Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Edited by
Renée FRIEDMAN & Liam MCNAMARA
ST JOHN’S COLLEGE
OXFORD
MCNAMARA
FRIEDMAN
Egypt at its Origins
The Third International Colloquium on
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt
The British Museum, London
Sunday 27th July – Friday 1st August 2008
Edited by
Renée FRIEDMAN & Liam MCNAMARA
Renée Friedman
Liam McNamara
6
Acknowledgements
8
Committee
Scientific Committee
Organising Committee
9
Programme
Opening remarks
Atia RADWAN
Under-secretary of State for Upper Egypt, Supreme Council of Antiquities,
Egypt
BREAK
LUNCH
BREAK
11
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Followed by:
Recent Fieldwork
9:30am–12:15pm
12
PROGRAMME
BREAK
LUNCH
Poster presentations
1:30pm Sackler Seminar Room
13
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
BREAK
RECEPTION 5:30–7:30pm
Wilkins South Cloisters, University College London
Private viewing of the Petrie Museum
of Egyptian Archaeology
14
PROGRAMME
Discussion/presentation of:
15
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
LUNCH
RECEPTION 5:30–7:30pm
Private viewing of the Egyptian Collections in the
Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford
Dinner in Oxford
16
PROGRAMME
BREAK
LUNCH
17
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Discussion/presentation of:
Clay sealings from Giza: the group with the figurative seal
impressions
Maira TORCIA
18
PROGRAMME
Architecture
2:00–5:00pm
BREAK
19
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
BREAK
20
PROGRAMME
LUNCH
BREAK
21
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Closing remarks
Posters
Sackler Seminar Room
Tuesday 29th July – Friday 1st August
22
PROGRAMME
23
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
24
Early Egypt in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford
26
Workshops
28
WORKSHOPS
Bibliography
29
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
30
WORKSHOPS
31
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
32
WORKSHOPS
JUCHA, M., 2005. The Pottery of the Predynastic Settlement. Tell el-
Farkha II. Kraków/Poznan.
KAISER, W., 1957. Zur inneren Chronologie der Naqadakultur.
Archaeologia Geographica 6: 69-77.
HENDRICKX, S., 2006. Predynastic – Early Dynastic Chronology
[in:] HORNUNG, E.; KRAUSS, R. & WARBURTON, D.A.,
(eds.), Ancient Egyptian Chronology. Handbook of Oriental
Studies. Section One. The Near and Middle East, vol. 83.
Leiden/Boston: 55–93, 487–488.
KÖHLER, E.C., 2004. On the Origins of Memphis [in:]
HENDRICKX, S.; FRIEDMAN, R.F.; CIAŁOWICZ, K.M. &
CHŁODNICKI, M. (eds.), Egypt at its Origins. Studies in
Memory of Barbara Adams. Proceedings of the international
Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic
Egypt”, Kraków, 28th August - 1st September 2002. Orientalia
Lovaniensia Analecta 138. Leuven/Paris/Dudley: 295-
315.
STEVENSON, A., 2006. An Analysis of the Predynastic Cemetery of el-
Gerzeh: Social Identities and Mortuary Practices during the Spread
of the ‘Naqada Culture’. Cambridge, PhD.
33
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
34
WORKSHOPS
35
The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Foundation
Distinguished Lecture in Egyptology 2008
37
The Annual Egyptological Colloquium 2008
‘Egypt at its Origins’
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt: Recent Discoveries
39
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
During the past ten field seasons, the Theban Desert Road
Survey has identified and recorded the remains of an important
and distinctive Predynastic culture in the broad desert bay and
the deep wadis west of modern Rayayna and Rizeiqat. The
people of this area – the Rayayna Desert – appear to have had
connections with Western Desert and Nubian/Sudanese
Neolithic cultures, their distinctive ceramic fabrics and forms
being most closely associated with the elusive Tasian culture.
The Rayayna Culture was later increasingly interconnected and
perhaps ultimately integrated with the Predynastic cultures of
the Nile Valley (D. Darnell 2002).
Four major sites in the area preserve important remains
of the Rayayna Culture: 1) a cave with important botanical,
faunal, lithic and ceramic assemblages in the far west (the ‘Cave
of the Wooden Pegs’); 2) a decorated cave of apparent religious
significance in the north-west (the ‘Cave of the Hands’); 3) a
burial feature in the north-east (the ‘Rayayna Burial Feature’);
and 4) a probable campsite in the south-east (the ‘Beaker
Feature’). The ceramic and lithic remains at these sites link them
all temporally and culturally and reveal what may best be
characterized as an eclectic branch of the Tasian culture.
