Highway Manual Full

HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
July 1, 2004
Table of Contents
Table Subject Page
Number Number
CHAPTER 10 - DIVISION OF DESIGN

11 Organization and Functions
11.1 Organization 10-1
11.2 Functions 10-1
CHAPTER 20 - DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

21 Highway Route Numbers
21.1 Legislative Route Numbers and Descriptions 20-1
21.2 Sign Route Numbers 20-1
CHAPTER 40 - FEDERAL-AID
41 Enabling Legislation
41.1 General 40-1
42 Federal-Aid System
42.1 National Highway System 40-1
42.2 Interstate 40-1
43 Federal-Aid Programs
43.1 Surface Transportation Program (STP) 40-1
43.2 Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program (CMAQ) 40-2
43.3 Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program 40-2
43.4 Federal Lands Program 40-2
43.5 Special Programs 40-2
44 Funding Determination
44.1 Funding Eligibility 40-2
44.2 Federal Participation Ratio 40-2
44.3 Emergency Relief 40-2
CHAPTER 60 - NOMENCLATURE
61 Abbreviations
61.1 Official Names 60-1
62 Definitions
62.1 Geometric Cross Section 60-1
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62.2 Highway Structures 60-2

62.3 Highway Types 60-2
62.4 Interchanges and Intersections at Grade 60-4
62.5 Landscape Architecture 60-4
62.6 Right of Way 60-5
62.7 Pavement Structural Section 60-6
62.8 Traffic 60-9
62.9 Drainage 60-10
CHAPTER 80 - APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

81 Project Development Overview
81.1 Philosophy 80-1
82 Application of Standards
82.1 Highway Design Manual Standards 80-1
82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design 80-2
82.3 Use of FHWA and AASHTO Standards and Policies 80-3
82.4 Mandatory Procedural Requirements 80-3
82.5 Effective Date for Implementing Revisions to Design Standards 80-4
CHAPTER 100 - BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

101 Design Speed
101.1 Selection of Design Speed 100-1
101.2 Design Speed Standards 100-1
102 Highway Capacity
102.1 Design Capacities 100-2
102.2 References 100-3
103 Design Designation
103.1 Relation to Design 100-3
103.2 Design Period 100-3
104 Control of Access
104.1 General Policy 100-3
104.2 Access Openings 100-3
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104.3 Frontage Roads 100-4

104.4 Protection of Access Rights 100-5
104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a Median Opening 100-5
104.6 Cross References 100-5
105 Pedestrian Facilities
105.1 Sidewalks 100-5
105.2 Pedestrian Grade Separations 100-6
105.3 Accessibility Requirements 100-7
105.4 Guidelines for the Location and Design of Curb Ramps 100-9
106 Stage Construction and Utilization of Local Roads
106.1 Stage Construction 100-9
106.2 Utilization of Local Roads 100-10
107 Roadside Installations
107.1 Roadway Connections 100-11
107.2 Maintenance Yards and Police Facilities on Freeways 100-11
107.3 Location of Border Inspection Stations 100-11
108 Coordination with Other Agencies
108.1 Divided Nonfreeway Facilities 100-11
108.2 Bus Loading Facilities 100-12
108.3 Coordination with the FHWA 100-13
109 Scenic Values in Planning and Design
109.1 Basic Precepts 100-13
109.2 Design Speed 100-14
109.3 Aesthetic Factors 100-14
110 Special Considerations
110.1 Design for Overloaded Material Hauling Equipment 100-15
110.2 Control of Water Pollution 100-16
110.3 Control of Air Pollution 100-20
110.4 Wetlands Protection 100-22
110.5 Control of Noxious Weeds – Exotic and Invasive Species 100-22
110.6 Earthquake Consideration 100-22
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110.7 Traffic Control Plans 100-23

110.8 Safety Reviews 100-25
110.9 Value Analysis 100-26
110.10 Proprietary Items 100-26
110.11 Conservation of Materials and Energy 100-26
111 Material Sites and Disposal Sites
111.2 Investigation of Local Materials Sources 100-29
111.3 Materials Information Furnished to Prospective Bidders 100-30
111.4 Materials Arrangements 100-31
111.5 Procedures for Acquisition of Material Sites and Disposal Sites 100-31
111.6 Mandatory Material Sites and Disposal Sites on Federal-aid Projects 100-32
112 Contractor's Yard and Plant Sites
112.1 Policy 100-33
112.2 Locating a Site 100-33
113 Geotechnical Design Report
113.1 Policy 100-33
113.2 Content 100-34
113.3 Submittal and Review 100-34
114 Materials Report
114.1 Policy 100-34
114.2 Content 100-34
114.3 Submittal and Review 100-34
CHAPTER 200 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

201 Sight Distance
201.1 General 200-1
201.2 Passing Sight Distance 200-1
201.3 Stopping Sight Distance 200-2
201.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade Crests 200-2
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade Sags 200-2
201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 200-2
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201.7 Decision Sight Distance 200-6

202 Superelevation
202.1 Basic Criteria 200-6
202.2 Standards for Superelevation 200-8
202.3 Restrictive Conditions 200-8
202.4 Axis of Rotation 200-8
202.5 Superelevation Transition 200-11
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves 200-14
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and County Roads 200-14
203 Horizontal Alignment
203.1 General Controls 200-14
203.2 Standards for Curvature 200-14
203.3 Alignment Consistency 200-16
203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle 200-16
203.5 Compound Curves 200-16
203.6 Reversing Curves 200-16
203.7 Broken Back Curves 200-17
203.8 Spiral Transition 200-17
203.9 Alignment at Bridges 200-17
204 Grade
204.1 General Controls 200-17
204.2 Position with Respect to Cross Section 200-17
204.3 Standards for Grade 200-18
204.4 Vertical Curves 200-18
204.5 Sustained Grades 200-18
204.6 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignment 200-20
204.7 Separate Grade Lines 200-22
204.8 Grade Line of Structures 200-22
205 Road Connections and Driveways
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways 200-25
205.2 Private Road Connections 200-26
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205.3 Urban Driveways 200-26

205.4 Driveways on Frontage Roads and in Rural Areas 200-27
205.5 Financial Responsibility 200-28
206 Pavement Transitions
206.1 General Transition Standards 200-28
206.2 Pavement Widenings 200-28
206.3 Pavement Reductions 200-28
206.4 Temporary Freeway Transitions 200-30
207 Airway-Highway Clearances
207.1 Introduction 200-30
207.2 Clearances 200-30
207.3 Submittal of Airway-Highway Clearance Data 200-30
208 Bridges and Grade Separation Structures
208.1 Bridge Width 200-35
208.2 Cross Slope 200-35
208.3 Median 200-37
208.4 Bridge Sidewalks 200-37
208.5 Open End Structures 200-37
208.6 Pedestrian Overcrossings and Undercrossings 200-37
208.7 Equestrian Undercrossings 200-37
208.8 Cattle Passes, Equipment, and Deer Crossings 200-37
208.9 Railroad Underpasses and Overheads 200-37
208.10 Bridge Barriers and Railings 200-38
209 Currently Not In Use
210 Earth Retaining Systems
210.1 Types and Uses 200-43
210.2 Alternative Earth Retaining Systems (AERS) 200-48
210.3 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals (CRIP) 200-48
210.4 Aesthetic Consideration 200-49
210.5 Safety Railing, Fences, and Concrete Barriers 200-49
210.6 Design Responsibility 200-49
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210.7 Guidelines for Plan Preparation 200-50
CHAPTER 300 - GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

301 Traveled Way Standards
301.1 Traveled Way Width 300-1
301.2 Cross Slopes 300-1
302 Shoulder Standards
302.1 Width 300-1
302.2 Cross Slopes 300-3
303 Curbs, Dikes, and Side Gutters
303.2 Curb Types and Uses 300-4
303.3 Dike Types and Uses 300-6
303.4 Side Gutters 300-8
303.5 Position of Curbs and Dikes 300-8
303.6 Curbs and Dikes on Frontage Roads and Streets 300-8
304 Side Slopes
304.1 Side Slope Standards 300-9
304.2 Clearance From Slope to Right of Way Line 300-10
304.3 Slope Benches and Cut Widening 300-10
304.4 Contour Grading and Slope Rounding 300-10
304.5 Stepped Slopes 300-11
305 Median Standards
305.1 Width 300-11
305.2 Median Cross Slopes 300-12
305.3 Median Barriers 300-13
305.4 Median Curbs 300-13
305.5 Paved Medians 300-13
305.6 Separate Roadways 300-13
306 Right of Way
306.1 General Standards 300-13
306.2 Right of Way Through the Public Domain 300-13
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307 Cross Sections for State Highways

307.1 Warrants 300-13
307.2 Two-lane Cross Sections for New Construction 300-15
307.3 Two-lane Cross Sections for RRR Projects 300-15
307.4 Multilane Divided Cross Sections 300-17
307.5 Multilane All Paved Cross Sections with Special Median Widths 300-17
307.6 Multilane Cross Sections for RRR Projects 300-17
308 Cross Sections for Roads Under Other Jurisdictions
308.1 City Streets and County Roads 300-17
309 Clearances
309.1 Horizontal Clearances 300-20
309.2 Vertical Clearances 300-22
309.3 Tunnel Clearances 300-26
309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated Structures 300-27
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to Railroads 300-27
310 Frontage Roads
310.1 Cross Section 300-29
310.2 Outer Separation 300-29
310.3 Headlight Glare 300-29
CHAPTER 400 - INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

401 Factors Affecting Design
401.1 General 400-1
401.2 The Driver 400-1
401.3 The Vehicle 400-1
401.4 The Environment 400-1
401.5 The Pedestrian 400-1
401.6 The Bicyclist 400-1
402 Operational Features Affecting Design
402.1 Capacity 400-2
402.2 Accidents 400-2
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403 Principles of Channelization

403.1 Preference to Major Movements 400-2
403.2 Areas of Conflict 400-2
403.3 Angle of Intersection 400-2
403.4 Points of Conflict 400-3
403.5 Speed-change Areas 400-3
403.6 Turning Traffic 400-3
403.7 Refuge Areas 400-4
403.8 Prohibited Turns 400-4
403.9 Effective Signal Control 400-4
403.10 Installation of Traffic Control Devices 400-4
403.11 Summary 400-4
403.12 Precautions 400-4
404 Design Vehicles
404.1 Offtracking 400-4
404.2 Design Vehicles 400-5
404.3 Turning Templates 400-5
405 Intersection Design Standards
405.1 Sight Distance 400-7
405.2 Left-turn Channelization 400-9
405.3 Right-turn Channelization 400-11
405.4 Traffic Islands 400-15
405.5 Median Openings 400-18
405.6 Access Control 400-18
405.7 Public Road Intersections 400-20
405.8 City Street Returns and Corner Radii 400-20
405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections 400-20
406 Ramp Intersection Capacity Analysis 400-20
407 Truck and Bus Turning Templates 400-27
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CHAPTER 500 - TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

501 General
501.1 Concepts 500-1
501.2 Warrants 500-1
501.3 Spacing 500-1
502 Interchange Types
502.1 General 500-1
502.2 Local Street Interchanges 500-1
502.3 Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges 500-5
503 Interchange Design Procedure
503.1 Basic Data 500-10
503.2 Reviews 500-10
504 Interchange Design Standards
504.1 General 500-10
504.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits 500-10
504.3 Ramps 500-14
504.4 Freeway-to-Freeway Connections 500-35
504.5 Auxiliary Lanes 500-37
504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at Interchanges 500-37
504.7 Weaving Sections 500-38
504.8 Access Control 500-38
CHAPTER 600 - PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL SECTION

601 General Considerations
601.2 Structural Section Design Objectives 600-1
601.3 Roles and Responsibilities 600-1
601.4 Research and Experimentation 600-3
601.5 Record Keeping 600-3
601.6 Other Resources 600-5
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602 Pavement Service Life and Traffic Data

602.2 Pavement Service Life 600-6
602.3 Truck Traffic Projection 600-7
602.4 Traffic Index 600-9
603 Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Structural Section Design
603.2 Design Procedure for Rigid Pavement 600-9
603.3 Structural Section Geometry 600-14
603.4 Shoulders 600-14
603.5 Freeway-to-Freeway Connectors and Ramps 600-15
603.6 Ramp Termini 600-15
603.7 Pavement Joints 600-15
603.8 PCC Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation 600-16
604 Asphalt Concrete Pavement Structural Section Design
604.2 Design Data Requirements and Sources 600-16
604.3 Structural Section Design Procedures for New and Reconstruction Projects 600-17
604.4 Shoulder Structural Section Design 600-22
604.5 Ramp Structural Section Design 600-22
604.6 Structural Section Design for Roadside Rests and Parking Lots 600-23
604.7 Asphalt Concrete Pavement Maintenance and Rehabilitation 600-23
605 Selection of Pavement Type
605.2 Pavement Type/Strategy Determination 600-25
605.3 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) 600-26
606 Drainage of the Pavement Structural Section
606.2 Structural Section Drainage Practices 600-30
606.3 Drainage Components and Related Design Considerations 600-30
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607 Structure Approach Pavement and Structure Abutment Embankment Design

607.2 Functional Area Responsibilities 600-35
607.3 Structure Approach Embankment 600-37
607.4 Structure Approach Pavement Systems 600-37
607.5 Structure Approach Pavement System – New Construction 600-40
607.6 Structure Approach Slab – Rehabilitation Projects 600-44
CHAPTER 700 - MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS

701 Fences
701.1 Policy and Purpose of Fences 700-1
701.2 Fences on Freeways and Expressways 700-1
701.3 Fences on Other Highways 700-3
702 Miscellaneous Traffic Items
703 Special Structures and Installation
703.1 Truck Weighing Facilities 700-3
703.2 Rockfall Restraining Nets 700-4
704 Contrast Treatment
704.1 Policy 700-4
705 Materials and Color Selection
705.1 Special Treatments and Materials 700-4
705.2 Colors for Steel Structures 700-4
706 Roadside Treatment
706.1 Roadside Management 700-5
706.2 Vegetation Control with Soil Sterilants 700-6
706.3 Topsoil 700-6
706.4 Irrigation Crossovers for Highway Construction Projects 700-6
706.5 Water Supply Line (Bridge) and Sprinkler Control Conduit for Bridge 700-6
706.6 Water Supply for Future Roadside Rest Areas, Vista Points, or Planting 700-7
707 Slope Treatment Under Structures
707.1 Policy 700-7
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707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment 700-7

707.3 Procedure 700-8
CHAPTER 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
CHAPTERS 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS

801 General
801.2 Drainage Design Philosophy 800-1
801.3 Drainage Standards 800-1
801.4 Objectives of Drainage Design 800-2
801.5 Economics of Design 800-2
801.6 Use of Drainage References 800-3
802 Drainage Design Responsibilities
802.1 Functional Organization 800-3
802.2 Culvert Committee 800-5
802.3 Bank and Shore Protection Committee 800-5
803 Drainage Design Policies
803.1 Basic Policy 800-6
803.2 Cooperative Agreements 800-6
803.3 Up-Grading Existing Drainage Facilities 800-6
804 Floodplain Encroachments
804.1 Purpose 800-7
804.2 Authority 800-7
804.3 Applicability 800-7
804.4 Definitions 800-8
804.5 Procedures 800-8
804.6 Responsibilities 800-9
804.7 Preliminary Evaluation of Risks and Impacts for Environmental 800-9
Document Phase
804.8 Design Standards 800-10
804.9 Coordination with the Local Community 800-10
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804.10 National Flood Insurance Program 800-14

804.11 Coordination with FEMA 800-14
805 Preliminary Plans
805.1 Required FHWA Approval 800-15
805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report 800-15
805.3 Storm Drain Systems 800-15
805.4 Unusual Hydraulic Structures 800-15
805.5 Levees and Dams Formed by Highway Fills 800-15
805.6 Geotechnical 800-16
805.7 Data Provided by the District 800-16
806 Definitions of Drainage Terms
806.2 Drainage Terms 800-16
807 Selected Drainage References
807.2 Federal Highway Administration Hydraulic Publications 800-29
807.3 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 800-31
(AASHTO)
807.4 California Department of Transportation 800-31
807.5 U.S. Department of Interior - Geological Survey (USGS) 800-31
807.6 U.S. Department of Agriculture – Natural Resources Conservation 800-32
Service (NRCS)
807.7 California Department of Water Resources and Caltrans 800-32
807.8 University of California - Institute of Transportation and Traffic 800-32
Engineering (ITTE)
807.9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 800-32
808 Selected Computer Programs 800-32
CHAPTER 810 – HYDROLOGY

811 General
811.2 Objectives of Hydrologic Analysis 810-1
811.3 Peak Discharge 810-1
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811.4 Flood Severity 810-2

811.5 Factors Affecting Runoff 810-2
812 Basin Characteristics
812.1 Size 810-2
812.2 Shape 810-2
812.3 Slope 810-2
812.4 Land Use 810-2
812.5 Soil and Geology 810-3
812.6 Storage 810-3
812.7 Elevation 810-3
812.8 Orientation 810-3
813 Channel and Floodplain Characteristics
813.1 General 810-4
813.2 Length and Slope 810-4
813.3 Cross Section 810-4
813.4 Hydraulic Roughness 810-4
813.5 Natural and Man-made Constrictions 810-4
813.6 Channel Modifications 810-4
813.7 Aggradation - Degradation 810-5
813.8 Debris 810-5
814 Meteorological Characteristics
814.1 General 810-5
814.2 Rainfall 810-5
814.3 Snow 810-6
814.4 Evapo-transpiration 810-6
814.5 Tides and Waves 810-6
815 Hydrologic Data
815.1 General 810-7
815.2 Categories 810-7
815.3 Sources 810-7
815.4 Stream Flow 810-8
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815.5 Rainfall 810-9

815.6 Adequacy of Data 810-9
816 Runoff
816.1 General 810-9
816.2 Overland Flow 810-9
816.3 Subsurface Flow 810-9
816.4 Detention and Retention 810-9
816.5 Flood Hydrograph and Flood Volume 810-9
816.6 Time of Concentration (Tc) and Travel Time (Tt) 810-10
817 Flood Magnitude
817.1 General 810-13
817.2 Measurements 810-13
818 Flood Probability and Frequency
818.1 General 810-13
818.2 Establishing Design Flood Frequency 810-14
819 Estimating Design Discharge
819.2 Empirical Methods 810-15
819.3 Statistical Methods 810-20
819.4 Hydrograph Methods 810-21
819.5 Transfer of Data 810-21
819.6 Hydrologic Computer Programs 810-21
CHAPTER 820 - CROSS DRAINAGE

821 General
821.2 Hydrologic Considerations 820-1
821.3 Selection of Design Flood 820-2
821.4 Headwater and Tailwater 820-2
821.5 Effects of Tide and Wind 820-3
822 Debris Control
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822.2 Debris Control Methods 820-3

822.3 Economics 820-4
822.4 Classification of Debris 820-4
822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures 820-4
823 Culvert Location
823.2 Alignment and Slope 820-4
824 Culvert Type Selection
824.2 Shape and Cross Section 820-5
825 Hydraulic Design of Culverts
825.2 Culvert Flow 820-5
825.3 Computer Programs 820-6
825.4 Coefficient of Roughness 820-6
826 Entrance Design
826.2 End Treatment Policy 820-7
826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs 820-7
826.4 Improved Inlet Designs 820-7
827 Outlet Design
827.1 General 820-8
827.2 Embankment Protection 820-8
828 Diameter and Length
828.2 Minimum Diameter 820-9
828.3 Length 820-9
829 Special Considerations
829.2 Bedding and Backfill 820-10
829.3 Piping 820-11
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829.4 Joints 820-11

829.5 Anchorage 820-11
829.6 Irregular Treatment 820-12
829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts 820-12
829.8 Jacking and Tunneling 820-13
829.9 Dams 820-14
829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box Modifications 820-14
CHAPTER 830 - ROADWAY DRAINAGE

831 General
831.1 Basic Concepts 830-1
831.2 Highway Grade Line 830-1
831.3 Design Storm and Water Spread 830-1
831.4 Other Considerations 830-2
831.5 Computer Programs 830-5
832 Hydrology
832.2 Rational Method 830-6
832.3 Time of Concentration 830-6
833 Roadway Cross Sections
833.2 Grade, Cross Slope, and Superelevation 830-6
834 Roadside Drainage
834.1 General 830-7
834.2 Median Drainage 830-7
834.3 Ditches and Gutters 830-7
834.4 Overside Drains 830-8
835 Dikes and Berms
835.1 General 830-9
835.2 Earth Berms 830-9
835.3 Dikes 830-9
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836 Curbs and Gutters

836.1 General 830-10
836.2 Gutter Design 830-10
837 Inlet Design
837.1 General 830-10
837.2 Inlet Types 830-11
837.3 Location and Spacing 830-15
837.4 Hydraulic Design 830-16
837.5 Local Depressions 830-17
838 Storm Drains
838.1 General 830-18
838.2 Design Criteria 830-19
838.3 Hydraulic Design 830-19
838.4 Standards 830-19
838.5 Appurtenant Structures 830-20
839 Pumping Stations
839.1 General 830-21
839.2 Pump Type 830-21
839.3 Design Responsibilities 830-21
839.4 Trash and Debris Considerations 830-21
839.5 Maintenance Consideration 830-22
839.6 Groundwater Considerations 830-22
CHAPTER 840 - SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

841 General
841.2 Subsurface (Groundwater) Discharge 840-1
841.3 Preliminary Investigations 840-1
841.4 Exploration Notes 840-2
841.5 Category of System 840-2
842 Pipe Underdrains
842.1 General 840-3
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842.2 Single Installations 840-3

842.3 Multiple Installations 840-4
842.4 Design Criteria 840-4
842.5 Types of Underdrain Pipe 840-4
842.6 Design Service Life 840-4
842.7 Pipe Selection 840-5
CHAPTER 850 - PHYSICAL STANDARDS

851 General
851.2 Selection of Material and Type 850-1
852 Design Service Life
852.1 Basic Concepts 850-1
853 Alternate Materials
853.1 Basic Policy 850-3
853.2 Alternative Selection 850-8
853.3 Alternative Pipe Culvert and Pipe Arch Culvert List 850-8
854 Kinds of Pipe Culverts
854.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe 850-8
854.2 Cast-in-Place Non-reinforced Concrete Pipe 850-12
854.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe, Steel Spiral Rib Pipe, and Pipe Arches 850-12
854.4 Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe, and Pipe Arches 850-21
854.5 Special Purpose Types 850-22
854.6 Structural Metal Plate 850-22
854.7 Concrete Box and Arch Culverts 850-40
854.8 Plastic Pipe 850-40
854.9 Minimum Height of Cover 850-41
CHAPTER 860 - OPEN CHANNELS

861 General
861.2 Hydraulic Considerations 860-1
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861.3 Selection of "Design Flood" 860-1

861.4 Safety Considerations 860-2
861.5 Maintenance Consideration 860-2
861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies 860-2
861.8 Environment 860-2
862 Channel Location
862.1 General 860-3
862.2 Alignment and Grade 860-3
863 Channel Section
863.1 Natural Channels 860-3
863.2 Triangular V-Ditch 860-5
863.3 Trapezoidal 860-5
863.4 Rectangular 860-5
864 Hydraulic Design of Channels
864.1 General 860-5
864.2 Flow Classifications 860-5
864.3 Open Channel Flow Equations 860-6
864.4 Water Surface Profiles 860-9
864.5 Stage-Discharge Relationships 860-10
865 Channel Changes
865.1 General 860-11
865.2 Design Considerations 860-11
866 Freeboard Considerations
866.1 General 860-11
866.2 Height of Freeboard 860-11
CHAPTER 870 - CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION - EROSION CONTROL

871 General
871.2 Design Philosophy 870-1
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871.3 Selected References 870-2

872 Planning and Location Studies
872.1 Planning 870-3
872.2 Class and Type of Protection 870-3
872.3 Site Consideration 870-3
872.4 Data Needs 870-10
873 Design Concepts
873.2 Design High Water and Hydraulics 870-11
873.3 Armor Protection 870-18
873.4 Training Systems 870-37
873.5 Design Check List 870-46
874 Definitions 870-47
CHAPTER 880 - UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL

881 General
881.2 Recharge Consideration 880-1
881.3 Maintenance Considerations 880-1
882 Infiltration Systems
882.1 Basins 880-1
882.2 Trenches 880-1
882.3 Wells 880-2
883 Environmental Considerations 880-2
884 Legal Considerations
884.1 General 880-2
CHAPTER 890 - STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

891 General
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891.2 Philosophy 890-1

892 Storm Water Management Strategies
892.1 General 890-1
892.2 Types of Strategies 890-2
892.3 Design Considerations 890-2
892.4 Mixing with Other Waste Streams 890-3
893 Maintenance Requirements for Storm Water Management Features
893.1 General 890-3
CHAPTER 900 - LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

901 General
901.1 Office of State Landscape Architecture 900-1
901.2 Cross References 900-1
902 Highway Planting Standards and Guidelines
902.1 General 900-1
902.2 Sight Distance and Clear Recovery Zone Standards 900-3
902.3 Planting Guidelines 900-4
902.4 Irrigation Guidelines 900-6
903 Safety Roadside Rest Area Standards and Guidelines
903.1 Minimum Standards 900-7
903.2 General Notes 900-7
903.3 Function 900-8
903.4 Site Feasibility 900-8
903.5 Facilities and Features 900-8
904 Vista Point Standards and Guidelines
904.1 General 900-14
904.2 Site Selection 900-14
904.3 Design Features and Facilities 900-14
CHAPTER 1000 - BIKEWAY PLANNING AND DESIGN

1001 General Information
1001.1 Definitions 1000-1
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Table Subject Page
Number Number
1001.2 Streets and Highways Code References – Chapter 8 – Nonmotorized 1000-1

Transportation
1001.3 Vehicle Code References – Bicycle Operation 1000-1
1002 General Planning Criteria
1002.2 The Role of Bikeways 1000-2
1002.3 The Decision to Develop Bikeways 1000-2
1002.4 Selection of the Type of Facility 1000-2
1003 Design Criteria
1003.1 Class I Bikeways 1000-4
1003.2 Class II Bikeways 1000-15
1003.3 Class III Bikeways 1000-19
1003.4 Bicycles on Freeways 1000-25
1003.5 Multipurpose Trails 1000-26
1003.6 Miscellaneous Bikeway Criteria 1000-26
1004 Uniform Signs, Markings, and Traffic Control Devices
1004.2 Bike Path (Class I) 1000-30
1004.3 Bike Lanes (Class II) 1000-30
1004.4 Bike Routes (Class III) 1000-31
CHAPTER 1100 - HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE ABATEMENT

1101 General Requirements
1101.2 Objective 1100-1
1101.3 Terminology 1100-1
1101.4 Procedures for Assessing Noise Impacts 1100-2
1101.5 Prioritizing Construction of Retrofit Noise Barriers 1100-2
1102 Design Criteria
1102.1 General 1100-2
1102.2 Noise Barrier Location 1100-2
1102.3 Noise Barrier Heights 1100-2
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Number Number
1102.4 Noise Barrier Length 1100-3

1102.5 Alternative Noise Barrier Designs 1100-3
1102.6 Noise Barrier Aesthetics 1100-5
1102.7 Maintenance Consideration in Noise Barrier Design 1100-5
1102.8 Emergency Access Considerations in Noise Barrier Design 1100-6
1102.9 Drainage Openings in Noise Barrier 1100-6
xxv
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List of Figures
Table Subject Page
Number Number
CHAPTER 20 - DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

21.1 Interstate Highway System in California 20-2
CHAPTER 60 - NOMENCLATURE
62.2 Types of Structures 60-3

201.4 Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves 200-3
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves 200-4
201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 200-5
201.7 Decision Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves 200-7
202.2 Maximum Comfortable Speed on Horizontal Curves 200-10
202.5A Superelevation Transition 200-12
202.5B Superelevation Transition Terms & Definitions 200-13
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves 200-15
204.4 Vertical Curves 200-19
204.5 Critical Lengths of Grade for Design 200-21
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways 200-26
206.2 Typical Two-lane to Four-lane Transitions 200-29
207.2A Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Civil Airports) 200-31
207.2B Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Heliport) 200-32
207.2C Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Military Airports) 200-33
207.2D Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements (Navy Carrier Landing Practice Field) 200-34
208.1 Offsets to Safety-shape Barriers 200-36
208.10A Vehicular Railings for Bridge Structures 200-40
208.10B Combination Railings for Bridge Structures 200-41
208.10C Pedestrian Railings for Bridge Structures 200-42

303.3 Dike Type Selection and Placement 300-7
305.6 Optional Median Design for Freeways with Separate Roadways 300-14
307.2 Geometric Cross Sections for Two-lane Highways (New Construction) 300-16
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Number Number
307.4 Geometric Cross Sections for Freeways and Expressways 300-18

307.5 Geometric Cross Sections for All Paved Multilane Highways 300-19
309.2 Department of Defense Rural and Single Interstate Routes 300-24

403.3 Angle of Intersection (Minor Leg Skewed to the Right) 400-3
404.2 Design Vehicles 400-6
405.2A Standard Left-turn Channelization 400-12
405.2B Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization (Widening on One Side of Highway) 400-13
405.2C Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization (Widening on Both Sides in Urban 400-14
Areas with Short Blocks)
405.4 Traffic Island Designs 400-16
405.5 Typical Design for Median Openings 400-19
405.7 Public Road Intersections 400-21
405.9 Widening of Two-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections 400-22
406A Spread Diamond 400-24
406B Tight Diamond 400-25
406C Two-quadrant Cloverleaf 400-26
407A STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks--15 m Radius 400-28
407B STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks--18 m Radius 400-29
407C California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks--15 m Radius 400-30
407D California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks--18 m Radius 400-31
407E Bus Wheel Tracks--12.8 m Radius 400-32

502.2 Typical Local Street Interchanges 500-2
502.3 Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges 500-8
504.2A Single Lane Freeway Entrance 500-11
504.2B Single Lane Freeway Exit 500-12
504.2C Location of Freeway Ramps on a Curve 500-13
504.3A Typical Freeway Entrance With 1-Lane Ramp Meter 500-22
504.3B Typical Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp With 1-Lane Ramp Meter 500-23
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Number Number
504.3C Typical Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp With 2-Lane Ramp Meter 500-24
504.3D Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes < 1500 VPH With 2-Lane Ramp 500-25
Meter
504.3E Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes > 1500 VPH With 2-Lane Ramp 500-26
Meter
504.3F Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes < 1500 VPH 500-27
3-Lane Ramp Meter (2 mixed-flow lanes + HOV lane)
504.3G Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes > 1500 VPH 500-28
3-Lane Ramp Meter (2 mixed-flow lanes + HOV lane)
504.3H Typical Freeway Connector 2-Lane Meter (1 mixed-flow lane + HOV lane) 500-29
504.3I Typical Freeway Connector 3-Lane Meter (2 mixed-flow lanes + HOV lane) 500-30
504.3J Location of Ramp Intersections on the Crossroads 500-31
504.3K Transition to Two-lane Exit Ramp 500-32
504.3L Two-Lane Entrance and Exit Ramps 500-33
504.4 Diverging Branch Connections 500-36
504.7A Design Curve for Freeway and Collector Weaving 500-40
504.7B Lane Configuration of Weaving Sections 500-41
504.7D Percentage Distribution of On- and Off-ramp Traffic in Outer Through Lane and 500-43
Auxiliary Lane (Level of Service D Procedure)
504.7E Percentage of Ramp Traffic in the Outer Through Lane (No Auxiliary Lane) (Level 500-44
of Service D Procedure)
504.8 Typical Examples of Access Control at Interchanges 500-45

