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WATER RESOURCE
India accounts for about 2.45 per cent of world's surface area, 4 per cent of the world's water resources and
about 16 per cent of world's population. The total water available from precipitation in the country in a year
is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability from surface water and replenishable groundwater is 1,869 cubic km.
Out of this only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses. Thus, the total utilisable water resource in the
country is only 1,122 cubic km.
RIVER SYSTEM IN INDIA
The Indus River Systems:

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The Ganga River System

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The Brahmaputra Rivers System:


• Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, east of Mansarovar Lake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Sutlej.
• In Tibet, it is known by the name, Tsang Po.
• It is slightly longer than the Indus, and most of its course lies in Tibet.
• It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas to its south.
• When it reaches mountain peak of Namcha Barwa (7757 m), it takes a 'U' twin and makes a 5500 m
deep gorge.
• Then it enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here it is called the Dihang and it is joined
by the Dibang, the Lohit, the Kenula and numerous other tributaries to form the Brahmaputra in Assam.
• In Tibet Tsang Po river carries a smaller volume of water and less silt as it is a comparatively dry and
hard rocked area.
• In India it passes through a region, which receives a huge amount of rainfall. The result is that the river
carries a large volume of water and considerable amount of silt.
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• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam, with numerous riverine islands.
• Every year during the rainy season, Brahmaputra River floods its banks and causes widespread devastation
in Assam and Bangladesh.
• The river also shifts its channels during rainy season every year.
Peninsular River system
River Source Length Other information
Godavari Brahmagiri Mountain, 1465 km Also known as 'Vriddha' Ganga. Important left
Trimbakeswar, Nasik, bank tributaries are Purna, Maner, Penganga,
Maharashtra. Pranhita (formed by the meeting of Wardha
& Wainganaga), Indravati, Tal & Salmi.
Important right bank tributary is Manjira. The
river near Rajamundhry gets divided into two
Channels Vasistha & Gautami and forms one
of the largest deltas in India. Lake Kolleru is

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a lagoon within the deltaic region of Godavari.
Krishna Mahabaleshwar, 1290 km Left bank tributaries are Bhima, Dindi, Musi
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Maharashtra & Munneru. Right bank tributaries are
Ghataprabha, Tungabhadra, Panchganga and
Koyna. The Krishna delta is a birdfoot delta.
Cauvery Kodagu district, 765 km Important tributaries are Shimsha, Bhavani
Karnataka and Moyar. It is considered as sacred river
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and often called as Ganga of the south.


Mahanadi Dhamtaii district, 885 km Notable tributaries are Seonath, Telen, Sandur
Chattisgarh & lb. Falls in Bay of Bengal, forming a delta.
Brahmani Formed by the 420 km Seasonal river, flowing through the districts
confluence of Sankh of Sundargarh, Keonjhar, Dhenkanal, Cuttack
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& South Koel & Jajapur.


Tapi Satpura Range, MP 700 km It flows through Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
& Gujrat. Important tributaries are Purna,
Girna and Panzara.
Narmada Amarkantak plateau, 1300 km It flows through a rift valley between Vindhya
Anuppur district, MP & Satpura. It travels westward and empties
itself into the Gulf of Khambat.
Luni Aravalli Range, Ajmer, 530 km It drains the western flank of Aravalli hills,
Rajasthan where it is known as Sagarmati. The major
tributaries are Sukri, Bandi & Jawai. It get
disappeared into the Rann of Kutch after
flowing in SW direction for about 500 km.
Mahi Udaipur district, Rajasthan 500 km It flows in SW direction through Dungarpur
& Banswara district of Rajasthan and finally
empties itself in Gulf of Khambat.
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The drainage systems of the Peninsular and extra Peninsular regions differ from each other. The main differences
in their drainage systems are given below:

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DATA ON DIFFERENT WATER RESOURCES OF INDIA
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Surface Water Resource


• The main source of surface water is precipitation.
• About 20 percent part of the precipitation evaporates and mixes with the environment.
• The large part of surface water is found in rivers, riverlets, ponds and lakes. Remaining water flows into
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the seas, oceans. Water found on the surface is called surface water.
• About two-third of the total surface water flows into three major rivers of the country - Indus, Ganges
and Brahmaputras. The water storage capacity of reservoirs constructed in India so far is about 17,400
billion cubic metres.
• The storage capacity of usable water in the Ganges basin is the maximum, but in spite of maximum
annual flow, the storage capacity of usable water is the least in Brahmaputras basin.
• The storage capacity in Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi and Indus is sufficient.
• If storage capacity of usable water is seen in terms of ratio, then of Tapi river basin is 97 percent.
On the basis of patterns, the drainage of India may be divided into:
(i) Superimposed drainage: Damodar, Subernarekha, Chambal and Banas.
(ii) Dendritic Pattern: Ganga and its tributaries, Rivers of South India.
(iii) Radial Pattern: Amarkantak Region - Son, Mahanadi and Narmada.
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(iv) Trellis Pattern : In old folded region of Singhbum (West Plain)


(v) Inland drainage : Thar desert (Rupnarian, Medha and Jojari).
Ground Water Resources
• The total Annual Replenishable ground water resources of the Country have been estimated as 431 billion
cubic meter (BCM).
• Keeping 35 BCM for natural discharge, the net annual ground water availability for the entire Country is
396 BCM.
• The Annual ground water draft is 243 BCM out of which 221 BCM is for irrigation use and 22 BCM
is for domestic & industrial use.
• The groundwater utilisation is very high in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.
• However, there are States like Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Kerala, etc., which utilise only a small proportion of
their groundwater potentials. States like Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura and Maharashtra are

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utilising their ground water resources at a moderate rate.

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• If the present trend continues, the demands for water would need the supplies. And such situation, will
be detrimental to development, and can cause social upheaval and disruptions.
Lagoons and Backwaters
• India has a vast coastline and the coast is very indented in some states.
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• Due to this, a number of lagoons and lakes have formed.
• The States like Kerala, Odisha and West Bengal have vast surface water resources in these lagoons and
lakes.
• Although, water is generally brackish in these water-bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating certain
varieties of paddy crops, coconut, etc.
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Inland Water Resources


• Inland water resources include streams (rivers), canals, lakes, ponds and wet lands.
• These resources' offer several services to man which include:
1. Domestic water supply:
• Inland water resources cater to the domestic needs of man for drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning,
watering plants, and crops.
• The water should be pure, free from bacteria and other contaminants (salts, sediments, etc.), taste, smell,
and colour.
2. Industrial water supply:
• Industrial plants require water in more quantities than for domestic purposes. Water is needed in-industries
for producing steam, for condensing steam, for solution chemical, for humidifiers and refrigerators, for
cooling hot Metals, for washing coke; for the manufacture of acids and alkalies in chemical industries, and
for washing and dying of hides, etc.
• Water often gets contaminated when it comes from mining areas.
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3. Fishing:
• Rivers, lakes and ponds are sources of inland fishery.
• The Ganga, Sutlej, Mahanadi, etc. in India and many other rivers provide fish for local consumption.
4. Irrigation of Crops:
• In India, various means of irrigation-Canals, wells and tube wells, tanks, are extensively used.
• Selection of crops is largely determined by the availability of water for irrigation.
5. Navigation:
• Navigation in rivers, canals and lakes is determined by a number of factors including : (i) the direction
of river flow, (ii) geographical location of water bodies, (iii) extent of the water body, (iv) amount of water
in rivers or lakes, (v) depth and width of water, (vi) meandering of rivers, (vii) swift flow of the stream,
(viii) rocks, sand bars etc. in the river channels, (ix) rapids and waterfalls on the rivers, (x) weather
conditions and floods, (xi) shifting of river channels, (xii) landing places.

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6. Generation of Steam Power and Hydro-electricity:
• Steam power is generated from water to drive machines of plants and locomotives. This steam power is
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used to generate thermal electricity for plants.
• Hydro-electricity is the cheapest and the cleanest of all the sources of power.
• Besides, it is a renewable and inexhaustible resource.
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• A major advantage of hydro-electricity is its utility in decentralization of industries, while the use of coal
favours the centralization of industries which creates ninny adverse environmental effects.
7. Availability of minerals:
• Some lakes provide minerals such as salts, potassium etc.
• The Sambhar Lake, the Pachpadra Lake and the Lunkaransar in Rajasthan are sources of salt production
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in India.
Irrigation in India
• Indian agriculture depends on the monsoon for its water requirement. Even if the monsoon is normal all
the places need not get sufficient rainfall, some place may get high rainfall, or some places get very low
rainfall as in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, etc.
• The early or delayed withdrawal of monsoon affects the cropping pattern. In the dry period after monsoon,
crops cannot be raised without irrigation.
• So irrigation becomes indispensable in India as many people directly or indirectly still depends on agriculture
for their subsistence.
• The sources of irrigation can be divided into four categories viz. Canals, Wells, Tanks and other Channels.
• Wells: Wells and tube wells account about 55.9% of the total irrigation, derives water from underground
sources, so it is a widely distributed source of irrigation. The major states where well irrigation is utilised
are Punjab, UP, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharastra, MP and TN.
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• Canals: Canals account 31.7% of the total irrigation, it uses surface water from rivers and becomes a
principal source of irrigation in India. UP has a good network of canals followed by Punjab, Haryana and
Andra Pradesh.

• Tanks: Tanks account 5.9% of the total irrigation, mainly found in peninsular India, most of them are
small in size and due to high evaporation, it supplies water only for one crop in year. TN, Karnataka, AP
and Orissa tops in tank irrigation.

• Other sources: The other sources of irrigation include as small dams like ahars and pynes in Bihar, spring
channels of TN, water holes in flood plains, etc account for 6.4 of the total irrigation.

Distribution of Irrigated Areas

a) The percentage of irrigated land varies from state to state. It varies from state to state with lowest being
in Mizoram (6.4 per cent) and highest in Punjab (92.9 per cent).

b) Punjab is at the top in proportion of irrigated area followed by Haryana, U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, Jammu

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and Kashmir. Manipur in the north east region irrigate more than 40 per cent of their net cropped area.

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• For the better utilization of the total potential the irrigation schemes have been divided into-

(1) Major Projects: Cultivable command area of more than 10,000 hectare, (including canal irrigation).

(2) Medium Project: Cultivable command area between 2000 and 10000 hectare.

(3) Minor Projects: Cultivable command area less than 2000 hectare, include mainly well-irrigation.
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(4) Micro Projects: Drip irrigation and the use of sprinklers.
Major Dams of India
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RECENTLY IN NEWS
GOVERNMENT OF INDIA DECIDED TO SUSPENDS THE TALK ON THE INDUS TREATY:
• The Union Government has decided to suspend all talks on India-Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty in the
wake of the Uri attack.
• About the treaty:
– This treaty is a water-distribution treaty between India and Pakistan.
– It brokered by the World Bank (then the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development).
– The treaty deals with sharing of water of 6 rivers - Beas, Ravi, Sutlej, Indus, Chenab and Jhelum
between the two countries.
– As per treaty, control over three eastern rivers -Ravi, Beas and Sutlej was given to India. While
control over three western rivers - Indus, Jhelum and Chenab was given to Pakistan.
– It allows India to use only 20% of the water of Indus river, which flows through it first, for irrigation,

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power generation and transport.
UNION GOVERNMENT LAUNCHES 1ST PHASE OF 'SMART GANGA CITY PROGRAMME IN
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10 CITIES'
• The Union Government has launched the first phase of Smart Ganga City programme in 10 cities
located along River Ganga.
• 10 Cities/Towns are Haridwar, Rishikesh, Mathura, Varanasi, Kanpur, Allahabad, Lucknow, Patna,
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Sahibganj and Barrackpore.


• Under this programme, Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) and improve drainage network will be set up
on hybrid annuity mode on public private partnership basis. In the hybrid annuity model, a part of
capital investment (up to 40%) will be paid by Union Government through construction linked milestones.
• The balance amount will come through an annuity over the contract duration up to 20 years to ensure
operational longevity of STPs.
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'MADHAV CHITALE COMMITTEE' CONSTITUTED TO PREPARE GUIDELINES FOR


DESILTATION OF RIVER GANGA:
• The Union Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation has constituted
a committee to prepare guidelines for desiltation of Ganga River.
• Terms of Reference of Committee Prepare guidelines for desiltation of Ganga River from Bhimgauda
(Uttarakhand) to Farakka (West Bengal).
'NAMAMI GANGE' PROJECT FOR CLEANING RIVER GANGA LAUNCHED:
• The Namami Gange Programme aims at cleaning the holy river and ensuring its unfettered flow.
• Under it, projects such as modernization and redevelopment of Ghats, crematoriums and other development
activities will be undertaken.
• Besides it will also undertake project for development of sewage infrastructure and treatment, tree
plantation, afforestation, pilot drain project, interceptor drain project, trash skimmers and conservation
of biodiversity.
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• The projects were launched simultaneously in five basin states of the river Ganga viz. Uttarakhand, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. Besides, projects were also launched in Delhi and Haryana
through which Ganga's largest tributary Yamuna passes.
• Focus of Programme:
– Pollution abatement interventions by interception, diversion and treatment of wastewater through
bio-remediation. Appropriate in-situ treatment or use of innovative technologies such as effluent
treatment plant (ETPs) and sewage treatment plants (STPs) for cleaning Ganga.
– Besides, it also seeks to benefit vast population dependent on the river Ganaga in terms of job
creation, improved livelihoods and health benefits.
ASSAMS MAJULI BECOMES FIRST ISLAND DISTRICT IN A WORLD:
• Majuli became the first island district of India after it was inaugurated as the 35th district of Assam by
Chief Minister Sarbananda Sonowal.

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• It was announced that state government has proposed to set up cultural university in Majuli to enable
research and advanced studies of art and culture of the state.


steps for the recurring flood and erosion there. OR
State Government also has decided to set up centre of water resources in the island to suggest remedial

Union government announced RS. 207 crore for development of this district. This amount will utilize
for safeguarding the land loss due to erosion and to protect the 80 km. length of the bank line of the
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river Brahmaputra.
(Note: Issues related to water degradation will be covered in Environmental section)
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FOREST RESOURCE
Definition of forests by
• All lands which are more than 1 hectare in area and with a Canopy density of more than 10% irrespective
of the ownership and legal status is called Forest Cover.
• The forest ecosystem has two components- the non-living (abiotic) and the living (biotic) component.
• Climate, soil types are part of the non-living component and the living component includes plants,
animals and other life forms.
Forest Resource of India

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• The total forest and tree cover is 79.42 million hectare, which is 24.16 percent of the total geographical
area.
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• The total carbon stock in the country's forest is estimated to be 7, 044 million tones, an increase of 103
million tonnes, which is an increase of 1.48 in percentage terms over the previous assessments.
• According to the Report, the maximum increase in forest cover has been observed in Tamil Nadu - 2,
501 sq km, followed by Kerala - 1, 317 sq km and Jammu & Kashmir - 450 sq km.
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• Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover of 77, 462 sq km in the country, followed by Arunachal
Pradesh, with a forest cover of 67, 248 sq km and Chhattisgarh - 55, 586 sq km.
• Mizoram, with 88.93 percentage of forest cover has the highest forest cover in percentage terms, followed
by Lakshadweep with 84.56 per cent.
• The states where forest cover has decreased substantially are Mizoram , Telangana, Uttarakhand, Nagaland,
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Arunachal Pradesh.
• In world's total mangrove vegetation, India's share stands at 3%. Currently Mangrove cover in India is
4740 km² which is 0.14 % of the country's geographical area. Sundarbans in West Bengal accounts for
almost half of the total area. As compared to 2013 there is a net increase of 112 sq km in the mangrove
cover.
Role of Forests
• Plants provide habitat to different types of organisms. Birds build their nests on the branches of trees,
animals and birds live in the hollows, insects and other organisms live in various parts of the plant.
• Forests act as hydrologic flow modulators. Plants provide a protective canopy that lessens the impact of
raindrops on the soil, thereby reducing soil erosion. Roots help to hold the soil in place. They provide
shade which prevents the soil to become too dry. Thus increases the soil moisture holding capacity.
• Forests help in maintaining microclimate of the area. Plants clean the air, cool it on hot days, conserve
heat at night, and act as excellent sound absorbers. Transpiration from the forests affects the relative
humidity and precipitation in a place. Forests clean the environment by muffling noises, buffering strong
winds and stopping dust and gases.
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• The layer of leaves that fall around the tree prevents runoff and allows the water to percolate into the
soil. Thus helping in ground water recharge.
• Dead plants decompose to form humus, organic matter that holds the water and provides nutrients to the
soil.
• Through the process of photosynthesis, forests renew the oxygen supply in the atmosphere by absorbing
atmospheric CO2 and moderating the greenhouse effect.
• Forest play an important role in maintaining water cycle of the area.
• Some species of trees have the ability to return nitrogen to the soil through root decomposition or fallen
leaves. Such trees are planted to increase the nitrogen content of the soil.
• Forests also helps in the process of soil formation by causing weathering of rock.
• The play vital role in maintaining healthy watershed.
• It provides forest food which has great medicinal value and used by local people in respective season.

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Classification of natural vegetation in India
A.


Tropical Wet Evergreen forests
These are the typical rain forests of India.
Annual rainfall: above 250 cm.
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• Mean annual temperature: 27°C.
• Dry season is very brief.
• Western Ghats, parts of Karnataka (Anamalai Hills, Coorg, Mysore Plateau), Cachar and Brahmaputra
valley of Assam and Andaman-Nicobar islands.
B. Tropical Moist Semi-evergreen forests
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• These forests are intermediate between the evergreen and the deciduous forms.
• Annual rainfall: between 200-250 cm.
• Mean annual temperature: 26°C.
• Some trees shed their leaves for brief periods in winter and spring.
• Western Ghats, parts of upper Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Andamans.
C. Tropical Moist Deciduous forests
• Annual rainfall: 150-200 cm.
• Drought period is for 1-2 months.
• Eastern side of Western Ghats, Chhota Nagpur, Khasi Hills and a narrow belt along the foothills of
Himalayas.
• Based on dominant species, they are generally of 3 types: Sandal, Teak and Sal forests.
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D. Littoral and Swamp forests


• They are subdivided into 3 years: beach, tidal and fresh water swamp forests.
(a) Beach forests
• These are distributed all along the sandy sea beaches and sandy flats of river deltas.
(b) Tidal forests
• These grow over the deltas of various rivers, creeks along the coast and swampy margins of
islands.
• The plants often have prop roots with well developed pneumatophores for support and aeration.
(c) Fresh Water Swamp forests
• They grow in depressions where rain-water or swollen river-water collects for some period.
• Elephant grass (Typha species) is quite common in these forests.

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E. Tropical Dry Deciduous forests
• They cover about 40% of total land in India.
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• Annual rainfall: 75-125 cm.
• Dry season extends for about 6 months.
• They spread from foot of Himalayas to extreme South (except Western Ghats, Rajasthan, Kashmir,
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Bengal and other Eastern States).


F. Tropical Thorn forests
• They occur on rocky substrata.
• Annual rainfall: 25-75 cm.
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• The vegetation is dominated by Acacia and Euphorbia (thorny plants).


• Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, Bundelkhand part of Uttar Pradesh, parts of Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
G. Tropical Dry Evergreen forests
• They receive rain from retreating monsoon.
• Parts of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
H. Montane Subtropical forests
• These are intermediate between tropical and temperate forest and therefore, exhibit mixed vegetation of
both types.
• They are divisible into three sub-types:
(a) Broad-leaved hill forests: Nilgiri and Palni Hills of South, Mahableshwar and other areas of Maharashtra,
Mout Abu, Pachmarhi in M.P., Parasnath in Bihar, kalimpong and Darjeeling.
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(b) Pine forests: Foothills of Himalayas and in the East over Khasi, Naga, Manipur and Lushai hills.
(c) Dry evergreen forests: Shiwalik Hills, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir.
I. Montane Temperate forests
• These forests develop at a height of 1700 metres in the hills of both North and South.
• They are not humid.
• They are of three types:
(a) Montane wet temperate forests: these are found in both North and South. The Southern wet temperate
forests are called Shoals. They occur in Nilgiris, Annamalai, Palni, Tinnevelly hills of both Tamil
Nadu and Kerala.
(b) Himalayan moist temperate Forests: Western and central Himalayas.
(c) Himalayan Dry temperate Forests: Inner Himalayas.

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J. Sub-Alpine forests



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They are found throughout Himalayas till the timber line.
It spreads from Ladakh in west to Arunachal Pradesh in East.
Annual rainfall is less than 65 cm.
• Snowfall occurs for several weeks in a year.
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• It has two types of forests: Silver fir-Birch Forest and Birch-Rhododendron Forest.
K. Alpine forest
• These are found above the timber line and upto snow line in Himalayas.
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• Rainfall is almost absent.


