Model 8f) in a dry wind-
ing will give patterns like those shown in Figure 9a
[29]. When raising the voltage the sharp “structure 1”,
(possibly indicating a defined threshold and abundant
starting electrons [30]), is the first structure observed.
Structure 2
Structure 1
a)
b)
c)
Figure 9: Patterns from paper-oil-paper wedges, a) In-
terturn discharge <1% moisture, b) Interturn discharges
≈4% moisture, c) Paper covered sphere towards press-
board covered plane 7% moisture.
When first seen, it occurs at the zero-crossing. At higher
voltages this structure (1) is shifted to the left due to
charges remaining from discharges in the previous half-
cycle. Additionally, “structure 2” also appears when
voltage is raised. The valley between 1 and 2 may be
explained by “corona stabilisation” or it may simply be
another location starting to discharge. Both these struc-
tures show that the number of discharges decays
monotonically with increasing amplitudes. Structure 1
and 2 resemble what is seen from a wedge model made
from a covered VDE electrode on a pressboard covered
plane electrode (model 8d) (Figure 9c).
At increased moisture levels (4 % in pressboard) the
structure (model 8f) is changed (Figure 9b). The pat-
terns do not start before the zero crossing.
Surface discharges
Sliding discharges produced from a rod placed onto a
pressboard covered electrode has been seen to produce
patterns like those shown in Figure 10. The fan-shaped
larger discharges are associated with creeping dis-
charges. The dense lower level pattern has a high dis-
charge rate, while the larger discharges occur at a low
rate reminding of what is seen in a point to plane gap.
a)
b)
Figure 10: Signatures from rod to plane models a) Low
Moisture 10 kV, b) High moisture, 16 kV.
Effect of time.
In addition to the preceding statistical studies, temporal
stability was investigated for several models. The gen-
eral behaviour is one of high discharge level after a
voltage step or increase with the PD activity thereafter
ceasing. If model objects thereafter are left unenergized
overnight then they return to their virgin state (provided
no irreversible ageing has taken place). This process is
believed to be caused by either dielectric losses or dis-
charges heating the pressboard surface and thereby
drying it. Leaving the object at rest overnight re- Key
established its “virgin” state.

The other investigation of model geometries has been

undertaken by I. Kemp and colleagues with funding
from The National Grid Company plc. [31]. In their in-
vestigation, they utilised 10 geometries to simulate de-
fect conditions in an oil-filled power transformer. These
are listed and shown schematically in Figure 11.
Model 1 Model 2
The data was initially correlated as phase resolved plots.
In addition, different mathematical distributions were
subsequently investigated, chosen on the basis that in
previous investigations of other plant systems results
have indicated that these may be relevant to classifying
a discharge fault condition. Parameters investigated
were PD frequency (repetition rate); Charge Mean,
Standard Deviation, Skewness and Kurtosis; Start, End
and Mean Phase relationship and Phase Width; and
Model 3 Model 4
Phase Standard Deviation, Skewness and Kurtosis.

Lack of space precludes the reproduction of all data on

a test by test basis for this study. However, from a rig-
orous analysis of all the data produced, the following
observations can be made:
(1) corona-type discharges in air or oil can always be
distinguished from each other and from other forms of
fault condition resulting in discharge activity.
(2) of the other fault conditions investigated, although Model 5 Model 6
each in some tests produced unique features, these were
not sufficiently consistent to have confidence in distin-
guishing all conditions from the discharge data. This
inconsistency stemmed primarily from changes in the
discharge pattern associated with different stress levels
in the test programme or with “ageing” as the test pro-
ceeded. Both of these were also noted as important in
the other investigations. Since neither of these could be
inferred in a “real” situation, although these could be Model 7 Model 8
viewed as consistent within a laboratory test pro-
gramme, they must be viewed as inconsistent for any
practical purposes.