601.2 Basic Structural Elements of the Roadway 600-2
603.2 Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Details 600-13
606.2 Typical Section with Treated Permeable Base Drainage Layer 600-31
606.3A Cross Drain Interceptor Details For Use with Treated Permeable Base 600-33
606.3B Cross Drain Interceptor Trenches 600-34
607.3 Limits of Structure Approach Embankment Material 600-38
607.4 Type 14 Structure Approach Layout 600-39
607.5A Approach Slab Edge Details 600-42
607.5B Abutment Drainage Details 600-43
607.6A Structure Approach Drainage Details (Rehabilitation) 600-45
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Table Subject Page
Number Number
607.6B Structure Approach Pavement Transition Details (Rehabilitation) 600-46
CHAPTERS 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS

804.7A Technical Information for Location Hydraulic Study 800-11
804.7B Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary 800-13
CHAPTER 810 - HYDROLOGY

816.5 Typical Flood Hydrograph 810-10
816.6 Velocities for Upland Method of Estimating Travel Time for Shallow Concentrated 810-12
Flow
819.2A Runoff Coefficients for Undeveloped Areas 810-17
819.2C Regional Flood-Frequency Equations 810-19

837.1 Storm Drain Inlet Types 830-13

854.3B Minimum Thickness of Metal Pipe for 50 Year Maintenance Free Service Life 850-19
854.3C Chart for Estimating Years to Perforation of Steel Culverts 850-20

864.3C Specific Energy Diagram 860-8
CHAPTER 870 - CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION -

EROSION CONTROL
872.2 Alternative Highway Locations Across Debris Cone 870-10
873.2A Nomenclature of Tidal Ranges 870-13
873.2B Significant Wave Height Prediction Nomograph 870-16
873.2C Design Breaker Wave 870-17
873.2D Wave Run-up on Smooth Impermeable Slope 870-18
873.3A Nomograph of Stream-Bank Rock Slope Protection 870-23
873.3C Rock Slope Protection 870-25
873.3D Nomographs for Design of Rock Slope Shore Protection 870-28
873.3E PCC Grouted Rock Slope Protection 870-30
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Table Subject Page
Number Number
873.3G Grout Filled Fabric Mattresses 870-34

873.3H Soil Cement Slope Protection 870-35
873.4A Bridge Abutment Guide Banks 870-42
873.4B Typical Groin Layout with Resultant Beach Configuration 870-43
873.4C Alignment of Groins to an Oblique Sea Warrants Shortening Proportional to 870-44
Cosine of Obliquity
873.4D Typical Stone Dike Groin Details 870-45
CHAPTER 890 - STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

892.3 Example of a Cumulative Hydrograph with and without Detention 890-4

1003.1A Two-way Bike Path on Separate Right of Way 1000-5
1003.1B Typical Cross Section of Bike Path Along Highway 1000-5
1003.1C Curve Radii and Superelevations 1000-8
1003.1D Stopping Sight Distance 1000-9
1003.1E Stopping Sight Distances for Crest Vertical Curves 1000-11
1003.1F Lateral Clearances on Horizontal Curves 1000-13
1003.1G Barrier Post Striping 1000-15
1003.2A Typical Bike Lane Cross Sections (On 2-lane or Multilane Highways) 1000-17
1003.2B Typical Bicycle/Auto Movements at Intersections of Multilane Streets 1000-20
1003.2C Bike Lanes Approaching Motorist Right-turn-only Lane 1000-21
1003.2D Bike Loop Detector Pavement Marking 1000-22
1003.2E Bike Lanes Through Interchanges 1000-23
1003.6A Railroad Crossings 1000-28
1003.6B Obstruction Markings 1000-29
1004.3 Bike Lane Signs and Markings 1000-32
1004.4 Bike Lane Symbol 1000-33
1004.5 Bike Route Signing 1000-34
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Number Number
CHAPTER 80 - APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

82.1A Mandatory Standards 80-5
82.1B Advisory Standards 80-9
CHAPTER 100 - BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

101.2 Relation of Conditions to Design Speed 100-2

201.1 Sight Distance Standards 200-1
201.7 Decision Sight Distance 200-6
202.2 Standard Superelevation Rates (Superelevation in Meters per Meter for Curve 200-9
Radius in Meters)
203.2 Standards for Curve Radius 200-16
204.3 Maximum Grades for Type of Highway and Terrain Conditions 200-18
204.8 Falsework Span and Depth Requirements 200-23

302.1 Standards for Paved Shoulder Width 300-2
303.1 Selection of Curb Type 300-5
307.2 Shoulder Widths for Two-lane Roadbed, New Construction Projects 300-15
309.2A Vertical Clearances 300-23
309.2B California Routes on the Rural and Single Interstate Routing System 300-25
309.5A Minimum Vertical Clearances Above Highest Rail 300-27
309.5B Minimum Horizontal Clearances to Centerline of Nearest Track 300-28

401.3 Vehicle Characteristics/Intersection Design Elements Affected 400-1
405.1A Corner Sight Distance (7-1/2 Second Criteria) 400-9
405.1B Application of Sight Distance Requirements 400-9
405.2A Bay Taper for Median Speed-change Lanes 400-10
405.2B Deceleration Lane Length 400-11
405.4 Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used 400-17
406 Traffic Flow Conditions at Intersections at Various Levels of Operation 400-23
xxxi
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Table Subject Page
Number Number

504.3A Ramp Widening for Trucks 500-15
504.3B Pavement Widths 500-16
504.7C Percent of Through Traffic Remaining in Outer Through Lane (Level of Service D 500-42
Procedure)

602.3A ESAL Constants 600-8
602.3B Lane Distribution Factors for Multilane Roads 600-8
602.4A Conversion of ESAL to Traffic Index 600-10
602.4B Example Determination of the 20 Year Traffic Index for an 8-lane Freeway 600-10
603.2 PCCP Structural Section Thickness Guidelines (mm) 600-12
604.2 Gravel Factor and R-Values for Subbases and Bases 600-18
604.3 Gravel Equivalents of Structural Layers (mm) 600-21
604.6A Structural Sections for Roadside Rests (Thickness of Layers in mm) 600-24
604.6B Structural Sections for Park and Ride Lots 600-25
605.3 Life-Cycle Economic Comparison of Pavement Types (Variable-Year Analysis 600-29
Period and 4% Discount Rate)
CHAPTERS 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN
CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS

808.1 Summary of Related Computer Programs 800-33
CHAPTER 810 - HYDROLOGY

816.6A Roughness Coefficients for Sheet Flow 810-11
816.6B Intercept Coefficients for Shallow Concentrated Flow 810-11
819.2B Runoff Coefficients for Developed Areas 810-18
819.5A Summary of Methods for Estimating Design Discharge 810-22

831.3 Desirable Roadway Drainage Guidelines 830-3
838.4 Minimum Pipe Diameter for Storm Drain Systems 830-19
xxxii
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Table Subject Page
Number Number
CHAPTER 840 - SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

842.4 Suggested Depth and Spacing of Pipe Underdrains for Various Soil Types 840-5

851.2 Manning N-Value for Alternative Pipe Materials 850-2
853.1A Allowable Alternative Materials 850-4
853.1C Joint Selection Criteria 850-9
853.3 Example Listing of Alternative Pipe Culverts and Pipe Arch Culverts 850-10
854.1A Guide for the Protection of Reinforced and Unreinforced Concrete Against Acid 850-13
and Sulfate Exposure Conditions
854.2 Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe Fill Height Table 850-14
854.3A Guide for Anticipated Service Life Added to Steel Pipe by Abrasive Resistant 850-18
Protective Coating
854.3B Corrugated Steel Pipe, Helical Corrugations 850-23
854.3C Corrugated Steel Pipe, Helical Corrugations 850-24
854.3D Corrugated Steel Pipe, 68 mm x 13 mm Annular Corrugations 850-25
854.3E Corrugated Steel Pipe Arches, Helical or Annular Corrugations 850-26
854.3F Steel Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 25 mm Ribs at 292 mm Pitch 850-27
854.3G Steel Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 25 mm Ribs at 213 mm Pitch 850-28
854.3H Steel Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 19 mm Ribs at 190 mm Pitch 850-29
854.4A Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Annular Corrugations 850-30
854.4B Corrugated Aluminum Pipe, Helical Corrugations 850-31
854.4C Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arches, Helical or Annular Corrugations 850-32
854.4D Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 25 mm Ribs at 292 mm Pitch 850-33
854.4E Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe, 19 mm x 19 mm Ribs at 190 mm Pitch 850-34
854.6A Structural Steel Plate Pipe, 152 mm x 51 mm Corrugations 850-35
854.6B Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arches, 152 mm x 51 mm Corrugations 850-36
854.6C Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe, 230 mm x 64 mm Corrugations 850-37
854.6D Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arches, 230 mm x 64 mm Corrugations 850-38
854.8 Thermoplastic Pipe Fill Height Tables 850-41
854.9 Minimum Thickness of Cover for Culverts 850-42
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Table Subject Page
Number Number

862.2 Recommended Permissible Velocities for Unlined Channels 860-4
864.3A Average Values for Manning's Roughness Coefficient (n) 860-7
866.2 Guide to Freeboard Height 860-12
CHAPTER 870 - CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION – EROSION CONTROL

872.1 Guide to Selection of Protection 870-4
873.3B Rock Slope Protection Design Guide 870-24
873.3F Channel Linings 870-32
873.3I Permissible Velocities for Flexible Channel Linings 870-38

1003.1 Bike Path Design Speeds 1000-7
1003.6 Bikeway Surface Tolerances 1000-27
xxxiv
November 1, 2001
FOREWORD
may consist of additional sheets or new sheets to be
Purpose
substituted for those superseded.
This manual was prepared by Project Delivery,
Division of Design. The manual establishes Organization of the Manual
uniform policies and procedures to carry out the
A decimal numbering system is used which permits
highway design functions of the California
identification by chapter, topic, and index, each of
Department of Transportation (Caltrans). It is
which is a subdivision of the preceding
neither intended as, nor does it establish, a legal
classification. For example:
standard for these functions.
Chapter 40 Federal-aid
The policies established herein are for the
information and guidance of the officers and Topic 42 Federal-aid System
employees of the Department. Index 42.2 Interstate
Many of the instructions given herein are subject to The upper corner of each page shows the page
amendment as conditions and experience seem to number and the date of issue.
warrant. Special situations may call for variation
from policies and procedures, subject to Division of Use of the Table of Contents
Design approval, or such other approval as may be
specifically provided for. The Table of Contents gives the index number and
page number for each topical paragraph together
It is not intended that any standard of conduct or with corresponding dates of issue. The holder of the
duty toward the public shall be created or imposed manual should insert the title and the appropriate
by the publication of this manual. Statements as to dates of new instructions as they are received.
the duties and responsibilities of any given Revised Table of Contents will be issued as the need
classification of officers or employees mentioned arises.
herein refer solely to duties or responsibilities owed
by those in such classification to their superiors. Use of the English and Metric Editions of the
However, in their official contacts, each employee
Highway Design Manual
should recognize the necessity for good relations
with the public. This Fifth Edition of the Highway Design Manual is
in metric units. All previous English editions are
Scope now obsolete and no longer reflect current
standards. Standard specifications, Special
This manual is not a textbook or a substitute for
Provisions, and Standard Plans no longer support
engineering knowledge, experience, or judgment. It
English unit standards. All projects will be
includes techniques as well as graphs and tables not
designed and constructed in metric units following
ordinarily found in textbooks. These are intended as
the standards in this manual per the instructions
aids in the quick solution of field and office
contained in Index 82.5, “Effective Date for
problems. Except for new developments, no
Implementing Revisions to Design Standards”.
attempt is made to detail basic engineering
Projects designed and constructed in English units
techniques; for these, standard textbooks should be
must be designed and constructed in accordance
used.
with Chief Engineer, Brent Felker's, memorandum
"Processing English Unit Projects", dated April 21,
Form
2000. Encroachment projects up to $1,000,000 in
The loose-leaf form was chosen because it facilitates State Right of Way, may be submitted in dual units,
change and expansion. New instructions will be in accordance with Robert L. Buckley's
issued as sheets in the format of this manual; these memorandum "Dual Units on Encroachment Permit
Projects", dated October 22, 1999.
a
July 1, 1995
Metric Basics
Measurable Attribute - Basic Units Unit Expression
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Luminous intensity candela cd
Time second s
Time hour h
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Volume of liquid liter L
Measurable Attribute - Special Names Unit Expression
Frequency of a periodic phenomenon hertz Hz (1/s)
N (kg.m/s )
2
Force newton
Energy/work/quantity of heat joule J(N.m)
Power watt W (J/s)
2
Pressure/stress pascal Pa (N/m )
Celcius temperature Celsius °C
Quantity of electricity/electrical charge coulomb C
Electric potential volt V
Electric resistance ohm Ω
Luminous flux lumen lm
2
Luminance lux lx (lm/m ) or
2
(cd/m )
Measurable Attribute - Derived Units Unit Expression
2
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s
2
Area square meter m
2
Area hectare ha (10 000 m )
3
Density/mass kilogram per cubic meter kg/m
3
Volume cubic meters m
Velocity meter per second m/s
Mass tonne tonne (1000 kg)
Multiplication Factors Prefix Symbol Pronunciations
9
1 000 000 000 = 10 giga G jig' a (i as in jig, a as in a-bout)
6
1 000 000 = 10 mega M as in mega-phone
3
1000 = 10 kilo k kill' oh
2
100 = 10 *hecto h heck' toe
1
10 = 10 *deko da deck' a (a as in a-bout)
-1
0.1 = 10 *deci d as in deci-mal
-2
0.01 = 10 *centi c as in centi-pede
-3
0.001 = 10 milli m as in mili-tary
µ
-6
0.000 001 = 10 micro as in micro-phone
-9
0.000 000 001 = 10 nano n nan' oh (an as in ant)
* to be avoided where possible
b
July 1, 1995
Common Conversion Factors to Metric

Class Multiply: By: To Get:
2 2
Area ft 0.0929 m
2 2
yd 0.8361 m
2 2
mi 2.590 km
acre 0.404 69 ha
Length ft 0.3048 m
in 25.4 mm
mi 1.6093 km
yd 0.9144 m
3 3
Volume ft 0.0283 m
gal 3.785 L*
fl oz 29.574 mL *
3 3
yd 0.7646 m
3
acre ft 1233.49 m
Mass oz 28.35 g
lb 0.4536 kg
kip (1,000 lb) 0.4536 tonne (1000 kg)
short ton 907.2 kg
(2,000 lb)
short ton 0.9072 tonne (1000 kg)
3 3
Density lb/yd 0.5933 kg/m
3 3
lb/ft 16.0185 kg/m
Pressure psi 6894.8 Pa
2
ksi 6.8948 MPa (N/mm )
2
lbf/ft 47.88 Pa
Velocity ft/s 0.3048 m/s
mph 0.4470 m/s
mph 1.6093 km/h
Temp °F t °c = (t °f-32)/1.8 °C
Light footcandle lux (lx)

2
10.7639 2
(or) lumen/ft (or) lumen/m
* Use Capital "L" for liter to eliminate confusion with the numeral "1"
Land Surveying Conversion Factors

Class Multiply : By: To Get
2
Area acre 4046.87261 m
2
acre 0.404 69 ha (10 000 m )
Length ft 1200/3937** m
** Exact, by definition of the US Survey foot, Section 8810, State of California Public Resources Code
c
HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL 10-1
November 1, 2001
(1) Project Development.

CHAPTER 10 (a) Establish project development process
DIVISION OF DESIGN policies and procedures. Provide
assistance to the Districts in
implementation.
Topic 11 - Organization and
Functions (b) Develop, publish, and maintain the
Project Development Procedures Manual,
and the Project Development Workflow
Index 11.1 - Organization Task Manual.
The Division of Design (DOD), a part of Project (c) Develop policies and procedures for
Development is comprised of the following units: project-related community relations.
Professional Development, CTC Highway Provide community relations training and
Appearances, State Landscape Architecture, technical assistance to Project
Geometric Design Standards, State Highway Development Teams (PDTs) on request.
Drainage Design Storm Water Pollution Control Conduct public opinion research on
Plan Implementation, State Pavement Design, State request.
Project Development Procedures and Quality
Improvement. Finally, the Project Development (d) Process and/or review:
Coordinators, with the assistance of the Design • Route Concept Reports.
Reviewers, represent the Chief, DOD, in the
Caltrans Districts, maintaining liaison and • Project Study Reports.
coordinating District and Headquarters activities. • Project Reports (Transmittal Reports
As the Chief Design Engineer within the DOD, the and Environmental Documents).
Chief, Division of Design, is responsible for • Combined Project Study Report/
activities in support of the development of Project Report.
transportation projects as follows: establishes,
maintains and monitors the project development • Project Scope Summary Reports.
process in accord with all applicable State and • Noise Barrier Scope Summary
Federal laws and regulations; establishes Reports.
engineering standards and procedures for
• New public road connection submittal
application of standards on a statewide basis;
for CTC approval.
approves exceptions to mandatory design
standards; monitors project development related • Freeway agreements.
reports and other documents prepared and
• Route and project studies submittal to
approved in the Districts for conformance to
the CTC.
Caltrans policy and practice. The Chief, DOD also
is the ex officio California member of the (2) Cooperative Agreements, Encroachments and
AASHTO Subcommittee on Design. Resolutions of Necessity.
(a) Develop, publish, and maintain the
11.2 Functions Cooperative Agreement Manual.
The major functions of the Division of Design are (b) Process and/or review:
to:
• Cooperative Agreements.
• Resolution of necessity CTC
appearances.
(c) Approve exceptions to statewide policies
and standards governing encroachments
10-2 HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL
November 1, 2000
and high/low risk utilities within State (f) Direct the review of geometric designs by
highway rights of way. the Districts and review and approve
design features containing any deviations
(3) Program Review and Evaluation.
from mandatory design standards.
(a) Monitor statewide route development
(g) Provide guidelines and develop policies
progress and recommend changes that
and standards for consideration of non-
will improve the effectiveness of the
motorized facilities as an integral part of
program within the available financial
the total transportation system.
resources.
(h) Provide technical expertise to the
(b) Review inventories of State highway
Districts, Headquarters Programs and
needs and proposed additions or deletions
Local Agencies regarding implementation
to the State Highway System. Provide
of the International System of Units (SI).
assistance in the development and review
of the State Transportation Improvement (i) Maintain liaison with other Caltrans
Program (STIP) and State Highway Programs and Districts, other State
Operation and Protection Program agencies, other States, and industry on
(SHOPP). matters involving transportation facilities.
(c) Conduct special studies to improve (j) Develop and disseminate information
project development and project relative to new and improved methods
management control systems. and procedures for preparing plans and
estimating quantities and costs.
(d) Recommend and participate in studies to
improve route study techniques and (k) Provide guidance and liaison for the
community effects analyses. development of highway-related facilities
of other agencies, such as California
(4) Design Policies and Standards.
agriculture inspection stations, U.S.
(a) Develop and adopt design methods, Border Patrol facilities, etc.
policies, and standards for highway and
(5) Drainage and Roadway Structural Design.
other transportation facilities.
(a) Review and provide guidance on special
(b) Develop, publish and periodically update
drainage problems and unusual drainage
the Highway Design Manual. Coordinate
designs, considering technical and legal
with other Caltrans programs, Districts,
aspects based on statewide experience
AASHTO, the FHWA, etc. Provide
when requested by the Districts.
assistance to the Districts in
implementation. (b) Provide methods and guidance for
pavement design and pavement
(c) Promote uniformity in the interpretation
rehabilitation.
and application of design standards and
design policies. (c) Review and advise Districts on use of
mandatory material sites and proprietary
(d) Encourage cooperation and
items; advise and assist in obtaining
communication to successfully integrate
FHWA approvals where needed.
environmental considerations and
aesthetics into the project development (6) Engineering Management.
process.
(a) Program advisor for the Facilities
(e) Coordinate design activities to promote Research Program; serves in an advisory
safety-related design features on a capacity to the Research and
statewide basis. Development Committee and staff.
November 1, 2001
(b) Provide coordination and liaison with (c) Assist the Districts in maintaining an
District Project Development personnel. inventory of recycled material for
potential use on highway projects.
(c) Through the use of Technical
Committees, coordinate the input from all (d) Develop innovative uses of recycled
engineering functional areas and industry materials in special applications such as
into the development of geometric, Mechanically Stabilized Earth (MSE)
structural roadbed, hydraulics and Retaining Walls, rubberized AC, and sign
drainage, and miscellaneous design construction.
standards.
(10) Technology Transfer (T2).
(7) Professional Development.
(a) Act as liaison to FHWA for the
(a) Develop and implement statewide training administration of Demonstration,
programs in support of the project Construction-Evaluated, Experimental
development process, including on the job Feature and Implementation Projects.
training (OJT), Oversight, and Project This includes the distribution of various
Engineer Academies, special task related reports (primarily research types) from
training (hydraulics, pavement design, FHWA and other State Highway
traffic analysis and management, etc.), Agencies.
and control systems, etc. Hold Project
(11) Noise Abatement.
Engineer workshop meetings. Include
consultant staffs as well as Caltrans (a) Act as liaison to developers/vendors of
personnel where needed and desired. new noise barrier design/products;
coordinate Departmental review/approval
(8) Value Analysis.
of their submittals.
(a) Implement and coordinate the use of the
(b) Develop standards, guidelines, practices
structured Value Analysis (VA) process at
and procedures relative to the design of
various milestones throughout the project
noise abatement measures.
development procedure.
(c) Ensure statewide compliance with current
(b) Develop guidelines for the statewide
design criteria for noise abatement.
application of VA stressing its use in
developing alternatives for inclusion in (d) Maintains liaison with the FHWA, and
Project Study Reports. other Federal, State, and local agencies
regarding noise abatement.
(c) Review District VA program for
compliance with the Project Development (12) Accessibility Design Standards.
Procedures Manual and the Value (a) Develop standards, guidelines, practices
Analysis Guidelines. and procedures relative to disabled
(9) Resource Conservation. accessibility.
(a) Implement and coordinate the research (b) Ensure statewide compliance with current
conservation and recycling program. design criteria for disabled accessibility.
(b) Develop and disseminate information (c) Maintain liaison with the FHWA, and
relative to procedures for salvaging, other Federal, State, and local agencies
storing, and reusing typical highway items regarding disabled accessibility.
such as asphalt concrete, guardrail (d) Program Advisor for the HB71 program
hardware, signs, etc. for compliance with requirements of the
Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA).
November 1, 2001
State route shields to guide public travel. Route

CHAPTER 20 numbers used on one system are not duplicated on
DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY another system. Odd numbered routes are
generally south to north and even numbered routes
ROUTES are generally west to east.
(1) Interstate and Defense Highways. The
Topic 21 - Highway Route Interstate System is a network of freeways of
Numbers national importance, created by Congress and
constructed with Federal-aid Interstate System
funds. Routes in the system are signed with
Index 21.1 - Legislative Route Numbers and the Interstate route shields (See Index 42.2
Descriptions and Figure 21.1) and the general numbering
The Legislature designates all State highway routes convention is as follows: routes with one or
and assigns route numbers. The description and two-digit numbers are north-south or east-
number of each route are contained in Chapter 2, west through routes, routes with three-digit
Article 3 of the Streets and Highways Code. These numbers, the first of which is odd, are
route numbers are used for all administrative interstate spur routes. For example, I-110 is a
purposes. spur route off of I-10. Routes in three-digit
numbers, the first of which is even, are loops
The Legislature has stated its intent that the routes through or belt routes around cities. I-805 in
of the State Highway System serve the State's San Diego is an example of a loop off of I-5.
heavily traveled rural and urban corridors, that they The numbering of Interstate routes was
connect the communities and regions of the State, developed by AASHTO with concurrence by
and that they serve the State's economy by the states.
connecting centers of commerce, industry,
agriculture, mineral wealth, and recreation. Renumbering of Interstate routes requires the
approval of AASHTO to assure conformity
A legislative route description generally runs south with established numbering procedures. Such
to north or west to east. To the extent possible, the revisions also are a system action that must be
number used on each route's guide signs is the approved by the Federal Highway
same as the legislatively designated route number. Administrator.
A specific location on any State highway is The Transportation System Information
described by its kilometer post designation Program is responsible for processing requests
(formerly known as post miles). Kilometer posts for changes to the system to AASHTO and
(KP) start at the west or south county line and end FHWA for their consideration.
at the east or north county line. Until the corporate
database is complete, kilometer posts are (2) United States Numbered Routes. United
determined by soft converting the post mile data. States Numbered Routes are a network of
The conversion will be made by multiplying the State highways of statewide and national
post miles by 1.6093. All equations, prefixes and importance. These highways can be
suffixes shall be retained. Post mile information is conventional roadways or freeways.
available in the State Highway Log and on post The establishment of a U.S. number as a guide
mile maps distributed by the Office of Office for interstate travel over certain roads has no
Engineer. connection with Federal control, any Federal-
aid System, or Federal construction financing.
21.2 Sign Route Numbers The Executive Committee of AASHTO, with
Each route in the State Highway System is given a the concurrence of the states, has full authority
unique number for identification and signed with for numbering U.S. routes.
distinctive numbered Interstate, U.S. or California
July 1, 2004
Figure 21.1
Interstate Highway System
in California
November 1, 2001
The Transportation Systems Information

Program is responsible for processing requests
for numbering U.S. routes to AASHTO for
their consideration.
(3) State Sign Routes. State Sign Routes are state
highways within the State, other than the
above signed routes, which are distinctively
signed to serve intrastate and interstate travel
desires.
(4) Business Routes. A Business Route generally
is a local street or road in a city or urban area,
designated by the same route number as the
through Interstate, U.S., or State highway to
which it is connected, with the words
"Business Route" attached to the identifying
route shields. The Business Route designation
provides guidance for the traveling public to
leave the main highway at one end of a city or
urban area, patronize local businesses, and
continue on to rejoin the main route at the
opposite end of the city or urban area.
The Transportation System Information
Program is responsible for approval of
Business Route designations. Applications for
Business Route designation and signing must
be made by written request from the local
government agency to the Chief of the
Transportation System Information Program.
U.S. and Interstate Business Routes require
approval by the AASHTO Executive
Committee.
July 1, 1995
Highway System. The National Highway

CHAPTER 40 System must be designated by law by
September 30, 1995. In the interim, the
FEDERAL-AID National Highway System will consist of
highways classified as principal arterials. The
Topic 41 - Enabling Legislation final system will consist of 250 000 km (+/-
5%) of major roads in the United States.
Included will be all Interstate routes, a large
Index 41.1 - General percentage of urban and rural principal arterials,
the defense strategic highway network, and
The Intermodal Surface Transportation strategic highway connectors.
Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991 is the first
transportation legislation since the Interstate
System was enacted. ISTEA has changed the 42.2 Interstate
established Federal-Aid system. During the 20 As a result of ISTEA the Interstate System is a
years prior to ISTEA there were four Federal- part of the NHS, but will retain its separate
Aid systems: Interstate, Primary, Secondary, identity and receive separate funding. Under
and Urban. Now, instead of four Federal-aid ISTEA the Interstate Program will include:
systems there are two, the National Highway Completion funding for Interstate Construction,
System (NHS) and the Interstate System, which Interstate Substitute highway projects, and an
is a component of the National Highway Interstate Maintenance program to rehabilitate,
System. restore, and resurface the Interstate system.
ISTEA has created new federal-aid programs. Reconstruction is also eligible for funding if it
The Surface Transportation Program can be does not add capacity, except for high
used on Interstate, National Highway System, occupancy vehicle (HOV) or auxiliary lanes.
and all roads functionally classified by FHWA
as other than local or rural minor collectors. Topic 43 - Federal-Aid
The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality
Improvement Program is directed towards Programs
transportation projects which will contribute to
Clean Air Act requirements in non-attainment 43.1 Surface Transportation Program
areas for ozone and carbon monoxide. The (STP)
Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation Program
is continued. The Surface Transportation Program is a new
funding program which may be used for roads
A variety of other programs also exist to provide (including NHS) that are not functionally
flexibility in determining transportation classified as local or rural minor collectors.
solutions and promote a multi-modal system These roads are now collectively referred to as
approach. Some of these programs include Federal-aid roads.
those that target funding for transit projects such
as commuter and high-speed rail systems while The STP includes safety and enhancement
others provide funds for environmental programs. Ten percent of the STP funds must
enhancement such as habitat mitigation and be used for safety construction activities, hazard
wetland banking. Numerous other funding elimination and rail-highway crossings.
categories are also available for use during the Another ten percent of the program is designated
six year term of the act. for transportation enhancement, which
encompasses a broad range of environmental
related activities. The remainder of the STP
Topic 42 - Federal-Aid System funds are divided as follows; 50% is to be
divided between areas of the State based on
42.1 National Highway System population; the remaining 30% can be used in
any area.
After consultation with the States, the Secretary
of Transportation will propose a National
July 1, 1995
43.2 Congestion Mitigation and Air

Quality Improvement Program (CMAQ) Topic 44 - Funding
The Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Determination
Improvement Program directs funds toward
transportation projects in Clean Air Act non- 44.1 Funding Eligibility
attainment areas for ozone and carbon
monoxide. Projects using CMAQ funds will Each Federal program has certain criteria and
contribute to meeting the attainment of national requirements. During design the project
ambient area air quality standards. CMAQ engineer is to consult with the FHWA reviewer
funds may not be used for projects which will to determine the appropriate Federal program
increase capacity for single occupant vehicles. each individual project is eligible for and the
Exceptions might include HOV lanes which level of future Federal involvement. The final
allow single occupant vehicles at other than peak determination to request Federal participation
travel times or auxiliary lanes. will be made by Caltrans, Budgets Program,
Federal Resource Branch.
43.3 Bridge Replacement and
Rehabilitation Program
The Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation 44.2 Federal Participation Ratio
Program is continued in order to provide
assistance for any bridge on public roads. ISTEA has increased the percentage of Federal
Caltrans, Division of Structures, develops a participation in several programs and fund
bridge sufficiency rating for bridges on the State types. The Interstate System reimbursement
system and sets a sufficiency threshold for the allotment remains unchanged at 90%. The
use of Bridge Replacement and Rehabilitation remainder of projects on the NHS, STP and
Funds. CMAQ reimbursement allotments are 80%.
FHWA determines the final detailed ratio based
43.4 Federal Lands Program on formula applied to each State. Contact
Caltrans, Budgets Program, Federal Resources
The Federal Lands Program authorizations are Branch for the most current reimbursement
available through three categories: Indian rates.
Reservation roads, Parkways and Park roads,
and Public Lands Highways (which 44.3 Emergency Relief
incorporates the previous Forest Highway
category). Emergency opening projects are funded 100%
for the first 180 days following a disaster. For
43.5 Special Programs restoration projects and emergency opening
projects after 180 days Federal participation is
Special Program funds are allocated for projects pro-rated.
which generally fall into the following groups:
Special Projects-High Cost Bridge, Congestion
Relief, High Priority Corridors on the NHS,
Rural and Urban Access, Priority Intermodal
and Innovative Projects; National High Speed
Ground Transportation Programs; Scenic
Byways Program; Use of Safety Belts and
Motorcycle Helmets; National Recreational
Trails Program; Emergency Relief.
November 1, 2001
through traffic lanes in each direction.