• Snowfall is common.
• The vegetation is commonly known as elfin scrub (short stems; branches come out of soil and creep along
the ground and form tangled masses).
• This vegetation is divided into four types: moist alpine scrub, dry alpine scrub, alpine stony deserts and
alpine meadows.
L. Grassland Vegetation
• Natural grasslands are hardly present in India but have developed secondarily by the sestruction of forests.
This is known as secondary development.
• Indian grasslands are of three major types:
(i) Xerophilous (North-West India under semi-desert conditions).
(ii) Mesophilous (Savannahs) are typical of moist deciduous forests of UP.
(iii) Hygrophilous (Wet Savannahs).
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M. Desert Vegetation
• Rainfall is scanty, infrequent and irregular (10cm)
• The vegetation cover is sparse.
• Vegetation is of thorn forest type.
• Natural vegetation contributes to productivity of trees like Khejri (Prosopis cineraria).
(Note: Issues related to deforestation will be covered in Environmental section)

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LAND RESOURCES
The utilization of land depends upon physical factors like topography, soil and climate as well as upon human
factors such as the density of population duration of occupation of the area, land tenure and technical levels
of the people.
LAND USE IN INDIA
The major land uses in India are:
Net sown Area

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• Agriculture land means cultivated area, it includes net cropped area and fallow lands. Cropped area in the
year under consideration in called net sown area.

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• India stands seventh in the world in terms of total geographical area but second in terms of cultivated
land.
• Net shown Area is about 46%.
• Percentage wise Punjab and Haryana are highest and Arunachal Pradesh is Lowest (3.2% )
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• The net sown area and the area sown more than once together are called gross cultivated area.
Forest Area
• This includes all land classified either as forest under any legal enactment, or administered as forest,
whether State-owned or private, and whether wooded or maintained as potential forest land.
• The area of crops raised in the forest and grazing lands or areas open for grazing within the forests remain
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included under the "forest area".


Area under Non-agricultural Uses
• This includes all land occupied by buildings, roads and railways or under water, e.g. rivers and canals, and
other land put to uses other than agriculture.
Barren and Un-culturable Land
• This includes all land covered by mountains, deserts, etc.
• Land which cannot be brought under cultivation except at an exorbitant cost is classified as unculturable
whether such land is in isolated blocks or within cultivated holdings.
Permanent Pasture and other Grazing Land
• This includes all grazing land whether it is permanent pasture/meadows or not.
• Village common grazing land is included under this category.
Land under Miscellaneous Tree Crops, etc.
• This includes all cultivable land which is not included in 'Net area sown' but is put to some agricultural
use.
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• Land under trees, thatching grasses, bamboo bushes and other groves for fuel, etc. which are not included
under 'Orchards' are classified under this category.
Culturable Waste Land
• This includes land available for cultivation, whether taken up or not taken up for cultivation once, but not
cultivated during the last five years or more in succession including the current year for some reason or
the other .
• Such land may be either fallow or covered with shrubs and jungles which are not put to any use.
Fallow Lands other than Current Fallows
• This includes all land which was taken up for cultivation but is temporarily out of cultivation for a period
of not less than one year and not more than five years.
Current Fallows
• This represents cropped area which is kept fallow during the current year.

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LAND CAPABILITY CONCEPT
• Land capability classification shows, in a general way, the suitability of soils for most kinds of field crops.
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Crops that require special management are excluded.
• The soils are grouped according to their limitations for field crops, the risk of damage if they are used
for crops, and the way they respond to management.
• The classification is as follows:
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Class 1 soils have slight limitations that restrict their use.


Class 2 soils have moderate limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require moderate conservation
practices.
Class 3 soils have severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require special conservation
practices, or both.
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Class 4 soils have very severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants or that require very careful
management, or both.
Class 5 soils are subject to little or no erosion but have other limitations, impractical to remove, that restrict
their use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 6 soils have severe limitations that make them generally unsuitable for cultivation and that restrict their
use mainly to pasture, rangeland, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 7 soils have very severe limitations that make them unsuitable for cultivation and that restrict their use
mainly to grazing, forestland, or wildlife habitat.
Class 8 soils and miscellaneous areas have limitations that preclude commercial plant production and that
restrict their use to recreational purposes, wildlife habitat, watershed, or esthetic purposes.
(Note: Issues related to land degradation will be covered in Environmental section)
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INDIAN AGRICULTURE
Agriculture plays a vital role in India's economy. Over 58 per cent of the rural households depend on
agriculture as their principal means of livelihood. Agriculture, along with fisheries and forestry, is one of the
largest contributors to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
As per estimates by the Central Statistics Office (CSO), the share of agriculture and allied sectors (including
agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery) was 15.35 per cent of the Gross Value Added (GVA) during 2015-
16 at 2011-12 prices.
The Department of Agriculture and Cooperation under the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for the
development of the agriculture sector in India. It manages several other bodies, such as the National Dairy

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Development Board (NDDB), to develop other allied agricultural sectors.

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Facts:
• India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter of spices and spice products.
• India's fruit production has grown faster than vegetables, making it the second largest fruit producer in
the world.
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• India's horticulture output, comprising fruits, vegetables and spices, is estimated to be 283.4 million
tonnes (MT) in 2015-16 after the third advanced estimate.
• Agricultural export constitutes 10 per cent of the country's exports and is the fourth-largest exported
principal commodity.
• India is an agricultural economy where approximately 49% of the people depend on agriculture.
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• Net sown area still accounts for about 47% of the total cultivable area of India.
• Accounts for about 35% of our national income.
• Share in GDP - around 14 %.
• Provides food for the people and fodder for the animals.
• Main source of raw materials to the agro-based industries viz. sugar, textile, edible oil, etc.
• Predominance of food crop ? 2/3rd of total cropped area.
• 1st rank in Milk (17% of world production), Mango, banana, coconut, cashew, papaya, peas, cassava and
pomegranate.
• Largest producer and exporter of spices, Millets, Pulses, Dry Bean, Ginger.
• Overall, second largest producer of vegetable, fruits and fishes.
• Have three main cropping seasons viz. Kharif, Rabi & Zaid.
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OR
BRANCHES OF AGRICULTURE:
• Vermiculture: Agriculture of Earth worm
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• Tissue culture: Production of a new plant from plant cells


• Apiculture: Study of honey bee
• Horticulture: Study of fruits and vegetables
• Pomology: Study of fruits
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• Sericulture: Rearing of silk worm


• Moriculture: Production of mulberry
• Vity culture: Production of grapes
AGRICULTURAL TERMINOLOGIES
Agriculture Science of cultivating soil, raising crops and rearing livestock including fishing
and forests
Agricultural Land Net Cropped area + Fallow Land -- Cultivated Area
Net Cropped Area • Total area sown in country
• Also known as net sown area
• Area sown more than once in a year counted only once
Fallow Land • Land left out of cultivation for a definite period of time to restore its fertility
Gross Sown Area • Also known as Gross Cropped Area
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• Sum total of -- Area sown more than once in agricultural year + Net sown
area
Cropping intensity • No. of crops raised on field during an agricultural year
• (Total Crop Area / Net sown area) * 100 -- ~132 % for India
Agricultural Efficiency • Ratio of Output to input
• Input includes manpower, seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc.
Yield / Area • Intensive agriculture
• Heavy manpower & inputs deployed -- India, Japan
Yield / Person • Extensive agriculture
• Very large land holdings & very less manpower -- USA, Russia, Canada

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Cropping Pattern • Refers to proportion of area under different crops at a given point of time
• Broadly, cropping pattern in India shows greater production of food grains

Food Crops •

than non-food grains
Food Grains
Cereals & Millets + Pulses
OR
• Fruits & Vegetables
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Non Food Crops • Oil seeds
• Fiber crops
• Forage crops
Commercial Agriculture • Farmer grows the crop with the aim of selling it in the market i.e. for monetary
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purpose
• Also known as cash crops
• Ex: Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco, Tea etc.
Plantation Agriculture • A large-scale farming of one crop resembling the factory production
• Processing and marketing the final products
• Ex: Coffee, Rubber, Coconut, Spices etc.
Fiber Crops • Cash crops which yield fibers
• Used for making textiles or packaging materials
• Examples include Jute & Cotton
Fodder Crops • Harvested when green
• Used as cattle fodder eg. Barseem
• Some fodder crops can also be matured as food grains eg. Jowar
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Mixed Cropping • Also known as Multiple cropping


• When two or more than two crops are grown simultaneously on the same
field
• Increases crop yield & Fertility of soil
Mixed Farming • Cultivation of crops + Rearing of animals
• Fodder crops -- An important component of mixed farming along with other
crops
Dry land Farming • Adopted in scanty rainfall areas viz. < 75 cm /year
• Draught resistance crops are grown as they require less irrigation
• Farming of arid & semi-arid regions
• Also known as Rain fed Farming
• Rainwater is only source of moisture for crops

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Minimal use of chemicals, Pesticides, fertilizers etc.
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• Contributes 40% of the food production
• Provide support to nearly 45% of the population
Wet Land farming • Practiced in high rainfall and irrigated areas
Terrace Farming • Farming on steps cut on mountainous region
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• Mainly for prevention of soil erosion


• Also provides easy irrigation
Extensive Agriculture • Farmers tries to get the greater output by bringing more and more new land
areas under cultivation
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• Agriculture at large farm with extensive use of machinery


• Yield / Area is low but Yield / Labour is high
• Crops are grown solely for the purpose of commercial activities
Intensive Agriculture • Land holding is small which is intensively used by means of labour provided
by family members
• Hence, Yield / Area is high but Yield / Labour is low
Subsistence Agriculture • Farming in which the main production is consumed by the farmer's household
• For Livelihood, Small land area & Great no. of labours
Shifting Agriculture • Farmers clear the forestland and use it for growing crops.
• The crops are grown for 2 to 3 years.
• When the fertility of the soil decreases, the farmer shifts to a new land
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• Also known as Slash & Burn agriculture


• Practised in East India, Central Africa, America
Horticulture • Intensive cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers
Dairy Farming • Animals are reared for milk & main emphasis is on cattle breeding & vetenary
services
• Rearing of Milch animals is an important aspect of Dairy farming
Mediterranean Agriculture • Practised in Mediterranean lands surrounding Mediterranean Sea
• Highly specialized commercial agriculture, done mainly for citrus fruits
• Famous for Viticulture i.e. grape cultivation for wines
Market Gardening / • Cultivation of high valued day to day market crops like fruits, flowers &
Horticulture vegetation

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• Grown on small farms which are well connected with urban markets by cheap
n efficient means of transportation


OR
Netherland >> Famous for flowers, especially Tulips
Farmers specialised in vegetables only mainly practice Truck farming with
overnight market transportation
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Cooperative Farming • Farmers voluntarily pool their resources together like land, machinery etc. to
form a co-operative society.
• Cooperative societies help farmers to procure more inputs, sell farm products
at best prices & procure essentials in quantity at cheaper rates
• For Ex. Denmark, Netherland
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Collective Farming • State owned agriculture esp. in socialist countries like Russia
• Farmers pool their resources together to achieve yearly targets set by gov. to
sell their produce at fixed rates.
• Excess of produce is distributed among members or are sold in the market
• Members are also paid according to the nature of work allotted to them.
INFRASTRUCTURE FACTORS RELATED TO AGRICULTURE
A. Seed:
• Seed is a fertilized matured ovule together covered with seed coat.
• Importance of seed
a) Seed bridge between the two generations of plant life.
b) Seed is the medium which transferring character from one generation to next generation.
c) Seed is the vital and most important input for crop production.
d) Seed as food, feed, medicinal, industries or ornamental value.
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• Hybrid seeds are obtained by cross pollination of different varieties of related plants.
• Genetically Modified seeds, are the ones in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in such
a way as to get the required quality.
Seed Village Scheme:
To upgrade the quality of farmer-saved seed, which is about 80-85% of the total seed used for crop production
programme, financial assistance is provided for distribution of foundation/certified seed at 50% cost of the
seed of crops for production of certified/quality seeds only and for training on seed production and technology
to the farmers.
The seed produced in these seed villages are preserved/stored till the next sowing season. In order to
encourage farmers to develop storage capacity of appropriate quality, assistance is given to farmers for
making/procuring of Pusa Bin/Mud bin/Bin made from paper pulp for storing of seed produced by the
frames on their farms.
Establishment and Maintenance of Seed Bank:
In order to ensure that seeds are available to the farmers at the time of natural calamities like floods, droughts,

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etc., a need was felt to establish a Seed Bank to maintain stocks of foundation and certified seeds of different
crops/varieties which can be utilized for such contingent requirements. Under this component, crop-wise
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targets of seeds are fixed for each participating organization for maintenance in the Seed Bank every year.
B. Fertilizers:
• Fertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plant and fruit growth.
• Organic fertilizers are fertilizers derived from animal matter, human excreta or vegetable matter. (e.g.
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compost, manure). Naturally occurring organic fertilizers include animal wastes from meat processing,
peat, manure, slurry, and guano.
• Inorganic fertilizers contain simple inorganic chemicals. Some of the common nutrients present in fertilizers
are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NKP). They also contain secondary plant nutrients such as
calcium, sulphur and magnesium.
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Bio-fertilizers Pros:
• Increases crop yield by 20-30%
• Provide protection against drought and some soil-borne diseases
• Replaces chemical nitrogen & phosphorus by 25%
• Stimulates plant growth
• Cost-effective
• Environment friendly
• To some extent, helps to cleanse the plant from precipitated chemical fertilizers
Bio-fertilizers Cons:
• Effects are slower compared to chemical fertilizer
• Difficulty to store as sensitive to temp. and humidity changes
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• Much lower nutrient density - requires large amounts to get enough for most crops
• Sometimes, are hard to locate/purchase in faraway rural areas.
New Urea policy 2015
New urea policy 2015 (NUP), which became effective from June 1, 2015 has principal objectives of
maximizing domestic urea production and promoting energy efficiency to rationalize subsidy burden. The
policy aims at tightening the energy consumption norms based on the actual energy consumption levels of
respective units during past few years. Further, the subsidy calculation for production above reassessed
capacity has been modified to protect the interest of stakeholders in case of significant volatility in International
Parity Price (IPP).
Neem Coating of urea
It has been made mandatory for all the indigenous producers of urea to produce 100% of their total
production of subsidized urea as neem coated urea.

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About Urea
1. It is the most concentrated solid nitrogenous fertilizer, containing 46 per cent nitrogen.
2.
3.
4.
Urea sprays are readily absorbed by plants.
It may be applied at sowing or as, a top-dressing.
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The nitrogen in urea is readily fixed in the soil in an ammoniacal form and is not lost in drainage.
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5. It is suitable for most crops and can be applied to all soils.
C. Irrigation
• Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil. It is usually used to assist in growing crops in
dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall.
• Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants
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against frost, suppressing weed growing in rice fields and helping in preventing soil consolidation.
• There are large reserves of underground water in the alluvial plains of north India. Digging and constructing
wells and tube-wells is easy and cost of their construction is also comparatively less. Therefore irrigation
by wells and tube-wells here is popular
• An irrigation canal is a waterway, often man-made or enhanced, built for the purpose of carrying water
from a source such as a lake, river, or stream, to soil used for farming or landscaping.
• A tank consists of water storage which has been developed by constructing a small bund of earth or
stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation or other purposes.
• Localized irrigation is a system where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped network,
in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it. Drip irrigation,
spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and bubbler irrigation belong to this category of irrigation methods.
Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY)
GOI had announced 'Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana' with the motto of water to every farm 'Har
Khet Ko Paani'. The scheme is aimed at irrigating the field of every farmer and improving water use efficiency
to provide ''Per Drop More Crop''.
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The major objective of PMKSY is to achieve convergence of investments in irrigation at the field level,
expand cultivable area under assured irrigation, improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage of
water, enhance the adoption of precision-irrigation and other water saving technologies (More crop per drop),
enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water conservation practices by exploring the feasibility
of reusing treated municipal waste water for peri-urban agriculture and attract greater private investment in
precision irrigation system.
D. HYV (High Yielding Variety) Seeds ? Green Revolution by Norman Borlaug
Positives:
• To achieve self-sufficiency in food
• Shorter Life cycles
• Increased productivity
• Benefited Wheat & Rice
• Benefitted Punjab, Haryana, UP, TN, Andhra Pradesh & Maharashtra

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Negatives:
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• Input cost increased
• More water & fertilizer required
• Chemical poisoning of soil
• Salinity & Alkalinity increased which makes soil impermeable
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• Depletion of ground water


• Loss of fertility of soil
• Limited to selective states only
• Limited to selected crops only
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E. Green Manure
• A type of cover crop grown primarily to add nutrients and organic matter to the soil.
• A green manure crop is grown for a specific period of time, and then ploughed under and incorporated
into the soil while it is still green or shortly after flowering.
• Provides subsidy on purchase of seeds & on cost for production of seeds for green manure plants.
• Leguminous types -- Have Nitrogen fixing ability for ex. Cowpeas, Soybeans.
• Non- Leguminous types -- For weed suppression & addition of biomass to the soil for eg. Sudan grass,
Millets, Sorghum & Buckwheat.
Advantage:
• Helps in soil improvement & soil protection
• Provides forage for pollinating insects
• Deep rooting properties ? Increase aeration of soil+ Efficient at suppressing weeds
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• Fix nitrogen in soil, thus Less chemical fertilizers are required


• Provides habitat for predatory beneficial insects which kill and eat harmful insects thus less pesticides are
required
Disadvantage:
• Leguminous plants require good amount of irrigation
• The "time" factor -- one cannot plant the primary marketable crop during green manuring phase.
F. Genetically Modified Food
• Modified form of agricultural plants to enhance desired traits such as increased resistance to herbicides
or improved nutritional content
• Using the latest molecular biology techniques & genetic engineering, plants are undertaken breeding to get
the desired results

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• Last decade, genetically modified (GM) crops were introduced esp. for Cotton & Brinjal in India but as
of now only GM Bt. Cotton production is allowed.
Advantages of GM Foods
• Pest resistance
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• Herbicide resistance
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• Disease resistance
• Draught tolerance
• Salinity tolerance
• Increased nutrition
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• Better flavour and colour


• Early maturing
• All year availability
• Easy to store
Disadvantages of GM Foods
• Reduced effectiveness to pesticides
• Unknown effects on human health
• Gene transfer to non-target species
• Playing with nature and its mechanisms
• Monopoly of MNCs in GM seeds
• High input cost -- Requires high dose of fertilizers
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• Genetically-modified foods have the potential to solve many of the world's hunger and malnutrition
problems, and to help protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon
chemical pesticides and herbicides.
• Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety testing, regulation,
international policy and food labeling. Hence, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended
harm to human health and the environment as a result of our enthusiasm for this powerful technology.
SC STAYS COMMERCIAL RELEASE OF GM MUSTARD
• It has asked the Central Government to seek public opinion before releasing the variety for cultivation
purpose.
• Order in this regard was issued by SC Bench of Chief Justice T.S. Thakur and Justice A.M. Khanwilkar
on petition filed by Aruna Rodrigues.
• The petition had alleged that sowing of the GM Mustard seeds will be undertaken without relevant tests
and without entire bio-safety dossier for commercial launch GM mustard.
• It also had urged the SC to prohibit open field trials and the commercial release of Herbicide Tolerant

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(HT) crops, including HT Mustard DMH 11 and its parent lines/variants.
Arguments in Favour GM Mustard
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• DMH-11 yields about 30% more than a traditional reference mustard variety.
• Help in boosting edible mustard oil production thus, reduce huge import bill for edible oil.
• Help to boost government-led scientific researches in Agriculture.
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Arguments against GM Mustard


• Approval to GM mustard would open a gate to several genetically modified food crops.
• Environmentalists are raising biosafety concern with GM crops as their introduction may adversely affect
environment, human and animal health.
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• As DMH-11 has external gene that makes the plant resistant to herbicide. Thus it will force farmers to
use only select brands of agro-chemicals.
• Technical expert committee appointed by the Supreme Court in this regard earlier had found that HT
crops completely unsuitable in the Indian context.
• The herbicide-resistant crops may adversely impact the manual labourers, for whom weeding provides
livelihood.
INDIAN CROPS
Famous Indian Crops
Rice • 20 - 27* C of average Temperature
• 150 cm of average Rainfall
• Require Warm & Humid climate
• Clayely or alluvial moisture retentive soil
• Labour intensive crop
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Wheat • 15 - 20* C of average Temperature


• 75 cm of average Rainfall
• Require moderate cool climate
• Clayely or well drained fertile soil
• Machine intensive crop
Maize • 18 - 27* C of average Temperature
• 75 cm of average Rainfall
• Atleast 140 frost free days
• Require Warm climate
• Alternate Rainy & Sunny Season is best for this crop

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Sugarcane • Belongs to Bamboo family



Indigenous to India
Long duration crop - 10 - 15 months
20 - 27* C of average Temperature
OR
• 75 - 150 cm of average Rainfall
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• No from with moderately warm climate


• Soil exhausting crop - Requires heavy dose of fertilizers
• Special Feature - Ratooning
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Millets • 20 - 30* C of average Temperature