(3) if the ten fault conditions were, however, sub-
grouped into one of four categories, i.e. enclosed type
discharge (Models 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5), gap-type (void) dis-
charge (Models 8 and 9), discharges from a sharp pro-
trusion (6) or surface-type discharge (Model 7) then,
with confidence, each of these sub-groups could be dis-
Model 9 Model 10
tinguished from the discharge data irrespective of the
stress level or “ageing”. The models were:
Figure 11: Discharge-inducing defect geometries
Model 1: Sharp point causing void.
Model 2: Sharp point embedded in insulator.
Model 3: Punctured paper increasing stress.
Model 4: Loose paper causing void.
Model 5: Winding movement.
Model 6: Conductor to conductor discharge.
Model 7: Surface discharge.
Model 8: Void adjacent to insulator.
Model 9: Void on conductor surface.
Model 10: Corona gas discharge.
Interestingly, not all of the discharge data was required
to enable the 4 sub-groups of discharging fault condi-
tions to be distinguished.
Most of the features yield information that may be use-
ful in determining an unknown fault in a high voltage
power transformer. Certain features, however, perform
better than others and provide consistent information on
the type of pd source. The implementation of an auto-
mated identification system, using a restricted set from
the features listed, should provide the opportunity of
producing an instrument capable of carrying out a more
rapid identification of fault type.
pC. (Of course, as an indication of a particular type of
fault condition, discharge magnitude must be treated
with care as indicated earlier).
In addition to the two preceding investigations, James
and colleagues [32] investigated the effects of moisture
and temperature changes in the PD characteristics of an
oil impregnated insulation system simulating a power
transformer duct using 3 mm thick pressboard spacers
between paper covered conductors and an upper insu-
lated electrode. The paper thicknesses were 0.6 and 0.5
mm respectively. Phase patterns were recorded at
overload temperatures of 150ºC (established by current
circulation through the copper conductors) before and
after a sudden increase in PD magnitudes (Figure 12a,
b). To avoid possible failure the temperature was low-
ered to the bulk oil temperature of 80ºC and the test
continued for 400 hours at 200 Hz.

The features which offer the best performance are as

follows:
Frequency of discharge (number per half cycle) – a
very low repetition rate indicates a surface type dis-
charge, a rate between 1 and 20 indicates a gap type
discharge and a rate above 20 indicates an enclosed type
discharge. Over 100 per half cycle indicates discharges
from a sharp protrusion. Air corona was of the order of
50 per half cycle.
Phase mean – an enclosed type discharge is indicated
by a phase angle ≅ 45°, a gap type discharge is indi-
cated by a phase angle between 50°-70°, between 70°-
90° indicates a surface type discharge. A phase angle
>90° indicates air or oil corona.
Start phase – a consistent value of around 0° for both
positive and negative parts of the ac cycle is indicative
of either an enclosed type or a surface type discharge
that is not close to the inception voltage (examination of
the pd frequency will allow separation of the fault type).
An inconsistent value of over 10° on both halves of the
cycle indicates a gap type discharge. Differing values
on each distribution may be characteristic of air or oil
corona.
Phase width – a value of >110° is highly indicative of
an enclosed type discharge. Values of <100° are char-
acteristic of either gap or surface type discharges (these
discharges can be more conclusively identified by com-
paring the start phase.
Charge mean – although this feature in isolation cannot
provide identification of a fault type, used in combina-
tion with other features it provides greater confidence in
Figure 12: PD phase pattern during and after overload.
fault identification. Enclosed type discharge consis-
a): 3 minutes before large discharges at 150oC (2049
tently give higher values, over 100 pC. Values between
sec), b): 5 second during large discharges at 150oC
20 pC-80 pC are indicative of a gap type discharge. Sur-
(2210 sec), c): 80°C, after overloading (55 hours).
face type discharge produces values from 30 pC to 180
After completion of the test it was confirmed that bub-
bles were trapped under a spacer at the pa-
per/pressboard interface and that discharging had oc-
curred in this location. No marking was detected at the
conductor surfaces.