CHAPTER 60 Likewise, a 4-lane conventional highway
NOMENCLATURE has 2 through traffic lanes in each
direction.
Topic 61 - Abbreviations (d) Median Lane--A speed change lane within
the median to accommodate left turning
Index 61.1 - Official Names vehicles.
AASHTO American Association of State (e) Separate Turning Lane--An auxiliary lane
Highway and Transportation for traffic in one direction which has been
Officials physically separated from the intersection
DOT U.S. Department of Transportation area by a traffic island.
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
Caltrans or California Department of (f) Speed Change Lane--An auxiliary lane,
Department Transportation including tapered areas, primarily for the
CFR Code of Federal Regulations acceleration or deceleration of vehicles
CTC or California Transportation entering or leaving the through traffic
Commission Commission lanes.
DOD Division of Design (g) Traffic Lane--The portion of the traveled
District Department of Transportation
way for the movement of a single line of
Districts
vehicles.
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
PUC Public Utilities Commission (2) Median. The portion of a divided highway
PS&E Plans, Specifications, and Estimate separating the traveled ways for traffic in
STIP State Transportation Improvement opposite directions.
Program (3) Outer Separation. The portion of an arterial
DES Division of Engineering Services
highway between the traveled ways of a
METS Office of Materials Engineering and
Testing Services
roadway for through traffic and a frontage
GS Geotechnical Services street or road.
SD Structure Design (4) Roadbed. That portion of the roadway
extending from curb line to curb line or
Topic 62 - Definitions shoulder line to shoulder line. Divided
highways are considered to have two
62.1 Geometric Cross Section roadbeds.
(1) Lane. (5) Roadside. A general term denoting the area
adjoining the outer edge of the roadbed to the
(a) Auxiliary Lane--The portion of the
right of way line. Extensive areas between the
roadway for weaving, truck climbing,
roadbeds of a divided highway may also be
speed change, or for other purposes
considered roadside.
supplementary to through traffic
movement. (6) Roadway. That portion of the highway
included between the outside lines of the
(b) Lane Numbering--On a multilane roadway, sidewalks, or curbs and gutters, or side ditches
the traffic lanes available for through including also the appertaining structures, and
traffic traveling in the same direction are all slopes, ditches, channels, waterways, and
numbered from left to right when facing in other features necessary for proper drainage
the direction of traffic flow. and protection.
(c) Multiple Lanes--Freeways and conven- (7) Shoulder. The portion of the roadway
tional highways are sometimes defined by contiguous with the traveled way for
the number of through traffic lanes in both accommodations of stopped vehicles, for
directions. Thus an 8-lane freeway has 4
November 1, 2001
emergency use, and for lateral support of base (2) Controlled Access Highway. In situations
and surface courses. where it has been determined advisable by the
(8) Traveled Way. The portion of the roadway for Director or the CTC, a facility may be desig-
the movement of vehicles, exclusive of nated a "controlled access highway" in lieu of
shoulders. the designation "freeway". All statutory
provisions pertaining to freeways and
62.2 Highway Structures expressways apply to controlled access high-
ways.
(1) Illustration of Types of Structures. Figure
62.2 illustrates the names given to common (3) Conventional Highway. A highway without
types of structures used in highway con- control of access which may or may not be
struction. This nomenclature must be used in divided. Grade separations at intersections or
all phases of planning. access control may be used when justified at
spot locations.
(2) Bridges. Structures that span more than
6.1 m, measured along the centerline of the (4) Highway.
road between undercopings of abutments, and (a) Arterial Highway--A general term
multiple span structures, including culverts, denoting a highway primarily for through
where the total measurement of the individual traffic usually on a continuous route.
spans are in excess of 6.1 m, measured from (b) Bypass--An arterial highway that permits
center to center of supports along the traffic to avoid part or all of an urban area.
centerline of the road and the distance
between individual culvert barrels is less than (c) Divided Highway--A highway with
one-half the culvert diameter. Culverts that fit separated roadbeds for traffic in opposing
the definition of a bridge will be designed and directions.
maintained by the Division of Engineering (d) Major Street or Major Highway--An
Services - Structures Design and assigned a arterial highway with intersections at
bridge number. grade and direct access to abutting
(3) Culverts. See Index 806.2. property and on which geometric design
and traffic control measures are used to
62.3 Highway Types expedite the safe movement of through
traffic.
(1) Freeway. A freeway, as defined by statute, is
a highway in respect to which the owners of (e) Radial Highway--An arterial highway
abutting lands have no right or easement of leading to or from an urban center.
access to or from their abutting lands or in (f) Through Street or Through Highway--
respect to which such owners have only Every highway or portion thereof at the
limited or restricted right or easement of entrance to which vehicular traffic from
access. This statutory definition also includes intersecting highways is regulated by stop
expressways. signs or traffic control signals or is
The engineering definitions for use in this controlled when entering on a separate
manual are: right-turn roadway by a yield-right-of-
way sign.
(a) Freeway--A divided arterial highway with
full control of access and with grade sepa- (5) Parkway. An arterial highway for non-
rations at intersections. commercial traffic, with full or partial control
of access, and usually located within a park or
(b) Expressway--An arterial highway with at a ribbon of park-like development.
least partial control of access, which may
or may not be divided or have grade sepa-
rations at intersections.
November 1, 2001
Figure 62.2
Types of Structures
November 1, 2001
(6) Scenic Highway. An officially designated (5) Interchange. A system of interconnecting

portion of the State Highway System roadways in conjunction with one or more
traversing areas of outstanding scenic beauty grade separations providing for the inter-
which together with the adjacent scenic corri- change of traffic between two or more road-
dors requires special scenic conservation ways on different levels.
treatment.
(6) Interchange Elements.
(7) Street or Road.
(a) Branch Connection--A multilane connec-
(a) Cul-de-Sac Street--A local street open at tion between two freeways.
one end only, with special provisions for (b) Freeway-to-freeway Connection--A single
turning around. or multilane connection between
(b) Dead End Street--A local street open at freeways.
one end only, without special provisions (c) Ramp--A connecting roadway between a
for turning around. freeway or expressway and another high-
(c) Frontage Street or Road--A local street or way, road, or roadside area.
road auxiliary to and located on the side (7) Intersection. The general area where two or
of an arterial highway for service to abut- more roadways join or cross, within which are
ting property and adjacent areas and for included roadside facilities for traffic move-
control of access. ments in that area.
(d) Local Street or Local Road--A street or (8) Island. A defined area between traffic lanes
road primarily for access to residence, for control of vehicle movements or for
business, or other abutting property. pedestrian refuge. Within an intersection a
(e) Toll Road, Bridge or Tunnel--A highway, median or an outer separation is considered an
bridge, or tunnel open to traffic only upon island.
payment of a direct toll or fee. (9) Minimum Turning Radius. The radius of the
path of the outer front wheel of a vehicle
62.4 Interchanges and Intersections at making its sharpest turn.
Grade
(10) Skew Angle. The complement of the acute
(1) Channelization. The separation or regulation angle between two centerlines which cross.
of conflicting traffic movements into definite
(11) Weaving Section. A length of one-way
paths of travel by the use of pavement
roadway, designed to accommodate weaving,
markings, raised islands, or other suitable
at one end of which two one-way roadways
means to facilitate the safe and orderly
merge and at the other end of which they
movement of both vehicles and pedestrians.
separate.
(2) Geometric Design. Geometric design is the
arrangement of the visible elements of a road, 62.5 Landscape Architecture
such as alignment, grades, sight distances,
(1) Highway Planting. Vegetation placed for
widths, slopes, etc.
aesthetic, safety, environmental mitigation,
(3) Gore. The area immediately beyond the storm water pollution prevention or erosion
divergence of two roadbeds bounded by the control purposes, including necessary irriga-
edges of those roadbeds. tion systems, inert materials, mulches and
(4) Grade Separation. A crossing of two appurtenances. Highway planting provides
highways or a highway and a railroad at dif- for a level of planting that makes the right of
ferent levels. way compatible with the surrounding environ-
ment up to the allowable maximum cost-per-
hectare (adjusted annually), as determined by
November 1, 2001
the Office of State Landscape Architecture. conditions, reduce water consumption or

Highway planting is warranted on new utilize nonpotable water. Restoration is
highways where adjacent properties are justified when capital costs can be recovered
developed at the time the highway contract is through maintenance savings within 12 years.
accepted; on existing highways where Improvement of working conditions,
adjacent properties have been developed at the installation of Remote Irrigation Control
time the highway contract is accepted for System (RICS), and conversion to nonpotable
construction of a new interchange or major water does not require a 12 year payback.
modification of an existing interchange; and (5) Erosion Control. Vegetation, and other
on existing highways where adjacent materials, such as duff, topsoil, straw, fiber,
properties were developed on or before June mulch or compost stabilizing emulsion,
30, 1987. protective blankets, etc., placed to stabilize
In addition, highway planting may be required areas disturbed by grading operations, reduce
to satisfy written agreements or memorandum loss of soil due to the action of water or wind,
of understanding between the State and and prevent water pollution.
another governmental agency, or mitigate (6) Landscaped Freeway. A designation, as
impacts as required in an environmental defined in Chapter 6, Title 4 of the California
document or by court order. Administrative Code, given to a section of
If legally required, the allowable maximum freeway relative to the regulation of outdoor
cost-per-hectare may be exceeded. advertising displays.
(2) Revegetation. Planting of indigenous plants to (7) Safety Roadside Rest. A roadside area
replace natural vegetation that is damaged or provided for motorists to stop and rest for
removed as a result of highway construction short periods. It includes paved parking areas,
projects or permit requirements. This work drinking water, restrooms, tables, benches,
may include provisions for irrigation. telephones, information panels, and may
Planting to restore existing eroding slope for include other facilities (see Topic 903).
reduction of maintenance effort, traveler (8) Vista Point. A paved area beyond the
safety and improved water pollution control is shoulder which permits travelers to safely exit
included. the highway to stop and view a scenic area. In
(3) Replacement Planting. Planting to replace addition to parking areas, trash receptacles,
planting (installed by Caltrans or others) that interpretive displays, and in some cases rest
is damaged or removed during highway rooms, drinking water and telephones may be
construction activity, including irrigation provided (see Topic 904).
modification and/or replacement.
62.6 Right of Way
Unless the environmental document or
memorandum of understanding with the local (1) Acquisition. The process of obtaining right of
agency specifies otherwise, highway planting way.
work including replacement is done as a
(2) Air Rights. The property rights for the control
separate contract from the highway
or specific use of a designated airspace
construction work. Exceptions may be
involving a highway.
permitted with approval of the Office of State
Landscape Architecture District Coordinator (3) Appraisal. An expert opinion of the market
when justified. value of property including damages and
(4) Highway Planting Restoration. The special benefits, if any, as of a specified date,
renovation or rehabilitation of planting areas resulting from an analysis of facts.
and irrigation systems to reduce maintenance (4) Condemnation. The process by which
expenditures, improve roadside working property is acquired for public purposes
July 1, 2004
through legal proceedings under power of em- Some are terms which are included in the
inent domain. "AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement
Structures" and may be used by FHWA, local
(5) Control of Access. The condition where the
agencies, consultants, etc., when discussing
right of owners or occupants of abutting land
pavement structural sections. Some are common
or other persons to access in connection with a
terms in pavement design and research publications
highway is fully or partially controlled by
that the PE may want to read.
public authority.
(1) Asphalt Treated Permeable Base (ATPB). A
(6) Easement. A right to use or control the
highly permeable open-graded mixture of
property of another for designated purposes.
crushed coarse aggregate and asphalt binder
(7) Eminent Domain. The power to take private of planned thickness placed as the base layer
property for public use without the owner's to assure adequate drainage of the structural
consent upon payment of just compensation. section, as well as structural support.
(8) Encroachment. Occupancy of project right of (2) Base. A layer of selected, processed, and/or
way by non-project structures or objects of treated aggregate material of planned
any kind or character. thickness and quality placed immediately
(9) Inverse Condemnation. The legal process below the pavement and above the subbase or
which may be initiated by a property owner to basement soil to support the pavement.
compel the payment of just compensation (3) Basement Soil/Material. The natural soil or
where the property has been taken or damaged rock material in excavation or embankments
for a public purpose. underlying the lowest layer of subbase, base,
(10) Negotiation. The process by which property pavement surfacing or other specified layer
is sought to be acquired for project purposes which is to be placed.
through mutual agreement upon the terms for (4) Borrow. Natural soil obtained from sources
transfer of such property. outside the roadway prism to make up a
(11) Partial Acquisition. The acquisition of a deficiency in excavation quantities.
portion of a parcel of property. (5) Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAP-M). A
(12) Relinquishment. A transfer of the State's maintenance program which funds work that
right, title, and interest in and to a highway, or is performed to preserve the existing
portion thereof, to a city or county. pavement structural section utilizing strategies
that extend pavement service life for a
(13) Right of Access. The right of an abutting land minimum of 5 years. (For more detailed
owner for entrance to or exit from a public discussion and sample strategies, see CAP-M
road. Guidelines by the Division of Maintenance.)
(14) Severance Damages. Loss in value of the (6) Cement Treated Permeable Base (CTPB). A
remainder of a parcel which may result from a highly permeable open-graded mixture of
partial taking of real property and/or from the coarse aggregate, portland cement, and water
project. placed as the base layer to provide adequate
(15) Vacation. The reversion of title to the owner drainage of the structural section, as well as
of the underlying fee where an easement for structural support.
highway purposes is no longer needed. (7) Crack. Separation of the materials due to
62.7 Pavement Structural Section natural causes, traffic action, or reflections
from an underlying pavement.
The following list of definitions includes a number
of terms that are not commonly used in California. (8) Deflection. The downward vertical movement
of a pavement surface due to the application
of a load to the surface.
July 1, 2004
(9) Dense Graded Asphalt Concrete (DGAC). A (17) Grading Plane. The surface of the basement
uniformly graded asphalt concrete mixture material upon which the lowest layer of
(aggregate and paving asphalt), containing a subbase, base, pavement surfacing, or other
small percentage of voids, used primarily as a specified layer is placed.
surface layer to provide the structural strength
(18) Hot Recycling. The use of reclaimed asphalt
needed to distribute loads to underlying layers
concrete pavement which is combined with
of the structural section.
virgin aggregates, asphalt, and sometimes
(10) Depression. Localized low areas of limited rejuvenating agents at a central hot-mix plant
size that may or may not be accompanied by and placed in the structural section in lieu of
cracking. all new materials.
(11) Design Period. The period of time for which (19) Joint Seals. Pourable, extrudable, or
traffic is forecasted. premolded materials that are placed primarily
in transverse and longitudinal joints in or
(12) Dowel Bar. A load transfer device in a rigid
along the edge of concrete pavement to deter
slab usually consisting of a plain round steel
the entry of water and incompressible
bar.
materials (such as sand that is broadcast in
(13) Edge Drain System. A drainage system, freeze-thaw areas to improve skid resistance).
consisting of a slotted plastic collector pipe
(20) Lean Concrete Base. Mixture of aggregate,
encapsulated in treated permeable material
portland cement, water, and optional
and a filter fabric barrier, with unslotted
admixtures, primarily used as a base for
plastic pipe vents, outlets, and cleanouts,
portland cement concrete pavement.
designed to drain the structural section of both
rigid and flexible pavements. (21) Longitudinal Joint. A joint normally placed
between traffic lanes in rigid pavements to
(14) Embankment. A prism of earth that is
control longitudinal cracking, and the joint
constructed from excavated or borrowed
between the traveled way and the shoulder.
natural soil and/or rock, extending from
original ground to the grading plane, and (22) Maintenance. The preservation of the entire
designed to provide a stable support for the roadway, including pavement surface and
pavement structural section. structural section, shoulders, roadsides,
structures, and such traffic control devices as
(15) Equivalent Single Axle Loads (ESAL's).
are necessary for its safe and efficient
Summation of equivalent 80 kN single axle
utilization.
loads used to convert mixed traffic to design
traffic for the design period. (23) New Construction. Constructing a new
facility or widening an existing facility on
(16) Flexible Pavement. A traffic load carrying
land parcels where there are no existing
system that is made up of one or more layers
improvements.
that are designed to transmit and distribute
that loading to the underlying roadbed (24) Open Graded Asphalt Concrete (OGAC). An
material. The highest quality layer is the open graded mixture of aggregate and a
surface course (generally asphalt concrete), relatively high asphalt content which provides
which is usually underlaid by a lesser quality good skid resistance and a high permeability.
base, and in turn a subbase. It is called OGAC is designed to accommodate rapid
flexible because it can tolerate deflection surface drainage and minimize the potential
bending under heavy loads. for hydroplaning while providing an effective
seal of the underlying asphalt concrete
pavement.
July 1, 2004
(25) Overlay. A layer, usually asphalt concrete, (33) Reconstruction. Improvements to an existing
placed on existing asphalt or portland cement facility to meet current design standards
concrete pavement to restore ride quality, to and/or to provide increased capacity, safety,
increase structural strength (load carrying efficiency, or significant changes to the
capacity), and to extend the service life. horizontal or vertical alignments.
(26) Pavement. The surface layer of the structural (34) Resurfacing. An additional surface layer, or
section that carries traffic. Except for special the replacement of the surface layer, placed on
or experimental surface layers, the pavement an existing pavement to restore its riding
is either portland cement concrete or asphalt quality or to increase its structural (load
concrete. The asphalt concrete layer may carrying) strength.
include up to a 30 mm layer of Open Graded
(35) Rigid Pavement. Primarily portland cement
Asphalt Concrete (OGAC).
concrete pavement which distributes the
(27) Pavement Rehabilitation. Work undertaken to superimposed axle loads over a relatively
extend the service life of an existing facility. wide area of underlying structural section
This includes placement of additional layers and soil because of its rigidity and high
surfacing and/or other work necessary to modulus of elasticity.
return an existing roadway, including
(36) Roadbed. That area between the intersection
shoulders, to a condition of structural or
of the upper surface of the roadway and the
functional adequacy, for the specified service
side slopes or curb lines. The roadbed rises in
life. This might include the partial or
elevation as each increment or layer of
complete removal and replacement of portions
subbase, base, or pavement is placed. A
of the pavement structural section.
divided highway with a median so wide as to
(28) Pavement Service Life. The period of time include areas of undisturbed land is
that a newly constructed or rehabilitated considered as including two separate
pavement structural section is designed to roadbeds. See also 62.3(4)(c).
perform before reaching its terminal
(37) Routine Maintenance (Traditional). Work,
serviceability or a condition that requires
performed either by contract or by State
major rehabilitation or reconstruction; this is
forces, that preserves the ride quality, safety
also referred to as the performance period.
characteristics, functional serviceability, and
(29) Pavement Structure. See Structural Section. structural integrity of the structural section.
(30) Performance Period. See Pavement Service For flexible pavement, this includes strategies
Life. to correct for: low skid resistance, cracking,
raveling, corrugations, loss of lateral support,
(31) Pumping. The ejection of base and subgrade
wheel grooving, potholes, settlement, heave or
material, either wet or dry, through joints or
distortion, bridge approach settlement, base
cracks, or along edges of rigid slabs resulting
failure, drip track erosion, and abrupt vertical
from vertical movements of the slab under
surface differential.
traffic. This phenomenon is especially
pronounced with saturated structural sections. For rigid pavements, maintenance includes
strategies to correct for: low skid resistance,
(32) Raveling. Progressive disintegration of the
proper drainage, cracking, shoulder drop-off,
surface downward on asphalt concrete
slab warp, spalling, slab settlement, heave or
pavement by dislodged aggregate particles
distortion, bridge approach settlement, base
and binder. Stripping usually precedes
failure, joint separation, checking, joint
raveling.
sealing, and abrupt vertical surface
differential.
July 1, 2004
(38) Rutting. Longitudinal depressions that permeable material and a filter fabric barrier
develop in the wheel paths under traffic. This with unslotted plastic pipe as vents, outlets
permanent and sometimes progressive and cleanouts to rapidly drain the pavement
deformation is most often caused by unstable structural section.
pavement, inadequate strength of the
(45) Subbase. A layer of aggregate, of designed
underlying foundation, chains or studded tire
thickness and specified quality, placed on the
abrasion, or raveling.
basement soil as the foundation for a base.
(39) R-value. Resistance value of treated or
(46) Subgrade. The portion of the roadbed on
untreated soil or aggregate as determined by
which the pavement structural section is
the stabilometer test (California Test Method
placed.
301). This is a measure of the supporting
strength of the basement soil and subsequent (47) Tie Bars. Deformed steel bars or connectors
layers used in the design of pavement used to hold the faces of abutting slabs in
structural sections. contact.
(40) Serviceability. A pavement’s ability to serve
62.8 Traffic
the traffic which uses the facility. The
primary measure of serviceability is the (1) Annual Average Daily Traffic. The average
Present Serviceability Index (PSI), which 24 hour volume, being the total number
ranges from 0 (impassible road) to 5 (perfect during a stated period divided by the number
road). of days in that period. Unless otherwise
stated, the period is a year. The term is
(41) Settlement. Localized vertical displacement of
commonly abbreviated as ADT or AADT.
the pavement structural section due to
slippage or consolidation of the underlying (2) Delay. The time lost while traffic is impeded
basement soil/material, often resulting in by some element over which the driver has no
pavement cracking, poor ride quality, and control.
deterioration. (3) Density. The number of vehicles per
(42) Stripping. The loss of the adhesive bond kilometer on the traveled way at a given
between asphalt cement and aggregate, most instant.
often caused by the presence of water in (4) Design Vehicles. See Topic 404.
asphalt concrete, which may result in raveling,
and the loss of stability and load carrying (5) Design Volume. A volume determined for use
capacity of the asphalt concrete pavement or in design, representing traffic expected to use
treated base. the highway. Unless otherwise stated, it is an
hourly volume.
(43) Structural Section. The planned, engineering
design of layers of specified materials (6) Diverging. The dividing of a single stream of
(normally consisting of subbase, base, and traffic into separate streams.
pavement surface) placed over the basement (7) Headway. The time in seconds between
soil to support the traffic loads anticipated to consecutive vehicles moving past a point in a
be accumulated and applied during the design given lane, measured front to front.
period. The structural section is also
commonly called the pavement structural (8) Level of Service. A rating using qualitative
section. measures that characterize operational
conditions within a traffic stream and their
(44) Structural Section Drainage System. Used perception by motorists and passengers.
with both flexible and rigid pavements,
consisting of a treated permeable base layer (9) Merging. The converging of separate streams
and a collector system which includes a of traffic into a single stream.
slotted plastic pipe encapsulated in treated
July 1, 2004
(10) Running Time. The time the vehicle is in 62.9 Drainage

motion.
See Chapter 800 for definition of drainage terms.
(11) Spacing. The distance between consecutive
vehicles in a given lane, measured front to
front.
(12) Speed.
(a) Design Speed--A speed selected to estab-
lish specific minimum geometric design
elements for a particular section of high-
way.
(b) Running Speed--The speed over a speci-
fied section of highway, being the dis-
tance divided by running time. The aver-
age for all traffic, or component thereof, is
the summation of distances divided by the
summation of running times.
(13) Traffic Control Devices.
(a) Traffic Markings--All lines, words, or
symbols, except signs, officially placed
within the roadway to regulate, warn, or
guide traffic.
(b) Traffic Sign--A device mounted on a
fixed or portable support, conveying a
message or symbol to regulate, warn, or
guide traffic.
(c) Traffic Signal--A power operated traffic
control device except signs, barricade
warning lights, and steady burning electric
lamps, by which traffic is regulated,
warned, or alternately directed to take spe-
cific actions.
(14) Volume. The number of vehicles passing a
given point during a specified period of time.
(15) Weaving. The crossing of traffic streams
moving in the same general direction
accomplished by merging and diverging.
(16) Ramp Metering. A traffic management
strategy which utilizes a system of traffic
signals on freeway entrance and connector
ramps to regulate the volume of traffic
entering a freeway corridor in order to
maximize the efficiency of the freeway and
thereby minimize the total delay in the
transportation corridor.
November 1, 2001
for construction on the basis of overall system

CHAPTER 80 benefits as well as community goals, plans, and
APPLICATION OF DESIGN values.
STANDARDS Decisions must also emphasize different

transportation modes working together effectively.
The goal is to increase highway mobility and safety
Topic 81 - Project Development
in a manner that is compatible with, or which
Overview enhances, adjacent community values and plans.
Index 81.1 - Philosophy Topic 82 - Application of

The Project Development process seeks to provide Standards
a degree of mobility to users of the transportation
system that is in balance with other values. In the
development of transportation projects, social, 82.1 Highway Design Manual Standards
economic, and environmental effects must be (1) General. The highway design criteria and
considered fully along with technical issues so that policies in this manual provide a guide for the
final decisions are made in the best overall public engineer to exercise sound judgment in
interest. Attention should be given to such applying standards, consistent with the above
considerations as: Project Development philosophy, in the
(a) Need for safe and efficient transportation. design of projects.
(b) Attainment of community goals and The design standards used for any project
objectives. should equal or exceed the minimum given in
the Manual to the maximum extent feasible,
(c) Needs of low mobility and disadvantaged taking into account costs, traffic volumes,
groups. traffic and safety benefits, right of way, socio-
(d) Costs of eliminating or minimizing economic and environmental impacts, etc.
adverse effects on natural resources, The philosophy provides for use of lower
environmental values, public services, standards when such use best satisfies the
aesthetic values, and community and concerns of a given situation. Because design
individual integrity. standards have evolved over many years,
many existing highways do not conform fully
(e) Planning based on realistic financial with current standards. It is not intended that
estimates. current manual standards be applied
(f) The cost, ease, and safety of maintaining retroactively to all existing State highways;
whatever is built. such is neither warranted nor economically
feasible. However, when warranted,
Proper consideration of these items requires that a upgrading of existing roadway features such
facility be viewed from the perspectives of the user, as guardrail, lighting, superelevation, roadbed
the nearby community, and larger statewide width, etc., should be considered, either as
interests. For the user, efficient travel and safety independent projects or as part of larger
are paramount concerns. At the same time, the projects. A record of the decision not to
community often is more concerned about local upgrade the existing non-standard mandatory
aesthetic, social, and economic impacts. The features shall be provided through the
general population, however, tends to be interested exception process (See Index 82.2).
in how successfully a project functions as part of
the overall transportation system and how large a
share of available capital resources it consumes.
Therefore, individual projects must be selected
July 1, 2004
This manual does not address temporary capacity. All but the last of these criteria are
construction features. It is recognized that the also designated as geometric criteria.
construction conditions encountered are so
The design standards related to the 12 geo-
diverse and variable that it is not practical to
metric criteria are designated as mandatory
set geometric criteria. Guidance for the
standards in this manual (see Index 82.1(2)
treatment of temporary construction zones can
and Table 82.1A).
be found in Chapter 5 of the Traffic Manual,
“Manual of Traffic Control” and the Manual (6) Other. In addition to the design standards in
on Uniform Traffic Control Devices this manual, the Traffic Manual contains
(MUTCD). standards relating to clearzone, signs,
delineation, barrier systems, signals, and
In this manual design standards are catego-
lighting.
rized in order of importance in development
of a safe State highway system operating at Caution must be exercised when using other
selected levels of service commensurate with Caltrans publications which provide guide-
projected traffic volumes and highway lines for the design of highway facilities, such
classification. as HOV lanes. These publications do not
contain design standards; moreover, the
(2) Mandatory Standards. Mandatory design
designs suggested in these publications do not
standards are those considered most essential
always meet Highway Design Manual
to achievement of overall design objectives.
Standards. Therefore, all other Caltrans
Many pertain to requirements of law or
publications must be used in conjunction with
regulations such as those embodied in the
this manual.
FHWA's 13 controlling criteria (see below).
Mandatory standards use the word "shall" and
82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design
are printed in Boldface type (see Table
82.1A). (1) Mandatory Standards. To promote uniform
practice on a statewide basis, design
(3) Advisory Standards. Advisory design
features or elements which deviate from the
standards are important also, but allow greater
mandatory standards indicated herein shall
flexibility in application to accommodate
require the approval of the Chief, Division
design constraints or be compatible with local
of Design. This approval authority has
conditions on resurfacing or rehabilitation
been delegated to the Design Coordinators,
projects. Advisory standards use the word
except the mandatory standards in Chapter
"should" and are indicated by Underlining
600, which have been delegated to the
(see Table 82.1B).
Chief, Office of Pavement Design, and
(4) Permissive Standards. All standards other may involve coordination with the Design
than mandatory or advisory, whether indicated Coordinator.
by the use of "should" or "may", are
The current procedures and documentation
permissive with no requirement for
requirements pertaining to the approval
application intended.
process for exceptions to mandatory design
(5) Controlling Criteria. The FHWA has standards are contained in Chapter 21 of the
designated thirteen controlling criteria for se- Project Development Procedures Manual
lection of design standards of primary impor- (PDPM).
tance for highway safety, listed as follows:
Design exception approval must be obtained
design speed, lane width, shoulder width,
prior to District approval of the PSR, or any
bridge width, horizontal alignment, vertical
project initiation document (i.e., PSSR, PEER,
alignment, grade, stopping sight distance,
combined PSR/PR), other than the PSR-PDS.
cross slope, superelevation, horizontal clear-
The text of the project initiation report must
ance, vertical clearance and bridge structural
include a brief description of the nonstandard
July 1, 2004
features, as well as a reference to all approved For local facilities crossing the State right of
Fact Sheets and their approval dates by the way see Index 308.1.
Division of Design and/or FHWA (when
(2) Advisory Standards. The authority to approve
applicable).
exceptions to advisory standards has been
If the need for a design exception is identified delegated to the District Directors. Proposals
after approval of the project’s initiation for exceptions from advisory standards should
document, the above described consultation be discussed with the Project Development
and documentation process shall be initiated Coordinators during development of the
immediately, and must be completed prior to approval documentation. The responsibility
approval of the next project development for the establishment of procedures for
report. The text of the project development review, documentation, and long term
report (i.e., Draft Project Report, Project retention of approved exceptions from
Report, Supplemental PR, PAR, etc.) must advisory standards has also been delegated to
include the design exception reference the District Directors.
normally provided in the project initiation
report (see above). 82.3 Use of FHWA and AASHTO Standards
During the construction phase of a project, and Policies
Fact Sheets must be prepared (by Project The standards in this manual generally conform to
Development staff) to document any the standards and policies set forth in the AASHTO
nonstandard features proposed in a Contract publications, "A Policy on Geometric Design of
Change Order. Such Change Orders shall not Highways and Streets" (2001) and "A Policy on
be executed until the proposed design Design Standards-Interstate System" (1988). A
exception has been approved (at least third AASHTO publication, "Roadside Design
verbally) by the appropriate Caltrans and Guide" (2002), focuses on creating safer roadsides.
FHWA (if required) authority (ies). If verbal These three documents, along with other AASHTO
approval is granted to expedite Change Order and FHWA publications cited in 23 CFR Ch 1, Part
execution, the Fact Sheet must be completed 625, Appendix A, contain most of the current
and approved immediately thereafter. AASHTO policies and standards, and are approved
The Intermodal Surface Transportation references to be used in conjunction with this
Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA) allows manual.
significant delegation to the states by FHWA AASHTO policies and standards, which are
to approve and administer portions of the established as nationwide standards, do not always
Federal-Aid Transportation Program. satisfy California conditions. When standards
California has accepted the maximum differ, the instructions in this manual govern,
delegations offered as outlined in the May 27, except when necessary for FHWA project approval
1992 memorandum signed by W.P. Smith. If (Index 108.3, Coordination with the FHWA).
required, FHWA approval of exceptions to
mandatory design standards related to the 13 82.4 Mandatory Procedural Requirements
controlling criteria should be sought as early
Required procedures and policies for which
in the project development process as
Caltrans is responsible, relating to project
possible. However, formal approval shall not
clearances, permits, licenses, required tests,
be requested until the appropriate Project
documentation, value engineering, etc., are in-
Development Coordinator has approved the
dicated by use of the word "must". Procedures and
design exception.
actions to be performed by others (subject to
FHWA approval is not required for exceptions notification by Caltrans), or statements of fact are
to "Caltrans-only" mandatory standards. indicated by the word "will".
Table 82.1A identifies these mandatory stan-
dards.
November 1, 2001
82.5 Effective Date for Implementing