40
ABSTRACTS
41
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
42
ABSTRACTS
43
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Tasian material from the Wadi el-Hôl, that at the Beaker Feature
is directly associated with a major desert road. Both of the
Tasian assemblages we have discovered in the Western Desert
suggest that the Tasians of the Theban Desert were closely
associated with desert routes, and perhaps with desert travel and
commerce. Just as the Wadi el-Hôl Tasians were active on a
major Western Desert road leading north and west out of the
Thebaid, so the Rayayna Tasians were active on the Darb
Gallaba, a major route leading south out of the Thebaid.
Although the Tasian culture was first identified at Deir
Tasa, near Badari in southern Middle Egypt (Brunton 1937), the
people of that culture buried near Deir Tasa were probably
desert Tasians who were interacting intensively with the Nile
Valley Egyptians, and were perhaps already semi-sedentary,
‘Niloticized’ versions of the Tasians. The earliest elements of the
Rayayna group appear to be living and working exclusively in
what is now arid desert, and only later do they begin to interact
with the Nilotic cultures. The ceramic fabrics from the Rayayna
Desert reveal affinities with other Saharan ceramic material, and
with the Abkan and Early A-Group traditions of Nubia,
suggesting that the desert Tasians have their earliest associations
with the far west and south. The Rayayna Tasian culture appears
to be one of a number of intermediary groups who blended
Saharan, Nubian, and nascent Nilotic cultures.
Bibliography
44
ABSTRACTS
45
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
46
ABSTRACTS
47
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
48
ABSTRACTS
49
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
50
ABSTRACTS
51
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
52
ABSTRACTS
53
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
54
ABSTRACTS
55
‘Egypt at its Origins’
The Third International Colloquium on
Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt
57
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
58
ABSTRACTS
59
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
60
ABSTRACTS
61
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
served as a chamber to hold the fuel. The slab placed above the
pit served to protect the pots from direct contact with the fire.
The covering of sherds and mud over the pots served to fire
them efficiently by retaining the heat. The wall segment was
used to support the covering. Although there were no in situ
remains of this covering, debris found around the kilns
contained a large number of sherds with burnt mud adhering to
them. Experimental firings attest that this method works
successfully (Baba 2005).
While these pit-kilns were primitive and may be classified
as a bonfire type, they were technologically advanced. The
covering allowed the temperature to rise gradually and the heat
to be retained inside. In addition to these advantages, the
arrangement of the slab above the fuel pit could have functioned
in a way similar to the floor in an updraft kiln, separating the
pots from direct fire and creating an even flame around the
vessels. Indeed, the straw-tempered jars from this site are well
fired and seldom show distinct and large stains caused by an
uneven exposure to fire and low temperature, i.e., features which
are familiar from bonfire firings (Baba & Saito 2004). In
addition, this method needs little adjustment after ignition and
requires less fuel than a bonfire.
The kilns from HK11C date to the Naqada II period
when the mass production of pottery is becoming evident, and
this easy and economical method would have been welcomed, if
not crucial, for the success of this industry.
Bibliography
62
ABSTRACTS
Ever since the first Narmer serekh from the southern Levant was
discovered at Tel Erani, scholars have been trying to identify
which occupations in that region were contemporary with this
king’s reign. In a series of earlier publications, the serekh was
assigned to Tel Erani Stratum IV and subsequently was
considered a chronological peg for south Levantine-Egyptian
correlations at the end of the 4th millennium BC. The
unearthing of a second Narmer serekh at Arad, assigned to the
Stratum IV occupation there, added another chronological peg,
which is now generally accepted.
Despite a more recent spate of additional discoveries of
serekhs bearing this king’s name, none of those additional
63
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
64
ABSTRACTS
65
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
JUCHA, M.A., 2005. Tell el-Farkha II. The Pottery of the Predynastic
Settlement (Phases 2 to 5). Kraków / Poznan.
JUCHA, M.A., 2008. The Corpus of “Potmarks” from the Graves
at Tell el-Farkha [in:] M IDANT-REYNES, B.; TRISTANT, Y.
(eds.); ROWLAND, J. & HENDRICKX, S. (coll.), Egypt at its
Origins 2. Proceedings of the International Conference “Origin of
the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt”, Toulouse
(France), 5th-8th September 2005. OLA. Leuven / Paris /
Dudley (forthcoming).