It will be noted that the “rabbit’s ear” in Figure 12a is
present throughout the series, the lowering of the tem-
perature only eliminating the large discharges. Such a
pattern was also observed in a different test rig in which
gas was trapped within a cavity [33].
The total time during overloading at 150oC was about
2000 s. During this period, the integrated quantities
(peak PD magnitude qm, average PD magnitude qa, cur-
rent I, power P, quadratic rate D and repetition rate r)
increased steadily. These were evaluated separately for
the two groups of half-cycles. The positive half-cycle
values were consistently larger than the negative half-
cycle values. An exception was the repetition rate which
displays an unusual pattern. In the initial stage of over-
loading from t ≅ 350 s to t ≅ 1100 s, r+ and r- were very
similar. From then on, there was a distinct change in the
trend where the repetition rate became larger for the
negative half-cycle, see Figure 13. This may have indi-
cated that the material damage was already occurring.
3000
r insulation from a given defect remains to be assessed.
2500
r+
2000 r-
1500
1000
500
0 discharge energy is in the microjoule range only x-wax
0 1000 2000 3000
Figure 13: Discharge repetition rate vs. time (seconds)
The overall pattern developed further, becoming more
intense and skewing to the voltage zeros with an in-
crease in the negative cycle magnitudes compared with
those in the positive, compare
Figure 12a, b and c. Some increase in maximum PD
magnitudes to 2,5 nC was noted after 100 hours but this
reduced to less than 2 nC and remained constant. The
average electric stress in the uniform part of the field
(paper/spacer region) was approximately 2.5 kV/mm
throughout the test period.
6. DISCUSSION
From these various model studies which have been un-
dertaken, there is evidence that correlations between
discharge patterns of activity and discharge-inducing
defects likely to be found in oil-filled power transform-
ers exist. Despite the fact that the empirical evidence
has highlighted parameters that require to be controlled
and which weren’t systematically controlled among
these studies, there remains evidence of correlations
among these studies. Inspection of the results under 5,
in particular, for similar geometries, show distinct
similarities. Certainly the evidence is strong enough to
suggest that a more rigorous approach, with systematic
variation of the parameters now recognised, in hind-
sight, through the results of these studies to influ-
ence/control the processes involved (and hence influ-
ence the pattern of discharge activity), would yield the
correlations to make full potential of modern digital
partial discharge measurement instrumentation. Inter-
estingly, the results suggest that it is the primary, core
measurements of partial discharge activity, i.e. magni-
tude, phase relationship and repetition rate, which are
important in correlating specific discharge patterns to
defects. It is not the more complex mathematical distri-
butions of these “primary” φ, q, n patterns, e.g., skew-
ness and kurtosis, within different axes of the φ, q, n 3D
distribution.
7. DAMAGE TO THE INSULATION SYSTEM
Even once detected, the risk to the remnant life of the
Little evidence is available for transformer insulation, in
this aspect, in the literature. However, a range of obser-
vations can be made towards this objective.
In a point-to-plane gap the current pulses of some hun-
dred microamperes are seen for small bubble type dis-
charges. When filamentary ones occur, current pulses
(in the 10 ns range) can be in the ampere range. If the
is created and methane, H2 and C2H2 is formed. Dis-
charge energies in the 1 – 10 millijoule range are seen
to destroy paper and unsaturated hydrocarbon gases are
produced.
If the gas formed by the discharges in the oil is trapped
in the insulation, voids can be created. If the void then
starts to discharge then there will be a steady bombard-
ment of the insulator surfaces enclosing the void re-
sulting in bond breaking of the cellulose molecules.
Rupture of fibres and pitting of the surfaces involved (in
a point plane gap with the plane covered by cellulose)
has been observed, and the erosion was observed to be
proportional to the discharge energy [34].