Revisions to Design Standards
Revisions to design standards will be issued with a
stated effective date. It is understood that all
projects will be designed to current standards
unless an exception has been approved in
accordance with Index 82.2.
On projects where the project development process
has started, the following conditions on the
effective date of the new or revised standards will
be applied:
• For all projects where the PS&E has not
been finalized, the new or revised design
standards shall be incorporated unless this
would impose a significant delay in the
project schedule or a significant increase in
the project engineering or construction
costs. The Project Development Coordina-
tor will make the final determination on
whether to apply the new or previous
design standards on a project-by-project
basis for roadway features.
• For all projects where the PS&E has been
submitted to Headquarters Office Engineer
for advertising or the project is under
construction, the new or revised standards
will be incorporated only if they are
identified in the Change Transmittal as
requiring special implementation.
For locally-sponsored projects, the Oversight
Engineer shall inform the funding sponsor within
15 working days of the effective date of any
changes in mandatory or advisory design standards
as defined in Index 82.2.
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards
CHAPTER 80 APPLICATION OF 204.8 Vertical Falsework Clearances*
DESIGN STANDARDS Topic 205 Road Connections and Driveways
Topic 82 Application of Standards Index 205.1 Sight Distance Requirements for
Index 82.2 Approvals for Nonstandard Design Access Openings on Expressways
Topic 208 Bridges and Grade Separation
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN Structures
POLICIES
Index 208.1 Bridge Width
Topic 101 Design Speed
208.10 Bridge Approach Railings*
Index 101.1 Technical Reductions of Design
Speed CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS
101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Local SECTION
Facilities Topic 301 Pavement Standards
101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Local Index 301.1 Lane Width
Facilities - with Connections to
State Facilities 301.2 Cross Slopes
101.2 Design Speed Standards 301.2 Algebraic Differences in Cross

Slopes
Topic 104 Control of Access
Topic 302 Shoulder Standards
Index 104.4 Protection of Access Rights*
Index 302.1 Shoulder Width
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
302.2 Shoulder Cross Slopes
AND STRUCTURE
STANDARDS Topic 305 Median Standards
Topic 201 Sight Distance Index 305.1 Median Width*
Index 201.1 Sight Distance Standards Topic 307 Cross Sections for State Highways
Topic 202 Superelevation Index 307.2 Shoulder Width for Structural

Section Support on Two-lane Cross
Index 202.2 Standards for Superelevation Sections for New Construction
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and 307.2 Shoulder Standards for Two-lane
County Roads Cross Sections for New
Topic 203 Horizontal Alignment Construction
Index 203.1 Horizontal Alignment - Local

Facilities Topic 308 Cross Sections for Roads Under
Other Jurisdictions
203.1 Horizontal Alignment and Stopping
Sight Distance Index 308.1 Cross Section Standards for City
Streets and County Roads without
203.2 Standards for Curvature Connection to State Facilities
Topic 204 Grade 308.1 Minimum Width of 2-lane
Structures for City Streets and
Index 204.1 Standards for Grade - Local
County Roads without Connection
Facilities
to State Facilities
204.3 Standards for Grade
*
Caltrans-only Mandatory Standard
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1A
Mandatory Standards (Cont.)
308.1 Cross Section Standards for City CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC

Streets and County Roads with INTERCHANGES
Connection to State Facilities
Topic 501 General
308.1 Minimum Width of 2-lane
Structures for City Streets and Index 501.3 Interchange Spacing
County Roads with Connection to
Topic 504 Interchange Design Standards
State Facilities
Index 504.2 Location of Freeway Entrances &
Topic 309 Clearances
Exits
Index 309.1 Horizontal Clearances and Stopping
504.2 Ramp Deceleration Lane and “DL”
Sight Distance
Distance
309.1 Clear Recovery Zone
504.3 Ramp Lane Width
309.2 Vertical Clearances - Major
504.3 Ramp Shoulder Width
Structures
504.3 Ramp Lane Drop Taper
309.2 Vertical Clearances - Minor
Structures 504.3 Ramp Metering Design Features
309.2 Rural and Single Interstate Routing 504.3 Lane Drop Taper
System
504.3 Ramp Meters on Connector Ramps
309.3 Horizontal Tunnel Clearances
504.3 Lane Drop Transitions on Connector
309.3 Vertical Tunnel Clearances Ramps
309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated 504.3 Distance Between Ramp
Structures* Intersection and Local Road
Intersection
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to
Railroads - Vertical Clearance 504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connections -
Shoulder Width
Topic 310 Frontage Roads
504.8 Access Control along Ramps
Index 310.1 Frontage Road Width*
504.8 Access Control at Ramp Terminal
CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT
GRADE 504.8 Access Rights Required Opposite
Ramp Terminals
Topic 405 Intersection Design Standards
CHAPTER 600 PAVEMENT
Index 405.1 Driver Set Back
STRUCTURAL SECTION
405.1 Sight Distance at Public Road
Topic 602 Pavement Service Life and Traffic
Intersections
Data
405.1 Sight Distance at Private Road
Index 602.2 Pavement Service Life for CAP-M*
Intersections
Index 602.2 Pavement Service Life for Pavement
405.2 Left-turn Channelization - Lane
Rehabilitation*
Width
Index 602.2 Project Resurfacing Requirements*
405.2 Two-way Left-turn Lane Width
405.3 Right-turn Channelization – Width
*
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1A
Index 602.2 Pavement Service Life for New 1003.1 Physical Barriers Adjacent to Class I
Construction & Reconstruction* Bikeways
Index 602.2 Pavement Service Life for 1003.1 Class I Bikeway in Medians*
Widening*
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Design Speeds*
Topic 603 Portland Cement Concrete
1003.1 No Speed Bumps on Class I
Pavement Structural Section
Bikeways*
Design
1003.2 Class II Bikeway Design*
Index 603.2 Doweling and Tying Concrete
Pavement* 1003.2 Class II Bikeway Widths Adjacent
to Parking Stalls*
Index 603.4 Shoulder Structural Section
Requirements* 1003.2 Class II Bikeways Adjacent to
Parking*
CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS
STANDARDS 1003.2 Class II Bikeway Widths where
Parking is Permitted*
Topic 701 Fences
1003.2 Class II Bikeway Widths where
Index 701.2 Fences on Freeways and Parking is Prohibited*
Expressways*
1003.2 Class II Bikeways Adjacent to Part-
CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE time Parking*
ARCHITECTURE 1003.2 Class II Bikeways Widths in
Topic 903 Safety Roadside Rest Area Design Undeveloped Areas*
Standards 1003.2 Class II Bikeways Delineation*
Index 903.5 Rest Area Ramp Design 1003.2 Class II Bikeways Through
Topic 904 Vista Point Standards and Interchange*
Guidelines 1003.3 Class III Bikeways Through
Index 904.3 Vista Point Ramp Design Interchange*
CHAPTER 1000 BIKEWAY PLANNING 1003.6 Bicycles Traveling against Traffic*

AND DESIGN 1003.6 Bikeway Overcrossing Structures*
Topic 1002 General Planning Criteria 1003.6 Drainage Inlet Grates on Bikeways*
Index 1002.1 Resurfacing Requirements* Topic 1004 Uniform Signs, Markings and
Traffic Control Devices
1002.1 Shoulder Requirements when
Adding Lanes* Index 1004.1 Uniform Signs, Markings and
Traffic Control Devices*
Topic 1003 Design Criteria
1004.3 Class II Bikeway Signing*
Index 1003.1 Class I Bikeway Widths*
1004.3 Class II Bikeway Pavement
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Horizontal
Markings*
Clearance*
1004.3 Class II Bikeway Pavement
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Structure Width*
Markers*
1003.1 Class I Bikeway Vertical
Clearance*
*
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1A
CHAPTER 1100 HIGHWAY TRAFFIC

NOISE ABATEMENT
Topic 1102 Design Criteria
Index 1102.2 Horizontal Clearance to Noise
Barrier
1102.2 Noise Barrier on Safety Shape
Concrete Barrier
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards
CHAPTER 100 BASIC DESIGN Topic 203 Horizontal Alignment

POLICIES Index 203.1 Horizontal Alignment - Local
Topic 101 Design Speed Facilities
Index 101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Local 203.3 Alignment Consistency and Design
Facilities Speed
101.1 Selection of Design Speed - Local 203.5 Compound Curves

Facilities - with Connections to 203.6 Reversing Curves
State Facilities
Topic 204 Grade
Topic 104 Control of Access
Index 204.1 Standards for Grade - Local
Index 104.5 Relation of Access Opening to Facilities
Median Opening
204.3 Standards for Grade
Topic 105 Pedestrian Facilities
204.3 Ramp Grades
Index 105.1 Minimum Sidewalk Width
204.4 Vertical Curves
105.4 New Construction, Two Ramp 204.5 Decision Sight Distance at Climbing
Design Lane Drops
204.6 Design Speeds for Horizontal and
Topic 107 Roadside Installations Vertical Curves
Index 107.1 Standards for Roadway Connections 204.8 Falsework Span and Depth
Requirements
107.1 Number of Exits and Entrances
Allowed at Roadway Connections Topic 205 Road Connections and Driveways
CHAPTER 200 GEOMETRIC DESIGN Index 205.1 Access Openings on Expressways

AND STRUCTURE Topic 206 Pavement Transitions
STANDARDS Index 206.3 Lane Drop Transitions
Topic 201 Sight Distance 206.3 Lane Width Reductions
Index 201.3 Stopping Sight Distance on Grades Topic 208 Bridges and Grade Separation
201.7 Decision Sight Distance Structures
Topic 202 Superelevation Index 208.3 Decking of Bridge Medians
Index 202.2 Superelevation on Same Plane for 208.6 Minimum Width of Pedestrian
Rural Two-lane Roads Overcrossings
202.5 Superelevation Transition

208.10 Protective Screening on
202.5 Superelevation Runoff Overcrossings
202.5 Superelevation in Restrictive 208.10 Bicycle Railing Locations
Situations
202.6 Superelevation of Compound Topic 210 Earth Retaining Systems
Curves
Index 210.5 Cable Railing
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and
County Roads
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards (Cont.)
CHAPTER 300 GEOMETRIC CROSS CHAPTER 400 INTERSECTIONS AT

SECTION GRADE
Topic 301 Pavement Standards Topic 403 Principles of Channelization
Index 301.2 Algebraic Differences of Cross Index 403.3 Angle of Intersection
Slopes
Topic 404 Design Vehicles
Topic 303 Curbs, Dikes, and Side Gutters
Index 404.3 STAA Truck-turn Template
Index 303.1 Use of Curb with Operating Speeds
404.3 California Truck-turn Template
of 75 km/h and Greater
Topic 405 Intersection Design Standards
303.1 Selection of Curb Type
Index 405.1 Corner Sight Distance at Public
303.3 Selection of Dike Type
Road Intersections
Topic 304 Side Slopes
405.1 Decision Sight Distance at
Index 304.1 Side Slopes 1:4 or Flatter Intersections
304.1 5.5 m Minimum Catch Distance 405.5 Emergency Openings and Sight
Distance
Topic 305 Median Standards
405.5 Median Opening Locations
Index 305.1 Median Width
305.2 Median Cross Slopes CHAPTER 500 TRAFFIC
INTERCHANGES
Topic 502 Interchange Types
Topic 308 Cross Sections for Roads Under
Other Jurisdictions Index 502.2 Isolated Ramps and Partial
Interchanges
Index 308.1 Cross Section Standards for City
Streets and County Roads without Topic 504 Interchange Design Standards
Connection to State Facilities Index 504.2 Freeway Entrance and Exit Design
308.1 Minimum Shoulder Width 504.2 Collector-distributor Deceleration
Requirements for Bicycles Lane and “DL” Distance
Topic 309 Clearances 504.2 Paved Width at Gore
Index 309.1 Clear Recovery Zone 504.2 Auxiliary Lanes
309.1 Safety Shaped Barriers at Retaining, 504.2 Freeway Exit Design Speed
Pier, or Abutment Walls
504.2 Decision Sight Distance at Exits
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to
Railroads - Vertical Clearance 504.2 Design Speed and Alignment
Consistency at Inlet Nose
Topic 310 Frontage Roads
504.2 Freeway Ramp Grades
Index 310.2 Outer Separation - Urban Areas
504.2 Differences in Pavement Cross
310.2 Outer Separation - Rural Areas Slopes at Freeway Entrances and
Exits
504.2 Vertical Curves at Freeway Exits
504.2 Crest Vertical Curves at Freeway
Exit Terminal
July 1, 2004
Table 82.1B
Advisory Standards (Cont.)
504.2 Sag Vertical Curves at Freeway Exit 504.4 Merging Branch Connector
Terminal Auxiliary Lanes
504.2 Ascending Entrance Ramps with 504.4 Diverging Branch Connector
Sustained Upgrades Auxiliary Lanes
504.3 Ramp Design Speed 504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connector
Lane Drop Tapers
504.3 Ramp Lane Drop Taper
504.5 Auxiliary Lanes
504.3 Ramp Lane Drops and Auxiliary
Lanes 504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at
Interchanges
504.3 Metered Single-Lane Entrance
Ramps Auxiliary Lane 504.7 Weaving Sections
504.3 Metered Multi-Lane Entrance 504.7 Weaving Length
Ramps Auxiliary Lane
504.8 Access Control at Ramp Terminal
504.3 Ramp Terminals and Grade
CHAPTER 600 PAVEMENT
504.3 Ramp Terminals and Sight Distance STRUCTURAL SECTION
504.3 Free Right Turns at Ramp Terminals Topic 602 Pavement Service Life and Traffic
504.3 Distance between Ramp Intersection Data
and Local Road Intersection Index 602.2 Pavement Service Life for
504.3 Entrance Ramp Lane Drop Temporary Pavements and Detours
504.3 Single-Lane Ramp Widening for CHAPTER 700 MISCELLANEOUS

Passing STANDARDS
504.3 Two-lane Exit Ramps Topic 701 Fences
504.3 Two-lane Exit Ramps and Auxiliary Index 701.2 Fences on Freeways and
Lanes Expressways
504.3 Distance Between Successive On- CHAPTER 900 LANDSCAPE
ramps
ARCHITECTURE
504.3 Distance Between Sucessive Exits
Topic 902 Planting design standards
504.4 Freeway-to-freeway Connections
Index 902.2 Sight Distance and Safety
Design Speed
Requirements for Planting
504.4 Profile Grades on Freeway-to-
902.2 Clear Recovery Zone and Trees
freeway Connectors
902.2 Minimum Setback of Trees
504.4 Single-lane Connector Design
Topic 904 Vista Point Design Standards
504.4 Single-lane Connector Widening for
Passing Index 904.3 Vista Point Connection Design
504.4 Volumes Requiring Branch
Connectors
504.4 Merging Branch Connector Design
504.4 Diverging Branch Connector Design
November 1, 2001
situations may arise in which engineering,

economic, environmental, or other considerations
make it impractical to provide the minimum
elements established by the design speed. The
CHAPTER 100 most likely examples are partial or brief horizontal
BASIC DESIGN POLICIES sight distance restrictions, such as those imposed
by bridge rails, bridge columns, retaining walls,
noise barriers, cut slopes, and median barriers.
Topic 101 - Design Speed The cost to correct such restrictions may not be
justified. Technically, this will result in a reduction
Index 101.1 - Selection of Design Speed in the effective design speed at the location in
question. Such technical reductions in design
Design speed is defined as: "a speed selected to
speed shall be discussed with and documented as
establish specific minimum geometric design
required by the Project Development
elements for a particular section of highway".
Coordinator.
These design elements include vertical and
horizontal alignment, and sight distance. Other Local streets or roads within the State right of
features such as widths of pavement and shoulders, way, including facilities which will be
horizontal clearances, etc., are generally not relinquished after construction (such as frontage
directly related to design speed. roads), shall have minimum design speeds
conforming to AASHTO standards, as per the
The choice of design speed is influenced
functional classification of the facility in
principally by the character of terrain, economic
question. If the local agency having jurisdiction
considerations, environmental factors, type and
over the facility in question maintains design
anticipated volume of traffic, functional classifica-
standards that exceed AASHTO standards, then the
tion of the highway, and whether the area is rural or
local agency standards should apply.
urban. A highway in level or rolling terrain
justifies a higher design speed than one in Where the local facility connects to a freeway or
mountainous terrain. Where a difficult location is expressway (such as ramp terminal
obvious to approaching drivers, they are more apt intersections), the design speed of the local
to accept a lower design speed than where there is facility shall be a minimum of 55 km/h.
no apparent reason for it. As discussed under However, the design speed should be 75 km/h
Topic 109, scenic values are also a consideration in when feasible.
the selection of a design speed.
Every effort should be made to avoid decreasing
A highway carrying a large volume of traffic may the design speed of a local facility through the
justify a higher design speed than a less important State's right of way, and all due consideration
facility in similar topography, particularly where should be given to local plans to upgrade or
the savings in vehicle operation and other costs are improve the facility in the near future.
sufficient to offset the increased cost of right of
way and construction. A lower design speed, 101.2 Design Speed Standards
however, should not be assumed for a secondary
The following table shows appropriate ranges of
road where the topography is such that drivers are
design speeds that shall be used for various
likely to travel at high speeds.
conditions:
Subject to the above considerations, as high a
design speed as feasible should be used. It is
preferable that the design speed for any section of
highway be a constant value. However, during
the detailed design phase of a project, special
November 1, 2001
Table 101.2 Topic 102 - Highway Capacity

Relation of Conditions to Design 102.1 Design Capacities
Speed Design capacity is the maximum volume of traffic
Conditions Design Speed for which a projected highway can provide a
(km/h) selected level of service. Design capacity varies
with a number of factors, including:
LIMITED ACCESS TYPES
(a) Level of service selected.
Freeways and expressways in 80-130
(b) Width of lanes.
mountainous terrain
(c) Number of lanes.
Freeways in urban areas 90-130
(d) Presence or absence of shoulders.
Freeways and expressways in 110-130
rural areas (e) Grades.
Expressways in urban areas 80-110 (f) Horizontal alignment.
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS (g) Operating speed.
Rural (h) Lateral clearance.
Flat terrain 90-110 (i) Side friction generated by parking, drive
ways, intersections, and interchanges.
Rolling terrain 80-100
(j) Volumes of trucks, buses, recreational
Mountainous terrain 60-80
vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians.
Urban
(k) Spacing and timing of traffic signals.
Arterial streets 60-100
Freeways should be designed to accommodate the
Arterial streets with 50-70 design year peak hour traffic volumes and to
extensive development operate at a level of service determined by District
LOCAL FACILITIES Planning and/or Traffic Operations. For a rough
(Within State right of way) approximation of the number of lanes required on a
multilane freeway, use the following design year
Facilities crossing a freeway or AASHTO (1) peak hour traffic volumes per lane at the specified
expressway, connecting to a level of service:
conventional highway or
traversing a State facility
Facilities connecting to a 55M/75A Level Design Year Peak Hour
freeway or expressway of Traffic Volume
Service (Average Vehicles Per Lane
M=Mandatory/ Per Hour)
A=Advisory
Urban C-E 1400-2000
(1) If outside of State right of way and no specific local
standards apply, the minimum design speed shall be Rural C-D 1000-1200
50 km/h.
July 1, 2004
Traffic volumes can be adjusted for the effect of The design designation should be stated in Project
grades and the mix of autos, trucks, and Intiation Documents and Project Reports and
recreational vehicles if a more refined calculation is should appear on the typical cross section for all
desired. In those cases, consult the "Highway new highway construction projects.
Capacity Manual", (see reference below).
103.2 Design Period
102.2 References Geometric design of new facilities should normally
More detailed data on design capacity are available be based on estimated traffic 20 years after
in the "Highway Capacity Manual", published by completion of construction. With justification,
the Transportation Research Board. design periods other than 20 years may be
approved by the District Director with concurrence
by the Headquarters Project Development
Topic 103 - Design Designation Coordinator.
Safety, Resurfacing, Restoration, and Rehabilita-
103.1 Relation to Design
tion (RRR), and operational improvement projects
The design designation is a simple, concise should be designed on the basis of current ADT.
expression of the basic factors controlling the
Complimentary to the design period, various
design of a given highway. Following is an
components of a project (e.g., drainage facilities,
example of this expression:
structures, pavement structural section, etc.) have a
ADT (2000) = 9800 D = 60% service life that may differ from the design period.
ADT (2020) = 20 000 T = 12% For pavement service life requirements, see Index
DHV = 3000 V = 110 km/h 602.2.
The notation above is explained as follows: Topic 104 - Control of Access

ADT (2000) -- The average daily traffic, in 104.1 General Policy
number of vehicles, for the construction
year. Control of access is achieved by acquiring rights of
access to the highway from abutting property
ADT (2020) -- The average daily traffic for
owners and by permitting ingress and egress only at
the future year used as a target in design.
locations determined by the State.
DHV -- The two-way design hourly
volume, vehicles. On freeways, direct access from private property to
the highway is prohibited without exception.
D -- The percentage of the DHV in the Abutting ownerships are served by frontage roads
direction of heavier flow. or streets connected to interchanges.
T -- The character of the traffic. This is
expressed by the truck increment (T) as a
104.2 Access Openings
percent of the DHV (excluding recreational See Index 205.1 for the definition and criteria for
vehicles). location of access openings. The number of access
V -- Design speed in km/h. openings on highways with access control should
be held to a minimum. (Private property access
Within a project, one design designation should be
openings on freeways are not allowed.) Parcels
used except when:
which have access to another public road or street
(a) The design hourly traffic warrants a as well as frontage on the expressway are not
change in the number of lanes, or allowed access to the expressway. In some
(b) A decided change in topography dictates a instances, parcels fronting only on the expressway
change in design speed. may be given access to another public road or street
by constructing suitable connections if such access
can be provided at reasonable cost.
November 1, 2001
With the exception of extensive highway frontages, property or to serve a landlocked parcel
access openings to an expressway are limited to resulting from right of way acquisition.
one opening per parcel. Wherever possible, one
(c) Access Openings--Direct access to the
opening should serve two or more parcels. In the
through lanes is allowable on
case of a large highway frontage under one
expressways. When the number of access
ownership, the cost of limiting access to one
openings on one side of the expressway
opening may be prohibitive, or the property may be
exceeds three in 500 m, a frontage road
divided by a natural barrier such as a stream or
should be provided (see Index 104.2).
ridge, making it necessary to provide an additional
opening. In the latter case, it may be preferable to (2) New Alignment. Frontage roads generally are
connect the physically separated portions with a not provided on freeways or expressways on
low-cost structure or road rather than permit two new alignment since the abutting property
openings. owners never had legal right of access to the
new facility. They may be provided, however,
104.3 Frontage Roads on the basis of considerations mentioned in
(1) above.
(1) General Policy.
(3) Existing Alignment. Where a freeway or
(a) Purpose--Frontage roads are provided on
expressway is developed parallel to an
freeways and expressways:
existing highway or local street, all or part of
• To control access to the through lanes, the existing roadway often is retained as a
thus increasing safety for traffic. frontage road. In such cases, if access to
remainders of land on the side of the freeway
• To provide access to abutting land
or expressway right of way opposite the old
ownerships.
road cannot be provided by other means, a
• Restore continuity of the local street or frontage road must be constructed to serve the
road systems. landlocked remainders or the remainders must
• Provide for nonmotorized traffic that be purchased outright. The decision whether
might otherwise desire to use the to provide access or purchase should be based
freeway. on considerations of cost, right of way
impacts, street system continuity and similar
• Provide continuity even though it did factors (see (1) above).
not exist before when unreasonable
circuity of travel would be incurred (4) Railroad Crossings. Frontage roads on one or
due to freeway construction without a both sides of a freeway or expressway on new
frontage road. alignment, owing to safety and cost
considerations, frequently are terminated at
(b) Economic Considerations--In general, a the railroad right of way.
frontage road is justified on freeways and
expressways if the costs of constructing Any new railroad grade crossings and grade
the frontage road are less than the costs of separations, and any relocations or alterations
providing access by other means. Right of existing crossings must be cleared with the
of way considerations often are a railroad and approved by the PUC.
determining factor. Thus, a frontage road (5) Frontage Roads Financed by Others.
would be justified if the investment in Frontage roads which are not a State
construction and extra right of way is less responsibility under this policy may be built
than either the severance damages or the by the State upon request of a local political
costs of acquiring the affected property in subdivision, a private agency, or an
its entirety. Frontage roads may be individual. Such a project must be covered by
required to connect parts of a severed an agreement under which the State is
November 1, 2001
reimbursed for all construction, right of way, service criteria. This is a means of measuring the
and engineering costs involved. capacity of existing pedestrian facilities to
determine the need for improvements or
104.4 Protection of Access Rights expansions. If adequate capacity is not provided,
pedestrian mobility may be seriously impeded.
For proper control of acquired access rights,
fencing or other approved barriers shall be Traffic volume-pedestrian warrants for sidewalks
installed on all controlled access highways or walkways along highways have not been
except as provided in Index 701.2(3)(e). established. In general, whenever the roadside and
land development conditions are such that
104.5 Relation of Access Opening to a pedestrians regularly move along a highway, those
Median Opening pedestrians should be furnished with a sidewalk or
walkway, as is suitable to the conditions. The State
Access openings should not be placed within 100
may assume financial responsibility for the
m of a median opening unless the access opening is
construction of sidewalks under the conditions
directly opposite the median opening.
described below. (See the Project Development
Details on access openings are given under Index Procedures Manual for further discussion of the
205.1. State's responsibility in providing pedestrian
facilities.)
104.6 Cross References (1) Replacement in Kind. Where existing
(a) Access Control at Intersections at Grade sidewalks are to be disturbed by highway
(see Index 405.6). construction, the replacement applies only to
the frontages involved and no other sidewalk
(b) Access Control at Interchanges (see Index
construction is authorized except:
504.8).
(a) As part of a right of way agreement.
Topic 105 - Pedestrian Facilities (b) Where the safety or capacity of the
highway will be improved.
105.1 Sidewalks (2) Conventional Highways. The roadway cross
The design of sidewalks and walkways varies section usually provides areas for pedestrians.
depending on the setting and the standards and If the safety or capacity of the highway will be
requirements of local agencies. Most local improved, the State may contribute towards
agencies in California have adopted varying design the cost of building a pedestrian facility. The
standards for urban and rural areas, as well as more city, county, or property owner whose
specific requirements that are applicable to adjacent development generated the pedestrian
residential settings, downtowns, special districts, traffic may build sidewalks on State right of
and other areas. Design of sidewalks should be way under a permit.
coordinated with the local agencies. The minimum (3) Freeway and other Controlled Access
width of a sidewalk should be 1.5 m. See Index Facilities. Sidewalks should be built across
105.3 for accessibility requirements. See Index the freeway right of way on overcrossings and
205.3(6) and the Standard Plans for sidewalk through undercrossings where necessary to
requirements at driveways. See Index 208.6 for connect with existing or planned sidewalks.
information on pedestrian overcrossings and Construction of planned sidewalks should be
undercrossings and Index 208.4 for sidewalks on imminent. Within the foregoing criteria,
bridges. sidewalks can be part of the original project
“A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and or added later when the surrounding area
Streets”, issued by AASHTO, and the “Highway develops.
Capacity Manual” contain pedestrian level of
November 1, 2001
(4) Overcrossing and Undercrossing Approaches. 105.2 Pedestrian Grade Separations