VAN DEN B RINK, E.C.M., 1992. Corpus and Numerical
Evaluation of the ‘Thinite’ Potmarks [in:] FRIEDMAN, R.
& ADAMS, B. (eds.), The Followers of Horus. Studies Dedicated
to Michael Allen Hoffman. Oxbow Monograph 20. Oxford:
265-296.
VAN DEN BRINK, E.C.M., 2007. Potmark-Egypt.com. Cahiers
Caribéens d’Egyptologie 10: 5-8.
66
ABSTRACTS
67
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
68
ABSTRACTS
69
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
periods, suggesting that the town site in the alluvium had been
an island in the Nile during these times. However, during the in-
filling of this channel there were incursions of a yellow clay, un-
typical of the Nile valley but matching the clays of the desert in
the wadi. These clay deposits were also rich in pale angular clasts
and we interpret them as the products of wadi outwash from the
desert. Of the episodes of this clay deposition, the final one was
the most pronounced (~ 20 cm thick) suggesting increasingly
violent wash-outs. Following this, it appears that the Nile
migrated northwards away from Nekhen, returning close to the
site in the New Kingdom.
Were the wash-outs the product of increased rainfall in
the desert, desertification of a formerly vegetated hinterland or
both? We hope to explore the environmental implications of our
results further in future seasons.
Bibliography
70
ABSTRACTS
71
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
72
ABSTRACTS
73
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
74
ABSTRACTS
75
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
76
ABSTRACTS
The Central Kom is the greatest of the three mounds that make
up the site of Tell el-Farkha, and it accounts for more than half
of the site’s area. It is here that the gezira is the highest, and it is
the location of the first settlement of the Lower Egyptian
culture. The Central Kom was also the place where the
inhabitants of the village remained until the end of the site’s
occupation at the beginning of the Old Kingdom. At that time,
the Western Kom was deserted, and on the Eastern Kom there
was a cemetery.
During its history, the Central Kom was a settlement
where the farmers, fishermen, craftsmen and traders of Tell el-
Farkha lived. No monumental buildings, such as those found on
77
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
78
ABSTRACTS
79
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
In a deep wadi between the Wadi Alamat Road leading west out
of northern Thebes and the Arqub Baghla track from southern
Naqada, the Theban Desert Road Survey has discovered a
concentration of rock inscription sites of late Predynastic
through Early Dynastic date. The sites are particularly
informative due to their restricted period of use, associated
ceramic remains, and unique nautical imagery. They complement
other sites in the Theban Western Desert, particularly the
expansive rock inscription site of ‘Dominion Behind Thebes’.
At the head of the wadi are five rock inscription sites.
Iconographic parallels – supported by associated ceramic
material – date the majority of their predominately nautical
images to the Naqada II and Naqada III periods, a temporal
restriction heightening the interest of the differentiation of boat
80
ABSTRACTS
81
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
82
ABSTRACTS
83
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
84
ABSTRACTS
85
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
86
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
87
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
88
ABSTRACTS
and clay sealings and can be external (e.g., region and site of
origin, context of finding, support, use dating, etc.) and internal
(shape, dimension, material, image/reverse impression,
presence/absence of iconographic/typologic/stylistic aspects,
position, order, relative distance between compositional
elements, image syntactical structure, etc.). All of these variables
form a kind of protocol of standardized rules, allowing
communication between peoples who did not necessarily speak
the same languages. In other words, seals and clay sealings were
a common exchange code functioning as the synthesis of
abstract concepts within a widely distributed communication
and trade network.
This paper presents the results of a methodological study
which is an extension of our work on the corpus of seals and
clay sealings found at Naqada (Petrie’s ‘South Town’), by the
Italian Archaeological Expedition of the Istituto Universitario
Orientale of Naples (IUON, now the Università degli Studi di
Napoli ‘L’Orientale’) between 1977 and 1986.
The aim of the study is to develop standard criteria for
the recording and cataloguing of seals and sealings, which may
then be used in multivariate analysis of the type applied to the
exploratory analyses of complex data sets, such as that exhibited
on the seals and sealing, in order to investigate the different
qualitative variables (both iconographic and otherwise) which
characterize these intriguing objects.