• 40 - 60 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires warm & dry climate
• Can be grown on medium to low fertility soil
• Best is sandy loamy soil with good drainage
• Bigger millets are called Sorghums
• For example Jowar - Great Millet
Cotton • 20 - 30* C of average Temperature
• 50 - 100 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires approx. 210 frost free days
• Requires mineral rich black lava soil (Regur)
• Soil exhausting crop - Requires heavy dose of fertilizers
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Jute • Obtained from the bark of the plant


• 25 - 35* C of average Temperature
• 120 - 150 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires Hot & Humid climate
• Soil exhausting crop -- Requires heavy dose of fertilizers
• Requires rich delta or alluvial soil
• Famous Jute substitutes -- Mesta, Kenaf
Tobacco • More than 18* C of average Temperature
• 50 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires 120 - 180 frost free days
• Sandy soil with good drainage

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Tea • 20 - 30* C of average Temperature
OR
• 150 - 250 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires heavy rainfall but no stagnant water
• Hence grown on hill slopes
Coffee • 15 - 25* C of average Temperature
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• 150 - 250 cm of average Rainfall


• Shade loving crop -- Grown in shades of banana or rubber
• Requires heavy rainfall but no stagnant water
• Hence grown on hill slopes
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Cocoa • 25* C of average Temperature


• 125 cm of average Rainfall
• Requires protection from direct sunrays
• Hence grown in shades
Barley • Same climatic conditions as wheat
• Can be grown in areas of poor soil with less rainfall
• Mainly used as fodder
Rubber • Obtained from the latex of plants (Heavea Brasitiensis)
• 20 - 30* C of average Temperature
• 250 cm of average Rainfall
• Grown on hill slopes to prevent water logging
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LIST OF AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTIONS IN INDIA


Green Revolution Food grain Production
White Revolution Milk Production
Black Revolution Petroleum production
Blue Revolution Fish production
Golden Fiber Revolution Jute Production
Grey Revolution Fertilizer production
Pink Revolution Onion production/Pharmaceutical (India)/Prawn production
Red Revolution Meat & Tomato production
Round Revolution Potato production

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Silver Fiber Revolution Cotton production
Silver Revolution Egg/Poultry production
Yellow Revolution
Evergreen Revolution
Oil Seeds production
OR
Overall development of Agriculture
NITI Aayog has identified three key areas for reform and is now persuading states to undertake the reforms.
SC
The areas identified for immediate reforms are:
• Agricultural market reforms
• Land lease reforms
• Reforms related to forestry on private land - felling and transit of trees.
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Three crucial reforms pertaining to marketing in agriculture have been recommended by NITI Aayog. First is
the immediate need to amend existing regulations in order to liberalize markets. Farmer to should be given
the freedom to decide to whom, where and how he wants to sell his produce. Seven indicators have been
developed by NITI in this regard. The reforms also suggest special treatment of fruits and vegetables from
other farm produce as they are perishable and produced in small quantities. Importantly, the recommended
reforms place importance on IT in marketing for the creation of a 'national market' for agriculture, so that
farmers across the country may benefit from interconnected markets, through the use of appropriate technology.
This important reform has so far eluded the country due to strong lobbies of middlemen and the reluctance
of political class to take favourable steps.
NITI Aayog has launched an index to rank States and UTs that is based on implementation of seven
provisions proposed under model APMC Act, joining eNAM initiative, special treatment to fruits and
vegetables for marketing and level of taxes in mandis. These indicators reveal ease of doing agribusiness as
well as opportunities for farmers to benefit from modern trade and commerce and have wider option for sale
of her/his produce. These indicators also represent competitiveness, efficiency and transparency in agri markets.
The second area of reforms included in the index is relaxation in restrictions related to lease in and lease out
agricultural land and change in law to recognise tenant and safeguard land owners liberalisation. The third area
included in the index represent freedom given to farmers for felling and transit of trees grown on private land.
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AGRICULTURE SECTOR
A. Krishonnati Yojana
It is an umbrella scheme which includes the following:
• National Food Security Mission (NFSM): to increase the production of rice, wheat and pulses. The
mission is being continued during 12th plan with new target of additional production of 25 million tonnes
of foodgrains comprising 10 million tonnes of rice, 8 million tonnes of wheat and 4 million tonnes of
pulses and 3 million tonnes of coarse cereals.
• National Food Security Mission-Commercial Crops: for crop development programme on cotton, jute
and sugarcane for enhancing productivity

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• Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH): It covers wide horticulture base, which
includes fruits, vegetables, tuber crops, mushrooms, spices and aromatic plants flowers and foliage and
OR
plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashew nut, cocoa and bamboo.
• National Mission on Oilseeds and Oil Palm: envisages increase in production of vegetable oils sourced
from oilseeds, oil palm and tree borne oilseeds.
• National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture: aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable
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and remunerative and climate resilient by promoting location specific integrated/composite farming systems;
soil and moisture conservation measures; comprehensive soil health management; efficient water
management practices and mainstreaming rainfed technologies.
• National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology: Its aim is to restructure and strengthen
agricultural extension to enable delivery of appropriate technology and improved agronomic practices to
the farmers consists.
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B. Initiative for increasing flow of credit


• In order to ensure that all eligible farmers are provided with hassle free and timely credit for their
agricultural operation, Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme was introduced in 1998-99. The main objectives
of the scheme are to meet the short term credit requirements for cultivation of crops, post harvest
expenses, produce marketing loan, consumption requirements of farmer household, working capital for
maintenance of farm assets and activities allied to agriculture like dairy animals, inland fishery,
etc., investment credit requirement for agriculture and allied activities like pump sets, sprayers, dairy
animals, etc.
C. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana
• Under the new scheme, the farmers' premium has been kept at a maximum of 2 per cent for foodgrains
and oilseeds, and up to 5 per cent for horticulture and cotton crops.
• There is no upper limit on Government subsidy. Even if balance premium is 90%, it will be borne by the
Government. Earlier, there was a provision of capping the premium rate which resulted in low claims
being paid to farmers. This capping was done to limit Government outgo on the premium subsidy. This
capping has now been removed and farmers will get claim against full sum insured without any reduction.
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• Importantly for the beneficiaries, crop losses which are covered under the scheme include Yield Losses as
well as post-harvest losses, where coverage will be available up to a maximum period of 14 days from
harvesting for those crops.
• The use of technology will be encouraged to a great extent resulting in operational efficiency. Smart
phones will be used to capture and upload data of crop cutting to reduce the delays in claim payment to
farmers. Remote sensing will be used to reduce the number of crop cutting experiments.
D. Mera Gaon, Mera Gaurav
• This scheme is being launched involving agricultural experts of agricultural universities and ICAR institutes
for effective and deeper reach of scientific farming to the villages.
• A group of experts will be associated with one particular village to create awareness and adoption of new
technologies including farm investment, loans, availability of inputs and marketing.
• All the scientists from ICAR and agricultural universities will participate in this initiative.

E
E. Krishi Dak
• IARI initiated this novel scheme in 20 districts in which postmen supplied seeds of improved varieties


of crops to the farmers in far-flung areas.

OR
Owing to its success and popularity, this scheme is being extended in 100 districts of 14 states with the
association of Krishi Vigyan Kendras.
• This will provide improved seed to farmers at their doorstep.
SC
F. Soil Health Card
• Soil Health cards are necessary to ensure that only requisite nutrients are applied in the soil in a balanced
manner to enhance productivity of specific crops in a sustainable manner.
• Values on soil parameters such as pH, EC, N, P, K, S, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu & B.
• Recommendation on appropriate dosage of fertilizer application based on test values and requirement of
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crop, use of organic manures and soil amendments to acidic/alkaline/sodic soils.


G. Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojna (PKVY)
• Aim of the project is to maximize the utilization of natural resources through eco-friendly cultivation.
• Organic farming is a method of farming system which primarily aimed at cultivating the land and raising
crops in such a way, as to keep the soil alive and in good health by use of organic wastes (crop, animal
and farm wastes, aquatic wastes) and other biological materials along with beneficial microbes (bio-
fertilizers) to release nutrients to crops for increased sustainable production in an eco friendly pollution free
environment.
H. Promotion of National Market through Agri Tech Infrastructure Fund (ATIF)
• Central Sector Scheme for Promotion of National Agricultural Market through Agri-Tech Infrastructure
Fund (ATIF) for Rs.200 crores to be implemented during 2014-15 to 2016-17.
• The Scheme envisages initiation of e-marketing platform at the national level and will support creation of
infrastructure to enable e-marketing in 642 regulated markets across the country.
• For creation of a National Market, a common platform across all States is necessary. It is, therefore,
proposed that a Service Provider be engaged centrally who would build, operate and maintain the e-
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platform on PPP (Build, Own, Operate, Transfer - BOOT) model. This platform would be customized/
configured to address the variations in different states.
• As an initiative of deregulation, States have been advised by the Government of India to bring fruits and
vegetables out of the ambit of APMC Act. In pursuance of this advisory, 12 States have, so far, either
de-regulated the marketing of fruits and vegetables or have exempted from levying of market fee.
I. MUDRA Bank
• The Finance Minister has proposed to create a Micro Units Development Refinance Agency (MUDRA)
Bank, with a corpus of Rs. 20,000 crore, and credit guarantee corpus of 3,000 crore, which will refinance
Micro-Finance Institutions through a Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana.
• Priority will be given to SC/ST enterprises in lending. MUDRA Bank will operate through regional level
financing institutions who in turn will connect with last mile lenders such as MFIs, Small Banks, Primary
Credit Cooperative Societies, Self Help Groups (SHGs), NBFC (other than MFI) and other lending
institutions.
• MUDRA Bank will refinance Micro-Finance Institutions through a Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY).

E
In lending, priority will be given to SC/ST enterprises. These measures will greatly increase the confidence
of young, educated or skilled workers who would not be able to aspire to become first generation
entrepreneurs; existing small businesses, too will be able to expand their activities. Since the MUDRA
OR
Bank will be set up through an enactment of law and it will take some time.
J. Krishi Kalyan Cess:
• Union Budget for 2016-17 (April-March) introduced a new cess on services named Krishi Kalyan Cess
at the rate of 0.5%. The effective rate of the Krishi Kalyan Cess, however, will be lower
SC

than 0.5% as the government will provide input tax credit for the cess, as against no input
tax credit for Swachh Bharat Cess.
• Proceeds of cess would be exclusively used for financing initiatives relating to improvement of agriculture
and welfare of farmers.
K. Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) For Fertilizer Sector:
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• Government also announced to introduce Direct Benefit Transfer of fertilizer subsidy to farmers on pilot
basis in few districts of the country.
• The government has fixed the Maximum Retail Price (MRP) of Urea at Rs. 5,360 per tones.
• The government had allocated Rs.72, 968.56 crore for fertiliser subsidy, out of which Rs. 38,200 crore
was earmarked for domestic Urea.
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LIVESTOCK RESOURCES
Livestock is a natural capital that can act as a living bank with offspring as interest, and an insurance against
income shocks in times of crop failure and natural calamities. Moreover, it provides nutrient-rich food products
such as milk, meat, egg, draught power, dung as organic manure and domestic fuel, hides and skin, and is a
regular source of cash income for rural households. In the recent decade, demand for various livestock based
products has increased significantly due to increase in per-capita income, urbanization, changing taste and
preference and increased awareness about food nutrition. Livestock sector is also considered as a potential
sector for export earnings.
LIVESTOCK RESOURCES:

E
• First in the total buffalo population in the world.
• Second in the population of cattle and goats


Third in the population of sheep (72 millions)
Fifth in the population of ducks and chicken
OR
• Tenth in camel population in the world.
SC
GS

Dairy Sector
• India ranks first among the world's milk producing Nations since 1998 and has the largest bovine population
in the World.
• Milk production in India during the period 1950-51 to 2014-15, has increased from 17 million tonnes to
146.3 million tonnes as compared to 137.7 million tonnes during 2013-14 recording a growth of 6.26 %
FAO reported 3.1% increase in world milk Production from 765 million tonnes in 2013 to 789 million
tonnes in 2014.
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• The per capita availability of milk in the country which was 130 gram per day during 1950-51 has increased
to 322 gram per day in 2014-15 as against the world average of 293.7 grams per day during 2013.
• Dairying has become an important secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has
assumed the most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunities particularly
for marginal and women farmers.
• Most of the milk is produced by animals reared by small, marginal farmers and landless labourers.
• About 15.46 million farmers have been brought under the ambit of 165835 village level dairy corporative
societies till March 2015.
• Government of India is making efforts for strengthening the dairy sector through various Central sector
Schemes like "National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development", National Dairy Plan
(Phase-I) and "Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme".
• The restructured Scheme National Programme for Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development (NPBBDD)
was launched by merging four existing schemes i.e. Intensive Dairy Development Programme (IDDP),
Strengthening Infrastructure for Quality & Clean Milk Production (SIQ&CMP), Assistant to Cooperatives

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and National Project for Cattle & Buffalo Breeding with the budget provision of Rs.1800 crores for
implementation during 12th Plan.
OR
• In order to meet the growing demand for milk with a focus to improve milch animal productivity and
increase milk production, the Government has approved National Dairy Plan Phase-I (NDP-I) in February,
2012 with a total investment of about Rs.2242 crore to be implemented from 2011-12 to 2016-17. NDP-
I will help to meet the projected national demand of 150 million tonnes of milk by 2016-17 from
domestic production through productivity enhancement, strengthening and expanding village level
infrastructure for milk procurement and provide producers with greater access to markets. The strategy
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involves improving genetic potential of bovines, producing required number of quality bulls, and superior
quality frozen semen and adopting adequate bio-security measures etc.
• The scheme is implemented by NDDB through end implementing agencies like state Dairy Cooperative
Federations/Unions/Milk Producers Companies. NDP-I would focus on 15 major milk producing States
- Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Orissa and Kerala which account for over 90% of
GS

the country's milk production. Now the area of Operation of NDP-I has been extended to three more
states i.e. Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand. Coverage of NDP- I will however be across the
country in terms of benefits accruing from the scheme.
Poultry
• India is emerging as the world's 2nd largest poultry market with an annual growth of more than 14%,
producing 61 million tonnes or 3.6 percent of global egg production.
• The annual growth rate of egg production is 5-8%. Apart from this, India ranks 6th in broiler production
(125 billion Rupees) with an annual output of 2.39 million tonnes of broiler meat, as per the estimates
of the Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India. The total poultry industry is valued at about 350 billion
rupees.
• The per capita consumption per year is approx 2.4 kg, which is much lower than the National Institute
of Nutrition's recommendations of 1 1 kg.
Contribution of livestock to people:
The livestock provides food and non-food items to the people.
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• Food: The livestock provides food items such as Milk, Meat and Eggs for human consumption. India is
number one milk producer in the world. It is producing about 137.7 m. tones of milk in a year. Similarly
it is producing about 74.75 billions of eggs, 8.89 million tonnes of meat in a year. The value of milk group
and meat group at current prices was Rs 4,06,035 crores.
• Fibre and skins: The livestock also contributes to the production of wool, hair, hides, and pelts. Leather
is the most important product which has a very high export potential. India is producing about 47.9 million
Kg of wool per annum.
• Draft: Bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. Despite lot of advancements in the use of
mechanical power in Indian agricultural operations, the Indian farmer especially in rural areas still depend
upon bullocks for various agricultural operations. The bullocks are saving a lot on fuel which is a necessary
input for using mechanical power like tractors, combine harvesters etc. Pack animals like camels, horses,
donkeys, ponies, mules etc are being extensively used to transport goods in different parts of the country
in addition to bullocks. In situations like hilly terrains mules and ponies serve as the only alternative to
transport goods. Similarly, the army has to depend upon these animals to transport various items in high
areas of high altitude.

E
• Dung and other animal waste materials: Dung and other animal wastes serve as very good farm yard

OR
manure and the value of it is worth several crores of rupees. In addition it is also used as fuel (bio gas,
dung cakes), and for construction as poor man's cement (dung).
• Storage: Livestock are considered as "moving banks" because of their potentiality to dispose off during
emergencies. They serve as capital and in cases of landless agricultural labourers many time it is the only
capital resource they possess. Livestock serve as an asset and in case of emergencies they serve as
SC
guarantee for availing loans from the local sources such as money lenders in the villages.
• Weed control: Livestock are also used as Biological control of brush, plants and weeds.
• Cultural: Livestock offer security to the owners and also add to their self esteem especially when they
own prized animals such as pedigreed bulls, dogs and high yielding cows/ buffaloes etc.
• Sports / recreation: People also use the animals like cocks, rams, bulls etc. for competition and sports.
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Despite ban on these animal competitions the cock fights, ram fights and bull fights (jalli kattu) are quite
common during festive seasons.
• Companion animals: Dogs are known for their faithfulness and are being used as companions since time
immemorial. When the nuclear families are increasing in number and the old parents are forced to lead
solitary life the dogs, cats are providing the needed company to the latter thus making them lead a
comfortable life.
Role of livestock in farmer's economy:
The livestock plays an important role in the economy of farmers. The farmers in India maintain mixed farming
system i.e. a combination of crop and livestock where the output of one enterprise becomes the input of
another enterprise thereby realize the resource efficiency. The livestock serve the farmers in different ways.
• Income: Livestock is a source of subsidiary income for many families in India especially the resource poor
who maintain few heads of animals. Cows and buffaloes if in milk will provide regular income to the
livestock farmers through sale of milk. Animals like sheep and goat serve as sources of income during
emergencies to meet exigencies like marriages, treatment of sick persons, children education, repair of
houses etc. The animals also serve as moving banks and assets which provide economic security to the
owners.
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• Employment: A large number of people in India being less literate and unskilled depend upon agriculture
for their livelihoods. But agriculture being seasonal in nature could provide employment for a maximum
of 180 days in a year. The land less and less land people depend upon livestock for utilizing their labour
during lean agricultural season.
• Food: The livestock products such as milk, meat and eggs are an important source of animal protein to
the members of the livestock owners.
• Social security: The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status in the society. The
families especially the landless which own animals are better placed than those who do not. Gifting of
animals during marriages is a very common phenomenon in different parts of the country. Rearing of
animals is a part of the Indian culture. Animals are used for various socio religious functions. Cows for
house warming ceremonies; rams, bucks and chicken for sacrifice during festive seasons; Bulls and Cows
are worshipped during various religious functions. Many owners develop attachment to their animals.
• Draft: The bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. The farmers especially the marginal and small
depend upon bullocks for ploughing, carting and transport of both inputs and outputs.
• Dung: In rural areas dung is used for several purposes which include fuel (dung cakes), fertilizer (farm yard

E
manure), and plastering material (poor man's cement).
BUGETARY PROVISIONS (2016-2017):
OR
• The budget has provided for Rs. 850 crore in next few years for spending on the 'Pashudhan Sanjivani',
an animal wellness programme and provision of Animal Health Cards ('Nakul Swasthya Patra').
• An Advanced breeding technology;
SC

• Creation of 'E-Pashudhan Haat', an e-market portal for connecting breeders and farmers;
• A National Genomic Centre for indigenous breeds.
BUGETARY PROVISIONS (2017-2018):
• Dairy Processing and Infrastructure Development Fund to be set up in NABARD with a corpus of Rs.
2000 crores and will be increased to Rs. 8000 crores over 3 years.
GS

Policies for development


A. E-PASHUHAAT portal
This helps to connect farmers and breeders of bovine animals-
• The portal will act as a single online e-trading market platform, including availability of bovine germplasm.
• It will enable the farmers to buy bovine animals, frozen semen and embryo.
• e-pashuhaat portal will connect farmers with breeders- State, Central, Co-operative, Milk Federations, and
private agencies.
• It will provide information related to certification of the animal, breeding, its picture, volume of milk
given by the cow etc.
• It will facilitate farmers to purchase advanced breed of bovine animals at a reasonable price as per as their
requirements.
• It will provide, certified picture of animals, its parent's information, breeding, volume of milk given by
bovine animal information.
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• Besides, it will provide information related to animal fodder varieties, its volume and price. It will have
real time authentic certified information on availability of germplasm.
B. Cattle Genomics Scheme:
• The scheme aims at boosting selective breeding of the native livestock more accurately to ensure high-
yielding, disease-resistant, resilient livestock.
• Under it, government will undertake an ambitious project of genome sequencing of 40 registered indigenous
cattle breeds of India.
• Besides, a high-density DNA chips will be developed under this scheme to reduce the cost and time
interval of breeding of the native livestock.
• Genome selection will use information on variations in DNA sequences between animals to predict the
breeding value more accurately.
• Thus, help to transform livestock breeding.