Carbonised tracks both on surfaces and within press-
board sheets has been seen in both models and real
transformers [35]. A stack of paper was found to have
excellent corona resistance compared to oil-
impregnated (non layered) pressboard sheets.
Ageing from discharges is less severe to the oil, as the
oil can be considered self-healing and the oil easily may
be reclaimed. However, gas formation is an indication
that something is wrong within the insulation system.
One would expect that the gas formation to be different
in a “bubble” discharge from that of a “filamentary
streamer”. In a bubble the discharges occur within a
confined vapour filled “void”. Here the deterioration is
mainly due to hot electrons hitting the walls and result-
ing in bond breaking of the oil molecules. In the fila-
mentary streamer the channels are believed to be filled
with a plasma (of several thousand degrees) with a high
degree of dissociation. In the latter case one will get hy-
drogen and various recombinations of hydrogen and
carbon. (It is likely that these conditions are of higher
relevance to the gas formation than the mere energy in-
put.) The high temperatures of the filamentary stream-
ers may result in damage to the cellulose like e.g. car-
bonised tracks.
8. PRACTICAL APSECTS
Even in the laboratory there may be difficulties sepa-
rating external noise signals from real discharges in a
transformer. This is always the main problem when
measuring discharges on-site. Several possibilities ex-
ists:
Acoustic methods are used to measure sound waves
from the discharges. When the discharge is correlated to
the acoustic signal, the source is always inside the trans-
former tank. With acoustic methods it is also possible to
locate the discharges by triangulation, and a precision
better than 10 cm may be obtained. The success of this
method is based on the sensitivity of the acoustic sen-
sors. This method has been used during factory testing
for some tens of years, and is now also emerging for on-
site measurements. Experience shows that the method is
less sensitive for sources inside the winding structure.
Simultaneous multiterminal electric PD detection has
successfully proven useful for pinpointing a discharge
to a specific winding and phase. Comparison between
HV and ground side signals can in some cases also sup-
ply information for location.
During one half-cycle discharge signals of opposite po-
larities may occur, indicating more than one PD source.
For analyses like this it is important to have a high dy-
namic range of the measuring equipment, as signal lev-
els easily may vary with a factor of 100.
Frequency analysis of the discharge signal can be used
to sort discharges into families. An expert is able to say
whether the discharges are coming from the inside or
the outside of the transformer.
Some new methods based on the change of the fre-
quency spectrum of the signal linked with the position
of the discharge in the windings are under study, and
the first results are promising for the application to ac-
tual transformers.
Last, one should not forget the modern VHF and UHF
techniques applying antennas for detection of dis-
charges. These techniques are believed to be suited for
in-service measurement.
9. CONCLUSIONS
As indicated in the studies by task force members, there
is tentative evidence that correlations do exist between
elements of discharge patterns from different discharge-
producing fault/defect conditions to be found in oil-
filled power transformers. As with all early investiga-
tions, in addition to providing valuable insight into the
relationships between discharge patterns and specific
defects, these studies have provided significant insight
into the parameters which must be controlled in future
studies to ensure that data is both accurate and objec-
tive. Temperature and moisture content in both the oil
and any solid insulating materials are important, as is
the voltage level. In addition, in making such investiga-
tions, partial discharge measurement instrumentation
and, in particular, the bandwidth of such instrumenta-
tion, must be given careful consideration. Finally, care
should be taken to ensure that during extended tests, if
there is degradation within the discharging defect,
physical/chemical changes associated with the degrada-
tion are monitored. The degradation may change the
nature of the discharging defect, with associated
changes to the discharge pattern.
With further laboratory studies under the controlled
conditions detailed above, coupled to practical dis-
charge pattern measurements from discharging trans-
formers in the field, from the investigations of this TF,
it is likely that the potential of discharge pattern meas-
urements to determine the extent, nature and form of
discharging defects in power transformers, will be real-
ised.
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