Where sidewalks are planned on overcrossing
(1) Warrants. The need for a pedestrian grade
structures, an area should be provided to
separation is based on a study of the present
accommodate future sidewalks where they are
and future needs of a particular area or
not now warranted.
community. Each situation should be
(5) School Pedestrian Walkways. Where all investigated and considered on its own merits.
criteria listed in Section 10-09.2 of the Traffic The study should cover pedestrian generating
Manual are fulfilled. sources in the area, pedestrian crossing
(6) Frontage Roads. Sidewalks may be built volumes, type of highway to be crossed,
along frontage roads connecting local streets location of adjacent crossing facilities,
that would otherwise dead end at the freeway circuity, zoning, land use, sociological and
provided the intersecting streets have cultural factors, and the predominant type and
sidewalks. Such sidewalks are considered to age of persons expected to utilize the facility.
be replacements of existing facilities. Pedestrian patterns should be maintained
Normally, sidewalks should not be placed on across freeway routes where these patterns
the freeway side of frontage roads except have been previously established. Where
where connections must be made to pedestrian vehicular crossings are inadequate for
separations. pedestrians, separate structures should be
(7) Separated Cross Streets. Sidewalks may be provided. In general, if a circuitous route is
built on separated cross streets where involved, a pedestrian separation may be
reconstruction of the cross street is made justified even though the number of
necessary by the freeway project and where pedestrians is small.
the criteria of paragraph (3) above apply.
Special consideration should be given to
(8) Bus Stops. Sidewalks may be built to connect school crossings. See Chapter 10 of the
bus stops to local streets. Traffic Manual for additional discussion of
(9) Vehicular Tunnels. Sidewalks and pedestrian factors to be analyzed when considering
facilities may be built as part of vehicular pedestrian structures along school routes.
tunnels which do not require ventilation as State participation in the financing of
part of the tunnel structure. Contact the pedestrian separations at ramp terminals is not
Division of Engineering Services - Structure normally justified because of the accident
Design (DES-SD), regarding allowable history at these locations. Exceptions to this
conditions. general policy should be considered only in
(10) Maintenance. The State is responsible for special circumstances where no less expensive
maintaining and replacing damaged sidewalks alternative is feasible.
within the right of way except:
Where a pedestrian grade separation is
(a) Where the sidewalk was placed by a justified, an overcrossing is preferred.
private party under encroachment permit Undercrossings should be avoided because of
that requires the permittee to maintain the the potential for criminal incidents and
sidewalk, but only if the original permittee vandalism. Consideration may be given to an
still owns the abutting property. undercrossing when specifically requested in
(b) Where the city or county has placed writing by a local agency, but unobstructed
nonstandard sidewalks with colored or visibility should be provided through the
textured surfaces, or meandering align- structure and approaches.
ment. See Maintenance Manual for addi- See Index 105.3 for discussion of provisions
tional discussion on State's maintenance for physically disabled persons.
responsibilities regarding sidewalks.
November 1, 2001
(2) Financing. (a) Americans with Disabilities Act

Highlights.
(a) Freeways--Where the pedestrian grade
separation is justified prior to award of the • Title II of the ADA prohibits
freeway contract, the State should pay the discrimination on the basis of
full cost of the pedestrian facility. In disability by state and local
some cases, construction of the separation governments (public entities). This
may be deferred; however, where the need means that a public entity may not
has been established to the satisfaction of deny the benefits of its programs,
the Department prior to award of the activities and services to individuals
freeway contract, the State should pay the with disabilities because its facilities
entire cost of the separation. are inaccessible. A public entity’s
services, programs, or activities, when
Local jurisdictions have some control (by
viewed in their entirety, must be
zoning and planning) of development that
readily accessible to and usable by
influences pedestrian traffic patterns.
individuals with disabilities. This
Therefore, where a pedestrian grade
standard, known as “program accessi-
separation is justified after the award of a
bility,” applies to all existing facilities
freeway contract, the State's share of the
of a public entity.
total construction cost of the separation
should not exceed 50%. The State must • Public entities are not necessarily
enter into a cooperative agreement with required to make each of their existing
the local jurisdiction on this basis. facilities accessible. Public entities
(b) Conventional Highways--Grade separa- may achieve program accessibility by
tions are not normally provided for either a number of methods (e.g., providing
cars or pedestrians on conventional buses as opposed to structurally
highways. However, in those rare cases accessible pedestrian facilities).
where pedestrian use is extensive, and However, in many situations,
where the local agency has requested in providing access to facilities through
writing that a pedestrian separation be structural methods, such as alteration
constructed, an overcrossing may be of existing facilities and acquisition or
considered. The State's share of the total construction of additional facilities,
construction cost of the pedestrian facility may be the most efficient method of
should not exceed 50%. The State must providing program accessibility.
enter into a cooperative agreement with • Where structural modifications are
the local jurisdiction on this basis. required to achieve program accessi-
bility, a public entity with 50 or more
105.3 Accessibility Requirements employees is required to develop a
(1) Background. transition plan setting forth the steps
necessary to complete such
The requirement to provide equivalent access modifications.
to facilities for all individuals, regardless of
disability, is stated in several laws adopted at • In compliance with the ADA, Title 28
both the State and Federal level. Two of the of the Code of Federal regulations
most notable references are The Americans (CFR) Part 35 identifies all public
with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) which entities to be subject to the
was enacted by the Federal Government and requirements for ADA regardless of
took effect on January 26, 1992, and Section funding source. It further states that
4450 of the California Government Code. the Uniform Federal Accessibility
November 1, 2001
Standards (UFAS) and the Americans extent feasible. In general, if a project on

with Disabilities Act Accessibility State right of way is providing a
Guidelines for Buildings and pedestrian facility, then accessibility must
Facilities (ADAAG) are acceptable be addressed.
design guidelines that may be used.
• Follow the requirements of both the
However, FHWA has directed
ADAAG and Title 24 for new
Caltrans to use the ADAAG as the
construction and alterations of existing
Federal design guidelines for
facilities. Both requirements should be
pedestrian accessibility.
reviewed to determine if differences exist.
(b) California Government Code 4450 et seq. Where there are differences between Title
Highlights. 24 and the ADAAG, the guidelines that
provide the higher accessibility may be
• Sections 4450 (through 4460) of the
used as long as at least the ADAAG is
California Government Code require
satisfied. The ADAAG allows the use of
that buildings, structures, sidewalks,
other design standards, i.e., a local
curbs, and related facilities that are
agency’s adopted accessibility standard,
constructed using any State funds, or
where the standard used will provide
the funds of cities, counties, or other
substantially equivalent or greater access
political subdivisions be accessible to
to and usability of the facility. The
and usable by the physically disabled.
decision to identify and use an equivalent
Section 4450 says that facilities are to
or higher accessibility standard than the
be constructed in conformance with
ADAAG or Title 24 should be
the California Building Code. The
documented for projects on the State
California Building Code is part of
highway system.
Title 24 of the California Code of
Regulations. The Department of (3) Procedures.
General Services (DGS), through the
(a) The engineer will consider pedestrian
Division of the State Architect, has
accessibility needs in the Project Initiation
the authority to review and approve
Documents (PSRs, PSSRs, etc.) for all
plans for facilities covered under
projects where applicable.
Section 4450. Caltrans has an agree-
ment with DGS that further defines (b) All State highway projects administered
the facilities and prescribes a stream- by Caltrans or others with facilities
lined approval process for Caltrans’ subject to the ADA and Title 24 must be
projects. designed in accordance with the
requirements in Design Information
• California Building Code has been
Bulletin 82, “Pedestrian Accessibility
revised to generally conform to the
Guidelines for Highway Projects.”
ADAAG. In most cases, the
accessibility standards in Title 24 are (c) The details of the pedestrian facilities and
more stringent than those in ADAAG, their relationship to the project as a whole
but in some cases they are less so. should be clearly depicted and submitted
as described in DIB-82.
(2) Policy.
ADA compliance must be noted in PS&E
It is Caltrans policy to:
Transmittal, Attachment A, on State-
• Comply with the ADA and the administered projects. Appropriate project
Government Code 4450 et seq. by making records should document the fact that
all State highway facilities accessible to necessary review and approvals have been
people with disabilities to the maximum obtained as required above.
July 1, 2004
(3) Ramp Design. Curb ramp designs should

105.4 Guidelines for the Location and
conform to current Standard Plans. See Index
Design of Curb Ramps 105.3(3) for review procedures.
(1) Policy. On all State highway projects
adequate and reasonable access for the safe Topic 106 - Stage Construction
and convenient movement of physically and Utilization of Local Roads
disabled persons are to be provided across
curbs that are constructed or replaced at
106.1 Stage Construction
pedestrian crosswalks. (This includes all
marked and unmarked crosswalks, as defined (1) Cost Control Measures. When funds are
in Section 275 of the Vehicle Code.) limited and costs increase, estimated project
costs often exceed the amounts available in
Access should also be provided at bridge
spite of the best efforts of the engineering
sidewalk approaches and at curbs in the
staff. At such times the advantages of
vicinity of pedestrian separation structures.
reducing initial project costs by some form of
Where a need is identified at an existing curb staged construction should be considered as an
on a conventional highway, a curb ramp may alternative to deferring the entire project.
be constructed either by others under Stage construction may include one or more of
encroachment permit or by the State. the following:
(2) Location Guidelines. When locating curb (a) Shorten the proposed improvement, or
ramps, designers must consider the position of divide it into segments for construction in
utilities such as power poles, fire hydrants, successive years;
street lights, traffic signals, and drainage (b) Reduce number of lanes for initial
facilities. construction. For example, a 4-lane
On new construction, two ramps should be freeway in a rural area with low current
installed at each corner as shown on the traffic volumes might be staged for two
Standard Plans. For retrofit construction, one lanes initially with capacity adequate for
ramp at the center of the curb return is at least 10 years after construction.
acceptable, but not desirable. The usage of Similarly, a freeway might be constructed
the one-ramp design should be restricted to initially four or six lanes wide with
those locations where the volume of provision for future widening in the
pedestrians and vehicles making right turns is median to meet future traffic needs.
low. This will reduce the potential frequency (c) Save on pavement design. For AC
of conflicts between turning vehicles and pavement this most often would be done
disabled persons entering the common by reducing the surface course thickness
crosswalk area to cross either street. with provision for a future overlay to
Ramps and/or curb openings should be bring the pavement to full design depth.
provided at midblock crosswalks and where (d) Downscope geometric design features.
pedestrians cross curbed channelization or This last expedient should be considered
median islands at intersections. Often, on only as a last resort; geometric features
traffic signalization, channelization, and such as alignment, grade, sight distance,
similar projects, curbs are proposed to be weaving, or merging distance, are difficult
modified only on portions of an existing and expensive to change once constructed.
intersection. In those cases, consideration
should be given to installing retrofit curb A choice among cost reducing alternatives
ramps on all legs of the intersection. should be made only after weighing the
benefits and disadvantages of each,
November 1, 2001
particularly as they apply to interchange When a local facility is adopted as a

designs, which have a substantial effect on traversable route, the Department is
cost. See Index 502.3(2) for design responsible for all maintenance costs of the
considerations regarding freeway local facility unless otherwise provided for
interchanges. under the terms of a cooperative agreement.
The Department normally would not assume
106.2 Utilization of Local Roads maintenance until the road is in use as a
connection or, when necessary, until the
In the construction of freeways or other highways
award of an improvement contract.
by stages or construction units, it frequently
becomes necessary to use portions of the local road Formal concurrence of the local agency must
system at one or more stages prior to completion of be obtained before an adoption action is
the whole route. Usually the local road is used as a presented to the CTC.
traversable connection between the newly
If the local agency wants more improvements
completed segment and the existing State highway.
than are needed to accommodate traffic during
Where such use of a local road is required, it may the period when the local road is used as a
be handled by: State highway connection, betterments are to
be financed by the local agency. In such cases
(a) Temporarily adopting the local road
a cooperative agreement would be necessary
system as a traversable State highway, or
to define the responsibilities of each party for
(b) Designating the local road system as a construction and maintenance.
detour until the next or final stage is
(2) Local Roads Used as Detours. In lieu of
constructed.
temporary adoption by the CTC, a local road
(1) Temporary Adoption of Local Roads as State may be designated a detour to serve as a
Routes. Temporary adoption of a local road connection between the end of State highway
system as a traversable route requires CTC construction and the old State highway
action. Temporary adoption should be used following completion of a State highway
where, for example, one unit of the freeway construction unit and pending completion of
construction has been completed and the the next unit. Local road detours are useful if
District wishes to route traffic over the new the adjoining construction unit is scheduled in
roadway without waiting for completion of the a few years or less and the local road
next succeeding units, and the use of local connection is short and direct. Adoption by
roads is necessary to connect the freeway with the CTC is not required when a local road is
the old State highway. Temporary adoption is designated as a temporary detour.
useful where construction of the next freeway
Under Section 93 of the Streets and Highways
unit is a number of years in the future.
Code, the Department can finance any needed
Such a temporary CTC adoption makes it improvements required to handle detour
legally possible to relinquish the old highway traffic during the period the local road is used
portion superseded by relocation. to provide continuity for State highway traffic.
Normally, the Department will finance any A cooperative agreement is usually required to
needed improvement required to handle traffic establish terms of financing, construction,
during the period the local road system is a maintenance, and liability. If the local agency
traversable State route. Financing by the local wants more than the minimum work needed to
agency is not required. However, adoption of accommodate traffic on the local road during
the local road by the CTC must precede State its use as a State highway, such betterments
financing and construction of the proposed are to be financed by the local agency.
improvements.
November 1, 2001
Section 93 also makes the Department than 10 m from the nearest edge of the ultimate
responsible for restoration of the local road or traveled way of the highway.
street to its former condition at the conclusion
of its use as a detour. The Department is
responsible for all reasonable additional
Topic 108 - Coordination With
maintenance costs incurred by local agencies Other Agencies
attributable to the detour. If a betterment is
requested by the local agency as a part of 108.1 Divided Nonfreeway Facilities
restoration it should be done at no cost to the
Department. Per Section 144.5 of the Streets and Highways
Code, advance notice is required when a
conventional highway, which is not a declared
Topic 107 - Roadside Installations freeway, is to be divided or separated into separate
roadways, if such division or separation will result
107.1 Roadway Connections in preventing traffic on existing county roads or
city streets from making a direct crossing of the
All connections to vista points, truck weighing or State highway at the intersection. In this case, 30
brake inspection stations, safety rest areas, or any days notice must be given to the City Council or
other connections used by the traveling public, Board of Supervisors having jurisdiction over said
should be constructed to standards commensurate roads or streets.
with the standards established for the roadway to
which they are connected. On freeways this should The provisions of Section 144.5 of the Streets and
include standard acceleration and deceleration Highways Code are considered as not applying to
lanes and all other design features required by freeway construction, or to temporary barriers for
normal ramp connections (Index 504.2). On the purpose of controlling traffic during a limited
conventional highways and expressways, the period of time, as when the highway is undergoing
standard public road connection should be the repairs, or is flooded. As to freeway construction,
minimum connection (Index 405.7). it is considered that the local agency receives ample
notice, by virtue of the freeway agreement, of the
Only one means of exit and one means of entry to manner in which all local roads will be affected by
these installations should be allowed. the freeway, and that the special notice would
therefore be superfluous.
107.2 Maintenance Yards and Police
Facilities on Freeways When the notice is required, a letter should be
prepared and submitted to the appropriate
Roadside maintenance yards and police facilities authorities at least 60 days before road revision will
other than truck weighing installations are not to be occur. Prior to the submittal of the letter and
provided with direct access to a freeway. They before plans are completed, the appropriate
should be located on or near a cross road having an authorities should be contacted and advised of
interchange which provides for all turning contemplated plans. The timing of this notice
movements. This policy applies to all freeways should provide ample opportunity for consideration
including Interstate Highways. of any suggestions or objection made. In general, it
is intended that the formal notice of intent which is
107.3 Location of Border Inspection required by law will confirm the final plans which
Stations have been developed after discussions with the
Other agencies require vehicles entering California affected authorities.
to stop at buildings maintained by these agencies The PS&E package should document the date
for inspection of vehicles and cargoes. No such notice was given and the date of reply by the
building, parking area, or roadway adjacent to the affected local agencies.
parking area at these facilities should be closer
November 1, 2001
The Division of Design must be notified by letter providing the facilities. Bus loading facilities
as soon as possible in all cases where controversy must be approved by the District Director
develops over the closures to crossing traffic. with concurrence from the Project
Development Coordinator (see Topic 82 for
108.2 Bus Loading Facilities approvals).
(1) General. These instructions are applicable to (3) Justification. General warrants for the
projects involving bus loading facilities on provision of bus loading facilities in terms of
freeways as authorized in Section 148 of the cost or number of passengers have not been
Streets and Highways Code. Instructions established. Each case should be considered
pertaining to the provisions for mass public individually because the number of passengers
transportation facilities in freeway corridors, justifying a bus loading facility may vary
authorized in Section 150 of the Streets and greatly between remote rural locations and
Highways Code, are covered in other Caltrans' high volume urban freeways.
written directives.
While bus stops at each interchange may be
During the early phases of the design process, desirable from the standpoint of convenience
the District must send to the PUC, governing to the patrons, such frequent stops would
bodies of local jurisdictions, and common lengthen the overall running time from point
carriers or transit authorities operating in the of origin to point of destination.
vicinity, a map showing the proposed location
It may be preferable for patrons to board and
and type of interchanges, with a request for
leave the bus at an off-freeway location rather
their comments regarding bus loading
than use stairways or ramps to freeway bus
facilities. The transmittal letter should state
stops. Where existing highways with bus
that bus loading facilities will be constructed
service are incorporated into the freeway right
only where they are in the public interest and
of way, it may be necessary to make
where the cost is commensurate with the
provisions for bus service for those passengers
public benefits to be derived from their
who were served along the existing highway.
construction. It should also state that if the
This may be accomplished either by providing
agency desires to have bus loading facilities
freeway bus loading facilities or by the bus
included in the design of the freeway that their
leaving and reentering the freeway at
reply should include locations for bus stops
interchanges. See "A Policy on Geometric
and any supporting data, such as estimates of
Design of Highways and Streets", AASHTO,
the number of bus passengers per day, which
for a discussion of bus stop guidelines.
would help to justify their request.
(4) Reports. On projects where all the agencies
(2) Conferences and Hearings. No conferences
contacted have expressed the view that bus
or hearings are to be held where all of the
stops are not needed, a report to the Division
contacted agencies say that bus loading
of Design is not required. However, a
facilities are not required on the proposed
statement to the effect that the PUC, bus
freeway. The freeway should be designed
companies, and local governmental agencies
without bus loading facilities in these cases.
have been contacted regarding bus stops and
Where any one of the agencies request bus have made no request for their provisions
loading facilities on the proposed freeway, the should be included in the final environmental
District should hold a conference and invite document or the PS&E submittal, whichever
representatives of each agency. is appropriate.
Prior to the conference, the District should For projects where one or more of the
prepare geometric designs of the bus loading agencies involved have requested bus loading
facilities for the purpose of making cost facilities either formally or informally during
estimates and determining the feasibility of
November 1, 2001
conferences, a complete report should be be followed to obtain route and design

incorporated in the final environmental approvals.
document. It should include:
(b) The final environmental document (such
(a) A map showing the section of freeway action constitutes FWHA approval of
involved and the locations at which bus location and basic design features).
loading facilities are being considered.
(c) Exceptions to design standards are
(b) A complete discussion of all conferences required for all design elements which do
held. not meet minimum standards related to
any of the FHWA's 13 controlling criteria
(c) Data on type of bus service provided, both
for projects which are considered to be
at present and after completion of the
Interstate Completion projects or new or
freeway.
reconstruction projects on the Interstate
(d) Estimate of cost of each facility, including System costing more than $1,000,000 or
any additional cost such as right of way or where there is a change in access control.
lengthening of structures required to See Index 82.2.
accommodate the facility.
(d) Changes in access control lines, changes
(e) Number of buses per day and the number in locations of connection points, adding
of on and off passengers per day served connection points, or deleting connection
by the existing bus stops and the number points on the Interstate System (even
estimated to use the proposed facilities. when no Federal money is involved).
(f) District's recommendation as to the (e) Addition of or changes in locked gates
provision of bus loading facilities. If the under certain conditions (see Index
recommendation is in favor of providing 701.2).
bus loading facilities, drawings showing
Normally, major nonparticipating items are
location and tentative geometric designs
identified at the time of design approval.
should be included.
Approximately twelve months prior to PS&E
submittal, a project review should be arranged
108.3 Coordination with the FHWA
by the District with the Project Development
(1) General. As early in the design process as Coordinator and the FHWA representative to
possible, FHWA representatives who visit the discuss nonparticipating items and unusual or
Districts at regular intervals should be kept special design features to resolve any
informed of proposed activities on Federal-aid differences or to determine if additional
routes. Formal approval of design standards FHWA approvals are necessary. The
by the FHWA is required for all projects importance of early contact is emphasized to
which are considered to be Interstate avoid delays when final plans are prepared.
Completion projects or new or reconstruction
For additional information, see the Project
projects on the Interstate System costing more
Development Procedures Manual.
than $1,000,000 or where there is a change in
access control.
(2) Approvals. The District Directors are
Topic 109 - Scenic Values in
responsible for obtaining formal FHWA Planning and Design
approval for the following items on Federal-
aid routes: 109.1 Basic Precepts
(a) Route location (location approval). See On any highway, pleasing appearance is an
the Project Development Procedures important consideration. Scenic values must be
Manual for a discussion of procedures to considered along with safety, utility, economy, and
November 1, 2001
all the other factors considered in planning and construction of transportation projects.
design. This is particularly true of the many Whenever specimen or mature trees are
portions of the State Highway System situated in present, especially in forested areas, a tree
areas of natural beauty. The location of the survey should be made to provide
highway, its alignment and profile, the cross accurate data on the variety, condition,
section design, and other features should be in location, size, and ground elevations of
harmony with the setting. Economy consistent trees affected.
with traffic needs is of paramount importance,
(d) Appropriate replacement planting should
although a reasonable additional expenditure can be
be provided when existing planting is
justified to enhance the beauty of the highway.
removed. When native or specimen trees
are removed, replacement planting should
109.2 Design Speed
reflect the visual importance of the
The design speed should be carefully chosen as it is plantings lost. Where the visual impact of
the key element which establishes standards for the tree removal is substantial, replacement
horizontal alignment and profile of the highway. with large transplants or specimen size
These requirements in turn directly influence how trees may be appropriate. If not, an
well the highway blends into the landscape. Scenic appropriate quantity of smaller
values, particularly in areas of natural scenic beauty replacements may be required to ensure
must play a part along with the other factors set eventual survival of an adequate number
forth under Index 101.1 in selecting a design speed. of plants.
Provisions for watering and establishment
109.3 Aesthetic Factors
of replacement planting should also be
Throughout planning and design consider the considered. The District Landscape
following: Architect should be consulted early in the
planning and design process so that
(a) The location of the highway should be
appropriate conservation and revegetation
such that the new construction will
measures are incorporated.
preserve the natural environment and will
lead to and unfold scenic positions. In (e) Existing vegetation such as trees or large
some cases, additional minor grading not brush may be selectively thinned or
required for roadbed alignment may removed to open up scenic vistas or
expose an attractive view or hide an provide a natural looking boundary
unsightly one. between forest and cleared areas.
Vegetation removal for aesthetic purposes
(b) The general alignment and profile of the
should be undertaken only with the
highway should fit the character of the
concurrence of the District Landscape
area traversed so that unsightly scars of
Architect.
excavation and embankment will be held
to a minimum. Curvilinear horizontal (f) Vista points should be provided when
alignment should be coordinated with views and scenery of outstanding merit
vertical curvature to achieve a pleasing occur and feasible sites can be found.
appearance. (See Topic 904 for site selection criteria.)
(c) Existing vegetation (e.g., trees, specimen (g) Whenever feasible, wide medians and
plants, diminishing native species or independent roadways should be provided
historical plantings) should be preserved on multilane facilities as these features
and protected to the maximum extent add scenic interest and relieve the
feasible during the planning, design, and monotony of parallel roadways.
November 1, 2001
(h) Bridges, tunnels, and walls merit heavier loads and also reconstructing roadbeds used
consideration in lieu of prominent by overloaded material hauling equipment.
excavation and embankment slopes when
In general, hauling of overloads is restricted to the
costs of such alternates are not excessive.
project limits. However, overloads are permitted
(i) Slopes should be flattened and rounded on portions of existing highways which are to be
whenever practical and vegetation abandoned, repaired or reconstructed with a new
provided so that lines of construction are structural section, if the overloads do not affect the
softened. design of the reconstructed structural section.
(j) Structures should be located and designed Any overload requirements should be determined
to give the most pleasing appearance. before detailed plans are prepared. The District
should request from the Office of Structure Design
(k) Scars from material sites should be
the estimated additional cost of the structures to
avoided. Planting compatible with the
carry overloads and use this information in making
surroundings should be undertaken to
economic comparisons.
revegetate such scars when they are
unavoidable. Factors to be considered in making the
comparisons should include the costs of
(l) Drainage appurtenances should be so
strengthening structures, haul costs, amount of
located that erosion, sumps, and debris
material to be hauled, repair or reconstruction of
collection areas are hidden from view or
structural sections, construction of separate haul
eliminated when site conditions permit.
roads or structures, strengthening of the new
(m) Interchange areas should be graded as flat structural section, sequence of construction
as reasonable with slope rounding and operations, and other pertinent factors. In some
contouring to provide graceful, natural cases, consideration should be given for requiring
looking appearance. The appearance can the contractor to construct a separate haul structure
be further enhanced by planting a over a heavily traveled surface street when large
vegetative cover appropriate to the quantities of material are involved.
locality, being careful to maintain driver
The comparison and all factors leading to the
visibility.
decision should be complete, fully documented,
(n) In locations where graffiti has been and retained in the project files.
excessive, concepts such as limiting
The design of structures for overloads will
accessibility, planting, and surface
normally be governed by one of the following
treatments should be considered to deter
categories:
graffiti.
(1) Category 1. Structures definitely planned to
(o) Roadsides should be designed to deter
carry overloads. This category should be used
weed growth along the traveled way, and
only when the structures are to be constructed
to provide for mechanical litter collection.
under a separate contract prior to a grading
contract and the estimated savings in grading
Topic 110 - Special costs exceed the extra structure costs. The
Considerations District must request the Office of Structure
Design to design for the permissible
110.1 Design for Overloaded Material overloading.
Hauling Equipment (2) Category 2. Structures which are designed to
Sometimes bid costs can be reduced by allowing allow the contractor the option of
the hauling of overloads on a construction contract. strengthening to carry overloads. The contract
The savings may warrant designing structures and plans will include alternative details for
structural sections of new roadways to carry the strengthening the structure and the
November 1, 2001
contractor can decide at the time of bidding scheduling of work, as well as the permanent
whether to haul around the structure, build his facilities to be built under the contract. The control
own haul road structures, use "legal load" of erosion associated with permanent drainage
equipment on the unstrengthened structure, or channels and ditches is covered in Chapter 800,
construct the structure in accordance with the "Drainage".
strengthened alternative design. The District
The background and general requirements of water
should notify the DOS regarding structures to
quality control laws are discussed in the
have optional designs. Undercrossings,
Environmental Handbook. The Department’s
overheads, separations, and stream crossings
Storm Water Management Plan identifies the
are most likely to be in this category.
procedures and practices to be employed in order to
(3) Category 3. Structures which will not be comply with the National Pollutant Discharge
designed to carry overloads. Most Elimination System Permit, issued by the State
overcrossing, ramp, and frontage road Water Resources Control Board.
structures are in this category.
Districts must initiate contact with the appropriate
The District should consult with the DOS early in agencies responsible for water quality as early as
the design phase when determining the design feasible in development of transportation projects
overload category of each bridge in the project. to ensure full identification of pollution problems,
Each case where hauling of overloads is permitted and to ensure full cooperation, understanding, and
must be specifically described in the Special agreement between Caltrans and the other agencies.
Provisions. Each structure designed under The agencies to be contacted will vary from project
Categories 1 and 2 must also be designated in the to project depending on the nature of the project,
Special Provisions. The design load must not the aquatic resources present, and the uses of the
exceed the weight limitation of Section 7-1.02, water. The agencies that may be interested in a
"Weight Limitations", of the Standard project include but are not limited to the following:
Specifications. The District Director or designated U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Fish and
representative must approve the overload category Wildlife Service, U.S. Environmental Protection
for each structure. Agency, California Regional Water Quality Control
Boards, California Department of Fish and Game,
110.2 Control of Water Pollution Flood Control Districts, and local water districts.
The District Environmental Unit can provide
Water pollution related to the construction of
assistance in determining which agencies should be
highways and to the drainage of completed
contacted.
highways should be limited to the maximum extent
practicable. This objective should be considered Recommendations for mitigation measures or
from the early planning, through the detailed construction and operational controls contained in
design phase, to the end of construction of each the Project's Water Quality Study should receive
project. full consideration in the development of the
project. Caltrans is legally bound to comply with
Proposed alterations of existing drainage patterns
the appropriate permits as outlined in the California
and creation of disturbed soil areas should consider
Permit Handbook. Caltrans is also legally bound to
the potential for erosion and siltation. Where
comply with any water quality mitigation measures
interdisciplinary analysis (engineering, biology,
specified in the projects environmental document.
geology, chemical) indicates that harmful physical,
Plans and specifications should reflect water
chemical, or biological pollution of streams, rivers,
quality protection measures in a manner that is
lakes, reservoirs, coastal waters, or groundwater
enforceable in contracts.
may occur, preventive measures and practices will
be required. These measures include temporary
erosion control features during construction,
November 1, 2001
On almost all projects, early contact should be consider relocation or grade changes that
established between the District project would minimize erosion.
development personnel, Landscape Architecture,
(g) Where possible, avoid unstable areas
biologists, geologists, and other specialists
where construction may cause future
available in the Headquarters Environmental
landslides.
Program, the Division of Engineering Services
(DES) Office of Structural Foundations, FHWA, or (h) Identify construction season preference of
other Districts, to ensure optimum development of regulatory agencies.
water quality control measures. (i) Evaluate the need for additional right of
Because siltation resulting from erosion is way to allow for flatter, less erosive
recognized as a major factor in water pollution, slopes.
continuous efforts should be made to improve (2) Design Phase. During the design phase, the
erosion control practices. items listed above should again be considered.
More specific items for consideration are
(1) Project Planning Phase. When project
presented in the following checklist:
planning studies are started, consideration
should be given to the items in the following (a) Provide for the preservation of roadside or
list: median vegetation beyond the limits of
construction by special provisions and
(a) Identify all waters in the vicinity of a
depiction on the plans.
highway project which might affect
construction, maintenance and operational (b) Design slopes as flat as is reasonable with
activities. slope rounding, contouring, or stepping to
minimize erosion and to promote plant
The environmental factors that might growth. Consider retaining walls when
affect preconstruction activities should be practical to reduce slope length and
looked into for the benefit of the resident steepness. Include standard special
engineer and contractor. An example provisions or approved special provisions
would be relocation of drilling of pile which will require the contractor to strip,
foundations in a sensitive stream to salvage, stockpile, and restore topsoil
prevent possible impacts. and/or duff on the final slope to promote
(b) Identify for each project all waters, both plant growth.
fresh and saline, surface and underground, (c) Provide erosion control to all soil areas to
where water quality may be affected by be disturbed by construction activities.
the proposed construction. Consider the need to require the contractor
(c) Determine if any watersheds, aquifers, to apply permanent erosion control in
wells, reservoirs, lakes, or streams are phases, as slopes become substantially
sources for domestic water supplies. complete, instead of allowing all erosion
control to be applied at the end of the
(d) Determine if any sensitive fishery, construction project. Prior to winterizing
wildlife, recreational, agricultural, or the project, the designer must plan for
industrial aquatic resources are located in temporary erosion control on slopes not
the vicinity of the project. substantially complete. Native plants
(e) Consider possible relocation or realign- should be considered for all plantings.
ment that could be made to avoid or If a highway planting project is
minimize the possibility of pollution of anticipated immediately following road-
existing waters. way construction, disturbed soil areas can
(f) Identify variations in the erosive not be left unprotected. The use of mulch
characteristics of the soils in the area, and
November 1, 2001
could be considered as an erosion control consider right of way or encroachment