E
C. National Dairy Plan

OR
The Scheme has two components: (a) National Programme for Bovine Breeding (NPBB); (b) National Programme
for Dairy Development (NPDD).
National dairy plan phase- I:
• National Dairy Plan has been launched with the objective of increasing productivity of milch animals and
providing rural producers greater access to organized milk processing sector and is being implemented by
SC
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB).
D. Dairy Entrepreneurship Development:
• Its objective is to work for promotion of private investment in dairy sector to increase the milk production
and helping in poverty reduction through self employment opportunities.
GS

E. National Livestock Mission:


• National Livestock Mission (NLM) is being implemented with the objectives of sustainable development
of livestock sector, focusing on improving availability of quality feed and fodder, risk coverage, effective
extension, skill development, improving flow of credit and organization of livestock farmers/rearers, etc.
F. Central Poultry Development Organizations (CPDO)
• The CPDOs located at four regions viz., Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Mumbai and Hessarghatta have been
playing a pivotal role in the implementation of the policies of the Government with respect to poultry.
G. Strengthening of Breeding Infrastructure:
• It aims at strengthening existing state poultry farms so as to enable the flow of suitable germplasm from
the research institutions/laboratories to the grassroots level along with other technical services through
capacity building of state poultry farms;
• developing and implementing package of practices at the ground level for different types of poultry
system including family poultry system for supplementary income generation and family nutrition.
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FISHERIES SECTOR
Fisheries are an important sector. India ranks world number two in fish production and also the second highest
aquaculture country in the world. After Independence, fish production has been increased from 7.5 lakh tonnes
in 1950-51 to 100.70 lakh tonnes during 2014-15, while the export earnings of 33,441 crore in 2014-15 (US$
5.51 billion), equalled about 18% of the export earnings from the agriculture sector. Our overall fish production
has crossed 10 million tons with a growth rate of over 5 % and today we are ahead of all countries except
China. The export earnings of Rs. 33,441 crore in 2014-15 (US$ 5.51 billion), equaled about 18% of the export
earnings from the agriculture sector.
Coming to Aquaculture, India is the second largest producer (42. 10 lakh tonnes) of fish from aquaculture
which contributes about 6.3 per cent to global aquaculture production.

E
Fisheries supports livelihood of almost 1.5 million peoples in our country. India is one of the leading producers
of fish in the world, occupying the second position globally in terms of production. The contribution of Indian
fish to the food basket of the world has been substantial.
OR
Potential of Fisheries in India:
• India has over 8000 Km. of coastal line and nearly 2 million Sq Km of EEZ and half a million Sq
Km. of Continental Shelf.
SC

• From these marine resources, India has an estimated fisheries potential of 4.11 million tons.
• Similarly, 3.0 million hectares of reservoirs, 2.5 million hectares of ponds and tanks, 1.25 million
hectares of brackish water area
• Cold water resources of hilly states and all other inland fishery resources offer a production potential
of about 15 million tons.
GS

• Against this potential, the production from inland sector was 6.58 million tonnes during 2014-15.
The marine fish production in the country during the last four years has been reported as 33.20 lakh tonnes
in 2012-13; 34.39 lakh tonnes in 2013-14; 36.55 lakh tonnes (Provisional) in 2014-15 and 35.83 lakh tonnes
(Provisional) in 2015-16 respectively, against the potential yield of 44.12 lakh tonnes estimated for the
Indian Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The variations in fish production may be attributed to several
reasons such as high fishing pressure, changes in fishing gear dimensions, over capacity, pollution,
environmental factors, climate change etc. Deep-sea fishing vessels (DSFVs) in the Exclusive Economic
Zone are only allowed to carry out resource-specific fishing beyond 12 nautical miles from the territorial
limits. Apprehensions of local fishing community, if any, regarding poor fish yield in territorial waters due
to operation of these DSFVs are largely unsubstantiated, as the areas of operation as well as targeted
resources are different in case of DSFVs and the local traditional fishing communities.
Favourable Conditions for Fishing in the world
1. Abundance of plankton: Plankton is the basic food for fish. Plankton may be divided into phyto-plankton
(drifting plants), and zooplankton (drifting animals). Phyto-plakton is confined to the euphoric zone (about
600 feet deep), while zooplankton can exist at greater depths. Phytoplankton occurs most abundantly
where water upwells, as along the west coasts between 500-600 southern latitudes and in the north Atlantic
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and the Pacific oceans. The other major areas of phytoplankton development are the waters over the
continental shelves.
2. Climate: Generally temperate climate is more suitable for fishing than tropical climate thus commercial
fishing is largely practiced in temperate seas/oceans. Though tropical seas abound in fish resources, but
tropical fish lack taste, and some are poisonous.
3. Market: Fish is a perishable-product; it needs to 'be moved quickly to the market before it spoils.
Nowadays, big fishing vessels have freezing plants on board for storing large quantities of fish; where
canning is also done. The demands for fishes and nearby markets are an added attraction for fishing.
4. Fishing ports: Sheltered fishing ports with deep-water harbours that remain ice free during winter offer
favourable conditions for commercial fishing. Modern fishing ports have good transport facilities to nearby
urban areas, plants for freezing, filleting, curing, processing and canning fish.
Terms related to fishery sector
• Aquaculture: It is the farming of freshwater and saltwater organisms including molluscs, crustaceans

E
and aquatic plants.
• Commercial fishery: An umbrella term covering fisheries resources and the whole process of catching


OR
and marketing fish, molluscs and crustaceans. It includes the fishermen and their boats, and all activities
and resources involved in harvesting, processing, and selling.
Mariculture is a specialized branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for
food and other products in the open ocean, an enclosed section of the ocean, or in tanks, ponds or
SC
raceways which are filled with seawater.
• Fish farming or pisciculture involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures, usually for food.
• Ghost Fishing: The accidental capture of aquatic organisms by fi shing gear (usually gillnets, or traps, pots,
etc.) that has been lost or discarded into the sea and which continues to entangle or trap aquatic animals.
• Sustainable Fishing: Fishing activities that do not cause or lead to undesirable changes in the biological
GS

and economic productivity, biological diversity, or ecosystem structure and functioning from one human
generation to the next.
Climate Change (Adaptation and new initiatives):
Climate change is one of the biggest challenges that the fisheries sector is facing and time-bound adaptation and
management plans are necessary. The impacts of climate change on marine fisheries are amply visible in the
Indian EEZ and surrounding high seas. Such impacts have brought perceptible changes in the fishery of some
species, forcing fishers to make changes in fishing operations. Climate change is also one of the reasons for
changes in abundance of vulnerable fish stocks. Government will encourage focused studies on climate change
impacts on fish stocks and fishing communities, besides implementation of adaptation options in a time bound
manner. As part of India's International commitments on climate change, the concept of green fisheries by reducing
Green House Gases (GHG) emissions from fishing and fishing related activities will also be encouraged.
Blue Revolution
In the budget allocation (2015-16) all the existing schemes of fisheries sector have been brought under the umbrella
of 'Blue Revolution' (Neel Kranti) for growth of fisheries and aquaculture in the country. The importance and
growth potential of the sector, and considering the need for effective implementation of different schemes, the
Ministry by merging all the existing schemes, has proposed to formulate an umbrella scheme 'Blue Revolution:
Integrated Development and Management of Fisheries' with an outlay of Rs. 3000 crore.
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Blue Revolution refers to an integrated and holistic approach towards the development and management of
the fisheries and aquaculture sector in the country for increased production and productivity.
The Blue Revolution, encompassing multi-dimensional activities, focuses mainly on increasing production from
aquaculture and fisheries resources, both inland and marine. The vast fishery resources offer immense opportunities
to enhance fish production through aquaculture-system diversification, species diversification, proper management,
introduction of new and advanced technologies in both marine and inland sector, adoption of scientific
practices and application of suitable fish health management strategies etc.
Activities focused area under National Fisheries Developmental Board:
• Intensive Aquaculture in Ponds and Tanks
• Fisheries Development in Reservoirs.
• Coastal Aquaculture
• Mariculture
• Seaweed Cultivation

E
• Infrastructure: Fishing Harbours and Landing Centres
OR
• Fish Dressing Centres and Solar Drying of Fish
• Domestic Marketing
• Technology Upgradation
• Deep Sea Fishing and Tuna Processing
SC

The implementation of two programs for inland fisheries establishing fish farmers' development agencies and
the National Programme of Fish Seed development has led to encouragingly increased production.
Government schemes
• Development of Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture;
GS

• Development of Marine Fisheries, Infrastructure and Post Harvest Operations;


• National Scheme of Welfare of Fishermen;
• Strengthening of Database and Geographical Information System for the Fisheries Sector;
• Assistance to Fisheries Institutes;
• National Fisheries Development Board;
• Issuance of Biometric Identity Cards to Coastal Fishermen.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION
• India and Sri Lanka: India, Sri Lanka sign MoU to support fishermen in Hambantota district. Under this project,
India will provide fishing and farming communities' equipment worth USD two million. The project envisages gift of
equipment and tools such as grub hoes, bicycles, life jackets and sewing machines to the fishing and farming communities
in Hambantota district.
• India and Kenya: The MoU covers various activities in the field of agriculture and allied sectors which include
agricultural research, animal husbandry and dairy, livestock and fisheries horticulture and natural resource management.
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It also includes post-harvest management and marketing, irrigation farming systems development, soil and conservation,
water management and integrated watershed development integrated pest management, agricultural plant, machinery
and implements, sanitary and phyto-sanitary issues.
• India and Kyrgystan: It includes exchange of information and experience in field of research, animal breeding, Avian
Influenza and Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD), veterinary medicine. It also covers exchange of information in plant
growing, production of seeds based on modern technology, certification of seed and different types of irrigation.
• India and Algeria: Co-operation between the maternity authorities of the two countries. Desirous also of facilitating
the commercial exchanges (import, export and transits) of animal and animal based products and to preserve their
respective territories from eventual epizootic, parasite diseases of animal zoonoses infectious for human beings.
• India and Bangladesh: Development of co-operation in the field of fisheries and aquaculture and allied activities.
Such joint activities should be environmentally sound and sustainable and may include the areas of aquaculture and
germplasm exchange and training in fish stock assessment, post harvest technology, freshwater pearl culture, Hilsa
fisheries management, protection of biological diversity related to fisheries development, fish production, trade and
international protocol on bio-safety.

E
• India and Chile: Agreement to promote the cooperation in the field of animal health, protection and quarantine and
take necessary measures for prevention of spread of infection diseases on their territory in connection with the trade by
animals, animal products, raw material of animal origin and animal feed.

OR
India and Indonesia: To promote the cooperation between parties in various fields of marine fisheries on the basis of equality
and mutual respect. MoU to develop and persue the following area of co-operation in Aquaculture development, exchange of
information and Data, Education, training and sharing of expertise, prevention-combating and elimination of IUU fishing
activities, post harvest development and food safety, coastal fishery management, marine capture fisheries etc.
SC
• India and Morocco: Agreement has signed to promote co-operation in the field of animal husbandry, animal health
and veterinary feed hygiene with a view to facilitating commercial trade of animals, products of animal origin, veterinary
biological and fishery products and harmonizing their research methods especially in laboratory analysis.
• India and Vietnam: Cooperation in the field of animal health and with a view to protecting territory of each country
from introduction of animal dieses and infection and facilitating the trade of animal and products of animal origin
and animal reproductive material between both the countries.
GS
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MINERAL RESOURCES
• India is endowed with a rich variety of mineral resources due to its varied geological structure.
• On the basis of chemical and physical properties, minerals may be grouped under two main categories of
metallics and non-metallics.
• Metallic minerals are the sources of metals. Iron ore, copper, gold produce metal and are included in this
category. Metallic minerals are further divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metallic minerals. All those
minerals which have iron content are ferrous such as iron ore itself and those which do not have iron
content are non-ferrous such as copper, bauxite, etc.
• Non-metallic minerals are either organic in origin such as fossil fuels also known as mineral fuels which

E
are derived from the buried animal and plant life such as coal and petroleum. Other type of non-metallic
minerals are inorganic in origin such as mica, limestone and graphite, etc.
OR
Mineral Belts of India
(1) North-Eastern Peninsular Belt:
• It is the richest mineral belt of India.
SC

• Comprises of Chotanagpur plateau and Orissa plateau in Jharkhand, West Bengal and Orissa.
• The Chhotanagpur plateau is known as the mineral heart land of India, also Ruhr of India.
• It contains large quantities of coal, iron, manganese, mica, bauxite, Copper, Chromites, and Kyanite.
(2) Central Belt:
GS

• It is the 2nd largest mineral belt of India.


• Comprises of Chhattisgarh, M.P, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• It has large deposits of Manganese, bauxite, limestone, marble, coal, gems (Panna), mica, iron ore,
graphite, etc.
(3) Southern Belt:
• It comprises mostly of Karnataka plateau and contiguous T.N. upland.
• It lacks coal deposits except lignite at Neyveli (T.N.).
• It is more or less similar to northeastern peninsular belt as far as deposits of ferrous minerals and
bauxite is concerned.
(4) South-Western Belt:
• Southern Karnataka & Goa are included.
• It has deposits of iron-ore and clay.
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(5) North-West Belt:


• Extends along the Aravallis in Rajasthan and in adjoining parts of Gujarat.
• Important minerals – Copper, lead, zinc, Uranium, mica, bauxite, gypsum, manganese, salt.
(6) The Indian Ocean
• Along with availability of petroleum and natural gas in the off shore areas the sea bed contains
manganese nodules, phosphorite nodules and barium sulphate concentration
• The best quality nodules are found in water depths of more than 4000m.
• Phosphate nodules are mainly found near Andaman Islands.
Distribution of minerals in India
• IRON-ORE

E
– India has the vast resources of iron ore, 20% of total world reserves not only quantitatively but
qualitatively too as it contain iron upto 65% and sulphur never above 0.6%.
– Ore-Types
a) OR
Haematite- Iron content up to 86%; of Dharwar & Chuddapah system of peninsular India; also
called “Red Ores”; contribute about 85% of total production.
b) Magnetite- Iron content of 60%; of Dharwar & Chuddapah system of peninsula; also called
SC
“Block Ores”; contribute about 8% of total production.
c) Limonite- Iron content of 30-50%; prominent constituent of laterite; contribute 7% of total
production.
– Occurance
a) Orissa- Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar, Sundergarh, Cuttak, Karaput.
GS

b) Jharkhand- Singahbhum- Notu- Buru, Noamundi, Ansira Baru, Brajamda, Gua, Sasangda.
c) M.P- Bastar- Bailadila, Raoghat, Aridongri; Durg- Dhalli-Rajhara.
d) Goa (Black iron /Magnetite): North Goa: Pirna- Adolpale- Asnora; Central Goa: Tolsai-
Dongarvado; South- Goa: Borgadongar, Netarlim,.
e) Karnataka: Bellary (Sandur-Hos­pet area), Chikmanglur, Kemman­gundi(in Bababudan Hills),
Kudremukh, Shimonga.
f) Andhra Pradesh: Jaggayapeta, Ramallakota, Veldurti, Nayudu­petta, Baygarm.
g) T.N.: Coimbatore— Madurai, Tiru­nelveli, Ramnathpuram districts.
h) Maharashtra- Chandrapur, Ratnagiri.
• MANGANESE- ORE
– In India a major part of its deposit occurs in the form of sedimentary stratified metamorphic deposits
of Gondite & Kodurite series in the Dharwar system of Peninsula which holds 90% of total reserves.
India is the 3rd largest producer.
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– Ore-Types:
a) Psilomelane : It has-manganese content around 50%.
b) Bronite: Manganese content varies between 52-54%.
c) Manganite : Manganese content’s less than 50%.
d) Hosmanite: Manganese content is less than 40%.
e) Polianite: Manganese content is less than 40%.
– Occurrence
a) Orissa: Sundargarh, Kalahandi (Nishi­khal), Koraput (Kutinga), Bolangir, Keonjhar, Mayurbhanj.
b) Maharashtra: Nagpur (Kodergaon, Gumgaon, Ramdongiri), Bhandara, Ratnagiri.
c) Karnakata: Shimoga, Chitradurga, Tumkur, Bellary, N. Kanara.
d) Andhra Pradesh: Srikakulam, Visakha­patnam

E
e) M.P.: Balaghat, Chindwara, Jhabua, Jabalpur.
OR
f) Gujarat: Panchmahal.
g) Jharkhand: Singhbhum.
• CROMITE
– Used for producing “Dasomium” which is used for producing stainless steel.
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– Occurance
a) Orissa: Contributes 90% of the country’s total production, main centers are Sukinda (between
Daiteri & Mahagiri Range) in Cuttak, Nausahi in Keonjhar.
b) Karnataka: 2nd largest producer.
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c) Maharashtra
d) Jharkhand: Singhbhum
e) T.N.: 96% of cromite is exported to Japan and the rest to Australia.
• PYRITE
– Occurance
a) Jharkhand- Sahabad (Amjhor, Kasisiyakoh, Kurriari).
b) T.N. - Arcot (Polur), Nilgiri (Pandalur- Devala- Nadghani region).
c) Karnataka - N. Kanara (Kaiga), Chittradurga (Indldhal).
d) Himachal Pradesh - Ashmi river.
e) Rajasthan- Sikar.
f) Meghalaya- Khasi, Jaintia.
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• NICKEL
– It is a silvery metal which does not gather rust. It is therefore, much useful for plating purposes.
– Hardness and high malleability, high tensible strength, great elasticity, and resistance to abrasion,
shock and corrosion are its special qualities. Nickel is therefore, largely used in ornament, aircraft,
automobiles, industrial machinery etc.
– Occurrence in India
a) Cuttak & Mayurbhanj districts of Orissa have the major reserves of Nickel. The total reserves
is of 5.8% crore tonnes of which 4.08 crore tonnes are in Kausa block and 1.5% crore tonnes
in Saruabil - Sukaragi area. Sirkinda is another famous mine.
b) Some amount is also produced in Maharashtra, J&K, M.P.
c) India imports nickel to fulfill its domestic demand.
• TUNGESTION

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– Its importance is due to the toughness, strength, hardness, and resistance to abrasion which it engenders

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in tool steels which retain their strength and efficiency at very high temperatures (3375°C) and speed.
Tungsten carbide is a substance second only to diamond in hardness.
– Tungsten, also known as ‘high speed steel’, is highly desirable for valves in internal-combustion
engines. It is also used in cold chisels, hack saws, files, razor blades, springs, armour plate, and
armourpiercing shells.
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– The most important and known use of tungsten is as a filament in electric light bulbs. Tungsten has
high electric resistance and a very high melting point which allows a high degree of efficiency in the
conversion of electricity into light.
– Principal Ore: Wol-framite and schedite.
– Occurance- Deganal near Rawat Hills in Rajasthan.
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• BAUXITE
– These deposit are mainly associated with laterite soil, formed in the Tertiary period.
– Up to 1988 India was an importer of aluminium but in 1993 India has become an important exporter
of alumina, mainly to Italy, Germany, U.K., Japan.
– India contributes 14% of the world’s output which is second largest in the world after Australia.
– Occurrence
a) M.P.: Amarkantak Plateau- Sargujar, Raigarh, Bilaspur; Maikala Range – Balaghat; Katni Range
- Jabalpur.
b) Jharkhand: Palamu, Lohardagga, Ranchi, Sahabad (Netarhat Plateau).
c) Gujarat: Jamnagar, Khaira, Kutch.
d) Maharashtra: Kolhapur, Kolaba, Satara, Ratnagiri,
e) Karnataka: Belgaum (Karle Hills, Jamboti, Bakur- Navge- Ridge)
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f) T.N.: Salem, Nilgiri, Madurai ( Palni Hills, Kodaikanal Hills), Coimbatone (Sandabkuli).
g) Goa: Quepem, Canacora.
• COPPER
– The development of electrical industries gave rise to unprecedented growth of copper industry,
because of its conductivity of electrical energy, ductibility, and malleability.
– Copper plays a basic role in modem facilities for light; power and heat, in telephone, telegraph, and
radio, in automobiles, railroad equipment, aeroplanes, and ships in refrigerators and other household
appliances, and in weapons.
– It is also used for roofing, plumbing, hardware, utensils, jewellery, and decorative items.
– Copper occurs in three forms: (i) as native metal, in igneous rocks; (ii) as oxides and (iii) as sulphides.
Although, sulphides have very little copper content (1 to 3 per cent), yet, 90% of the world’s total
output is obtained as sulphides.
– Porphyries or pyrites rocks contain sulphides and oxides of copper. Copper minerals occur mostly in

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veins, therefore, the ore as mined contains a high percentage of rock material known as ‘gangue’.
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– Copper ores in India are found as sulphides (Chalcopyrite, Chalcocite , Bronite), Oxide (Cuprite) and
Carbanates (Malachite & Azurite).
– They generally occur in veins and in peninsular India in highly metamorphosed rocks.
– Occurance
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a) Jharkhand - Singhbhum ( 50% of total country’s reserves at Mosabani, Rakha, Dhobani, Rajdah,
Surdah, Pathargara, Tamapahar, Turamdih), Lota- pahar- Fault.
b) Rajasthan - Khetri- Singhana Area (Kolihan, Mandhan, Akwali, Berkhera), Kho- Dariba Area,
Delwara- Kerovle Area.
c) M.P. - Balaghat (Malanjkhand, Madarkhand)
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• ZINC and LEAD


– The chief use of zinc is for galvanizing or coating iron and-steel to ‘make it resistant to rust.
– Another important use of zinc is in the form of alloys, for die casting, in which the molten metal
is cast in steel dies to form small automobile and machinery parts and hardware items of various
shape.
– The major zinc material is sphalerite a combination of zinc and sulphur. Zinc content of ores
generally ranges from 2 to over 12 percent.
– It can be easily rolled or hammered into sheets, but unlike copper or iron, it lacks ductility, so it
cannot be drawn out into wire.
– Its resistance to corrosion makes it exceptionally valuable for plumbing fixtures, storage batteries and
for cable, widely used in telegraph and telephone industries.
– Galena, a combination of lead and sulphur is the principal ore of lead. Cerussite and anglesite are
the other important lead minerals.
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– Occurance
a) Rajasthan - Zawar deposit of Udaipur(Mochia-Mogra,Balaria, Zawarmala,Baroi,Baba-Hill), Taragarh
Hill area (lead ore), Ajmer (Taragarh, Ganeshpura, sawar), Alwar (Jodhawas).
b) Andhra Pradesh - Zangamarajupalle (in Chuddapah district)
c) Bihar - Bhagalpur (Dudiar, Gauripur)
d) Jharkhand - Hazaribagh (Hatasu, Parasia), Santhal. Paragana (Panchpahar, Bhairkuhi, Sankera)
• GOLD
– Gold is used extensively for jewelley and many other articles, and smaller amounts are used in
dentistry the making of glass and porcelain, in dyes, in medicine; and in other industries.
– Generally found in veins or reefs of quartz and sometime associated with iron & Copper sulphides.
– Gold occurs in nature as native gold. It may be found as a constituent of solid rock (a lode deposit),

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as flakes, grains, or nuggets of native gold in sands and gravels (a placer deposit) eroded from the
original merit-rock.