89
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
90
ABSTRACTS
91
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
92
ABSTRACTS
93
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
94
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
95
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
96
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
97
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Azor, Tel Lod and Maghar are three sites in Israel’s Central
Coastal Plain which demonstrate a strong component of local,
late EB I Canaanite material culture interspersed with some
elements of Early Dynastic Egyptian material culture. The latter
is attested, for example, by ceramic imports and their local
‘imitations’, including bread moulds, bifacial flint tools and stone
palettes. They indicate the likely presence of Egyptian
immigrants at these three sites during late EB I/Naqada IIIB-
C1. From these places Egyptian commodities/ceramics were
dispersed through local trade to other late EB I Canaanite sites
which had no ‘Egyptian presence’ in this region, as well as in
parts of the Shephelah. Lately, an accumulation of both old (but
still unpublished) and new finds uncovered in the Central
Coastal Plain and Shephelah is gradually enabling us to present a
more complex picture of the Egyptian presence in late EB I
Canaan, clarifying some of the problems encountered in the
past.
The pattern that emerges from this updated map is one of
few late EB I Canaanite settlements in which Egyptian
immigrants apparently settled down on the one hand, and on the
other, many other local late EB I settlements without clear
evidence of an ‘Egyptian presence’ where Egyptian merchandise,
partly imported and partly locally produced, was diffused by
trade. The observed pattern may be typical for the Coastal Plain
at large and the country as a whole, as seemingly indicated by
recent finds from sites such as Assawir, Megiddo and Tell Abu
al-Kharaz.
98
ABSTRACTS
99
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
100
ABSTRACTS
101
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
102
ABSTRACTS
103
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Besides pottery and palettes, tusks and tags are among the most
commonly known Predynastic objects. Several aspects of these
particular objects have already been discussed (Baumgartel 1955:
35-36, 1960: 57, 60-65; Finkenstaedt 1979; Nowak 2001, 2004),
but generally featured have been the more remarkable examples
with human representations. Tusks, made from this dental
defence mechanism of the hippopotamus, or imitations thereof
in other materials, may be worked and decorated or not, while
tags are generally smaller, always worked, and mainly flat or oval
in cross-section. Tags can be made of hippopotamus ivory but
also of bone and different types of stone. Tags and tusks have
been found in an important number of Predynastic tombs,
dating from at the least Naqada IB onward, but they seem to
disappear by the beginning of Naqada IID. Generally, two or
three examples are found together in a tomb, but they also occur
104
ABSTRACTS
105
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
106
ABSTRACTS
107
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
108
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
109
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
110
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
111
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
112
ABSTRACTS
113
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
The site of Tell el-Farkha (Eastern Nile Delta) has been the
focus of excavation by the Polish archaeological expedition since
1998. Until 2000, the work was mainly concentrated on the
Western and Central Koms, where settlement remains were
discovered. As a result of this work, the chronology of the site
was established and divided into seven main occupation phases
dating from the Predynastic Lower Egyptian culture to the
beginning of the Old Kingdom.
In 2001, work was started on the Eastern Kom, where the
first graves were discovered. During the following seasons,
investigation of this cemetery has continued. Moreover,
settlement strata on the same kom were also explored. In this
paper I will focus on the pottery found in the graves and
settlement strata of the Eastern Kom.
The chronological position of the graves (with pottery
assemblages) spans a period of time contemporary with the end
of the period of state formation in Egypt and the beginning of
its existence as an organized state after the unification. Most of
them date to the First Dynasty, although a few probably belong
to the Second Dynasty. Similarly, among the settlement strata of
the Eastern Kom, there are also layers dated to the Early
Dynastic period and the beginning of the Old Kingdom.
Several types of pottery were found in the graves, among
them: jars decorated with a single rope band; jars with three
rope-bands; jars decorated with lightly impressed half-bows
around the shoulder; different types of small jars; cylindrical jars
with decoration beneath the rim; cylindrical jars without
decoration; and different types of bowls and trays.
114
ABSTRACTS
115
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
116
ABSTRACTS
The deep origins of culture along the Nile Valley have often
been discussed as though the Nile Valley and Egypt were an
island. Using aspects of the approach by historical
anthropologists working in other regions, Egyptian origins were
examined employing strong inference. Historical linguistics,
archaeology, aspects of culture (such as sources for symbols),
and human biology were used to examine old and new
hypotheses about the ‘origins’ of Egypt and its population. It is
to be noted that anthropologists interested in migration also
used linguistics, archaeology, and physical anthropology as
sources of independent data, but historical anthropologists have
used them to ‘triangulate’. The results will be discussed in light
of the history of ideas as well as recent discoveries.