method during the interim. Contact the rights for temporary work such as
District Landscape Architect for desilting basins, stream diversion, or
assistance. stream crossing protection.
(d) When planning for temporary erosion (k) All ditches should be designed to
control, consider the use of vegetation, minimize erosion. These treatments
mulches, fiber mats, fiber rolls, netting, include but are not limited to grass lining,
dust palliatives, crust forming chemicals, fiber mats, rock lining (with or without
silt fences, plastic sheets or any other geotextile underlayment), and paving.
procedure that may be necessary to The District Hydraulics Unit can assist
prevent erosion. The District Stormwater with the selection and design of ditch
Coordinator, District Landscape Architect, treatment. Consideration should be given
and the District Stormwater Unit can to using soil stabilization materials in
assist in the selection and design of median ditches or other wide drainage
temporary erosion control measures. areas that cannot be vegetated.
(e) Design overside drains, surface, (l) Temporary construction features for water
subsurface, and cross drains so that they pollution control that can be predicted
will discharge in locations and in such a should be made a part of the plans,
manner that surface and subsurface water specifications, and contract pay items.
quality will not be affected. The outlets Such items as mulching and seeding of
may require aprons, bank protection, slopes, berms, dikes, ditches, pipes, dams,
desilting basins, or energy dissipators. silt fences, settling basins, stream
diversion channels, slope drains, and
(f) Provide for adequate fish passage through
crossings over live streams should be
highway culverts or under bridges when
considered. Since all contingencies
necessary to protect or enhance fishery
probably cannot be foreseen, supplemen-
resources.
tal work funds should be set up for each
(g) Provide bank protection where the project. Pay items for temporary erosion
highway is adjacent to rivers, streams, control should not be adjusted for
lakes, or other bodies of water. increased or decreased quantity.
(h) Where required, provide slope protection (m) Special consideration should be given to
or channel lining, energy dissipators, etc. using vegetated ditches to remove
for channel changes. highway runoff pollutants. The District
(i) Where the State has made arrangements Hydraulics and Landscape Architecture
for materials, borrow, or disposal sites, Units can provide assistance in designing
grading plans should be provided and and constructing vegetated ditches.
revegetation required. Special provisions (n) Mandatory order of work clauses
should require the contractor to furnish sometimes result in increased costs or
plans for grading and replanting of sites. longer time limits, but they must be
(j) Check right of way widths for adequate considered where their use would
space to reduce slope gradients and eliminate the expense of temporary
minimize slope angles, for rounding at construction or where they result in earlier
tops of cuts and bottoms of fills, for protection of erodible areas, or improved
adequate slope protection ditches and for handling of site runoff.
incorporation of treatment control (3) Abandonment and Destruction of Water Wells.
measures (e.g., infiltration basins, deten- The abandonment and destruction of water
tion basins, traction sand traps). Also wells within the highway right of way
November 1, 2001
must be handled in accordance with showing the location of each well accu-
requirements established by statute and by rately enough so it can be located in the
agreement with the Department of Water field should be included with the letter. A
Resources (DWR) to avoid pollution of copy of this package should also be
underground water and ensure public safety. provided to Headquarters Construction.
Sections 13700 to 13806 of the California (d) DWR will investigate the wells and write
Water Code deal, in general, with the a report recommending procedures to be
construction and destruction of wells. Section used in destruction of the wells within the
24400 to 24404 of the Health and Safety Code highway right of way. The interagency
require that abandoned wells be covered, agreement provides for reimbursement of
filled, or fenced for safety reasons. Statewide the DWR's cost for these investigations
standards for construction, maintenance and and reports.
destruction of water wells, monitoring wells
and cathodic protection wells have been (e) DWR will forward its report to the
issued by the California Department of Water District.
Resources (DWR) in Bulletin 74 - 81, "Water (f) Provisions for destruction of abandoned
Well Standards: State of California", dated wells occasioned by highway construction
December, 1981, and Bulletin 74 - 81", dated and planting projects must be included in
January, 1990. Pursuant to these standards the District PS&E report. The work,
and interagency agreement with DWR, the usually done by filling and sealing,
following procedures are to be followed to normally should be included in the
determine requirements for abandonment and contract Special Provisions. Steps must
destruction of wells within State highway be taken to insure that wells are left in a
rights of way. safe condition between the time the site is
acquired by the State and the time the well
(a) Before producing water wells within the
is sealed.
highway right of way are abandoned, a
determination should be made of the (g) In some cases, local ordinances or
possible future uses of the wells. Such conditions will require the filling and
future uses include landscape irrigation, sealing of the well prior to the highway
roadside rests, vista points, maintenance contract in order to leave the well in a safe
facilities, truck weighing facilities, and condition.
others. Also see Index 706.4. (h) The contractor who does the work to
(b) The District Project Development and abandon the well must file the Notice of
Right of Way Branches determine the Intent (Form DWR 2125) and the Water
location of water wells that will be Well Drillers Report (Form DWR 188)
affected by highway construction on a required by the Department of Water
project basis. Resources.
(c) The District submits a letter to the (i) Also, under California Water Code
Director, Department of Water Resources, Section 13801, after January 15, 1990, all
1416 Ninth Street, Sacramento, CA. cities and counties are required to have
95814 Attention: Water Resources adopted ordinances that require prior
Evaluation Section, Division of Resources acquisition of permits for all well
Development, listing the wells to be construction, reconstruction and
abandoned and any information that may destruction and requiring possession of an
be known about them. The letter should active C-57 contractors license as the
include the scheduled PS&E date and the minimum qualification for persons
anticipated advertising date for the permitted to work on wells.
project. Two copies of a map, or maps,
November 1, 2001
(4) Summary. To prevent pollution of all waters 110.3 Control of Air Pollution
that could be affected by a highway
Air pollution associated with the construction of
construction project, it is desirable to avoid
highways and to completed highway facilities
involvement with the water or avoid the
should be held to the practical minimum. The
construction of erodible features. Since it is
designer should consider the impacts of haul roads,
seldom possible to avoid all such features, the
disposal sites, borrow sites, and other material
design of effective erosion and sediment
sources in addition to construction within the
control measures should be included with the
highway right of way.
project. Material resulting from erosion
should either be discharged in locations where (1) Control of Dust. Many of the items listed
no negative environmental impacts will occur, under Index 110.2, Control of Water
or be deposited in locations that are accessible Pollution, are applicable to dust control.
to maintenance forces for removal. District Consideration should be given to these items
Landscape Architecture can provide technical and additional material presented in the
assistance in assessing the impacts of erosion following list:
and in designing erosion control features.
(a) See Index 110.2(2)(a), (c), (d), (k) and (n).
Project Development personnel should ensure
(b) Flat areas not normally susceptible to
that all aspects of erosion control and other
erosion by water may require erosion
water quality control features considered
control methods such as planting,
during design are fully explained to the
stabilizing emulsion, protective blankets,
Resident Engineer. Such data is essential for
etc., to prevent wind erosion.
review of the contractor's water pollution
control program. Judgment must be used in (c) Cut and or fill slopes can be sources of
differentiating between planned temporary substantial wind erosion. They will
protection features and work which the require planting or other control measures
contractor must perform in order to fulfill even if water erosion is only a minor
their responsibility to protect the work from consideration.
damage. (d) In areas subject to dust or sand storms,
To reduce contract change orders and ensure vegetative wind breaks should be
erosion control goals are met, important considered to control dust. Use of soil
protection should not be left to the contractor's sealant may also be considered.
judgment. It is desirable that all predictable (e) Special provisions should be used
temporary protection measures be requiring the contractor to restore
incorporated in the plans and specifications material, borrow, or disposal sites, and
and items for payment included in the contract temporary haul roads to a condition such
items of work. that their potential as sources of blowing
Topsoil should be stripped, stockpiled, and dust or other pollution is no greater than
restored to disturbed slopes because existing in their original condition. Work for this
soil nutrients and native seeds contained purpose that can be predicted should be
within the topsoil are beneficial for made a part of the PS&E, which should
establishing vegetative cover and controlling require submission of the contractors plan
erosion. for grading, seeding, mulching or other
appropriate action.
In addition, the abandonment of water wells
must be given special attention in accordance (f) Stockpiling and respreading topsoil may
with Section (3) above. speed revegetation of the roadside and
reduce wind erosion.
November 1, 2001
(2) Control of Burning. Health and Safety Code toes of the slope. An earth cover may be
provisions and rules issued by Air Pollution necessary for aesthetic reasons, or to reduce
Control Boards will preclude burning on most fire hazards. Under certain conditions salvage
highway projects. Off-site disposal of debris of merchantable timber may be desirable, or
must not create contamination problems and may be required by right of way commit-
should not be specified simply as an expedient ments. Whenever merchantable timber is to
resolution of the problem without imposing be salvaged, appropriate specifications should
adequate controls on how such disposal site is be provided. Stumps and unsightly clumps of
to be handled. Designers should seek disposal debris should be chipped or buried in areas
site locations within the right of way where it where they will not create future problems.
will be permissible to dispose of debris.
Care should be taken not to block drainage or
Proper procedures, including compaction and
to interfere with maintenance operations.
burial, should be specified. Debris should not
be disposed of within the normal roadway. Before proposing chipping as the method of
Burying within the right of way should be disposal, the designer should investigate to
done in such a fashion that the layers of debris determine if plant disease or insect pests will
will not act as a permeable layer or otherwise be spread to disease-free or insect-free areas.
be detrimental to the roadway. Acceptable Procedures to decontaminate such chips
alternates based on economic, aesthetic, before use should be included in the contract
safety, and other pertinent considerations if necessary. Designers should seek advice
should be included in the contract if possible. from local experts and County Agricultural
Extension Offices to determine the extent of
On projects where burning will not be
such problems and the procedures and
permitted and disposal of debris within the
chemicals to be specified.
right of way is not possible, optional disposal
sites should be made available. Information The U.S. Forest Service and the State Division
on such site arrangements should be made of Forestry should be contacted during the
available in the "Materials Information" design stage to ascertain the requirements that
furnished to prospective bidders. Reference is these agencies will make upon any disposal
made to the applicable portion of Index 111.3 methods to be used in areas under their
and 111.4 for handling this requirement. control.
Special requirements for disposal of debris It will be noted that under certain limited
and final appearance of the disposal site conditions the prohibition against burning
should be covered in the Special Provisions. may be eliminated from the Special
The intent of this instruction is that the Provisions.
designer should make sure that prospective
bidders have adequate information on which There will be some areas of the State where
to make a realistic bid on clearing and Air Pollution Control Boards may consider
grubbing. issuing a permit for open burning where the
effect on air quality is expected to be
When feasible, tree trunks, branches, and negligible and few if any residents would be
brush should be reduced to chips and affected. The individual situation should be
incorporated with the soil, spread on fill studied and appropriate special provisions
slopes, used as a cover mulch or disposed of prepared for each project to fully cover all
in other ways compatible with the location. In possible methods of disposal of debris that
forest areas where they will not look out of will be available to the contractor.
place, limbs and trunks of trees that are too
large for chipping may be limbed and cut to The local Air Pollution Control Board should
straight lengths and the pieces lined up at the be contacted to determine the current
regulations.
November 1, 2001
(3) Summary. Special consideration should be highway rights of way on transportation improve-
given to the direction of prevailing winds or ment projects. District Environmental Unit and
high-velocity winds in relation to possible Landscape Architecture can provide assistance in
sources of dust and downwind residential, identifying invasive or exotic species which should
business, or recreational areas. Every be controlled, and in recommending mitigation or
practical means should be incorporated in the control methods to be included in appropriate
design of the highway and in the provisions of highway improvement projects.
the contract to prevent air pollution resulting
from highway construction and operation. 110.6 Earthquake Consideration
110.4 Wetlands Protection Earthquakes are naturally occurring events that
The Nation's wetlands are recognized on both the have a high potential to cause damage and
Federal and State level as a valuable resource. As destruction. While it is not possible to completely
such, there have been several legislative and assure earthquake proof facilities, every attempt
administrative actions which provide for special should be made to limit potential damage and
consideration for the preservation of wetlands. prevent collapse.
These are embodied on the Federal level in There are certain measures that should be
Executive Order 11990, DOT Order 5660.1A, considered when a project is to be constructed in or
Section 404 of the Clean Water Act, including near a known zone of active faulting.
Section 404(b)(1) guidelines, and the NEPA 404
Early in the route location process, active and
Integration Process for Surface Transportation
inactive faults should be mapped by engineering
Projects, and the August 24, 1993 Federal
geologists. A general assessment of the seismic
Wetlands Policy. Wetlands are covered on the
risk of various areas within the study zone should
State level by the Porter-Cologne Water Quality
then be prepared. The DOS and Office of
Act and the Resources Agency's Wetlands Policy.
Structural Foundations are available to assist in the
The District Environmental Unit can provide
assessment of seismic risk.
assistance with permitting strategies, identifying
wetlands, determining project impacts, and Strong consideration must be given to the location
recommending mitigation measures, in of major interchanges. They must be sited outside
coordination with the District Landscape Architect. of heavily faulted areas unless there are exceptional
circumstances that make it impractical to do so.
110.5 Control of Noxious Weeds - Exotic
Where close seismic activity is highly probable,
and Invasive Species consideration should be given to avoiding complex
Highway corridors provide the opportunity for the multilevel interchanges in favor of simple designs
transportation of exotic and invasive weed species with low skew, short span structures close to the
through the landscape. Species that have the ability original ground, and maximum use of embankment.
to harm the environment, human health or the Single span bridges which are designed to tolerate
economy are of particular concern. In response to large movements are desirable.
the impact of exotic and invasive species,
Early recognition of seismic risk may lead the
Executive Order 13112 was signed, which directs
designer to modify alignment or grade in order to
Federal Agencies to expand and coordinate
minimize high cuts, fills, and bridge structures in
efforts to combat the introduction and spread of
the area. Slopes should be made as flat as possible
non-native plants and animals. Grading,
both for embankment stability and to reduce slide
excavation, and fill operations during construction
potential in cuts. Buttress fills can be constructed
may introduce invasive species or promote
to improve cut stability. The DOS and the Office
their spreading. Because of this, the FHWA
of Structural Foundations, should be consulted
implemented guidance for State Departments of
early when considering various alternatives to
Transportation for preventing the introduction and
obtain recommendations for mitigating earthquake
controlling the spread of invasive plant species on
damage.
November 1, 2001
When subjected to an earthquake, fills may crack, attention to this subject, including consideration of
slump, and settle. In areas of high water table, the availability of good access to the work site, in
liquefaction may cause large settlement and order that efficient rates of production can be
shifting of the roadway. It is not economically maintained. In addition to reducing the time the
feasible to entirely prevent this damage. One public is exposed to construction operations, the
possible mitigation for existing soils would be to latter effort will help to hold costs down.
have the contract Special Provisions provide for
The traffic control plans should be consistent with
removal of loose and compressible material from
Chapter 5 of the Traffic Manual, "Manual of
fill foundation areas, particularly in canyons,
Traffic Controls", and the philosophies and
sidehill fills, and ravines and for foundation
requirements contained in standard lane closure
preparation on existing hillsides at the transition
plans developed by the Headquarters Traffic
between cut and fill.
Operations Program for use on State highways and
No modification is necessary in the design of the should cover, as appropriate, such items as:
pavement structural sections for the purpose of
• Signing.
reducing damage due to future earthquakes.
Normally it is not possible to reduce this damage, • Flagging.
since the structural section cannot be insulated • Geometrics of detours.
from movements of the ground on which it rests.
In active fault areas, consideration should be given • Methods and devices for delineation and
to the use of flexible pipes or pipes with flexible channelization.
couplings for cross drains, roadway drainage and • Application and removal of pavement
conduits. markings.
Additional expenditure for right of way and • Placement and design of barriers and
construction to make highways and freeways more barricades.
earthquake resistant in a known active fault area • Separation of opposing traffic streams (See
should be kept in balance with the amount of 23 CFR 630J).
impact on the traveling public if the facility may be
put out of service following a disastrous • Maximum lengths of lane closures.
earthquake. Loss of a major interchange, however, • Speed limits and enforcement.
may have a tremendous influence on traffic flow
• Use of COZEEP (Construction Zone
and because of the secondary life-safety and
Enhanced Enforcement Patrol).
economic impacts some additional expenditure
may be justified. • Use of pilot cars.
• Construction scheduling.
110.7 Traffic Control Plans
• Staging and sequencing.
A detailed plan for moving traffic through or
• Length of project under construction at any
around a construction zone must be developed and
one time.
included in the PS&E for all projects to assure that
adequate consideration is given to the safety and • Methods of minimizing construction time
convenience of motorists, pedestrians, and workers without compromising safety.
during construction. Design plans and • Hours of work.
specifications must be carefully analyzed in
conjunction with Traffic, Construction, and • Storage of equipment and materials.
Structure personnel (where applicable) to • Removal of construction debris.
determine in detail the measures required to warn
• Treatment of pavement edges.
and guide motorists through the project during the
various stages of work. Starting early in the design • Roadway lighting.
phase the project engineer should give continuing
November 1, 2001
• Movement of construction equipment. be given to the possibility of including a bid item

for continuous traffic surveillance and control
• Access for emergency vehicles.
during particular periods, such as:
• Clear roadside recovery area.
(a) When construction operations are not in
• Provision for disabled vehicles. progress.
• Surveillance and inspection. (b) When lane closures longer than a
specified length are delineated by cones or
• Needed modifications of above items for
other such nonpermanent devices, whether
inclement weather or darkness.
or not construction operations are in
• Consideration for bicycle and pedestrian progress.
traffic. (c) Under other conditions where the risk and
• Consideration of complete facility closure consequences of traffic control device
during construction. failure are deemed sufficient.
• Consideration of ingress/egress require- Potentially hazardous working conditions must be
ments for construction vehicles. recognized and full consideration given to the
safety of workers as well as the general public
• Any other matters appropriate to the safety during construction. This requirement includes the
objective. provision of adequate clearance between public
Normally, not all the above items will be pertinent traffic and work areas, work periods, and lane
to any one traffic control plan. Depending on the closures based on careful consideration of
complexity of the project and the volume of traffic anticipated traffic volumes, and minimum exposure
affected, the data to be included in the traffic time of workers through simplified design and
control plan can vary from a simple graphic methods.
alignment of the various sequences to the inclusion If a Transportation Management Plan (TMP) is
of complete construction details in the plans and included in the project, the traffic control plans
special provisions. In any event, the plans should (TCP) may need to be coordinated with the public
clearly depict the exact sequence of operation, the information campaign and the transportation
construction to be performed, and the traveled way demand management elements. Any changes in
to be used by all movements of traffic during each TMP or TCP must be made in harmony for the
construction phase. Sufficient alignment data, plans to succeed. The “TMP Guidelines”, available
profiles, plan dimensions, and typical sections from HQ, Traffic Operational Systems Branch,
should be shown to ensure that the contractor and should be reviewed for further guidance.
resident engineer will have no difficulty in
providing traffic-handling facilities. Traffic control plans along with other features of
the design should be reviewed by the District
In some cases, where the project includes Safety Review Committee prior to PS&E as
permanent lighting, it may be helpful to install the discussed in Index 110.7.
lights as an early order of work, so they can
function during construction. In other cases, The cost of implementing traffic control plans must
temporary installations of high-level area lighting be included in the project cost estimate, either as
may be justified. one or more separate pay items or as extra work to
be paid by force account.
Temporary roadways with alignment and surfacing
consistent with the standards of the road which has It is recognized that in many cases provisions for
just been traveled by the motorist should be traffic control will be dependent on the way the
provided if physically and economically possible. contractor chooses to prosecute the project, and that
the designer may have to make some assumptions
Based on assessments of safety benefits, relative as to the staging or sequence of the contractor's
risks and cost-effectiveness, consideration should operations in order to develop definite
November 1, 2001
temporary traffic control plans. However, safety of (2) Procedure. Each District must have a Safety
the public and the workers as well as public Review Committee, composed of at least one
convenience demand that designers give careful engineer from the Construction, Design,
consideration to the plans for handling traffic even Maintenance, and Traffic functions and should
though a different plan may be followed ultimately. designate one of the members as chairperson.
It is simpler from a contract administration Committee members should familiarize
standpoint to change a plan than to add one where themselves with current standards and
none existed. The special provisions should instructions on highway safety so that they
specify that the contractor may develop alternate can identify items in need of correction.
traffic control plans if they are as good or better
The Committee should conduct at least two
than those provided in the contract PS&E.
design safety reviews of each major project.
See Section 2-30, Traffic, of the Construction The Design Project Engineer has the basic
Manual for additional factors to be considered in responsibility to notify the committee
the preparation of traffic control plans. chairperson when a review is needed. The
110.8 Safety Reviews chairperson should schedule a review and
coordinate participation by appropriate
Formal safety reviews during planning, design and committee members.
construction have demonstrated that safety-oriented
critiques of project plans help to ensure the Reviews should include considerations of
application of safety standards. An independent such items as:
team that was not absorbed in the design details of • Exposure of employees to traffic.
the project is generally able to conduct reviews
• Traffic control plans.
from a fresh perspective. In many cases, this
process leads to highly cost-effective modifications • Transportation Management Plans.
that enhance safety for motorists and highway • Traversability of roadsides.
workers without any material changes in the scope
of the project. • Elimination or other appropriate treatment
of fixed objects.
(1) Policy. During the planning stage all projects
shall be reviewed by the District Safety • Susceptibility to wrong-way moves.
Review Committee prior to approval of the • Safety of construction and maintenance
appropriate project initiation document (PSR, personnel.
PSSR, NBSSR, etc.).
• Sight distance.
During design, each project with an estimated
cost of $750,000 or more must be reviewed by • Nonmotorized traffic.
the District Safety Review Committee. • Guardrail.
Any project, regardless of cost, requiring a • Superelevation, etc.
Traffic Control Plan must be reviewed by the
District Safety Review Committee. During • Roadside management and maintenance
construction, the detection of the need for reduction.
safety-related changes is the responsibility of • Access to facilities from off of the freeway.
construction personnel, as outlined in the • Maintenance vehicle pull-out locations.
Construction Manual.
Safety concepts that are identified during The objective is to identify all elements where
these safety reviews which directly limit the safety improvement may be practical and
exposure of employees to traffic shall be indicate desirable corrective measures.
incorporated into the project unless deletion is Reviews should be scheduled when the report
approved by the District Director. or plans are far enough along for a review to
July 1, 2004
be fruitful, but early enough to avoid (PS&E) Guide under “Trade Names.” This policy
unnecessary delay in the approval of the report is based on Public Contract Code, Division 2,
or the completion of PS&E. Chapter 3, Article 5, Paragraph 3400. It is also
virtually coincident with FHWA policy
A simple report should be prepared on the
requirements. The use of proprietary materials,
recommendations made by the Safety
methods, or products will not be approved unless:
Committee and the response by the Design
Project Engineer. The reports should be (a) There is no other known material of equal
included in the project files. or better quality that will perform the
same function, or
110.9 Value Analysis (b) There are overwhelming reasons for using
The use of Value Analysis techniques should begin the material or product in the public’s
early in the project development process and be interest, which may or may not include
applied at various milestones throughout the PS&E cost savings, or
stage to reduce life-cycle costs. See the Project (c) It is essential for synchronization with
Development Procedures Manual for additional existing highway or adjoining facilities, or
information.
(d) Such use is on an experimental basis, with
110.10 Proprietary Items a clearly written plan for “follow-up and
evaluation.”
Although the use of new materials, methods, or
products may involve specifying a patented or See Index 601.5(3) for further details.
brand name method, material, or product, use of
such proprietary items is discouraged in the interest 110.11 Conservation of Materials and
of promoting competitive bidding. If three or more Energy
products or materials are called out for one contract Paving materials such as cement, asphalt, and rock
item, they are not considered proprietary. products are becoming more scarce and expensive,
The use of proprietary items always requires the and the production processes for these materials
approval of the Federal Highway Administration consume considerable energy. Increasing evidence
(FHWA) Division Office if Federal-aid funds are of the limitation of nonrenewable resources and
involved in the project. increasing worldwide consumption of most of these
resources require optimal utilization and careful
Use of proprietary materials can be approved for consideration of alternates such as the substitution
Caltrans by the DES Deputy Division Chief, of more plentiful or renewable resources and the
Structure Design for those facilities designed by the recycling of existing materials.
Division of Structures. Use in District designed
facilities can be approved by the District Director (1) PCC Pavement. The crushing and reuse of
or the Deputy District Director, Design if such old PCC pavement as aggregate in new PCC
approval authority has been specifically delegated or AC pavement does not now appear to be a
by the District Director. Copies of all cost-effective alternate, primarily because of
correspondence documenting consideration and the availability of good mineral aggregate in
approvals of the use of proprietary items must be most areas of California. However, if this is a
forwarded to the Division of Design in feasible option, because of unique project
headquarters, to monitor conformance to this conditions or the potential lack of readily
policy. available materials, it may be included in a
cost comparison of alternate solutions.
Caltrans policy and guidelines on the use of
proprietary items are covered in the Office
Engineer’s Plans, Specifications and Estimate
July 1, 2004
(2) AC Pavement. Recycling of existing AC must cannot enter the waters of the State. However,
be considered, in all cases, as an alternative to there are no set rules as to distances and
placing 100% new asphalt concrete. This is circumstances applicable to the placement of
discussed in more detail in the “Flexible asphaltic materials adjacent to waters of the
Pavement Rehabilitation Manual,” accessible State. Placement decisions must be made on
at the Pavement website: http://www.dot. case-by-case basis, so that such materials will
ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.htm. be placed far enough away from the Waters of
(3) Use of Asphalt Concrete Grindings, Chunks the State to prevent weather (erosion) or
and Pieces. When constructing transportation maintenance operations from dislodging the
facilities, Caltrans frequently uses asphalt in material into State waters. Site-specific
mixed or combined materials such as asphalt factors (i.e., steep slopes) should be given
concrete (AC) pavement. Caltrans also uses special care. Generally, when AC pavement
recycled AC grindings and chunks. There is a grindings are being considered for placement
potential for these materials to reach the where there is a potential for this material to
waters of the State through erosion or enter a water body, DFG should be notified to
inappropriate placement during construction. assist in determining whether a 1601
Section 5650 of the Fish and Game Code Agreement is appropriate. DFG may require
states that it is unlawful to deposit asphalt, mitigation strategies to prevent the materials
other petroleum products, or any material from entering the Waters of the State. When
deleterious to fish, plant life, or bird life where in doubt, it is recommended that the DFG be
they can pass into the waters of the State. In notified.
addition, Section 1601 of the Fish and Game If there is the potential for reused AC
Code requires notification to the California materials to reach Waters of the State through
Department of Fish and Game (DFG) prior to erosion or other means during construction,
construction of a project that will result in the such work would normally require a 1601
disposal or deposition of debris, waste, or Agreement. Depending on the circumstances,
other material containing crumbled, flaked, or the following mitigation measures should be
ground pavement where it can pass into any taken to prevent AC grindings from entering
river, stream, or lake designated by the DFG. water bodies:
The first step is to determine whether there are • The reuse of AC pavement grindings as fill
waters of the State in proximity to the project material and shoulder backing must
that could be affected by the reuse of AC. conform to the Caltrans Standard
Waters of the State include: (1) perennial Specifications, applicable manuals of
rivers, streams, or lakes that flow or contain instruction, contract provisions, and the
water continuously for all or most of the year; MOU described below.
or (2) intermittent lakes that contain water • AC chunks and pieces in embankment
from time to time or intermittent rivers or must be placed above the water table and
streams that flow from time to time, stopping covered by at least one foot of material.
and starting at intervals, and may disappear
and reappear. Ephemeral streams, which are A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)
generally exempt under provisions developed dated January 12, 1993, outlines the interim
by Caltrans and DFG, are those that flow only agreement between the DFG and Caltrans
in direct response to rainfall. regarding the use of asphaltic materials. This
MOU provides a working agreement to
The reuse of AC pavement grindings will facilitate Caltrans' continued use of asphaltic
normally be consistent with the Fish and materials and avoid potential conflicts with
Game Code and not require a 1601 Agreement the Fish and Game Code by describing
when these materials are placed where they conditions where use of asphalt road
July 1, 2004
construction material by Caltrans would not Topic 111 - Material Sites and
conflict with the Fish and Game Code.
Disposal Sites
Specific Understandings contained in the
MOU are:
111.1 General Policy
• Asphalt Use in Embankments
The policies and procedures concerning material
Caltrans may use AC chunks and pieces in sites and disposal sites are listed below.
embankments when these materials are
placed where they will not enter the (a) Materials investigations and
Waters of the State. environmental studies of local materials
sources should be made to the extent
• Use of AC Pavement Grindings as necessary to provide a basis for study and
Shoulder Backing design. Location and capacity of
Caltrans may use AC pavement grindings available disposal sites should be
as shoulder backing when these materials determined for all projects requiring
3
are placed where they will not enter the disposal of more than 7500 m of clean
Waters of the State. material. Sites for disposal of any
significant amount of material in sensitive
• Streambed Alteration Agreements areas should be considered only where
Caltrans will notify the DFG pursuant to there is no practical alternative.
Section 1601 of the Fish and Game Code (b) Factual information obtained from such
when a project involving the use of investigations should be made readily
asphaltic materials or crumbled, flaked, or available to prospective bidders and
ground pavement will alter or result in the contractors.
deposition of pavement material into a
river, stream, or lake designated by the (c) The responsibility for interpreting such
DFG. When the proposed activity information rests with the contractor and
incorporates the agreements reached under not with the State.
Section 1601 of the Fish and Game Code, (d) Generally, the designation of optional
and is consistent with Section 5650 of the material sites or disposal sites will not be
Fish and Game Code and this MOU, the included in the special provisions.
DFG will agree to the use of these Mandatory sites must be designated in the
materials. special provisions. A disposal site within
There may be circumstances where agreement the highway right of way (not necessarily
between the DFG and Caltrans cannot be within the project limits) should be
reached. Should the two agencies reach an provided when deemed in the best interest
impasse, the agencies enter into a binding of the Department as an alternative to an
arbitration process outlined in Section 1601 of approved site for disposal of water bearing
the Fish and Game Code. However, keep in residues generated by grinding or
mind that this arbitration process does not grooving operations, after approval is
exempt Caltrans from complying with the obtained from the Regional Water
provisions of the Fish and Game Code. Also Quality Control Board (RWQCB) having
it should be noted that this process is time jurisdiction over the area.
consuming, requiring as much as 72 days or (e) Material agreements or other
more to complete. Negotiations over the arrangements should be made with owners
placement of AC grindings, chunks, and of material sites whenever the absence of
pieces are to take place at the District level as such arrangements would result in
part of the 1601 Agreement process. restriction of competition in bidding, or in
July 1, 2004
other instances where it is in the State's 111.2 Investigation of Local Materials