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Shaft tunnel mining is required in the first case, whereas placer mining is used in the second. Rich
gold ores may contain 4 to 6 ounces of gold per tonne.
Occurance
a) Karnataka- Kolar Gold field/KGF (since 1871 when mining first started in Ooregum mines,
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Marikuppam quartz vein bearing gold, Champion, Nandidroog, Mysore),Hutti, Topuldedi,
Wondalli.
b) Andhra Pradesh- Ramagiri Gold field (Ananta­puram district).
c) Jharkhand- alluvial gold in the beds of Garra-Nadi, S-Koyel, Sanjai, Sona-Nadi, Subarnarekha
rivers in Singhbhum district.
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d) Kolar & Hutti goldfields all together produce 98% of total country production.
• SILVER
– In Nature, silver mostly occurs as sulphides. It rarely occurs in pure form. It is often mixed with zinc
blende, galena (lead), and copper pyrites.
– It is used for making coins, jewellery, and decorative items, in silver plating, electroplating, and in
several other industries.
– Occurance
a) Produced as by product during the smelting of galana, also produced from lead ore of Kurnool,
Cuddapah and Guntur of Andhra, Singhbhum & Ranchi of Jharkhand and Vadodara of Gujarat.
Quartzites of Mysore gold field and cupriferous pyrites of Chitradurga are also yield some
amount of silver.
• MICA
– There are several kinds of mica, important being muscovite (white colour), phlogopite (yellow colour),
and biotite (black coloured).
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– The two important ores found in India are Muscovite and Biotite.
– It is non conductor therefore, makes an ideal electrical insulator. It is used in the electrical industry
and hardly has it had a substitute.
– Occurance
a) Jharkhand- A belt existing over 150 km in length and 20-22 km in width from Gaya in west
through Hajaribag and Mungar districts to Bhargalpur districts in the east; Kodarma, Damchanch,
Maenodils, Parsabad, Tisri, Mohesari, Chakai are the main centres. Kodarma is the world largest
Mica market. Ruby - mica & Bangal- mica,which is of high quality is found in Jharkhand.
b) Andhra Pradesh- Gudur , Sangam & Nellore are the main producing regions of Green- mica, also
called Electrical- mica (lightest of all types).
c) Rajasthan- chief mining centres are Barla, Naukhand. Sohlenwara, Barani, Palmin in Tonk and
Jaipur districts. Bhilwara is also the important centre. In Rajasthan green or pink colour high
quality mica is found.
• LIMESTIONE

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– Consumption of limestone in the country: Cement industry 67% (of higher silica content limestone);
Iron & steel industry - 16% and Chemical industry- 4%.
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– Types of Limestone and their Distribution
A. Cement-Grade Limestone
a) Andhra Pradesh - (13 of total reserves)- Cuddapah, Guntur, Krishna, Khammam, Kurnool, Godavari
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b) Karnataka-(1/3 of total reserves) Gulbarga, Bija-pur, Shimoga.


c) Gujarat- (13% of total reserves)- Junagarh, Amreli, Kutch, Banas- Kantha, Surat.
d) Rajasthan - (6% of total reserves) - Ajmer, Jaipur, Pali, Madhopur, Banswara, Jodhpur, Bundi
B. Flux-Grade Limestone
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a) M.P- (36% of the total reserves)- Belaspur, Jabalpur, Rewa, Satna, Raipur.
b) Meghalaya- (30% of the total reserves) Khasi & Jaintia Hillls.
• ASBESTOS
– Cryostile and Amphibole varieties of asbestos are found in India.
– Asbestos has the fibrous structure and has a great economic importance as it has the capacity to be
separated quickly into fine filaments of high tensile strength and its great resistance to fire.
– State-wise Production as % of total production - Rajasthan> Andhra > Karnataka.
– Occurrence
a) Rajasthan- Ajmer, Bhilwara, Dungarpur, Pali, Sirohi, Udaipur.
b) Karnataka- Gopalpur, Mavinhalli, Hassan, Mandya, Shimoga, Chikmanglur.
c) Andhra Pradesh- Cudapah, Anantapur, Mehbubnagar.
d) Jharkhand- Singhbhum, West Bengal, Purulia.
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• SILLIMANITE
– Used in the manufacturing of bricks, refracting fitting for the electrical appliances.
– Occurrence
a) Meghalaya- Sonapahar, Nagpur, Nangbain in the Nongtoin area.
b) M.P.- Sidhi & Reewa.
c) Maharashtra- Bhawara, Nagpur.
d) T.N.- Coimbatore, South Arcot.
e) Kerala- Palghat, Kottayam.
• KYANITE
– India has the largest reserves of Kyanite in the world.

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– Occurrence
a) Jharkhand- A belt extending from Lapsa Buru to Kharasawan in Saraikala. with the important

b) OR
mines at Lapsa-Buru, Ghagidih, Bachia- Bakro & Mauy aluka.
Maharashtra- Pahergaon & Pipalgaon in Sakohi Tehsil and Gorkha- Buranga and Asvalpain in
Bhandara districts.
• SALT
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– About 75% of total salt produced in India is manufactured from saline sea- water by the process of
solar evaporation.
– Production as % of total production-Gujarat> T.N.>Rajasthan.
– Occurrence India
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a) Sea-salt- Mithapur, Jamnagar, Dharsana, Okha, Bulsar in Gujarat; Bhandrup, Uran, Bhayandar in
Maharashtra; Madras & Taticorin in T.N.
b) Salt- lake- Sambhar, Didwana, Pach­bhadra, Lankaesara lakes in Rajasthan.
c) Rock-salt- mined at present in Mandi District at Drang & Guna in Himachal Pradesh.
• RARE-EARTHS
– In the South-west tip of India on the Kerala and T.N. cost,an extremely rich minerals like Ilmenite
and Monazite.
– Ilmenite- from Quilon to Kanyakumari
– Ilmenite and Rutire are by- products in the extraction of monazites.
Problems posed by mineral resources
• Depletion of Mineral
• Rapidly growing mining activity has rendered large agricultural tracts almost useless.
• Miners have to work under most hazardous conditions.
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• Many mineral producing areas lead to air and water pollution.


• Huge displacement of tribal people.
Conservation of mineral resources
• New researches should be undertaken to find out and develop replacement minerals for use in place of
scarce minerals which are in short supply and are going to be depleted soon.
• Researches should be carried on to develop new technology which should avoid wastage and promote
maximum utilization of by- products
• There should be curbing on wastage mining methods that deplete the environment too
• Use of alternate sources of energy like solar energy, hydroelectric energy, etc.
• Walking on a path that leads to sustainable development.
• Use of renewable sources of energy.
• Avoid over-exploitation of the mineral resources.

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Use of biogas as a fuel for cooking instead of the non-renewable sources of energy.
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Sustainable mining
Sustainable mining is defined as “Mining that is financially viable; socially responsible; environmentally, technically
and scientifically sound; with a long term view of development; uses mineral resources optimally; and, ensures
sustainable post-closure land uses. Also one based on creating long-term, genuine, mutually beneficial partnerships
between government, communities and miners, based on integrity, cooperation and transparency”.
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It includes:
• Mining operations that have a broad-based social license to operate- creating lasting social and economic
wealth which will outlast the life of the mine.
• Environmentally, technically and scientifically sound implying proper management of natural resources.
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• Uses mineral resources optimally.


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ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy is the key to development. In fact, the amount of energy production and consumption is sometimes
considered as an index of a country’s economic development.
Conventional (Non-Renewable) Energy Resources
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels are found inside the earth’s crust where they have formed through heat and compression of forests,
waste and other organic matter, which got buried due to earthquake, landslide, etc.
Classification of Fossil Fuels

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(A) Solid (e.g. Coal)

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Coal is the most abundantly found fossil fuel in the world. It contains carbon, water, sulphur and nitrogen. Coal
meets 70 per cent of the total energy needs of the world found and 87.4 per cent of all commercial energy.
In India about 58 per cent of commercial energy is obtained from coal and 38 per cent from petroleum along
with natural gas.
Coal is used for cooking, heating, in industries and thermal power plants. Petroleum is useful for transportation;
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agricultural equipments and, some industries. Natural gas is used both in cooking and in industries.
Types of Coal or Coal Energy
The amount of fixed carbon and hydro carbons forms the basis of classification of coal into various types
given as under:
• Anthracite is a hard and dense coal which is relatively free of iron compounds and moisture. The amount
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affixed carbon may be as high as 95 percent. It is jet black, lustrous and has a fine texture. It burns with
a blue flame and gives no smoke.
• Bituminous coal is unusually black and highly lustrous. The moisture content is relatively low. The fixed
carbon content ranges from about 50 to over 80% and that of volatile matter from 40 to 15 per cent.
• Lignite is also known as brown coal. The higher grades vary from dark brown to almost black. It is
characterized by high moisture content, generally about 40%. The fixed carbon content is also about 40%.
The structure is fibrous, and sometimes woody. It has the tendency to crumble into fine coal in shipment
and in storage.
• Peat occurs in bogs, especially in areas of cool temperate climates.
Advantages of Coal
• Coal is present in large amount (Most abundant). So it can be used as an energy source.
Disadvantages of Coal
• Release of CO2 and SO2 gas in the atmosphere cause Green House Effect and Global Warming.
• In thermal power plants, burning of coal also generates large amount of flyash. Flyash is a toxic waste,
contains toxic heavy metals.
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• Workers in the coal mines suffer from following lung diseases: Black-lung disease, Asthma, Bronchitis,
Lung cancer.
(B) Liquid (e.g. Petroleum)
Petroleum or Crude Oil
• The gaseous fuels are basically derived from petroleum. It is a natural, underground fossil energy resource.
It is formed due to decomposition of micro plankton deposited upon the sea beds, lakes and rivers for
millions of years. The decomposition takes place by the action of bacteria, under lack of oxygen and also
by catalytic cracking. It is also called crude oil.
• The following are the various uses of petroleum:
a) For heating homes particularly in the cold regions.
b) As industrial power to drive/move engines and for heating furnaces and producing thermal electricity.
c) As transport power for driving railways, motor cars, ships and aeroplanes.

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d) As lubricants of machines especially high speed machines.
e) As a raw material in various petro-chemical industries, such as synthetic rubber, synthetic fibres,
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fertilizers, medicines, etc.
• Advantages of Petroleum
a) Liquid fuel (Petroleum) is easy to transport.
b) Liquid fuel (Petroleum) is comparatively cleaner.
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c) They have made possible the introduction and development of newer means of transport.
• Disadvantages
a) After extraction it causes contamination in the water when the leakage takes place.
b) It’s burning produces CO2 and enhances the green house effect.
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c) All combustion processes produce the pollutants like NO, SO2, CO, NO2, CO2, Smog.
d) Petroleum contributes to acid rain and urban pollution.
(c) Gaseous (e.g. Natural Gas)
• Natural gas is a fossil fuel.
• It is eco-friendly fuel.
• It is a mixture, of hydrocarbon gases trapped under the earth’s surface. It is mainly consisting of methane
(CH4), Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10). After processing it is transported to supply filling stations.
Natural gas can be used in two different forms.
1. LPG (Liquefied petroleum Gas)
It is the mixture of Propane, Butane and Ethane.
2. CNG (Compressed Natural Gas)
It is mainly Methane (CH4.).
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The major uses of natural gas include:


• It is widely used as fuel in industries and in domestic cooking.
• Petro-chemical industries use natural gas as fuel and raw material.
• Chemical industries such as artificial rubber, plastics, fertilizers, ink, carbon, etc. use natural gas as raw
material.
• Natural gas is sometimes used for artificial lighting.
Advantages
• It is a clean fuel, requiring little processing.
• It can be readily transported.
• Smog formation is less in its use.

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• It is cheaper than petroleum.
Disadvantages



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It requires both high pressure and low temperature for compression.
Thick walled tanks are required for storage as it is stored at a high pressure.
Methane is a green house gas.
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• Leakage, in any case, is a serious threat to the environment.
Shale gas
Shale gas refers to natural gas that is trapped within shale formations. Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks
that can be rich resources of petroleum and natural gas. Sedimentary rocks are rocks formed by the accumulation
of sediments at the Earth’s surface and within bodies of water. Common sedimentary rocks include sandstone,
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limestone, and shale.


Environmental Impact
• Unavoidable impacts are area consumption due to drilling pads, parking and manouvering areas for trucks,
equipment, gas processing and transporting facilities as well as access roads.
• Major possible impacts are air emissions of pollutants, groundwater contamination due to uncontrolled gas
or fluid flows due to blowouts or spills, leaking fracturing fluid, and uncontrolled waste water discharge.
• Fracturing fluids contain hazardous substances, and flow-back in addition contains heavy metals and
radioactive materials from the deposit. Groundwater contamination by methane, in extreme cases leading
to explosion of residential buildings, and potassium chloride leading to salinization of drinking water is
reported in the vicinity of gas wells.
• The impacts add up as shale formations are developed with a high well density (up to six wells per km²).
Coal bed Methane
• Coal Bed Methane is methane (natural gas) trapped in coal seams underground.
• To extract the gas, after drilling into the seam, it is necessary to pump large amounts of water out of the
coal seam to lower the pressure.
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• It is often also necessary to frack the seam to extract the gas.


• There are a similar catalogue of negative environmental and social effects as with Shale Gas.
• This includes methane migration, toxic water contamination, air pollution, increased carbon emissions and
a general industrialisation of the countryside. Impacts that are specific to CBM include depletion of the
water table and potentially subsidence.
Nuclear Energy
• It is a highly developed alternative for energy production in place of coal.
• Nuclear energy by can be derived by two processes: Nuclear Fission, Nuclear Fusion.
• Nuclear Fission (Chain-Reaction Mechanism)
a) The heavy nucleus on bombardment with neutron splits into lighter nuclei (Barium and Krypton)
releases large amount of energy. One a.m.u. (Atomic Mass Unit) of uranium-235 yield energy equal
to burning of 15 metric tons of coal.

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b) Nuclear reactors are the devices need to liberate energy from nuclear fuels, under controlled conditions.
The output of these reactors is in the form of a high temperature fluid. This can be used in the
generation of electricity or as a direct source of heat for intensive industries.
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• Advantages of Nuclear Energy
a) Large amount of energy is produced in nuclear fission reaction.
• Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy
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a) High safety measures are required in the operations of Nuclear Reactors.


b) Highly equipped (knowledge + equipments) engineers are required for operating nuclear reactors.
c) Radioactive waste is released from Nuclear Power plants. It cannot be buried inside the earth and
under the groundwater.
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d) Due to high safety measures, nuclear reactors are located in isolated areas. To reduce the risks.
Nuclear power plants are far distance away from the industries that require high energy in the areas
of high population.
e) Due to uncontrolled nuclear fission reaction in the nuclear reactor, explosion Occurs. e.g. Chernobyl
nuclear disaster in Chernobyl, 1986 and Fukushima nuclear disaster, 2011.
• Due to radioactive pollution of iodine-131; Cesium 134, Cesium 137, thousands of people died and suffered
from variety of diseases biz. loss of hair, thyroid; blood cancers, nausea, anaemia and ulcerating skirt:
• Large social and economic loss occurred.
• Genetic Diseases: Sudden change in the genes is known as mutation, causes genetic diseases. Atom bomb
explosion in Hiroshima Nagasaki, Japan also caused genetic diseases and large socio-economic loss.
Renewable Energy Resources
Solar Energy
• Solar energy is available in very large amount, thus considered perpetual energy resource and is considered
major future source of energy.
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• Ultimate source of energy in an ecosystem is Sun.


• Solar energy influences earth’s climate. Wind energy, biomass and hydropower are the resultant of solar
energy.
Applications of Solar energy
A. Photovoltaic: Conversion of Solar Energy of Electricity
• Semiconductors when irradiated with sunlight, electrons present in their ground state get energized to
jump to an excited state i.e. flow of electrons occur and generates electricity. The phenomenon is
known as Photovoltaic’s (PVs).
• Thus, Photovoltaic’s are the arrays of cells consisting of semiconductors that effectively converts
solar radiation into electricity (Direct Current), used to power bulb or equipment or to recharge a
battery. An inverter converts DC to AC for, grid connected power generation.
B. Solar Thermal

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• Solar Thermal Power systems, also known as Concentrating Solar Power systems, use concentrated
solar radiation as a high temperature energy source to produce electricity using thermal route.
C. Other Applications of Solar Energy


Solar cooker
Solar water heater
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• Solar furnace
• Solar power plant
• Solar toys
• Solar air-conditioning
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• Solar vehicles
• Solar chimney
• Space cooling and heating
• Day lighting (solar street lights and traffic lights)
• Solar desalination
Advantages of Solar Energy
(i) It is renewable energy resource.
(ii) Solar power is pollution free.
(iii) Solar powered instruments are easy to install and use e.g. solar panels, solar water heaters, solar lighting,
solar Pumps, solar fountains.
(iv) Long life and low maintenance.
(v) Solar system based electricity is a cheaper source of energy as compared to energy obtained from conventional
electric systems.
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(vi) Solar Photovoltaics are used for the electricity generation in remote and isolated areas e.g. forest, hills,
deserts. PV is frequently used in watches, pocket calculators and toys.
Disadvantages of Solar Energy
(i) Solar energy production is hampered when the Sun is not available (i.e. during nights, less sunny days and
cloudy days).
(ii) Technology is to be kept advancing in such a way to efficiently capture the solar radiations over a larger
area.
(iii) Initial cost of installation is high. In case of photovoltaic cell, price of silicon wafers makes it very costly.
(iv) Solar cooking is a long time taking process. The food kept in the container can be over-heated if not
removed from solar-cooker timely.
(v) Solar cooker cannot work as a substitute of LPG chullas because all type of foods cannot be prepared
in solar cooker, e.g., chapatti.
Potential available in India

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• India is endowed with vast solar energy potential. About 5,000 trillion kWh per year energy is incident
over India’s land area with most parts receiving 3-5 kWh per sq. m per day. Based upon the availability
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of land and solar radiation, the potential of solar power in the country has been assessed to be 750 GW.
Hydro Energy
Generation of electricity by using the force of falling water is called hydro electricity or hydel power. It is
cheaper than thermal or nuclear power. Dams are built to store water at a higher level; which is made to fall
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to rotate turbines that generate electricity.


The basic principle behind hydropower energy is the damming of rivers to create artificial in waterfalls,
sometimes natural waterfalls are also used. The falling water is used to turn the turbines that drive electrical
generators.
Advantages:
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(i) Clean source of energy (eco-friendly or non-polluting).