117
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
118
ABSTRACTS
During the winter seasons of 2000, 2001 and 2003, the team
from the Combined Prehistoric Expedition discovered and
investigated three separate clusters of burials along the western
edge of Gebel Ramlah Playa, some 130km west of Abu Simbel.
Each cluster represents an extended family burial ground
composed of richly furnished graves that, most likely, belonged
to individual families. Two types of burials were discovered:
single primary inhumations and multiple secondary burials. As a
rule, the bodies were committed to the earth within a plaitwork
container in a flexed position, with head to the west and facing
south. Great care was taken to restore burials disturbed during
successive interments. Among the grave goods were pottery and
stone vessels, toilet sets, colorants, palettes, abundant jewelry
and stone artifacts. Imported items from long distances prove
far-reaching cultural contacts. From the physical anthropological
point of view, the population exhibits evidence of North and
sub-Saharan African admixture. The three cemeteries belong to
the last Final Neolithic pastoralists who, during the second half
of the 5th millennium BC, inhabited the drying savanna in what
is today the Western Desert.
119
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
120
ABSTRACTS
121
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
122
ABSTRACTS
123
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
It is, however, the humble mud brick that was the most
commonly used building material of the Early Dynastic period.
The massive mud brick structures built at this time not only
show impressive architectural skills, but also demonstrate the
high degree of proficiency of the builders. But how well
designed were these structures and why were they built this way?
Unlike modern buildings, built on engineered designs
centred on rational mathematical analysis of loads and strengths
of materials, the ancient Egyptians used an empirical design
based on practical and experimental limits of heights and wall
thicknesses.
This paper focuses on the Early Dynastic cemeteries at
Saqqara and Helwan, using modern engineering principles to
review the three main structural components of the tomb: the
retaining walls holding up the open cut in the substructure, the
freestanding walls used to separate the magazines in the
superstructures, and finally the roofing. The two sites will
initially be examined in isolation for visible chronological trends
and advancements in construction techniques, and then jointly
to establish if there are any discernible differences in the level of
construction between the elite tombs at Saqqara and the larger
mastaba tombs at Helwan.
The engineering analysis ultimately aims to demonstrate
that these structures were not built in an ad hoc manner, but were
constructed with a significant level of expertise, ingenuity and
resourcefulness at this early period in Egyptian history.
Bibliography
124
ABSTRACTS
125
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
126
ABSTRACTS
127
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
128
ABSTRACTS
129
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
130
ABSTRACTS
131
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
132
ABSTRACTS
133
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
134
ABSTRACTS
135
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
136
ABSTRACTS
137
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
138
ABSTRACTS
139
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
140
ABSTRACTS
141
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
142
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
143
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
144
ABSTRACTS
145
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
146
ABSTRACTS
147
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
148
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
HAAS, J., 1982. The Evolution of the Prehistoric State. New York.
149
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
150
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
151
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
152
ABSTRACTS
153
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
154
ABSTRACTS
155
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
156
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
157
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
158
ABSTRACTS
159
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
160
ABSTRACTS
161
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
162
ABSTRACTS
163
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
164
ABSTRACTS
165
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
166
ABSTRACTS
167
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
BAKR, M.I.; ABD EL-M ONEIM, M.A.M. & S ELIM, M.O.M., 1996.
Protodynastic excavations at Tell Hassan Dawud (Eastern
Delta) [in:] KRZYŻANIAK, L.; KROEPER, K. &
KOBUSIEWICZ, M. (eds.), Interregional Contacts in the Later
Prehistory of Northeastern Africa. Poznan: 277-278.
EL-HANGARY, S.M., 1992. The excavations of the Egyptian
Antiquities Organization at Ezbet Hassan Dawud (Wadi
Tumilat), season 1990 [in:] VAN DEN BRINK, E.C.M.
168
ABSTRACTS
Clay sealings from Giza: the group with the figurative seal
impressions
Maira TORCIA
Museo Nazionale d’Arte Orientale Giuseppe Tucci/The Consiglio
Nazionale delle Ricerche, Roma, Italy
The author has examined a group of 239 clay sealings from the
Giza pyramids area. This area, near the Mycerinus pyramid, was
excavated by the Austrian Archaeological Mission directed by
Prof. K. Kromer in the 1970s. The site was found completely
169
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
170
ABSTRACTS
171
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
172
ABSTRACTS
173
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
174
ABSTRACTS
Bibliography
175
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
176
ABSTRACTS
177
EGYPT AT ITS ORIGINS
Bibliography
178