interest that such arrangements be made. Sources
(f) The general policy of Caltrans is to avoid (1) Extent of Explorations. Possible sources of
specifying mandatory sources unless data materials should be investigated to the extent
in support of such sources shows certain necessary to assure that the design of each
and substantial savings to the State. project is based on the most economical use of
Mandatory sources must not be specified available materials compatible with good
on Federal-aid projects except under environmental design practices. Where it can
exceptional circumstances, and prior be reasonably assumed that all required
approval of the FHWA is required. materials can be most economically obtained
Supporting data in such cases should be from commercial sources on the current “AB
submitted as early as possible. This policy 3098 List”, it should be unnecessary to
also applies to disposal sites. investigate other sites. In all other cases
(g) It is the policy of Caltrans to cooperate material sites should be investigated.
with local authorities to the greatest Exploration of materials sources should not be
practicable extent in complying with restricted to those properties where the owner
environmental requirements for all expresses willingness to enter into agreement
projects. Any corrective measures wanted with the State. Unless it is definitely known
by the local authorities should be provided that the owner will under no circumstances
through the permit process. Any unusual permit removal of materials, the site should be
requirements, conditions, or situations considered as a possible source of local
should be submitted to the Division of materials.
Design for review (see Indexes 110.2 and
(2) Geotechnical Design Report or Materials
110.3).
Report. The Geotechnical Design Report or
(h) The use of any materials site requires Materials Report should include complete
compliance with environmental laws and information on all sites investigated and
regulations, which is normally a part of should discuss the quality, cost, SMARA
the project environmental documentation. status, and availability of materials from
If the need for a site occurs after approval commercial plants on the current “AB 3098
of the project environmental document, a List”. Sufficient sampling of sites must be
separate determination of environmental performed to indicate the character of the
requirements for the materials site may be material and the elevation of the ground water
required. surface, and to determine changes in the
(i) If the materials site is outside the project character of the material, both laterally and
limits and exceeds 0.4 ha in size, or vertically. Sampling must be done in such a
3
extraction will exceed 765 m , it must manner that individual samples can be taken
comply with the Surface Mining and from each horizon or layer. Composite
Reclamation Act of 1975 (SMARA) and samples of two or more different types of
be included on the current “AB 3098 List” material are unsatisfactory, as there is no
published by the Department of assurance that the materials would be so
Conservation before material from that combined if the materials source were actually
site can be used on a State project. There used. Testing of blends of two or more types
are limited exceptions to this requirement of materials is permissible, provided the test
and the District Materials Engineer should report clearly indicates the combination tested.
be consulted. The test report must clearly indicate the
location of the sample and the depth
represented. The fact that materials sites are
not designated in the Special Provisions does
July 1, 2004
not reduce the importance of thorough of any project can be readily identified and the
exploration and testing. test reports can be immediately accessible.
As tabulations of test data for local materials Filing only by numerical or chronological
will be furnished to prospective bidders, and order will not be permissible.
the test reports may be examined by bidders if
they so request, it is important that only 111.3 Materials Information Furnished to
factual data be shown on the test report and Prospective Bidders
that no conclusions, opinions, or interpretation (1) Materials Information Compilation. It is the
of the test data be included. Under intent that all test data applicable to material
"Remarks", give only the pertinent factual sites for a project be furnished to prospective
information regarding the scalping, crushing, bidders. To obtain uniformity in the
blending, or other laboratory processing "handouts" furnishing this information to
performed in preparing samples for testing, prospective bidders, the District Materials
and omit any comments as to suitability for Unit should develop the “handout” and the
any purpose. Any discussion of the quality, following information must be included:
suitability, or quantity of material in local
materials sites necessary for design purposes (a) A cover page entitled, "Materials
should be included in the Geotechnical Design Information", should show District,
Report or Materials Report, and not noted on County, Route, kilometer post limits, and
the test reports. For any potential materials geographical limits. There should be a
source explored or tested, all boring and test note stating where the records, from
data must be furnished, including those tests which the information was compiled, may
which indicate unsuitable or inferior material. be inspected. Also, an index, listing
investigated material sites, and disposal
Materials information to be furnished bidders sites, maps, test reports, tabulation sheets,
may include data on a materials source SMARA status, and agreements is to be
previously investigated for the same project or shown on the cover page.
some other project provided all of the
following conditions are met: (b) A vicinity map showing the location of
investigated materials sites and disposal
(a) There has been no change in test
sites in relation to the project.
procedures subsequent to the time the
earlier tests were made. (c) A map of each material site showing the
location and identification of boring or
(b) The materials source has not been altered
test pits.
by stream action, weathering, or other
natural processes. (d) A tabulation of the test data for each
material site, showing complete
(c) The material sampled and represented by
information on the location, depth, and
the tests has not been removed.
processing of each sample tested, together
(d) There has been no change in SMARA with all test results.
status, or inclusion or exclusion on the
(e) Copies of all options or agreements with
“AB 3098 List”.
owners of the material sites, if such
It will be necessary for each District to arrangements have been made.
maintain a filing system such that all
(f) Soil survey sheets or suitable terrain maps
preliminary test reports for potential materials
showing borings and tests along the
sites are readily accessible. This will
highway alignment.
necessitate preparation of test reports covering
all preliminary tests of materials. It will also (g) A tabulation of which sites comply with
be essential to maintain some type of materials environmental laws and regulations and
inventory system, whereby sites in the vicinity
July 1, 2004
are included on the current “AB 3098 opportunity exists for possible token removal, with
List”. the result that the State would be required to pay
for the guaranteed quantity even though the
(h) Material site grading and reclamation plan
material would not actually be removed. Also,
and disposal site grading plans, if they
requirements that the State perform construction
have been prepared.
work on the owner's property, such as fences, gates,
(i) Copies of local use permits and clearances cattle guards, roads, etc., should be included only
(when they have been obtained by the when the cost of such items and possible resulting
State) such as environmental clearances, benefits have been properly considered in the
mining permits, Forest Service Fire derivation of the royalty.
Regulations, water quality control
clearances, etc. If documents are of 111.5 Procedures for Acquisition of
unusual length, a statement should be Material Sites and Disposal Sites
included that they have been obtained and
are available for inspection at the District These instructions establish procedures to be
office or Sacramento Plans Counter. followed in the purchase of material sites and
disposal sites when such purchase is deemed
Maps, test reports, and other data included in necessary by the District. The steps to be taken are
the "Materials Information" must be factual, listed in order as follows:
and should not include any comments,
conclusions, or opinions as to the quality, (1) General Procedure.
quantity, suitability, depth, or area of the (a) A District report proposing and
materials in any material site or along the establishing the necessity for purchase of
highway. the site is required. The report should
Reproducible copies of all material to be contain the following information:
included in the "Material Information" • The project or projects on which the
package should be submitted to the Office site is to be used and programming of
Engineer. proposed construction.
The Office Engineer will reproduce the • The location and description of the
"Materials Information," and copies will be property, zoning, and site restora-
available to prospective bidders upon request tion/reclamation proposals including
in the same manner that plans and special necessary vicinity and site maps.
provisions are furnished.
• The amount and quality of material
estimated to be available in the site
111.4 Materials Arrangements
and amount needed for the project or
Materials agreements or other arrangements must projects, or amount of excess material
be made in accordance with the policy stated under to be disposed of and the capacity of
Index 111.1(e). the site or sites.
The determination of when and where materials • An economic analysis using the
agreements or other arrangements are to be estimated purchase price and value of
obtained is the responsibility of the District, see land after removal of material or
Section 8.25.00.00 of the Right of Way Manual. deposit of excess material. The total
The District should also determine the maximum estimated savings over other possible
royalty that can be paid economically on the basis alternatives must be clearly demon-
of availability of competitive sources. strated. Alternatives must be shown
from the standpoint of what would
In preparing agreements, guaranteed quantity have to be done if the site was not
provisions should not be included, as the purchased. Alternatives could be
July 1, 2004
changes in location or grade as well as (e) The District must include the cost of
alternative sources of material. purchase in the proper fiscal year program
and/or budget as part of the District
• A statement as to whether or not the
targets.
use of the site should be mandatory,
with a separate statement regarding (f) After budgeting, the District must submit
the effect for each proposed project an expenditure authorization to cover
for which mandatory use of the site is purchase of the site. This could be
considered necessary, including com- concurrent if the project is added to the
plete justification for the mandatory budget during a fiscal year. The
specification (see Index 111.6). Three expenditure authorization request should
copies of each map or other be processed through the District Project
attachment, folded letter size, are Management and Administration Units
required for mandatory sites on all and obtain District Director approval.
Federal-aid projects. (g) After issuance of an expenditure
• A statement of the type of authorization, the District Division of
environmental documentation. Right of Way will complete purchase of
the site.
• Other justification.
(2) Material and Disposal Sites in Federal Lands.
Send one copy to the Division of Design The applicable sections of the Federal
and one copy to DES Materials Highway Act of 1958 for procurement of
Engineering and Testing Services for borrow or disposal sites, Sections 107(d) and
information. 317, are set forth in Section 8.18.02.00 of the
(b) If the project or projects are to have Right of Way Manual; Section 107(d) applies
Federal aid, the District will prepare a to the Interstate System while Section 317
request, with supporting environmental applies to other Federal-aid highways.
clearance, for FHWA approval to specify Whenever Federal public lands are required
the source as mandatory. One copy of this for a material or a disposal site, and after
request should be sent to the Office preliminary negotiations at the local level with
Engineer and one copy to Division of the Federal agency having jurisdiction, the
Design. District must submit a letter report to the
FHWA. This report should observe the
(c) If the estimated purchase price is over requirements of Index 111.5 of this manual
$300,000, the District should include the and Section 8.18.02.03 of the Right of Way
item in the STIP and corresponding Manual.
budget.
Following submittal of the proposal by the
(d) When the proposed purchase has been
District to the FHWA, the latter, acting on
approved, the Project Engineer should
behalf of the State transmits the proposal with
notify the District Division of Right of
a favorable recommendation to the Federal
Way, District Environmental Division and
agency having control of the site. See Section
the District Materials Unit and request
8.18.02.03 of the Right of Way Manual.
that Right of Way purchase the site (or
obtain a Materials Agreement; the
111.6 Mandatory Material Sites and
Materials Unit should assist in the
Disposal Sites on Federal-aid Projects
development of the agreement) and
the Environmental Division obtain The contract provisions must not specify a
environmental authorization to proceed. mandatory site for the disposal of surplus
excavated materials unless a particular site is
needed for environmental reasons or the site is
July 1, 2004
found to be the most economical for one or more contract (30 days would be a minimum, but not
Federal-aid projects. All points listed in Index more than 60 days except in unusual situations).
111.5(1)(a) and (b) must be covered and one copy All environmental requirements must be satisfied
of all attachments submitted. Supporting data must and local permits must be obtained prior to
be submitted to the FHWA during the project submittal of the PS&E. Right of Way, Permits, and
planning phase or early in the project design phase Environmental units must be informed early in the
as almost all cases of mandatory sites must go to process. The contractor will be allowed to use
the FHWA for decision. these sites only for work on the designated
project(s).
Section 635.407 of 23 CFR 635D states in part:
"The designation of a mandatory material 112.2 Locating a Site
source may be permitted based on The Project Engineer should consult with District
environmental considerations, provided the Division of Right of Way concerning appropriately
environment would be substantially enhanced sized parcels currently being held in the airspace
without excessive cost." inventory, nearby property held by Caltrans for
"The contract provisions ... shall not specify future construction, or as excess land. If such
mandatory a site for the disposal of surplus space is available in the vicinity of the project, the
excavated materials unless there is a finding District Environmental Division should be
by the State highway agency with the consulted to determine what environmental
concurrence of the FHWA Division requirements are necessary for the use of these
Administrator that such placement is the most properties for the intended purpose. If sufficient
economical except that the designation of a space does not appear to be available for yard or
mandatory site may be permitted based on plant, the Project Engineer must see that the
environmental considerations, provided the appropriate wording is placed in the contract
environment would be substantially enhanced Special Provisions.
without excessive cost."
Topic 113 - Geotechnical Design
Topic 112 - Contractor's Yard and Report
Plant Sites
113.1 Policy
112.1 Policy The Project Engineer must review the project
The Project Engineer should, during the design initiation document and Preliminary Geotechnical
phase of a project, consider the need and Design Report, if any, to ascertain the scope of
availability of sites for the contractor's yards and geotechnical involvement for a project. A
materials plants. This is particularly important in Geotechnical Design Report (GDR) is to be
areas where dust, noise, and access problems could prepared by the Roadway Geotechnical
limit the contractor in obtaining sites on their own Engineering Branches of the Division of
in a timely manner. Asphalt concrete recycling Engineering Services (DES) Geotechnical Services
projects pose special problems of material storage, (or under a consultant contract with technical
access, and plant location; see Index 110.11. oversight by DES-GS) for all projects that involve
Temporary storage areas should be considered for designs for cut slopes, embankments, earthwork,
grooving and grinding projects. As a general rule, landslide remediation, retaining walls, groundwater
the use of material sites designated in the Special studies, erosion control features, subexcavation and
Provisions should be optional. Should the any other studies involving geotechnical
materials site be desired, the contractor shall investigations and engineering geology. A GDR is
provide notice to the Resident Engineer within a not required for projects that solely include those
designated time period after approval of the design features described in Index 114.1.
July 1, 2004
113.2 Content
The GDR is to conform to the “Guidelines for
Geotechnical Reports” which is prepared by the
Office of Structural Foundations.
113.3 Submittal and Review

Final copies of the GDR are to be submitted to the
Project Engineer, District Materials Unit, and the
Division of Design. For consultant developed
reports, the GDR is to be submitted to DES-GS for
review and approval. DES-GS will then transmit
the approved GDR to the Project Engineer, District
Materials Unit, and the Division of Design. Also
see Index 607.2.
Topic 114 - Materials Report
114.1 Policy
A Materials Report must be prepared by the
District Materials Branch (or under a consultant
contract with technical oversight by the District
Materials Branch) with assistance from the DES
Materials Engineering and Testing Services
(METS) for all projects that involve pavement
structural section recommendations or pavement
studies, culverts or other drainage materials,
corrosion studies, or materials or disposal sites.
114.2 Content
The Materials Report is to conform to the
guidelines for pavement structural section studies
and guidelines for corrosion studies as published by
METS. Exceptions may be approved by METS.
114.3 Submittal and Review
A copy of the Draft Materials Report is to be
submitted to METS for review and comment by the
District Materials Unit. After resolution of the
comments from METS, a final copy of the
Materials Report is to be submitted to the District
Materials Unit, the Project Engineer, the Division
of Design, and to METS. Also see Index 607.2.
July 1, 2004
Chapter 3 of "A Policy on Geometric Design of

CHAPTER 200 Highways and Streets," AASHTO, 2001, contains a
GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND thorough discussion of the derivation of stopping
sight distance.
STRUCTURE STANDARDS
201.2 Passing Sight Distance
Topic 201 - Sight Distance Passing sight distance is the minimum sight
distance required for the driver of one vehicle to
Index 201.1 - General pass another vehicle safely and comfortably.
Sight distance is the continuous length of highway Passing must be accomplished assuming an
ahead visible to the driver. Three types of sight oncoming vehicle comes into view and maintains
distance are considered here: passing, stopping, and the design speed, without reduction, after the
decision. Stopping sight distance is the minimum overtaking maneuver is started.
sight distance to be provided on multilane Chapter III of “A Policy on Geometric Design of
highways and on 2-lane roads when passing sight Highways and Streets,” AASHTO, contains a
distance is not economically obtainable. Stopping thorough discussion of the derivation of passing
sight distance also is to be provided for all elements sight distance. In brief, AASHTO states that the
of interchanges and intersections at grade, sight distance available for passing at any place is
including private road connections (see Topic 504, the longest distance at which a driver whose eyes
Index 405.1, & Figure 405.7). Decision sight are 1070 mm above the pavement surface can see
distance is used at major decision points (see the top of an object 1300 mm high on the road.
Indexes 201.7 and 504.2).
In general, 2-lane highways should be designed to
The following table shows the standards for provide for passing where possible, especially
passing and stopping sight distance related to those routes with high volumes of trucks or
design speed, and these shall be the minimum recreational vehicles. Passing should be done on
values used in design. tangent horizontal alignments with constant grades
Table 201.1 or a slight sag vertical curve. Not only are drivers
Sight Distance Standards reluctant to pass on a long crest vertical curve, but
it is impracticable to design crest vertical curves to
(1) (2) Passing provide for passing sight distance because of high
Design Speed Stopping
(km/h) (m) (m) cost where crest cuts are involved. Passing sight
distance for crest vertical curves is 7 to 17 times
30 30 217
longer than the stopping sight distance.
40 50 285
Ordinarily, passing sight distance is provided at
50 65 345
locations where combinations of alignment and
60 85 407 profile do not require the use of crest vertical
70 105 482 curves.
80 130 541 Passing sight distance is considered only on 2-lane
90 160 605 roads. At critical locations, a stretch of 3- or 4-lane
100 190 670 passing section with stopping sight distance is
sometimes more economical than two lanes with
110 220 728
passing sight distance.
120 255 792
Passing on sag vertical curves can be accomplished
130 290 855
both day and night because headlights can be seen
(1) See Topic 101 for selection of design speed. through the entire curve.
(2) For sustained downgrades, refer to advisory standard in
Index 201.3
July 1, 2004
See Chapter 6 of the Traffic Manual for criteria Development Coordinator and the Traffic Liaison
relating to barrier striping of no-passing zones. Engineer shall be contacted to review proposed
Note, that passing sight distances given in the grade sag lighting to determine if such use is
Traffic Manual are lower than those given in “A appropriate.
Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets,” AASHTO. The distances used in the 201.6 Stopping Sight Distance on
Traffic Manual are not intended for passing sight Horizontal Curves
distance design of horizontal and vertical curves.
Where an object off the pavement such as a bridge
The shorter distances used in the Traffic Manual
pier, building, cut slope, or natural growth restricts
are for the passing of slower vehicles than those
sight distance, the minimum radius of curvature is
considered in the AASHTO criteria, such as trucks,
determined by the stopping sight distance.
bicycles, etc. Consult the Headquarters Traffic
Liaison when using the Traffic Manual criteria. Available stopping sight distance on horizontal
curves is obtained from Figure 201.6. It is assumed
Other means for providing passing opportunities,
that the driver's eye is 1070 mm above the center of
such as climbing lanes or turnouts, are discussed in
the inside lane (inside with respect to curve) and
Index 204.5.
the object is 150 mm high. The line of sight is
assumed to intercept the view obstruction at the
201.3 Stopping Sight Distance
midpoint of the sight line and 600 mm above the
The minimum stopping sight distance is the center of the inside lane when the road profile is
distance required by the driver of a vehicle, flat (i.e. no vertical curve). Crest vertical curves
traveling at a given speed, to bring the vehicle to a can cause additional reductions in sight distance.
stop after an object on the road becomes visible. The clear distance (m) is measured from the center
Stopping sight distance is measured from the of the inside lane to the obstruction. (Note that the
driver's eyes, which are assumed to be 1070 mm clear distance “m” is italicized to distinguish it
above the pavement surface, to an object 150 mm from the “m” used for meters.)
high on the road.
The design objective is to determine the required
The stopping sight distances in Table 201.1 should clear distance from centerline of inside lane to a
be increased by 20% on sustained downgrades retaining wall, bridge pier, abutment, cut slope, or
steeper than 3% and longer than 2 km. other obstruction for a given design speed. Using
radius of curvature and minimum sight distance for
201.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade that design speed, Figure 201.6 gives the clear
Crests distance (m) from centerline of inside lane to the
obstruction.
Figure 201.4 shows graphically the relationships
between length of crest vertical curve, design When the radius of curvature and the clear distance
speed, and algebraic difference in grades. Any one to a fixed obstruction are known, Figure 201.6 also
factor can be determined when the other two are gives the sight distance for these conditions.
known.
See Index 101.1 for technical reductions in design
speed caused by partial or momentary horizontal
201.5 Stopping Sight Distance at Grade
sight distance restrictions. See Index 203.2 for
Sags additional comments on glare screens.
From the curves in Figure 201.5, the minimum Cuts may be widened where vegetation restricting
length of vertical curve which provides headlight horizontal sight distance is expected to grow on
sight distance in grade sags for a given design finished slopes. Widening is an economic trade-off
speed can be obtained. that must be evaluated along with other options.
If headlight sight distance is not obtainable at grade See Index 902.2 for sight distance requirements on
sags, lighting may be considered. The Project landscape projects.
November 1, 2001
Figure 201.4
Stopping Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves
L = Curve Length (meters)
A = Algebraic Grade Difference (%)
S = Sight Distance (meters)
V = Design Speed for “S” in km/h
K = Distance in meters required to

Drivers eye height is 1070 mm. achieve a 1% change in grade. K
Object height is 150 mm. value as shown on graph is valid
when S < L.
Notes:
• Before using this figure for intersections, branch connections and exits, see Indexes 201.7 and 405.1, and
Topic 504.
• See Figure 204.4 for vertical curve formulas.
• See Index 204.4 for minimum length of vertical curve
When S > L When S < L
L = 2S – 405/A L = AS2 /405

July 1, 2004
Figure 201.5
Stopping Sight Distance on Sag Vertical Curves
K = Distance in meters required to
achieve a 1% change in grade. K
value as shown on graph is valid
when S < L.
Notes:
• For sustained downgrades, see Index 201.3.
Topic 504.
• See Index 204.4 for minimum length of vertical curve.
L = 2S - (122 + 3.5S)/A L = AS2 /(122 + 3.5S)

July 1, 2004
Figure 201.6
Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
November 1, 2001
201.7 Decision Sight Distance

Topic 202 - Superelevation
At certain locations, sight distance greater than
stopping sight distance is desirable to allow drivers
time for decisions without making last minute 202.1 Basic Criteria
erratic maneuvers (see Chapter III of "A Policy on
According to the laws of mechanics, when a vehicle
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,"
travels on a curve it is forced outward by centrifugal
AASHTO, for a thorough discussion of the
force.
derivation of decision sight distance.)
On a superelevated highway, this force is resisted by
On freeways and expressways the decision sight
the vehicle weight component parallel to the
distance values in Table 201.7 should be used at
superelevated surface and side friction between the
lane drops and at off-ramp noses to interchanges,
tires and pavement. It is impractical to balance
branch connections, roadside rests, vista points, and
centrifugal force by superelevation alone, because
inspection stations. When determining decision
for any given curve radius a certain superelevation
sight distance on horizontal and vertical curves,
rate is exactly correct for only one driving speed.
Figures 201.4, 201.5, and 201.6 can be used. Figure
At all other speeds there will be a side thrust either
201.7 is an expanded version of Figure 201.4 and
outward or inward, relative to the curve center,
gives the relationship among length of crest vertical
which must be offset by side friction.
curve design speed, and algebraic difference in
grades for much longer vertical curves than Figure If the vehicle is not skidding, these forces are in
201.4. equilibrium as represented by the following
equation, which is used to design a curve for a
Decision sight distance is measured using the 1070
comfortable operation at a particular speed:
mm eye height and 150 mm object height. See
Index 504.2 for sight distance at secondary exits on Centrifugal factor = e + f = 0.0079V
2
= V
2
a collector-distributor road. R 127R
Where:
Table 201.7 e = Superelevation slope in meters
per meter
Decision Sight Distance emax = Maximum superelevation rate for
Design Speed Decision Sight a given condition
(km/h) Distance f = Side friction factor
(m) R = Curve radius in meters
40 110 V = Velocity in kilometers per hour
50 145 Standard superelevation rates are designed to hold
the portion of the centrifugal force that must be
60 175
taken up by tire friction within allowable limits.
70 200 Friction factors as related to speed are shown on
80 230 Figure 202.2. The factors apply equally to portland
90 275 cement concrete and bituminous pavements.
100 315
110 335
120 375
November 1, 2001
Figure 201.7
Decision Sight Distance on Crest Vertical Curves
K = Distance in meters required to achieve a 1%

Drivers eye height is 1070 mm. change in grade. K value as shown on graph
Object height is 150 mm. is valid when S < L.
Notes:
Topic 504.
See Index 204.4 for minimum length of vertical curve.
L = 2S – 405/A L = AS2 /405

November 1, 2001
202.2 Standards for Superelevation less than the minimum shoulder slope used on the
Maximum superelevation rates for various highway tangents (see Index 304.3 for cross slopes under cut
conditions are shown on Table 202.2. widening conditions).
Based on an emax selected by the designer for one On rural 2-lane roads, superelevation should be on
of the conditions, superelevation rates from the same plane for the full width of traveled way
Table 202.2 shall be used within the given range and shoulders, except on transitions (see Index
of curve radii. If less than standard supereleva- 304.3 for cut widening conditions).
tion rates are approved (see Index 82.1), Figure 202.3 Restrictive Conditions
202.2 shall be used to determine superelevation Lower superelevation rates than those given in
based on the curve radius and maximum either Table 202.2 or Figure 202.2 may be necessary
comfortable speed. in areas where restricted speed zones or ramp/street
Maximum comfortable speed is determined by the intersections are controlling factors. Other typical
formula given on Figure 202.2. It represents the locations are short radius curves on ramps near the
speed on a curve where discomfort caused by local road juncture, either at an intersection or
centrifugal force is evident to a driver. Side friction where a loop connects with an overcrossing
factors tabulated on Figure 202.2 are recommended structure. Often, established street grades, curbs, or
by AASHTO for design purposes. "A Policy on drainage may prove difficult to alter and/or
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets," superelevation transition lengths would be
AASHTO, states, "In general, studies show that the undesirably short.
maximum side friction factors developed between Such conditions may justify a reduction in the
new tires and wet concrete pavements range from superelevation rate, different rates for each half of
about 0.5 at 30 km/h to approximately 0.35 at 100 the roadbed, or both. In any case, the
km/h." The design side friction factors are, superelevation rate provided should be appropriate
therefore, about one-third the values that occur for the conditions allowing for a smooth transition
when side skidding is imminent. while providing the maximum level of comfort to
To use Figure 202.2, the designer must decide on the driver. Where standard superelevation rates
the relative importance among three variables. cannot be attained, discussions should be held with
Normally, when a nonstandard superelevation rate is the Design Reviewer and/or the Project
approved, Figure 202.2 will be entered with the rate Development Coordinator to determine the proper
and a desired curve radius. It must then be solution and the necessity of preparing a design
determined whether the resulting maximum exception fact sheet. In warping street or ramp
comfortable speed is adequate for the conditions or surface areas for drainage, adverse superelevation
whether further adjustments to radius and should be avoided (see Figure 202.2).
superelevation may be needed. 202.4 Axis of Rotation
Except for short radius curves, the standard (1) Undivided Highways. For undivided highways
superelevation rate results in very little side thrust at the axis of rotation for superelevation is
speeds less than 75 km/h. This provides maximum usually the centerline of the roadbed.
comfort for most drivers. However, in special cases such as desert roads
where curves are preceded by long relatively
Superelevation for horizontal curves with radii of
level tangents, the plane of superelevation may
3000 m and greater may be deleted in those
be rotated about the inside edge of traveled
situations where the combination of a flat grade and
way to improve perception of the curve. In flat
a superelevation transition would create undesirable
country, drainage pockets caused by
drainage conditions on the pavement.
superelevation may be avoided by changing the
Superelevated cross slopes on curves extend the full axis of rotation from the centerline to the inside
width of the traveled way and shoulders, except that edge of traveled way.
the shoulder slope on the low side should be not
November 1, 2001
Table 202.2
Standard Superelevation Rates
(Superelevation in Meters per Meter for Curve Radius in Meters)
Ramps, Freeways, When Snow & Ice Urban Roads Urban Roads
2-Lane Conventional Expressways, Conditions Prevail (55 - 75 km/h) (less than 55 km/h)
Highways, Frontage Multilane Conventional (Usually over 900 m
Roads (1) Highways elevation)
For e = 0.12 For e = 0.10 For e = 0.08 For e = 0.06 For e = 0.04
max max max max max
Range of e Range of e Range of e Range of e Range of e
Curve Radii Rate Curve Radii Rate Curve Radii Rate Curve Radii Rate Curve Radii Rate
189 & Under 0.12
190 - 259 0.11
260 - 334 0.10 334 & Under 0.10
335 - 409 0.09 335 - 409 0.09
410 - 489 0.08 410 - 489 0.08 489 & Under 0.08
490 - 579 0.07 490 - 579 0.07 490 - 579 0.07
580 - 669 0.06 580 - 669 0.06 580 - 669 0.06 179 & Under 0.06
670 - 824 0.05 670 - 824 0.05 670 - 824 0.05 180 - 304 0.05
825 - 1064 0.04 825 - 1064 0.04 825 - 1064 0.04 305 - 459 0.04 149 & Under 0.04
1065 - 1369 0.03 1065 - 1369 0.03 1065 - 1369 0.03 460 - 609 0.03 150 - 304 0.03
1370 - 5999 0.02 1370 - 5999 0.02 1370 - 5999 0.02 610 - 2134 0.02 305 - 1524 0.02
Over 5999 (2) Over 5999 (2) Over 5999 (2) Over 2134 (2) Over 1524 (2)
(1) For frontage roads under other jurisdictions see Index 202.7
(2) Use standard crown section.
November 1, 2001
Figure 202.2
Maximum Comfortable Speed on Horizontal Curves
Speed Side Friction

(km/h) Factor “f”
30 0.17 NOTES:
40 0.17 This figure is not intended to represent standard
50 0.16 superelevation rates or curve radius. The standards are
60 0.15 contained in Tables 202.2 and 203.2. This figure
should be used as an aid to designers to determine
70 0.14 maximum comfortable speeds. Use of this figure in
80 0.14 lieu of the standards must be documented as discussed
90 0.13 in Index 82.2.
100 0.12 e - Superelevation
2
110 0.11 f - Side Friction Factor e+f = 0.0079 V
120 0.09 V - Speed (km/h) R
130 0.08 R - Radius (meters)
November 1, 2001
(2) Ramps and Freeway-to-freeway Connections. appearance. The length of superelevation