(ii) Cheaper than thermal power plants.
(iii) Other benefits e.g. fishing, beauty of land- area.
Disadvantages:
(i) Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS). The continuous pressure of water column on the earth core increases
the probability of occurrences of earthquakes.
(ii) Water-borne and water induced diseases are caused.
(iii) Flood is caused if leakage occurs in the dam.
Potential:
India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-
potential on global scenario. As per assessment made by CEA, India is endowed with economically exploitable
hydro-power potential to the tune of 148700 MW of installed capacity.
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Wind Energy
Wind energy is the kinetic energy associated with the movement of atmospheric air. Wind energy systems
convert this kinetic energy to more useful forms of power.
The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity of 23,439.26 MW (as on March 31, 2015). In terms
of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked 5th in the World. Today India is a major player in the global
wind energy market.
Advantages
(i) Cost of production is not high, can be reduced by research.
(ii) Initial investment is moderate.
(iii) Operation and maintenance cost is not high.
(iv) Eco-friendly.

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(v) Available in large amount.
(vi) Produce more energy due to high efficiency.

Disadvantages
(i)
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(vi) Land below turbines can be used for growing crops and stock (animal) grazing.

Availability depends on steady (continuous) winds or climate.


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(ii) Unsteady winds affect power production.
(iii) Noise pollution (a) due to rotation of blades; (b) due to rotation of turbines.
(iv) Large open area is required for electricity production.
Geothermal Energy
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Geothermal Energy is the energy obtained from heat stored in the earth crust and used for various purposes
like electricity generation or direct heating applications. Geothermal energy is basically stored in earth crust up
to depth of 3 to 4 km. 
Hot water and steam from deep underground can be piped up through underground wells and used to generate
electricity in a power plant.
Benefits of Geothermal Energy
• It is a clean fuel as compared to fossil fuel such as oil, gas or coal. A geothermal field emits only 1/6th
CO2 as compared to any clean natural gas fired power plant. Binary plants are further less polluter among
all geothermal power plants. 
• Ground Source Heat Pumps can be a good source of saving money for consumers by reducing electricity
bill as it includes only capital cost and maintenance cost is very less. 
• The capital cost of geothermal power plant is very high but average units produced per year is very high
as compared to other renewable energy resources such as solar, hydro, wind, etc.
• Salts and dissolved minerals contained in geothermal fluids are usually re-injected with excess water back
into the reservoir at a depth well below groundwater aquifers. This system prolongs the life of the reservoir
as it recycles the treated waste water.
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• Geothermal Energy (Other than Power) can also be applied in Cold Storage, Tourist Resorts and pools,
Melting snow, Poultry & Fish Farming, Mushroom Farming, Horticulture, Greenhouses, Aquaculture,
Industrial processes, Space heating, etc. 
Geothermal Energy in India
In India, exploration and study of geothermal fields started in 1970. The GSI (Geological Survey of India) has
identified 350 geothermal energy locations in the country. The most promising of these is in Puga valley of
Ladakh. The estimated potential for geothermal energy in India is about 10000 MW.  
The major sites for geothermal energy are:
• Himalayas: J&K, HP and Sikkim; PUGA hot spring in J&K and Manikaran in HP.
• Sohana: Haryana, Rajasthan.
• Son-Narmada-Tapi (SONATA): MP, Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand; Tattapani spring in Chhattisgarh.
• Cambay: Mainly Gujarat and some parts of Rajasthan

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• Godavari: AP
OR
• Mahanadi: Orissa, Taptapani Spring in Orissa.
Hydrogen as a source of energy
• Hydrogen energy is at present only at the Research, Development and Demonstration (RD&D) stage. 
• Hydrogen is burned electrochemically with oxygen to produce electricity. Electrodes are clipped in electrolyte
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preferably Sodium Hydroxide.


• Hydrogen and oxygen is passed in the fuel cell and following chemical reaction generates electricity:
Advantages of Hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen has highest calorific value (150 kj/g). Thus it is an excellent fuel.
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(ii) It is an eco-freindly source of energy.


(iii) Source of hydrogen (water) is present in large amount.
(iv) Simplest and lightest fuel in gaseous form.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen
(i) Hydrogen gas is highly explosive (inflammable).
(ii) High (safety measures) are required in storage an transportation saferty measure.
(iii) Production of hydrogen is costly.
Biogas
Biogas is a combustible mixture of gases consists mainly of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and
is formed from the anaerobic bacterial decomposition of organic compounds, i.e. without oxygen. The gases
formed are the waste products of the respiration of these decomposer microorganisms and the composition
of the gases depends on the substance that is being decomposed.
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The principal benefits of biogas include:


a) Conversion of natural organic waste into fertilizer: The conversion is carried out in a machine called the
polythene bio gas digester. Cow dung slurry is put into the machine. The product is organic fertilizer of
high quality. The fertilizer obtained is rich in nitrogen. It has been analyzed, that, fertilizer made by the
polythene bio gas digester contains nitrogen content 3 times more than the product made by conventional
processes. It is completely natural and free from harmful synthetic chemicals.
b) Eco friendly energy production: The calorific value of biogas is equal to that of half liter of diesel oil
(6 kWh/m3). Methane is a key component of the gas. Biogas is fully capable of replacing other rural
energy sources like wood, hard coal, kerosene, plant residues, and propane. Hard coal possesses a calorific
value of 8.5kWh/kg per 0.7 kilograms. Larger biogas plants generate and feed electricity into mainstream
power grids. Smaller biogas production units can support lighting and cooking requirements.
c) Considerable workload reduction in rural areas: This is particularly true for rural women engaged in day
to day household work. Installing a biogas unit will relieve her of the tiring and tedious job of collecting
and ferrying firewood. Since, biogas burns cleanly, the rural homes will not suffer from smoke and

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consequently rural denizens will suffer less from physical problems like bronchial complications. Cooking
is also easier with a gas stove and takes less time.
d)

OR
Visible improvement in rural hygiene: Biogas contributes positively to rural health conditions. Biogas
plants lower the incidence of respiratory diseases. Diseases like asthma, lung problems, and eye infections
have considerably decreased in the same area when compared to the pre-biogas plant times. Biogas plants
also kill pathogens like cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and paratyphoid.
e) Environmental benefits on a global scale: Biogas plants significantly lower the greenhouse effects on the
SC
earth’s atmosphere. The plants lower methane emissions by entrapping the harmful gas and using it as fuel.
f) Protects the earth’s natural resources: 1 biogas plant is computed to save 32 liters of kerosene and 4 tons
of firewood every year. The organic chemical plant also contributes indirectly to the protection of soil.
Disadvantages of Biogas:
a) The process is not very attractive economically (as compared to other biofuels) on a large industrial scale.
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b) It is very difficult to enhance the efficiency of biogas systems.


c) Biogas contains some gases as impurities, which are corrosive to the metal parts of internal combustion
engines.
d) Not feasible to locate at all the locations.
Biodiesel
• Biodiesel is an alternative fuel for diesel engines that is produced by chemically reacting a vegetable oil
or animal fat with an alcohol such as methanol. The reaction requires a catalyst, usually a strong base, such
as sodium or potassium hydroxide, and produces new chemical compounds called methyl esters. It is these
esters are known as biodiesel.
• Biodiesel can be used in its pure form (B100) or blended with petroleum diesel. Common blends include
B2 (2% biodiesel), B5, and B20.
• The following plant species are known to be good sources for the biodiesel
1. Jatropha curcas (Jatropha)
2. Pongamia pinnata (Karanj)
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3. Azadirachta indica (Neem)


4. Madhuca indica (Mahua)Advantages of Bio Diesel
• Bio Diesel is the most valuable form of renewable energy that can be used directly in any existing,
unmodified diesel engine. 
• Producing more biofuels will save foreign exchange and reduce energy expenditures and allow developing
countries to put more of their resources into health, education and other services for their neediest
citizens. 
• Biofuels burn more cleanly than gasoline and diesel. Using biofuels means producing fewer emissions of
carbon monoxide, particulates, and toxic chemicals that cause smog, aggravate respiratory and heart
disease, and contribute to thousands of premature deaths each year.
Marine Energy or Ocean Energy
a. Wave Energy  
• Wave energy is generated by the movement of a device either floating on the surface of the ocean

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or moored to the ocean floor.
• Wave conversion devices that float on the surface have joints hinged together that bend with the
OR
waves. This kinetic energy pumps fluid through turbines and creates electric power.
Advantages:
a) Wave energy has this advantage over solar or wind energy that the energy has been naturally concentrated
by accumulation over time and space and transported from the point at which it was originally present
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in the winds. 
b) A much greater amount of power is concentrated in the waves than in the wind. If we compare the power
concentrated in a good wind energy to the corresponding area having wave energy then we will find that
wave energy is 100 times greater than wind energy.
c) It is a free and renewable energy source. 
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d) Wave power devices do not need huge land masses like solar energy wind energy. 
e) These devices are almost pollution-free. After removing the energy from the waves waters are left in a
placid state.
f) No wastes or greenhouse gases are produced in the process. In my opinion this is the most important
advantage of wave energy. 
Disadvantages:
a) The major demerit of wave energy, in comparison to wind, is that the energy is available in the ocean.
So the equipment needed for the extraction of wave energy must operate in a marine environment. The
transportation of energy is a great factor because the energy produced needed to be transferred to a great
distance from the shore. 
b) Wave energy converters must be capable of withstanding very severe peak stresses in storms. 
c) Finding a proper site for the extraction of energy from the wave is pretty tough because wave energy is
totally related to ocean! 
d) Devices needed for the harnessing of the wave energy are very complicated.  
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e) Many economic factors are important in the installation of a wave energy based power plant. These
factors are capital, maintenance cost, repair cost as well as replacement cost. For the power generation
companies economic factors can play as the major disadvantage of wave energy.
b. Tidal Energy  
• The tidal cycle occurs every 12 hours due to the gravitational force of the moon. The difference in
water height from low tide and high tide is potential energy.
• Similar to traditional hydropower generated from dams, tidal water can be captured in a barrage across
an estuary during high tide and forced through a hydro-turbine during low tide.
• To capture sufficient power from the tidal energy potential, the height of high tide must be at least
five meters (16 feet) greater than low tide.
• There are only approximately 20 locations on earth with tides this high and India is one of them.
• The Gulf of Cambay and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat on the west coast have the maximum tidal

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range of 11m and 8m with average tidal range of 6.77m and 5.23m respectively.   
Advantages of Tidal Energy:
a)
b)
c)
It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
OR
Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and doesn’t produce greenhouse gases.
As 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, there is scope to generate this energy on large scale.
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d) We can predict the rise and fall of tides as they follow cyclic fashion.
e) Efficiency of tidal power is far greater as compared to coal, solar or wind energy. Its efficiency is around
80%.
f) Although cost of construction of tidal power is high but maintenance costs are relatively low.
g) Tidal Energy doesn’t require any kind of fuel to run.
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h) The life of tidal energy power plant is very long.


i) The energy density of tidal energy is relatively higher than other renewable energy sources.
Disadvantages of Tidal Energy:
a) Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.
b) There are very few ideal locations for construction of plant and they too are localized to coastal regions
only.
c) Intensity of sea waves is unpredictable and there can be damage to power generation units.
d) Influences aquatic life adversely and can disrupt migration of fish.
e) The actual generation is for a short period of time. The tides only happen twice a day so electricity can
be produced only for that time.
f) Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines, low tidal rise or fall are some of the obstructions.
g) This technology is still not cost effective and more technological advancements are required to make it
commercially viable.
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h) Usually the places where tidal energy is produced are far away from the places where it is consumed. This
transmission is expensive and difficult.
c. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)  
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion is a technology that converts solar radiation to electric power.
• OTEC systems use the ocean’s natural thermal gradient, consequently the temperature difference
between the warm surface water and the cold deep water below 600 meters by about 20o C, an
OTEC system can produce a significant amount of power. The oceans are thus a vast renewable
resource, with the potential to help us produce billions of watts of electric power.
• OTEC has a potential installed capacity of 180,000 MW in India.
Advantages of OTEC:
a) OTEC uses clean, renewable, natural resources. Warm surface seawater and cold water from the ocean
depths replace fossil fuels to produce electricity.
b) Suitably designed OTEC plants will produce little or no carbon dioxide or other polluting chemicals.

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c) OTEC systems can produce fresh water as well as electricity. This is a significant advantage in island areas
where fresh water is limited.
OR
d) There is enough solar energy received and stored in the warm tropical ocean surface layer to provide most
of present human energy needs.
e) The use of OTEC as a source of electricity will help reduce the state’s almost complete dependence on
imported fossil fuels.
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Disadvantages of OTEC:
a) OTEC produced electricity at present would cost more than electricity generated from fossil fuels at their
current costs.
b) OTEC plants must be located where a difference of about 20º C occurs year round.
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c) Ocean depths must be available fairly close to shore-based facilities for economic operation.
d) Construction of OTEC plants and lying of pipes in coastal waters may cause localised damage to reefs
and near-shore marine ecosystems.
e) Discharging the cold water at the oceans’ surface could change local concentrations of nutrients and
dissolved gases.
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INDUSTRY
Industry implies the transformation of existent materials into something new, into goods that are used as end-
products themselves, or are utilized to manufacture more goods.
Industries can be classified into several groups. A brief account is given below:
1. On the basis of strength of Labour:
(i) Large-scale Industries
(ii) Medium-scale Industries

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(iii) Small-scale Industries
2. On the basis of Raw Material and Finished Goods:
(i)
OR
Heavy Industries: Industries, which use heavy and bulky raw materials and produce products of the
same category, are called heavy industries. Iron and steel industry presents a good example of heavy
industries.
(ii) Light Industries. The light industries use light raw materials and produce similar finished products.
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Textile industry, electronics, fans, sewing machines are light industries.
3. On the basis of Ownership: Since the beginning of the planned development of Indian economy in 1951,
industries are divided into the following three classes:
(i) Private Sector Industries: Industries owned by individuals or firms such as Bajaj Auto or TISCO
situated at Jamshedpur are called private sector industries.
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(ii) Public Sector Industries: Industries owned by the state and its agencies, like Bharat heavy Electricals
Ltd. or Bhilai Steel Plant or Durgapur Steel Plant and Integral Coach Factory at Kapurthala are public
sector industries.
(iii) Joint Sector Industries: Industries owned jointly by the private firms and the state or its agencies,
such as Gujarat alkalies Ltd. or Oil India Ltd., fall in the group of joint sector industries.
4. On the basis of source of Raw Material:
(i) Agro-based Industries: Agro-based industries are those industries which obtain raw material from
agriculture. Cotton textile, jute textile, silk, sugar, vegetable oil and paper industry are representative
industries of agro-based group of industries.
(ii) Mineral-based Industries: The industries that receive raw material primarily from minerals such as
iron and steel, aluminium and cement industries fall in this category.
(iii) Pastoral-based Industries: These industries depend upon animals for their raw material. Hide, skin,
bone, horn, shoes, dairy, etc., are some of the pastoral-based industries.
(iv) Forest-based Industries: The industries which use forest products as their raw materials are known
as forest-based industries. Paper, card-board, lac, rayon, resin, basket, etc. are examples of forest
based industries:
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5. Miscellaneous Industries: Industries can also be classified into the following categories:
(i) Village industries: Village industries are located in villages and primarily cater to the needs of the
rural people. They usually employ local machinery such as oil extractor, flour-grinding and agricultural
implements.
(ii) Cottage Industries: Industries which artisans set up in their own houses, work with wood, cane, brass,
stone, etc., are called cottage industries. Handloom Khadi and leather work at the artisans’ house fall
in this category.
(iii) Consumer Industries: Consumer industries convert raw materials or primary products into commodities
directly used by the people. Textile industry, bakeries, etc., are some of the consumer industries.
(iv) Basic Industries: Industries, on which depend many other industries for their manufacturing processes,
are called basic industries. Iron and steel industry and power generating industry are included in this
category.
(v) Capital-intensive Industries: Industries requiring huge investments are called capital-intensive industries.
Iron and steel, cement and aluminium are capital-intensive industries.

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(vi) Labour-intensive Industries: Such industries which require huge labour force for running them are
called labour-intensive industries. In these industries, labour is more important than capital. Shoe-
OR
manufacturing and bidi making, etc. are included in these industries.
Iron and Steel Industry
• The location of steel industry is generally oriented to one or the other raw material sources, mainly iron
ore or coal.
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• However, recent technological developments in transport as well as processing, the use of scrap as raw
material and agglomeration economies make market location, especially coastal, advantageous as well.
• The steel manufacturing centers all the world over, exhibit different sorts of locational orientation, viz,
a) Near coal deposits or iron ore mining areas, especially for inland location;
b) Near the major steel consuming centers; or
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c) Sea port locations.


• Distribution
a) TISCO: Jamshedpur (Singhbhum district, Jharkhand),
b) IISCO (Burnpur, Hirapur, Kalti)
c) VISL (Bhadravati): (1923) on Bhadra River in Karnataka, Shimoga district
d) HSL-Bhilai: Largest plant in India established with Soviet assistance in 1959 in Raipur district of M.P.
e) HSL-Rourkela: established in 1965 with German assistance in Sundargarh district of Orissa.
f) HSL-Durgapur: established in 1962 with British assistance in Burdwan district of West- Bengal.
g) BSL-Bokro: established in 1972 with Soviet collaboration in Hazaribag district on the confluence of
Bokaro and Damodar rivers.
h) Salem: Tamil Nadu
i) Vishakhpatnam: first integrated plant in the coastal area
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Aluminum Industry
• Aluminium Industry in India is one of the leading industries in the Indian economy. The main operations
of the India aluminium industry is mining of ores, refining of the ore, casting, alloying, sheet, and rolling
into foils. India is the sixth largest producer of bauxite and ninth largest producer of alumina in the world.
• Locational Factors:
a) Aluminium is a raw material oriented industry as it grossly weight loosing.
b) Bauxite is the basic raw material in the aluminium manufacturing process. Bauxite is converted into
alumina in alumina refineries.
c) Due to the high quality of bauxite and close proximity between bauxite mines and alumina refineries,
the cost of bauxite to Indian producer is one-third of that of global producers.
d) Other raw materials used in the manufacturing process are calcine, petroleum, coke, caustic soda,
aluminium fluoride, fuel oil, steam coal and anthracite coal.

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e) The reduction of bauxite into alumina requires heavy amount of energy. Therefore, beside nearness
to bauxite deposits, cheap availability of power is the major consideration in the location of this


industry.
Major Production Centers
a)
OR
Korba - (Bharat Al. Co. Ltd): Bauxite - Amarkantak - Phula- Kapahara region, Electricity- Korba
Thermal Power Plant. Transport - Harwa- Nagpur Rail-line.
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b) Renukoot (Hindustan All. Co. Ltd): set up in 1988 as one of the biggest unit. Bauxite - Bagni Hills
(Bihar) and Amarkanatak Mts. Electricity - Rihand Dam.
c) Belgaum (Indian Al. Co. Ltd.): Bauxite - Chandgad, (Kohlapur Dist). Electricity - Sharavati Hep.
d) Alwaye (Indian Al. Co. Ltd.): both convert alumina into Aluminium metal. Alumina is produced at
Muri from bauxite available at Bagru Hills.
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e) Mettur (Madras Al. Co. Ltd.) T. N.: Bauxite - Sheravoy Hill. Electricity - Mettur HEP.
f) Ratnagiri (Bharat Al. Co. Ltd.) Maharashtra: Bauxite - Kolaba, Kolhapur, satara of Udaigiri Dhangarvedi
region. Koyna HEP provides power.
g) Nalco (National Al. CO Ltd): established in 1981.
Textile Industry
A. Cotton Textile Industry
• Cotton textile industry comprises of three sectors: mill sector, handloom and power-loom. The share
of large mill, handloom and power-loom sector in the total production of cotton cloth in 1998-99 was
5.4 per cent, 20.6 per cent and 74 per cent respectively.
• The Cotton and synthetic fiber textile industry has made tremendous progress. Per capita availability
of cloth from both the types was 15 meters only in 1960-61. In the year 1995-96, it has risen to 28
meters.
• This has enabled us to export cotton yarn, cotton fabrics and cotton and synthetic garments on a large
scale. In 1995-96 we earned 2.6 billion dollars by their exports.
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• Distribution: Cotton Textile Industry


a) Cotton textile industry is one of the most widely distributed industries in our country. These
mills are located in more than 88 centers in different parts of the country. But majority of cotton
textile mills are still located in the cotton growing areas of the Great Plains and peninsular India.
b) Maharashtra is the leading producer of cotton textile in the country. Mumbai is the major centre
of textile mills. About a half of the Cotton textile mills are located in Mumbai alone. It is,
therefore, rightly called as ‘Cottonpolis’ of India. Sholapur, Kohlapur, Nagpur, Pune, Aurangabad
and Jalgaon are other important centers in Maharashtra.
c) Gujarat, which ranks second in the production of cotton textiles, Ahamedabad is the major
centre of the state. Surat, Bharauch, Vadodara, Bhavnagar and Rajkot are other centers in the
state.
d) Tamil Nadu has emerged as an important producer of cotton textiles in southern states. Coimbatore
is an important centre in the state. Tirunelveli, Chennai, Madurai, Tiruchirapalli, Salem and
Thanjavour are other important centers here.

E
e) In Karnataka, cotton textile industry is concentrated at Bangalore, Mysore, Belgaum and Gulberga.
f) Kanpur, Etawah, Modinagar, Varanasi, and Hathras are important centers in Uttar Pradesh.
OR
g) In Madhya Pradesh this industry is concentrated at Indore and Gwalior.
h) Howrah, Serampur and Murshidabad are important Cotton textile centers in West Bengal.
i) Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh are the other states producing cotton textiles.
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• Factors for the localization of textile industry: Ahmadabad– Mumbai – Pune region
a) Availability of raw material – A large amount of cotton is grown in this belt.
b) Availability of capital – Mumbai, Ahmadabad and Pure are the places where capital for investment
is easily available.
c) Means of transport – This region is well connected with the rest of India by roads and railways.
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It, therefore, facilities transportation of finished products.


d) Accessibility to the market – Maharashtra and Gujarat has a large market to sell textile products
here. Developed means of transportation help in movement of textile products to other market
centers as well as to foreign market. Nowadays the market has become a dominant factor in
determining the location of cotton textile industry.
e) Nearness to ports – Mumbai port facilitates the import of machinery and good quality of cotton
from abroad and export of the finished products.
f) Cheap labour – Cheap and skilled labour is easily available from the surrounding areas.
g) Availability of power – Cheap and sufficient power is easily available here.
B. Silk Textile Industry
• Indian Silk is known for its exquisiteness world over and has a long history of silk exports. The silk
was mainly produced by the handloom sector. Only in the late 20th century the modern silk fabric
manufacturing techniques developed. Even today the finer or the special textured fabrics are done on
the handlooms.
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• India holds 2nd position after China in the field of silk production. There are four different types of
silk- (1) Mulberry (2) Tasar (3) Eri (4) Muga (golden yellow).
• India is also the 2nd largest producer of tasar after China. India has also a monopoly in Muga, Assam
is the only producer.
• The first modern factory was established in 1932 at Howrah. State wise the distribution of silk
industry is as follow:-
• Karnataka: 70% of total country’s silk output (only Mulberry).
a) Production area: Banglore, Mysore, Kolar, Mandya, Tumkur, Belgaum and Coorg districts.
b) Mill- Channapatna, Mysore.
• Assam: 2% of total country putput, third largest producer of non-mulberry silk and the only Muga
producing region.
a) Production - Goalpara, Kamrup, Nawgaong; Mill - Jagi-Road.

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• West Bengal: 13% of the country’s production, mostly mulberry.


a)
b) OR
Production - Malda, Murshidabad, Birbhum, Bankura.
Mill- Bishnerpur, Baswa, Raghunathpur, Chak-Islampur
Jharkhand: 8% of the country’s production, mostly tassar.
SC
a) Production- Palamu, Ranchi, Hazaribagh.
• Bihar - Bhagalpur.
• M.P.: 2.7% of the country, largest tassar producer after Bihar
a) Production - Balaghat, Bastar, Bilaspur, Raigarh, Surguja
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• J&K: mostly mulberry producer; “Tabby”- white plain silk of J&K


b) Production - Anantnag, Baramula, Doda, Jammu, Udhampur.
• Orissa: Tasar producer.
• Varanasi & Bombay are the main silk weaving centres.
C. Jute Industry
• Jute is a rain-fed crop with little need for fertilizer or pesticides. The production is concentrated in
India and Bangladesh. India with overall of 66% of world’s production tops the production of jute.
Bangladesh with 25% lies at second position followed way behind by China with 3%.
• It supports nearly 4 million farm families, besides providing direct employment to about 2.6 lakh
industrial workers and livelihood to another 1.4 lakh people in the tertiary and allied activities.
• Locational factors for high concentration of jute mills in Hugli basin are as follows:
a) The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta grows about 90 per cent of India’s jute and provides raw material
to jute mills here.
b) Coal is obtained from Raniganj fields which are hardly 200 km away.
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c) Cheap water transportation is available. The area is also served by a network of roads and
railways.
d) Abundant water is available for processing, washing and dyeing jute.
e) Humid climate is very convenient for spinning and weaving.
f) Kolkata is a big port which helps in the import of machinery and spare parts and in the export
of finished jute products.
g) High density of population in West Bengal and in the neighbouring parts of Jharkhand and Bihar
provides abundant cheap labour. Some labour comes from Uttar Pradesh also.
h) Big capitalists are living in and around Kolkata which makes easy flow of capital in this industry.
i) Banking and insurance facilities are also available in and around Kolkata.
j) The early arrival of British merchants under the aegis of East India Company in Kolkata helped
in setting this industry here. So Kolkata enjoys the advantage of an early start.
Agro Industries
A. Sugar Industry

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OR
Sugar industry is the second largest agro-based industry of India. If we take Gur, Khandsari and Sugar together,
then India becomes the largest producer of sugar product in the world. This industry employs about 2.5 lakh
people.
Distribution
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Most of the sugar mills are concentrated in six states, namely Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Localization Factors
The following are the factors for the localization of sugar industry –
1) Sugarcane is the main raw material for making sugar. Sugar mills can be set up only in the sugarcane
GS

producing areas. Sugarcane gets dry soon after harvesting. It can neither be stored nor kept for long period
of time. Sugarcane should be taken immediately to the sugar mills after harvesting.
2) Transportation cost of sugarcane is high. Generally sugarcane is transported through bullock carts which
can carry it upto 20-25 kilometers. Recently tractor trolleys and trucks have been used to carry sugarcane
to the sugar mills.
3) Beside these factors, capital, market, labour and power also play significant role in localization of this
industry.
Reasons for shifting of sugar industry from North India to Peninsular India
Sugarcane industry is gradually shifting from north Indian states to states in Peninsular India. Some of the
important reasons:
1) The production of sugarcane per hectare is higher is Peninsular India. In fact, sugarcane crop grows well
in the tropical climate of south India.
2) The sucrose content is higher in the tropical variety of sugarcane grown in the south.
3) The crushing season in south India is longer than in north India.
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4) In south India most of the mills have modern machinery.


5) Most of the mills in Peninsular India are in cooperative sector, where profit maximization is not the sole
objective.
B. Tea Industry
• Nearly 98 per cent of the tea production comes from Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka. Some tea is also grown in Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Tripura.
• The tea estates are generally set upon cleared hill slopes while in Assam, tea cultivation is done in
the lowlands, above the flood level. The production of tea has more than doubled since independence
mainly through increase in yield by improved varieties and optimum use of inputs.
• The tea industry provides direct gainful employment to more than one million workers mainly drawn
from the backward and socially weaker sections of the society.
• It is also a substantial foreign exchange earner and provides significant contribution to the state and
central exchequer.

E
• Tea plantations in India are mainly located in rural, hill and backward areas of north­eastern and
southern states.
C. Coffee Industry

OR
Coffee was first grown in Bababudan Hills in Karnataka during the 17th century, but on a plantation
scale, it was cultivated in Chikmaglur (Karnataka) in 1826. Later, coffee cultivation was extended to
Wynad, Shevaroy and the Nilgiris.
SC
• Although India contributes only a small percentage of the world production, Indian coffee has created
a niche for itself in the international market. Indian robustas, are highly preferred for their good
blending quality. Arabica coffee from India is also well received in the international market.
• Distribution
a) More than half of the country’s coffee production comes from Karnataka, of which 80 per cent
GS

comes from Coorg and Chikmagalur. Hasan is the third largest producer in the state.
b) In Kerala, coffee is produced in Wynad (Palghat region), Kozhikode and Cannanore.
c) In Tamil Nadu, coffee comes from the Nilgiris, Annamalai (Coimbatore region) Shevaroy hills
(Salem district), Palani hills, Tirunelveli and Madurai.
d) Small quantities come from Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and the north-eastern states.
D. Leather Goods Industry
• Hides and skins are the basic raw materials which come from pelts of cattle and large animals and
small ones like goat and sheep. India has a large livestock population.
• West Bengal and Tamil Nadu are the largest producers of cattle hides and Uttar Pradesh and West
Bengal of the goat skin.
• Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh also produce substantial quality hides. Major footwear production centres
in the country include Kanpur, Agra, Lucknow, Kolkata, Chennai, Mumbai, Bengaluru and Jaipur.
• Leather is a highly labour-oriented industry in India, and has been identified as one of the major thrust
areas for export. It is one of the traditional industries of India spread over organized and unorganized
sector.
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• The small-scale, cottage and artisan sector account for over 75 per cent of the total leather production.
India has traditionally a rich advantage in this industry both in terms of raw material and skilled
manpower. People employed in this sector are predominantly from the minorities and disadvantaged
sections of the society.
Petrochemical Industry
• Petro-chemicals industry is one of the fastest growing industries of India. This industry has revolutionized
the industrial scene by providing the products which are substituting the traditional raw materials like
wood, glass and metals.
• India is self sufficient in the production of petrochemicals.
• Petro-chemicals are derived from petroleum or natural gas. We use a variety of products from morning
till evening made from petrochemicals such as Toothbrushes, toothpaste, combs, hairpins, soap cases,
plastic mugs, electric switches, lipstick, and foam etc.
• Locational Pattern
a) The location pattern of existing as well as those proposed clearly indicates that the refineries seek

E
mostly sea board location to take advantages of the imported crude or the crude produced by the
offshore oil field like Mumbai high.
OR
b) Other trend is raw material based like Assam refineries which are based on inland oilfield.
c) Further, more government policy has played an important role in setting up of certain market based
refineries like Mathura, Barauni and Panipat.
d) Indian Petro-Chemical Corporation has set up a huge petro-chemical complex near vadodara producing
SC

a wide range of products. Gandhar, and Hazira in Gujarat and Nagathone in Maharashtra are other
important centers of petro-chemical industry.
Fertilizer Industry
• The fertility of the soil is the most important factor in agriculture. It depends upon phosphorus, potassium,
nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and others in proper amounts.
GS

• Phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen are the principal elements in fertilizer industry which is an important
branch of chemical industry. Animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms also contribute many materials
used as fertilizer. The fertilizer manufacture is chiefly dependent on three principal raw materials: phosphate,
potash, and nitrogen.
• Nitrogen provides vital foods for plants and sustenance for human life. Ironically, in the form of nitric acid
as an ingredient of munitions and explosives, it causes enormous human destruction.
• Localization & Distribution:
a) The localization of fertilizer industry is closely related to petrochemicals. About 70 per cent of the
plants producing nitrogenous fertilizer use naphtha as the basic raw material. That is why most of the
fertilizer plants are located near the oil refineries.
b) However, some fertilizer plants draw their feed stock from steel slug as well as coke and lignite.
c) Phosphatic fertilizer plants are primarily dependent upon mineral ‘phosphate’ which is available in
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Some plants are based on imported phosphate mineral.
d) Sulphur is another important mineral used for manufacturing fertilizers. This is available in Tamil
Nadu.
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e) Gujarat is the largest producer of fertilizers in India and accounts for more than one- fourth of the
total production of nitrogenous as well as phosphatic fertilizers of the country. This state has more
than 14% of the country’s total installed capacity.
f) Tamil Nadu accounts for about 11 per cent of the country’s installed capacity. At present Tamil Nadu
is the second largest producer of phosphate fertilizers (about 16%) and the fourth largest producer of
nitrogenous fertilizers nearly 9% of India.
Drugs and Pharmaceutical Industry
• The pharmaceutical industry is one of the oldest in India. The Indian pharmaceutical industry is at the
top of the chart amongst India’s science- based industries with wide ranging capabilities in the complex
field of drug manufacture and technology.
• The drugs and pharmaceutical units are mostly located in Kolkata, Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Vadodara,
Delhi, Pune, Rishikesh, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Indore and Jaipur.
• The pharma industry of India ranks very high amongst all the third world countries, in terms of technology,

E
quality and the vast range of medicines that are manufactured.
• It ranges from simple headache pills to sophisticated antibiotics and complex cardiac compounds, almost

• OR
every type of medicine is now made by the Indian pharmaceutical industry.
The pharmaceutical industry in India is among the most highly organized sectors. This industry plays an
important role in promoting and sustaining development in the field of global medicine.
• Due to the presence of low cost manufacturing facilities, educated and skilled manpower and cheap labour
SC
force among others, the industry is set to scale new heights in the fields of production, development,
manufacturing and research.
Cement Industry
• Locational Factors:
a) Manufacturing of cement requires heavy, low value and weight loosing materials and is primarily a
GS

raw material oriented industry.


b) The availability of raw materials, bulk transport facilities at reasonably low cost and market are the
three main localization factors, which favour the growth of cement industry in India.
c) Limestone is the main raw material and comprises 60-65 per cent of the total product. On an average
1.5 tonnes of limestone are required to produce one tonne of cement. Hence, the location of a
cement plant is based on the limestone deposits.
d) The other raw materials used are sea shells, slag from steel plants and slag from fertilizer plants and
these raw materials influence the localization of cement industry in their own way.
e) The transportation cost is also reduced if the manufacturing plant is located near the market. In fact,
ready market is the pre-requisite for the proper growth of an industry, producing heavy commodity
with low specific cost like cement.
• Distribution of Cement Industry
a) India ranks second in the world next only to China in the production of cement.
b) It is because of constraint of raw material that 86 per cent of the factories and 75 per cent of the
production capacity is found in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Bihar.
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Industrial corridors in India


The Industrial corridor programme concentrates on infrastructural development of Cities with the objective to
expand manufacturing and services base. 
The industrial corridors in India are:
a) Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor
• The corridor project, being developed in co-operation with the government of Japan
• The DMIC runs across the six states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat
and Maharashtra.
b) Amritsar-Kolkata corridor
• AKIC will be developed in a band of 150-200 km on either side of the Eastern Dedicated Freight
Corridor (EDFC) in a phased manner.
• AKIC will be spread across a belt of at least 5.5 lakh sq km comprising 20 cities in seven states —

E
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal
• The cities which will covered by the ADKIC Project are Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Ambala,
OR
Saharanpur, Delhi, Roorkee, Moradabad,Muzaffarnagar, Bareilly,Aligarh, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad,
Varanasi, Patna, Hazaribagh, Dhanbad, Asansol, Durgapur and Kolkata
c) Chennai-Bangalore Industrial Corridor
• The corridor plans to come up along Chennai, Sriperumbudur, Ponnapanthangal, Ranipet, Chittoor,
SC

Bangarupalem,Palamaner, Bangarpet, Hoskote and Bangalore.


• It is expected to boost commerce between south India and east Asia by enabling quicker movement
of goods from these places to the Chennai and Ennore ports.
• The corridor project, being developed in co-operation with the government of Japan.
d) Bengaluru-Mumbai Economic Corridor
GS

• The corridor project, being developed in co-operation with the government of UK.
• The corridor will start from Bengaluru, passing through Tumkur, Chitradurga, Hubli, Dharwad and
Belgaum (in Karnataka), Kolhapur, Sangli, Satara, Karad and Pune, and end in Mumbai (in Maharashtra).
e) Visakhapatnam-Chennai Industrial Corridor (VCIC) 
• VCIC’s long coastline and strategically located ports provide it with an opportunity to create multiple
international gateways to connect India with the vibrant global production networks of Southeast and
East Asia that form the bedrock of global manufacturing.
Major Industrial Regions of India
1. Kolkata - Hooghly Belt
• It is an old and important region of the country stretching along the either side of the river – from
Naihati to Budge- Budge along the left Bank and from Tribeni to Nalpur in the right bank.
• Cotton textile, silks, jute engineering chemical and pharmaceuticals, leather and foot-wears industries
are located here.
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• The region is facilitated with rich hinterland of Ganga, Brahmaputra Plain, and the enough availability
of good coal, cheap local labour and the port facility of Kolkata.
• The region is experiencing stagnation and relative decline in industrial growth in recent years.
• The main problems are:
a) High degree of congestion
b) Gradual filling of Kolkata port making the shipping facilities somewhat difficult
c) Bottle-neck in South-East and Eastern rainy-days.
d) Paucity of space
e) Shortage of drinking water and civic amenities
f) Environmental pollution
2. Mumbai-Poona Belt

E
• It is the most important industrial region of the country. It has a heavy concentration of cotton
textile, engineering, oil refiners, fertilizers and chemical industries.


Pimpri and Poona. OR
The belt consists of Mumbai, Kurla, Ghatkopar, Andheri, Jogeshwari, Thane, Bhandrup, Kalyan,

Cheap labour, easy availability of hydroelectricity, raw cotton along with the port facilities; act as the
main assets of this area.
SC
• The industrial development of this region has almost reached its saturation stage. After partition
cotton producing area reduced thus effected the raw material supply and high transport cost of coal
and other minerals effected the growth. But now it has developed as an economic hub.
3. Ahmedabad-Vadodara-Surat Belt
• It is the third largest industrial region comprising within its fold the centers of Kalol, Ahmedabad,
GS

Nadiad, and Vadodara, Surat, Nava sari and Ankleshwar.


• Leather goods and a wide variety of engineering units are established here.
• The initial advantage was the availability of raw cotton from the hinterland and the transport network
along with the Kandla port.
4. Madurai-Coimbatore-Bangalore Region
• Cheap and skilled labour, large market were the chief factors, which attracted a number of industries.
• Availability of cheap hydel power helped in various ways. Cotton textile, sugar plants, leather goods,
chemicals, Iron and Steel, Hindustan Aeronautics have assisted the development of this area.
5. Chotanagpur Plateau Region
• Locally available coal, iron-ore mica, bauxite copper, limestone, manganese have given rise to heavy
industries like iron and steel at Jamshedpur, Durgapur, Kulti, Burnpur, Bokaro along with many
associated industries.
• Proximity to Kolkata port, vast network of railways, cheap labour supply from the tribal areas and
the development of DVC and numerous thermal power stations helped the area to develop as a major
industrial region on the map of India.
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• Besides, many more mini industrial regions and industrial districts are fast emerging in different parts
of the country in recent times.
6. Mathura-Delhi-Saharanpur-Ambala belt
• It has the advantage of the proximity of the national capital; availability of cheap raw materials;
nearness of large market and regular supply of power.
• This region spreads in two separate belts running in north-south direction between Faridabad and
Ambala in Haryana and Mathura and Saharanpur in Uttar Pradesh.
• The capital city has predominance of engineering, electronic, chemical, glass and consumer industries.
7. Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Industrial Region:
• This industrial region extends from Vishakhapatnam district in the north-eastern part of Andhra
Pradesh to Kurnool and Prakasham districts in the south-east and covers most of the coastal Andhra
Pradesh.
• The industrial development of this region mainly depends upon Vishakhapatnam and Machili-patnam

E
ports.
• Developed agriculture and rich mineral resources in the hinterlands of these ports provide solid base
OR
to the industrial growth in this region. Coal fields of the Godavari basin are the main source of energy.
• The other industries of this region include sugar, textiles, paper, fertilizers, cement, aluminium and
light engineering.
• The important industrial centres of this region are Vishakhapatnam, Vijaywada, Vijaynagar,
SC

Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Elum and Guntur. Recent discovery of natural gas in Krishna- Godavari basin
is likely to provide much needed energy and help in accelerated growth of this industrial region.
8. Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Industrial Region:
• This is comparatively small industrial region and spreads over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alwaye,
Emakulam and Allapuzha districts of south Kerala.
GS

• The region is located far away from the mineral belt of the country as a result of which the industrial
scene here is dominated by agricultural products processing and market oriented light industries.
• Plantation agriculture and hydroelectricity provide the industrial base to this region.
• The main industries are textiles, sugar, rubber, match box, glass, chemical fertilizers, food and fish
processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement.
• Important industrial centres are Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kochi, Alappuzha and Punalur.
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TRANSPORT
An efficient transport system is a pre-requisite for sustained economic development. It is not only the key
infrastructural input for the growth process but also plays a significant role in promoting national integration,
which is particularly important in a large country like India. The transport system also plays an important role
of promoting the development of the backward regions and integrating them with the mainstream economy
by opening them to trade and investment.
India has a well-developed transport network comprising rail, road, coastal shipping, air transport, etc.
Road transport

E
India has an extensive system of roads that plays a vital role, as far as the national economic growth of the
country is concerned.
Data:


World’s second largest road network – 4.87 million km.
97,135 kms of national Highways.
OR
• NHs are 2% but carry 40% of the traffic.
SC
• 65% of freight & 80% passenger traffic carried by roads.
• Implementation Authorities – NHAI, State PWDs etc., BRO, newly formed NHIDCL for projects at
border and other strategic locations.
• Project implementation modes for highways in India.
GS

a. Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) – Toll


b. BOT – Annuity
c. Hybrid Annuity Model
d. Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) – Public funded.
Benefits of roads transport
1. Roads play a very important role in the transportation of goods and passengers for short and medium
distances.
2. It helps farmers to move their perishable agricultural products soon to markets and mandis. Thus encourage
farmers to switch to more commercially viable agricultural products.
3. Road transport system establishes easy contact between farms, fields, factories and markets, thus leading
to better linkage between consumer and producer.
4. Mobility is one of the most fundamental and important characteristics of economic activity as it satisfies
the basic need of going from one location to the other, a need shared by passengers, freight and information.
Road transport provides a better mobility that leads to economic development.
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5. It is suitable for transportation of both perishable and non-perishable goods, controlling the price level in
the economy.
6. It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes.
7. It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is possible at any destination. It provides door-
to-door service.
8. It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to another, in places which are not connected by
other means of transport like hilly areas.
Classification of Roads
1. National Highways: These roads are of prime importance for the country and connect large cities and big
industrial centers. There development and maintenance is the responsibility of the central government.
2. State Highways: These roads connect all the important centers of industry, trade and commerce of the
states and the national highways. There responsibility of the development and maintenance lies with the
state government.

E
3. District Roads: These roads connect different parts of the district, important industrial centers and market
centers and usually lead to local railway stations. The responsibility of development and maintenance lies
with the local government.
OR
4. Rural Roads: These are roads found in the villages and are usually of two types; pukka (metal) and kacha
(non metal). The responsibility of maintenance and development lies with the local government.
Major National Highways in India
SC

The few important national highways along with their routes are discussed below:
• NH1 - Delhi - Ambala - Jalandhar - Ludhiana - Amritsar - Wagah Border.
• NH1A - Jalandhar - Jammu - Udhampur - Banihal - Srinagar - Baramula - Uri.
• NH1D - Srinagar - Kargil – Leh.
• NH2 - Delhi - Agra - Allahabad - Kolkata.
GS

• NH3 - Agra - Gwalior - Indore - Dhule - Nasik-Mumbai.


• NH4 - Thane - Pune - Bangalore - Chennai. (Mumbai - Pune-1st 6 lane express highway)
• NH 5 - Baharagora - Cuttack - Bhuvaneshwar - Vishakhapatnam - Chennai.
• NH6 - Hazira - Surat - Dhule - Nagpur - Raipur - Baharagora – Kolkata.
• NH7 - Varanasi - Nagpur - Hyderabad - Bangalore- Kanyakumari (Longest Highway)
• NH8 - Delhi - Jaipur - Ajmer - Udaipur-Ahmedabad - Vadodara - Surat - Mumbai.
• NH 24 - Delhi - Moradabad - Bareilly – Lucknow
• NH 47A - Kundannur - Willington Island in Kochi (Shortest NH - 6 km)
Different projects
A. National Highways Development Project (NHDP)National Highways Development Project (NHDP)
NHDP is being implemented by NHAI. NHDP Phases are:
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Phase I: Golden Quadrilateral.


Phase II: North-South and East-West corridors.
Phase III: Upgrade 12,109 km of national highways on a Build, Operate and Transfer (BOT) basis.
Phase IV: Convert existing single lane highways into two lanes.
Phase V: Upgrade four lane highways to six lanes.
Phase VI: Expressways.
Phase VII:  Improvements to city road networks.
Golden Quadrilateral Highway Network
Golden Quadrilateral is a network of highways connecting India’s four top metropolitan cities, namely Delhi,
Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata, thereby, forming a quadrilateral.

E
The overall length of the quadrilateral is 5,846 km consisting of four/six lane express highways.
N-S and E-W corridor

OR
The North-South–East-West Corridor (NS-EW) is the largest ongoing highway project in India. It will connect
Srinagar with Kanyakumari and Porbandar with Silchar. The meeting point of the two corridors is at Jhansi.
B. New Initiatives
SC
1. Bharat Mala - 5500 km to develop roads along the international borders and coastal areas.
2. Special Scheme – 6000 km roads facilitating connectivity to religious/tourist places and providing
connectivity to backward regions.
3. District Connectivity –  Development of National Highways providing connectivity to district
headquarters.z
GS

4. Setu Bharatam – All the level crossings and narrow/weak bridges to be replaced by Railway Over /
Under Bridges and new constructions.
Major policy initiatives
The Government has progressively taken many policy decisions in the sector, designed to facilitate the execution
of work and make it speedier, more efficient and transparent. Some of the major initiatives of 2015 are as
follows:
a) The Exit Policy framework permits concessionaires/developers to divest 100 percent equity and exit all
operational BOT projects two years after completion of construction. This would help unlock equity from
completed projects making it potentially available for investment into new infrastructure projects across
the country.
b) Fund Infusion to Salvage Languishing Projects: This initiative authorizes the National Highways Authority
of India (NHAI) to intervene in projects that are in the advanced stage of completion but are stuck due
to lack of funds. NHAI has been authorized to provide funds to such projects from within its overall
budget/corpus on a loan basis at a pre-determined rate of return.
c) Rationalized compensation to concessionaires for languishing NH projects in BOT mode for delays not
attributable to concessionaires:
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d) A new mode of delivery under Public-Private Partnership (PPP) mode, namely Hybrid Annuity Model,
is being promoted for awarding road projects for implementation under which 40% of project cost is being
provided by the Government to the concessionaire. Remaining 60% is to be arranged in form of debt and
equity to be compensated over 15 years as bi-annual annuities. The private party does not have to bear
the traffic risk.
e) National Highways Authority of India is raising funds through public issue of tax free, secured, redeemable
non-convertible bonds with Face Value of Rs 1,000 each for an amount of Rs 1,000 crore with an option
to retain over subscription of upto additional Rs 9,000 crore,  aggregating upto a total of Rs 10,000 crore.
Railways
The Indian railway system is the second largest system in the world under the single management. Railways
virtually forms the life-line of the country, catering to its needs for large scale movement of traffic, both freight
and passenger, thereby contributing to economic growth as well as promoting national integration. It is a multi
- gauge system operating on three gauges – the broad, the metre and the narrow.
Railway zones and Headquarters

E
S.No. Name Abbr. Headquarters Date of Establishment
1. Northern Railway NR Delhi April 14, 1952
OR
2. North Eastern Railway NER Gorakhpur 1952
3. Northeast Frontier Railway NFR Maligaon (Guwahati) 1958
4. Eastern Railway ER Kolkata April 14, 1952
SC

5. South Eastern Railway SER Kolkata 1955


6. South Central Railway SCR Secunderabad Oct 2, 1966
7. Southern Railway SR Chennai April 14, 1951
8. Central Railway CR Mumbai Nov 5, 1951
GS

9. Western Railway WR Mumbai Nov 5, 1951


10. South Western Railway SWR Hubli April 1, 2003
11. North Western Railway NWR Jaipur Oct 1, 2002
12. West Central Railway WCR Jabalpur April 1, 2003
13. North Central Railway NCR Allahabad April 1, 2003
14. South East Central Railway SECR Bilaspur, CG April 1, 2003
15. East Coast Railway ECoR Bhubaneswar April 1, 2003
16. East Central Railway ECR Hajipur Oct 1, 2002
17. Konkan Railway KR Navi Mumbai Jan 26, 1998
Effect on Indian economy
• The construction and expansion of the railways have been proved to be beneficial for the economic and
inclusive growth of the economy. It provides a better linkage between producer, retailer and consumer.
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• It has played a significant role in the development of cotton textile industry, jute industry as it provides
free flow of raw materials with proper penetration to market areas.
• Railways have been very helpful in the development of Indian agriculture. Now farmers can send their
agricultural goods to distant places and can fetch good incomes.
• Railways also help in maintaining uniform price level for agricultural products through better movement.
• New industrials hubs have emerged as higher mobility of raw materials reduced the concentration of
industries mainly around raw material centres. As Kanpur is known for cotton garments whereas the raw
materials are present in Maharashtra and Gujarat.
• Railways are playing significant role in running country’s administration and safeguarding its freedom and
integrity, as it provides easy movement of police, troops, defence equipments etc.
Problems and Issues in Railway’s Development
1. Problem of acquiring land.

E
2. Indian Railways has suffered from chronic and significant under-investment as a result of which the
network expansion and modernization has not happened at the requisite pace leading to an erosion of the

3.
share in national freight and passenger traffic.

OR
Cleanliness, punctuality of services, safety, quality of terminals, capacity of trains, quality of food,
security of passengers and ease of booking tickets are issues that need urgent attention.
4. The high density networks of the Indian Railways are facing acute capacity constraints coupled with a low
passenger fares thereby leading to increases in freight tariffs to cross subsidize passenger revenues.
SC

5. Investments in safety have also suffered on account of low internal generation of resources.
Environmental side effects
1. The laying of new tracks requires clearance of forests that affects the biodiversity and forest dwellers both.
2. Due to presence of railway track in elephant corridor accidents and death of elephants take place.
GS

3. For the establishment of railway tracks in hilly areas dynamites are used to break hills which in turn cause
air pollution as well as lead to frequent landslides.
Water Transport
Waterways provide the cheapest-means for transportation of commodities in bulk because there is no fixed
cost associated with them. Costly construction of routes is not required.
Inland waterways
India has about 14,500 km of navigable waterways which comprise rivers, canals, backwaters, creeks, etc.
However, there is a number of conditionality attached to the river transport, viz:
(a) The rivers must have enough water flowing in them althrough the year;
(b) The rivers must be free from waterfall or rapids;
(c) The rivers must have stabilized courses;
(d) The rivers must not have fluctuating regimes;
(e) The rivers must flow in the right direction; i.e., the direction of dominant trade flows.
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Impediments to the Growth of IWT


• Insufficient depths throughout the stretch of navigable waters.
• Excessive siltation in major rivers from erosion of uplands and deforestation.
• Navigation being relegated to the fourth position due to priorities to drinking water, irrigation and power
(hydel) sectors that results in reduced draft.
• Non-availability of low draft high technology vessels.
• Non-availability of adequate navigational aids resulting in restricted sailing over long periods of time.
• Non-availability of permanent terminals with adequate infrastructure for loading/unloading, storage etc.
• Non-availability of bulk commodities along the water front.
• Non-availability of return cargo on most of the routes.
Advantages of IWT

E
• Low capital cost- Cost of development of inland waterway has been estimated to be a mere 5-10 percent
of the cost of developing of an equivalent 4-lane highway or railway.
OR
• Low maintenance cost- Cost of maintenance of inland waterway is placed at 20 percent of that of roads.
• Low fuel cost- Inland Water Transport is a highly fuel-efficient mode of transport. This fact is borne out
by the estimate that one litre of fuel can move 24 tonnes/km of freight by road, 85 by rail and 105 by
IWT.
SC

• Cost-effective transport mode- It has also been estimated that diversion of one billion tonne-km of cargo
to the IWT mode will reduce transport fuel costs by 5 million USD and the overall transport costs by 9
million USD.
• Need for Infrastructure building- An analysis of the need for building essential infrastructure like mechanized
handling at terminals and night navigation facilities reveals how these can translate into reduction of cost
of transportation per tonne-km (TKM) over short haul as well as long haul carriage by IWT. It was
GS

observed that the TKM cost of movement would come down from the present Rs.3.55 to Rs.1.44 for
a short haul of 100 km and from Rs. 0.95 to 0.39 for a long haul of 2000 km.
Seaports in India
The coastline of India is dotted with 12 Major Ports and about 200 Non-major Ports.
• Kandla - It is a tidal port located at the eastern end of Gulf of Kuchchh.
• Mumbai – It is situated on Salsette Island on the western coast. It is a natural harbour and the largest port
of India handling about 1/5th of India’s foreign trade.
• Jawaharlal Nehru port – It has been built at Nhava Sheva Island across the Elephanta caves, about 10
km from Mumbai. Main objective is to relieve the pressure on the Mumbai Port.
• Marmagao – It is a natural port located at the entrance of Zuvari estuary in Goa.
• New Mangalore - Located at the southern tip of Karnataka coast, north of Gurpur River.
• Kochi - A natural harbour on the western coast of Kerala (in Vembanad Lake).
• Tuticorin – It is an artificial deep sea harbour in Tamil Nadu, north of Adam Bridge and east of Sri Lanka.
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• Chennai - It is the oldest artificial port on the eastern coast of India.


• Ennore: Recently developed to reduce pressure of traffic on Chennai port. It is located slightly north of
Chennai on T.N. coast. It is country’s first corporate port.
• Vishakhapatnam - It is the deepest land-locked and protected port at the coast of Andhra Pradesh.
• Paradeep – It is a deep-water & all weather port on Orissa coast in Mahanadi delta region.
• Kolkata-Haldia – It is a river rine port located on the west bank of the Hooghly River.
New initiatives
A. Sagarmala project
• Sagarmala will lead to large scale employment generation of skilled and semi-skilled manpower.
Industrial clusters and parks, large ports, maritime services, logistics services, and other sectors of the
economy will be directly and indirectly impacted by port-led development under Sagarmala.  

E
• It will result in sustainable development of the population living in the Coastal Economic Zones
(CEZ) by synergising and coordinating with State Governments and line Ministries of Central

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Government through their existing schemes and programmes such as those related to community and
rural development, tribal development and employment generation, fisheries, skill development, tourism
promotion etc.  Today about 70 lakhs persons are dependent on fisheries for their livelihood.
B. Jal Marg Vikas Project
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• The Project’s objective is to provide an environment friendly, fuel efficient and cost-effective alternative
mode of transportation, especially for bulk goods, hazardous goods, captive cargo and over dimensional
cargo. 
• The projects include construction of terminals, jetties, river training and conservancy works, modern
automated information system, navigation aids, etc. 
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Issues in sea transport


• Most major ports were originally designed to handle specific categories of cargo which have declined in
time while other types of cargoes gained importance. The ports have not been able to adjust to the
categories of cargo which grew the most. There are thus several berths for traditional cargo, which are
under-utilised, and only a few for new cargo, which are overutilised.
• Equipment utilisation is very poor both because equipment is obsolete and poorly maintained.
• Over staffing at Indian ports remains rampant and productivity indicators in respect of cargo and equipment
handling continue to be poor.
• Documentary procedures relating to cargo handling such as customs clearance requirements are unduly
complicated and time consuming. Electronic document processing is still to be introduced in all the ports.
• Port access facilities and arrangements for moving in-bound and out-bound cargo are inadequate and
unsatisfactory.
• Absence of inter-port and intra-port competition which have been conductive to substantial productivity
increases in other countries is absent in Indian due to poor inland connectivity and a policy regime that
protected domestic ports against competitive pressures.
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Air Transport
Aviation as an infrastructure segment has played vital role in facilitating the growth of business and economy
in India. A robust civil aviation set-up is key to seamless flow of investment, trade and tourism, with significant
multiplier effects through the economy.
International Airports:
Airport City State/Union Territory
Veer Savarkar International Airport Port Blair Andaman and Nicobar
Islands
Visakhapatnam Airport Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Hyderabad Telangana
Lokpriya Gopinath Bordoloi International Airport Guwahati Assam
Indira Gandhi International Airport New Delhi Delhi
Goa International Airport

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whole state Goa
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Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport Ahmedabad Gujarat
Kempegowda International Airport Bengaluru Karnataka
Mangalore International Airport Mangalore Karnataka
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Cochin International Airport Kochi Kerala


Calicut International Airport Kozhikode Kerala
Trivandrum International Airport Thiruvananthapuram Kerala
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport Mumbai Maharashtra
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Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar International Airport Nagpur Maharashtra


Tulihal Airport Imphal Manipur
Biju Patnaik International Airport Bhubaneswar Odisha
Sri Guru Ram Dass Jee International Airport Amritsar Punjab
Jaipur International Airport Jaipur Rajasthan
Chennai International Airport Chennai Tamil Nadu
Coimbatore International Airport Coimbatore Tamil Nadu
Tiruchirapalli International Airport Tiruchirapalli Tamil Nadu
Chaudhary Charan Singh Airport Lucknow Uttar Pradesh
Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport Varanasi Uttar Pradesh
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport Kolkata West Bengal
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GAGAN Project
• GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation ''Gagan'' is an augmentation system to enhance the accuracy
and integrity of GPS signals to meet precision approach requirements in Civil Aviation.
• Being implemented jointly by AAI and ISRO.
• Provide navigation system for all phases of flight over the Indian airspace and in the adjoining area.
• Cover a vast geographical area from Africa to Australia and hence facilitates expansion of the of the
service area of ''Gagan'' far beyond Indian airspace.
• Provides precision approach and landing guidance up to category I to aircraft hitherto not available due
to terrain conditions.
• Flight Management System based on GAGAN is poised to save operators time and money.
• The FMS will improve the efficiency and flexibility by increasing the use of operator-preferred trajectories.

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• It will improve airport and airspace access in all weather conditions, and the ability to meet the
environmental and obstacle clearance constraints.

Meaning

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Public Private Partnership in Transport Sector

Public Private Partnership means an arrangement between a government / statutory entity / government
owned entity on one side and a private sector entity on the other, for the provision of public assets and/
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or public services, through investments being made and/or management being undertaken by the private
sector entity, for a specified period of time, where there is well defined allocation of risk between the
private sector and the public entity and the private entity receives performance linked payments that
conform (or are benchmarked) to specified and pre-determined performance standards, measurable by the
public entity or its representative.
Different types of PPP
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1. BOT-Toll (Build Operate Transfer – Toll) : The private entity meets the upfront cost of design,
construction and recurring cost on operation and maintenance. The Private entity recovers the entire cost
along with the interest from collection of user utilization during the agreed concession period. Capital
infusion is available from the public entity. A risk sharing model is predominant in this model.
2. BOOT (Build Operate Own Transfer) : This engagement model is similar to the “Build Operate Transfer”
model except that the private entity has to transfer the facility back to the public sector
3. Joint Venture (JV) : In a PPP arrangement commonly followed in our country (such as for airport
development), the private sector body is encouraged to form a joint venture company (JVC) along with
the participating public sector agency with the latter holding only minority shares. The private sector body
will be responsible for the design; construction and management of the operations targeted for the PPP
and will also bring in most of the investment requirements. The public sector partner’s contribution will
be by way of fixed assets at a pre-determined value, whether it is land, buildings or facilities or it may
contribute to the shareholding capital. It may also provide assurances and guarantees required by the
private partner to raise funds and to ensure smooth construction and operation.
4. Management Contract (MC) : A management contract is a contractual arrangement for the management
of a part or whole of a public enterprise by the private sector. Management contracts allow private sector
skills to be brought into service design and delivery, operational control, labour management and equipment
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procurement. However, the public sector retains the ownership of facility and equipment. The private
sector is provided specified responsibilities concerning a service and is generally not asked to assume
commercial risk. The private contractor is paid a fee to manage and operate services. Normally, payment
of such fees is performance-based. Usually, the contract period is short, typically two to five years. But
longer period may be used for large and complex operational facilities such as a port or airport.
5. BOT (Build Operate Transfer) : The private business builds and operates the public facility for an agreed
period of time. Once the facility is operational as agreed, or at the end of the time period, the private
entity transfers the facility ownership to the public, here it may be construed as Government. Under this
category, the private partner is responsible to design, build, operate (during the contracted period) and
transfer back the facility to the public sector. The private sector partner is expected to bring the finance
for the project and take the responsibility to construct and maintain it. The public sector will either pay
a rent for using the facility or allow it to collect revenue from the users. The national highway projects
contracted out by NHAI under PPP mode is an example. This model is a classic example for IT industry
6. BOT – Annuity (Build Operate Transfer – Annuity): This model though is globally accepted one does
not have the favour of the Planning Commission of India. In case of annuity model, the cost of building
the entity is paid to the private entity or the developer annually after the starting commercial operations

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of the facility.
7. DBFOT (Design Build Finance Operate Transfer): These are other variations of PPP and as the
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nomenclatures highlight, the private party assumes the entire responsibility for the design, construct,
finance, and operate or operate and maintain the project for the period of concession.
8. BOO (Build Own Operate): In a BOO project, ownership of the project usually remains with the Private
entity. The government grants the rights to design, finance, build, operate and maintain the project to a
private entity, which retains ownership of the project. In BOO the private entity is usually not required
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to transfer the facility back to the government


9. BOOST (Build Operate Own Share Transfer): This model is very similar to the BOOT model, except
that there exists an arrangement or sharing the revenue to the private entity for a longer time even after
the rights of the private entity are transferred to the public entity.
10. Hybrid Annuity Model: Under this model, the government will provide 40 per cent of the project cost
to the developer to start work while the remaining investment has to be made by the developer. The main
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objective of the approval is to revive highway projects in the country by making one more mode of
delivery of highway projects. Under this, all major stakeholders in the PPP arrangement — the Authority,
Lender and the Developer, Concessionaire would have an increased comfort level resulting in revival of
the sector through renewed interest of private developers/investors in highway projects and this will bring
relief thereby to citizens/travelers in the area of a respective project.
Advantages of PPP model
a. Better quality since the concessionaire (private sector) is to maintain the road for the period of concession.
b. Early completion of the project, since the concessionaire could save interest and earn early toll (in the case
of BOT project) / additional annuity installments (in the case of Annuity project).
c. No costs overrun (price escalation).
d. The Client (Government/NHAI) does not have the burden of maintaining the highways.
e. Involving the private sector leads to greater efficiency. 
f. The private sector has more flexible procurement and decision-making procedures and therefore, it can
speed up implementation efforts.
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