The axis of rotation may be about either edge transition should be based upon the
of traveled way or centerline if multilane. combination of superelevation rate and width
Appearance and drainage considerations of rotated plane in accordance with the
should always be taken into account in tabulated superelevation runoff lengths on the
selection of the axis of rotation. bottom of Figure 202.5A.
(3) Divided Highways. Edge of traveled way and shoulder profiles
should be plotted and irregularities resulting
(a) Freeways--Where the initial median width
from interactions between the superelevation
is 20 m or less, the axis of rotation should
transition and vertical alignment of the
be at the centerline.
roadway should be eliminated by introducing
Where the initial median width is greater smooth curves. Edge of traveled way and
than 20 m and the ultimate median width is shoulder profiles also will reveal flat areas
20 m or less, the axis of rotation should be which are undesirable from a drainage
at the centerline, except where the resulting standpoint and should be avoided.
initial median slope would be steeper than
(2) Runoff. Two-thirds of the superelevation
1:10. In the latter case, the axis of rotation
runoff should be on the tangent and one-third
should be at the ultimate median edges of
within the curve. This results in two-thirds of
traveled way.
the full superelevation rate at the beginning or
Where the ultimate median width is greater ending of a curve. This may be altered as
than 20 m, the axis of rotation should required to adjust for flat spots or unsightly
normally be at the ultimate median edges sags and humps, or when conforming to
of traveled way. existing roadway.
To avoid sawtooth on bridges with decked (3) Restrictive Situations. In restrictive situations,
medians, the axis of rotation, if not already such as on two lane highways in mountainous
on centerline, should be shifted to the terrain, interchange ramps, collector roads,
centerline. frontage roads, etc., where curve radius and
(b) Conventional Highways--The axis of length and tangents between curves are short,
rotation should be considered on an standard superelevation rates and/or transitions
individual project basis and the most may not be attainable. In such situations the
appropriate case for the conditions should highest possible superelevation rate(s) and
be selected. transition length should be used, but the rate of
change of cross slope should not exceed 4%
Aesthetics, grade distortion, superelevation per 20 m.
transitions, drainage, and driver perception
should be considered when selecting the axis (4) Superelevation Transitions on Bridges.
of rotation (see Index 204.2). Superelevation transitions on bridges should be
avoided whenever possible (See Index 203.9).
202.5 Superelevation Transition (5) Shoulder Transitions. The shoulder plane
(1) General. The superelevation transition rotates about the adjacent edge of traveled way
generally consists of the crown runoff and the as well as the rotational axis of the traveled
superelevation runoff as shown on Figure way. Shoulder superelevation transitions
202.5A and 202.5B. should be smooth and compatible with the
transition of the adjacent pavements.
A superelevation transition should be designed
in accordance with the diagram and tabular
data shown in Figure 202.5A to satisfy the
requirements of safety, comfort and pleasing
November 1, 2001
Figure 202.5A
Superelevation Transition
November 1, 2001
Figure 202.5B
Superelevation Transition Terms & Definitions
Term Definition
Crown Runoff The distance from the station where the high side of the superelevating section
surfaces are at a cross slope of 2% to where the high side of the section surfaces
2 3 reaches a cross slope of 0%.
Superelevation The distance from the station where the high side of the superelevating section
Runoff(L) surfaces are at a cross slope of 0% to the station where the entire cross section is at
full superelevation.
3 6
Superelevation The distance from the station where the high side of the superelevating sections are
Transition crowned at a cross slope of 2% to the station where the entire cross section is at full
superelevation. The Crown Runoff Length plus the Superelevation Runoff Length (L)
2 6 equals the Superelevation Transition Length.
% On tangent The percentage of the superelevation runoff length (L) that is outside of the curve
(2/3L). See Index 202.5(2).
% On curve The percentage of the superelevation runoff length (L) that is within the curve (1/3L).
See Index 202.5(2). The % On Tangent and % On curve values must total 100%.
Elements of a Superelevation Transition (Right Curve)

November 1, 2001
The major considerations in horizontal alignment

202.6 Superelevation of Compound Curves
design are safety, profile, type of facility, design
Superelevation of compound curves should follow speed, geotechnical features, topography, right of
the procedure as shown in Figure 202.6. Where way cost and construction cost. In design, safety is
feasible, the criteria in Index 202.5 should apply. always considered, either directly or indirectly. On
freeways in metropolitan areas, alternative studies
202.7 Superelevation on City Streets and often indicate that right of way considerations
County Roads influence alignment more than any other single
factor. Topography controls both curve radius and
Superelevation rates of local streets and roads
design speed to a large extent. The design speed, in
which are within the State right of way (with or
turn, controls sight distance, but sight distance must
without connection to State facilities) shall
be considered concurrently with topography
conform to AASHTO standards, for the
because it often demands a larger radius than the
functional classification of the facility in
design speed. All these factors must be balanced to
question. If the local agency having jurisdiction
produce an alignment which optimizes the
over the local facility in question maintains
achievement of various objectives such as safety,
standards that exceed AASHTO standards, then the
cost, harmony with the natural contour of the land,
local agency standards should prevail.
and at the same time adequate for the design
See Index 202.2 and Table 202.2 for Frontage classification of the highway.
Roads within the State right of way. Frontage
Horizontal alignment shall provide at least the
roads that will be relinquished after construction
minimum stopping sight distance for the chosen
should follow AASHTO or local standards as
design speed at all points on the highway, as
stated above.
given in Table 201.1 and explained in Index
201.3. See Index 101.1 for technical reductions in
Topic 203 - Horizontal Alignment design speed.
203.1 General Controls 203.2 Standards for Curvature

Horizontal alignment should provide for safe and Table 203.2 shall be the minimum radius of
continuous operation at a uniform design speed for curve for specific design speeds. This table is
substantial lengths of highway. The standards based upon speed alone; it ignores the sight
which follow apply to curvature on both 2-lane distance factor. If the minimum radius indicated
and multilane highways except when otherwise in Table 203.2 does not provide the desired
noted. These standards also apply to portions of lateral clearance to an obstruction, Figure 201.6
local streets and roads within the State right of shall govern.
way which connect directly to a freeway or Every effort should be made to exceed minimum
expressway, or are expected to do so in the values, and such minimum radii should be used
foreseeable future. For local facilities which are only when the cost or other adverse effects of
within the State right of way and where there is realizing a higher standard are inconsistent with the
no connection or the connection is to a non- benefits. As an aid to designers, Figure 202.2
controlled access facility (conventional displays the maximum comfortable speed for
highway), AASHTO standards shall prevail. If various curve radii and superelevation rates. Use
the local agency having jurisdiction over the local of Figure 202.2, in lieu of the above standards must
facility in question maintains standards that exceed be documented as discussed in Index 82.2.
AASHTO standards, then the local agency
standards should prevail. The recommended minimum radii for freeways are
1500 m in rural areas and 900 m in urban areas.
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 202.6
Superelevation of Compound Curves
November 1, 2001
If a glare screen or a median barrier is contemplated, The horizontal and vertical alignments should be
either initially or ultimately, adjustments may be coordinated such that horizontal curves are not
necessary to maintain the required sight distance on hidden behind crest vertical curves. Sharp
curves on divided highways. In such cases, a larger horizontal curves should not follow long tangents
curve radius or a wider median may be required because some drivers tend to develop higher speeds
throughout the length of the curve. For design on the tangent and could over drive the curve.
purposes, a planting screen is presumed to be 2.4 m
See “Combination of Horizontal and Vertical
wide. See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for glare
Alignment” in Chapter III of “A Policy on
screen criteria.
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,”
AASHTO, for further guidance on alignment
Table 203.2 consistency.
Standards for Curve Radius 203.4 Curve Length and Central Angle
Design Speed Minimum Radius The minimum curve length for central angles less
than 10 degrees should be 240 m to avoid the
km/h of Curve (m)
appearance of a kink. For central angles smaller
30 40 than 30 minutes, no curve is required. Above a
6000 m radius, a parabolic curve may be used. In
40 70 no event should sight distance or other safety
50 100 considerations be sacrificed to meet the above
60 150 requirements.
70 200 On 2-lane roads a curve should not exceed a length
80 260 of 800 m and should be no shorter than 150 m.
90 320 203.5 Compound Curves
100 400
Compound curves should be avoided because
110 600 drivers who have adjusted to the first curve could
120 900 over drive the second curve if the second curve has
130 1200 a smaller radius than the first. Exceptions can occur
in mountainous terrain or other situations where use
of a simple curve would result in excessive cost.
Where compound curve is necessary, the shorter
radius should be at least two-thirds the longer radius
203.3 Alignment Consistency when the shorter radius is 300 m or less. On one-
way roads, the larger radius should follow the
Sudden reductions in alignment standards should be smaller radius.
avoided. Where physical restrictions on curve
radius cannot be overcome and it becomes The total arc length of a compound curve should be
necessary to introduce curvature of lower standard not less than 150 m.
than the design speed for the project, the design
speed between successive curves should change not 203.6 Reversing Curves
more than 15 km/h. Introduction of curves with When horizontal curves reverse direction the
lower design speeds should be avoided at the end of connecting tangents should be long enough to
long tangents, steep downgrades, or at other accommodate the standard superelevation runoffs
locations where high approach speeds may be given on Figure 202.5. If this is not possible, the
anticipated. 4% per 20 m rate of change should govern (see
Index 202.5(3)). When feasible, a minimum of
120 m of tangent should be considered.
November 1, 2001
203.7 Broken Back Curves terrain, some undulation in the grade line is often
advantageous for construction economy. This
A broken back curve consists of two curves in the
should be done with appearance in mind; for
same direction joined by a short tangent. Broken
example, a grade line on tangent alignment
back curves are unsightly and undesirable.
exhibiting a series of humps visible for some
distance ahead should be avoided whenever
203.8 Spiral Transition
possible. In rolling hills or mountainous terrain,
Spiral transition curves are not standard practice. however, the grade line usually is more closely
dependent upon physical controls.
203.9 Alignment at Bridges
In considering alternative profiles, economic
Due to the difficulty in constructing bridges with comparisons involving earthwork quantities and/or
superelevation rates greater than 10%, the curve retaining walls should be made. A balanced
radii on bridges should be designed to accommodate earthwork design is most cost effective. When long
superelevation rates of 10% or less. See Index or steep grades are involved, economic comparisons
202.2 for standard superelevation rates. should include vehicle operating costs.
Superelevation transitions on bridges are difficult to The standards in Topic 204 also apply to portions of
construct and almost always result in an unsightly local streets and roads within the State right of way
appearance of the bridge and the bridge railing. which connect directly to a freeway or expressway,
Therefore, if possible, horizontal curves should or are expected to do so in the foreseeable future.
begin and end a sufficient distance from the bridge For local facilities which are within the State
so that no part of the superelevation transition right of way and where there is no connection or
extends onto the bridge. the connection is to a non-controlled access
facility (conventional highway), AASHTO
Alignment and safety considerations, however, are
standards shall prevail. If the local agency having
paramount and must not be sacrificed to meet the
jurisdiction over the local facility in question
above criteria.
maintains standards that exceed AASHTO
standards, then the local agency standards should
Topic 204 - Grade prevail.
204.1 General Controls 204.2 Position With Respect to Cross Section

The grade line is a reference line by which the The grade line should generally coincide with the
elevation of the pavement and other features of the axis of rotation for superelevation (see Index
highway are established. It is controlled mainly by 202.4). Its relation to the cross section should be as
topography, type of highway, horizontal alignment, follows:
performance of heavy vehicles, right of way costs, (1) Undivided Highways. The grade line should
safety, sight distance, construction costs, cultural coincide with the highway centerline.
development, drainage, and pleasing appearance.
(2) Ramps and Freeway-to-freeway Connections.
All portions of the grade line must meet sight Although the grade line is usually positioned at
distance requirements for the design speed the left edge of traveled way, either edge of
classification of the road. traveled way or centerline may be used on
In flat terrain, the elevation of the grade line is often multilane facilities.
controlled by drainage considerations. In rolling (3) Divided Highways. The grade line should be
positioned at the centerline of the median for
paved medians 20 m wide or less, thus
avoiding a “saw tooth” section, which can
reduce horizontal stopping sight distance.
November 1, 2001
The grade line may be positioned at the 204.4 Vertical Curves

ultimate median edge of traveled way when:
Properly designed vertical curves should provide
(a) The median edges of traveled way of the adequate sight distance, safety, comfortable driving,
two roadways are at equal elevation. good drainage, and pleasing appearance.
(b) The two roadways are at different A parabolic vertical curve is used. Figure 204.4
elevations as described in Index 204.8. gives all necessary mathematical relations for
(c) The width of median is nonuniform (see computing a vertical curve, either at crests or sags.
Index 305.6). For algebraic grade differences of 2% and greater,
and design speeds equal to or greater than 60 km/h,
204.3 Standards for Grade the minimum length of vertical curve in meters
should be equal to 2V, where V = design speed. As
Table 204.3 shows the maximum grades which an example, a 100 km/h design speed would require
shall not be exceeded for the condition indicated. a 200 m minimum vertical curve length. For
Steep grades affect truck speeds and overall algebraic grade differences of less than 2%, or
capacity. They also cause operational problems at design speeds less than 60 km/h, the vertical curve
intersections. For these reasons it is desirable to length should be a minimum of 60 m. Vertical
provide the flattest grades practicable (see Index curves are not required where the algebraic
204.5 for information on truck issues with grades). difference in grades is 0.5% or less. Grade breaks
should not be closer together than 15 m and a total
of all grade breaks within 60 m should not exceed
Table 204.3 0.5%.
Maximum Grades for Type of Since flat vertical curves may develop poor drainage
Highway and Terrain Conditions at the level section, adjusting the gutter grade or
shortening the vertical curve may overcome any
Type of Freeways and Rural Urban drainage problems.
Terrain Expressways Highways Highways On 2-lane roads, extremely long crest vertical
curves, over 1 km, should be avoided, since many
Level 3% 4% 6%
drivers refuse to pass on such curves despite
Rolling 4% 5% 7% adequate sight distance. It is sometimes more
Mountainous 6% 7% 9% economical to construct passing lanes than to obtain
passing sight distance by the use of a long vertical
curve.
Minimum grades should be 0.5% in snow country
and 0.3% at other locations. Except for Broken-back vertical curves consist of two vertical
conventional highways in urban or suburban areas, a curves in the same direction separated by a short
level grade line is permissible in level terrain where grade tangent. A profile with such curvature
side fill slopes are 1:4 or flatter and dikes are not normally should be avoided, particularly in sags
needed to carry water in the roadbed. Flat grades where the view of both curves is not pleasing.
are not permissible in superelevation transitions due
to flat spots which cause ponding on the roadbed. 204.5 Sustained Grades
Ramp grades should not exceed 8%. On descending (1) General. Maximum grade is not a complete
on-ramps and ascending off-ramps, 1% steeper is design control. The length of an uphill grade is
allowed (see Index 504.2(5)). important as well, because it affects capacity,
level of service, and delay when slow moving
trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles are
present.
November 1, 2001
Figure 204.4
Vertical Curves
November 1, 2001
A common criterion for all types of highways (4) Turnouts

is to consider the addition of a climbing lane
(a) General. On a two-lane highway where
where the running speed of trucks falls 15
passing is limited, Section 21656 of the
km/h or more below the running speed of
California Vehicle Code requires slow-
remaining traffic. Figure 204.5 shows the
moving vehicles followed by five or more
speed reduction curves for a 180 kg/kW truck,
vehicles to turn off at designated turnouts
which is representative of large trucks
or wherever sufficient area for a safe
operating near maximum gross weight. The
turnout exists. Designated turnouts may
15 km/h reduction criterion may be used as
be constructed in hilly or mountainous
one method of determining need, however the
terrain or on winding roads in other areas.
Highway Capacity Manual should be
consulted for detailed analysis. (b) Length. Designated turnouts should be
from 60 to 150 m long including a short
(2) Freeway Climbing Lanes. If design year
taper (usually 15 m) at each end.
traffic volumes are expected to be near
Approach speeds, grades, traffic volumes,
capacity, right of way acquisition and grading
and available space are some factors to be
for a future lane should be considered at
considered in determining the length.
locations where the upgrade exceeds 2% and
The Headquarters Traffic Reviewer
the total rise exceeds 15 m.
should be consulted if longer turnouts are
Regardless of traffic volumes, the need for a desired.
climbing lane should be investigated on
(c) Width. Paved widths of at least 4.5 m in
sustained upgrades greater than 2% if the total
fill sections and 3.6 m in cut sections are
rise is greater than 75 m. Refer to the
recommended. Width is measured from
Highway Capacity Manual for passenger car
the edge of traveled way. On the outside
equivalent factors and sample calculations.
of curves along steep fill slopes or
Decision sight distance (Table 201.7) should dropoffs, greater width or the installation
be provided at climbing lane drops on of guardrail should be considered.
freeways.
(d) Location. Turnouts should be located
(3) Two-lane Road Climbing and Passing Lanes. where there is stopping sight distance for
Climbing and passing lanes are most effective approaching drivers to see vehicles
on uphill grades and curving alignment where leaving and re-entering the through lanes.
the speed differential among vehicles is
significant. Climbing and passing lanes 204.6 Coordination of Horizontal and
should normally not be constructed on tangent Vertical Alignment
sections where the length of tangent equals or
A proper balance between curvature and grades
exceeds the passing sight distance, because
should be sought. When possible, vertical curves
passing will occur at such locations without a
should be superimposed on horizontal curves. This
passing lane and the double barrier stripe
reduces the number of sight restrictions on the
increases delay for opposing traffic. Where
project, makes changes in profile less apparent,
the ADT exceeds 5000, 4-lane passing
particularly in rolling country, and results in a
sections may be considered. See Index
pleasing appearance. Where the change in
305.1(2) for median width standards.
horizontal alignment at a grade summit is
The Headquarters Traffic Operations Program moderate, a pleasing appearance may be attained
should be consulted regarding the length of by making the vertical curve overlap the horizontal
climbing and passing lanes, which will vary curve.
with the design speed of the highway, the
traffic volume, and other factors.
November 1, 2001
Figure 204.5
Critical Lengths of Grade
for Design
ASSUMED TYPICAL HEAVY TRUCK

OF 180 kg/kW
November 1, 2001
When horizontal and vertical curves are 204.8 Grade Line of Structures
superimposed, the combination of superelevation
(1) Structure Depth. The depth to span ratio for
and profile grades may cause distortion in the outer
each structure is dependent on many factors.
pavement edges which could create drainage
Some of these are: span, type of construction,
concerns or confuse drivers at night. In such
aesthetics, cost, falsework limitations, and
situations edge of pavement profiles should be
vertical clearance limitations. For purposes of
plotted and smooth curves introduced to eliminate
preliminary planning and design, the depth to
any irregularities or distortion.
span ratios listed below may be used in setting
On highways in mountainous or rolling terrain grade lines at grade separations.
where horizontal and vertical cuves are
(a) Railroad Underpass Structures.
superimposed at a grade summit or sag, the design
speed of the horizontal curve should be at least • Single track, through girder type
equal to that of the crest or sag, and not more than structures:use 1.5 m depth from top of
15 km/h less than the measured or estimated rail to structure soffit (bottom of
th
running (85 percentile) speed of vehicles on the girder).
approach roadway.
• Deck-type structures: for simple spans
On long open curves, a uniform grade line should use d/s (depth to span ratio)= 0.08; for
be used because a rolling profile makes for a poor continuous multiple span structures use
appearance. d/s= 0.07. These ratios do not include
the additional 0.6 m required above the
Horizontal and vertical curvature at intersections
deck for ballast and rail height.
should be as flat as physical conditions permit.
(b) Highway Structures.
See “Combination of Horizontal and Vertical
Alignment” in Chapter III of “A Policy on • Structures with single spans of 30 m or
Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,” less, use d/s= 0.06.
AASHTO for further guidance on a alignment
• Structures with single spans between
consistency.
30 m and 55 m use d/s= 0.045.
204.7 Separate Grade Lines • Continuous structures with multiple
spans of 30 m or less, use d/s= 0.055.
Separate or independent grade lines are appropriate
in some cases for freeways and expressways. • Continuous structures with multiple
spans of more than 30 m, use d/s=
They are not normally considered appropriate
0.04.
where medians are less than 20 m wide (see Index
305.6). Exceptions to this may be minor Geometric plans should be submitted to the
differences between opposing grade lines in special DOS prior to preparation of the Project Report
situations. so that preliminary studies can be prepared.
Preliminary bridge type selection should be a
In addition, for either interim or ultimate
joint effort between the DOS and the District.
expressways, any appreciable grade differential
between roadbeds should be avoided in the vicinity
of at-grade intersections. For traffic entering from
the crossroad, confusion and wrong-way
movements could result if the pavement of the far
roadway is obscured because of excessive grade
differential.
November 1, 2001 E
Table 204.8
Falsework Span and Depth Requirements
Depth of Superstructure (4)

Minimum Up to Up to Up to Up to
Normal Resulting 1.85 m 2.45 m 3.05 m 3.65 m
Width of Falsework
Facility to Traffic Opening Width Normal Minimum Falsework Depth
be Spanned Opening Provides for Span (1)
Freeway 7.5 m 1 Lane + 2.4 m & 1.5 m 10 m 570 mm 635 mm 635 mm 825 mm
Shoulders
11.1 m 2 Lanes + 2.4 m & 1.5 m 13.6 m 840 mm 900 mm 915 mm 990 mm
Shoulders
Shoulders
Shoulders
Nonfreeway 6m 1 Lane + 2-1.2 m Shoulders 8.5 m 535 mm 560 mm 560 mm 570 mm
9.6 m 2 Lanes + 2-1.2 m Shoulders 12.1 m 610 mm 825 mm 840 mm 915 mm
12 m 2 Lanes + 2-2.4 m Shoulders 14.5 m 915 mm 915 mm 980 mm 990 mm
Special 6m 1 Lane + 2-1.2 m Shoulders 6 m (3) 535 mm 560 mm 560 mm 570 mm
Roadways (2) 9.6 m 2 Lanes + 2-1.2 m Shoulders 9.6 m (3) 610 mm 825 mm 840 mm 915 mm
(1) Includes 2.5 m for 2 temporary K-rails and deflection space.

(2) Uses such as fire or utility access or quasi-public roads with very light traffic.
(3) No temporary K-rail provided.
(4) See Index 204.8 for preliminary depth to span ratios. For more detailed information,
contact the Division of Engineering Services, Structure Design and refer to the Bridge Design Aids.
November 1, 2001
(2) Steel or Precast Concrete Structures. Steel the bridge is constructed, traffic volumes,
and precast concrete girders in lieu of cast-in- desires of the local agencies, controls in the
place concrete eliminate falsework, and may form of existing facilities, and the practical
permit lower grade lines and reduced problems of falsework construction.
approach fill heights. Potential cost savings
The normal minimum width of traffic
from elimination of falsework, lowered grade
openings and required falsework spans for
lines, and the ability to accomodate settlement
various lane and shoulder combinations
beneath the abutments should be considered in
should be as shown in Table 204.8.
structure type selection along with unit price,
aesthetics, uniformity, and any other relevant When temporary K-rail is used to protect the
factors. Note that grade lines at grade falsework, space must be provided for its
separations frequently need to be adjusted deflection. The normal spans shown in Table
after final structure depths are determined (see 204.8 provide 0.6 m for this deflection.
Index 309.2(3)). Details of traffic handling In special cases, where existing constraints
and stage construction should be provided make it impractical to comply with the
when the bridge site plan is submitted to the minimum widths of traffic openings set forth
DOS if the design or construction of the in Table 204.8, a lesser width may be
structure is affected (see Drafting and Plans approved by the District Director with
Manual, Section 3-3.2). concurrence from the Headquarters Project
(3) Depressed Grade Line Under Structures. Development Coordinator.
Bridge and drainage design will frequently be The minimum vertical falsework clearance
simplified if the low point in the grade line is over freeways and nonfreeways shall be 4.6
set a sufficient distance from the intersection m. The following items should be considered:
of the centerlines of the structure and the
highway so that drainage structures clear the • Mix, volume, and speed of traffic.
structure footings. • Effect of increased vertical clearance
(4) Grade Line on Bridge Decks. Vertical curves on the grade of adjacent sections.
on bridge decks should provide a minimum • Closing local streets to all traffic or
fall of 10 mm per 20 m. This fall should not trucks only during construction.
extend over a length greater than 30 m. The
flattest allowable tangent grade should be • Detours.
0.3%. • Carrying local traffic through
(5) Falsework. In many cases, it is economically construction on subgrade.
justified to have falsework over traffic during • Temporary or permanent lowering of
construction in order to have a support-free the existing facility.
open area beneath the permanent structure.
The elimination of permanent obstructions • Cost of higher clearance versus cost of
usually outweighs objections to the temporary traffic control.
inconvenience of falsework during • Desires of local agency.
construction.
Worker safety should be considered when
Because the width of traffic openings through determining vertical falsework clearance.
falsework can, and oftentimes does, Requests for approval of temporary vertical
significantly affect costs, special care should clearances less than 4.6 m should discuss the
be given to determining opening widths. The impact on worker safety.
following should be considered: staging and
traffic handling requirements, the width of
approach roadbed that will exist at the time
November 1, 2001
Temporary horizontal clearances less than Topic 205 - Road Connections

shown in Table 204.8 or temporary vertical
clearances less than 4.6 m should be noted in and Driveways
the PS&E Transmittal Report.
205.1 Access Openings on Expressways
To establish the grade of a structure to be
constructed with a falsework opening, Access openings are used only on expressways.
allowance must be made for the depth of the The term access opening applies to openings
falsework. The minimum depths required for through the right of way line which serve abutting
various widths of traffic opening are shown in land ownerships whose remaining access rights
Table 204.8. have been acquired by the State.
Where vertical clearances, either temporary or (1) Criteria for Location. Access opening should
permanent are critical, the District and the not be spaced closer than 800 m to an adjacent
DOS should work in close conjunction during public road intersection or to another private
the early design stage when the preliminary access opening that is wider than 10 m.
grades, structure depths, and falsework depths When several access openings are closely
can be adjusted without incurring major spaced, a frontage road should be considered
design changes. (see Index 104.3). To discourage wrong-way
movements, access openings should be
Where the vertical falsework clearance is less located directly opposite, or at least 100 m
than 4.6 m, advance warning devices are to be from a median opening.
specified or shown on the plans. Such devices
may consist of flashing lights, overhead signs, Sight distance equivalent to that required
over-height detectors, or a combination of for public road intersections shall be
these or other devices. provided (see Index 405.1).
Warning signs on the cross road or in advance (2) Width. The normal access opening width
of the previous off-ramp may be required for should be 10 m. A greater width may result in
overheight permit loads. Check with the large savings in right of way costs in some
Regional Permit Manager. instances, but should be considered with
caution because of the possibility that public
After establishing the opening requirements, a use might develop. Conversion of a private
field review of the bridge site should be made opening into a public road connection requires
by the District designer to ensure that existing the consent of the CTC, which cannot be
facilities (drainage, other bridges, or road- committed in advance (see the Project
ways) will not conflict with the falsework. Development Procedures Manual).
The placement and removal of falsework (3) Recessed Access Openings. Recessed access
requires special consideration. During these openings, as shown on Figure 205.1, are
operations, traffic should either be stopped for desirable at all points where private access is
short intervals or diverted away from the span permitted and should be provided whenever
where the placement or removal operations they can be obtained without requiring
are being performed. The method of traffic alterations to existing adjacent improvements.
handling during these operations is to be When recessed openings are required, the
included in the Special Provisions. opening should be located a minimum
distance of 25 m from the nearest edge of the
traveled way.
November 1, 2001
(4) Joint Openings. A joint access opening 205.3 Urban Driveways

serving two or more parcels of land is
These instructions apply to the design of driveways
desirable whenever feasible. If the property
to serve property abutting on State highways in
line is not normal to the right of way line, care
cities or where urban type development is
should be taken in designing the joint opening
encountered.
so that both owners are adequately served.
Details for driveway construction are shown on the
(5) Surfacing. All points of private access should
Standard Plans. For corner sight distance, see
be surfaced with adequate width and depth of
Index 405.1(2)(d).
pavement to serve the anticipated traffic. The
surfacing should extend from the edge of the (1) Correlation with Local Standards. Where
traveled way to the right of way line. there is a local requirement regulating
driveway construction, the higher standard
will normally govern.
Figure 205.1
(2) Driveway Width. The width of driveways for
Access Openings on both residential and commercial usage is
Expressways measured at the throat, exclusive of any flares.
(“W” as shown in Standard Plan A87).
(3) Residential Driveways. The width of single
residential driveways should be 3.6 m
minimum and 6 m maximum. The width of a
double residential driveway such as used for
multiple dwellings should be 6 m minimum
and 10 m maximum. The width selected
should be based on an analysis of the
anticipated volume, type and speed of traffic,
location of buildings and garages, width of
street, etc.
RECESSED OPENING
(4) Commercial Driveways. Commercial
NOTES: driveways should be limited to the following
maximum widths:
• By widening the expressway shoulder,
deceleration lanes may be provided where (a) When the driveway is used for one-way
justified. traffic, the maximum width should be
8 m. If the driveway serves a large parcel,
• This detail, without the recess, may be used on
where large volumes of vehicles or large
conventional highways.
vehicles are expected, the entrance
maximum width should be 12 m and the
exit maximum width should be 10 m.
205.2 Private Road Connections (b) When the driveway is used for two-way
traffic, the maximum width should be 10
The minimum private road connection design is
m. If the driveway serves a large parcel,
shown on Figure 205.1. Sight distance
where large volumes of vehicles or large
requirements for the minimum private road
vehicles are expected, then the maximum
connection are shown on Figure 405.7 (see Index
width should be 15 m.
405.1).
November 1, 2001
(c) When only one driveway serves a given right of way. Additionally, designers should
property, in no case should the width of consider the following:
the driveway including the side slope
• Where restricted parking zones have been
distances exceed the property frontage.
established (either blue or white painted
(d) When more than one driveway is to serve zones) adjacent to driveways, but no
a given property, the total width of all reasonably close ramp access to the
driveways should not exceed 70 percent sidewalk exists, consideration should be
of the frontage where such a frontage is given to reducing the maximum slope of
30 m or less. Where the frontage is more the driveway from 10% to 8.33% to
than 30 m, the total driveway width provide sidewalk access to the disabled.
should not exceed 60 percent of the
• In many cases providing the pathway along
frontage. In either case, the width of the
the back of the driveway will lower the
individual driveway should not exceed
elevation at the back of the sidewalk.
those given in the preceding paragraphs.
Depending on grades behind the sidewalk
Where more than one driveway is
the potential may exist for roadway
necessary to serve any one property, not
generated runoff to enter private property.
less than 6 m of full height curb should be
The need for features such as low berms
provided between driveways. This
within the construction easement, or
distance between driveways also applies
installation of catch basins upstream of the
to projects where curbs and gutters are not
driveway should be determined.
to be placed.
When pedestrian activity is neither present,
(e) Certain urban commercial driveways may
nor expected to be present within the
need to accommodate the maximum legal
reasonable future, the designer may develop
vehicle. The width will be determined by
driveway details that eliminate the flatter
the use of truck turn templates.
portion along the back edge in lieu of using
(5) Surfacing. Where curbs, gutters, and the Standard Plans for driveways. Refer to
sidewalks are to be placed, driveways should Topic 105 for additional information related to
be constructed of portland cement concrete. pedestrian facilities.
Where only curbs and gutters are to be placed
and pedestrian traffic or adjacent 205.4 Driveways on Frontage Roads and in
improvements do not warrant concrete Rural Areas
driveway construction, the driveway may be
On frontage roads and in rural areas where the
paved with the same materials used for
maximum legal vehicle must be accommodated,
existing surfacing on the property to be
standard truck-turn templates should be used to
served.
determine driveway widths where the curb or edge
(6) Pedestrian and Disabled Persons Access. of traveled way is so close to the right of way line
Where sidewalks traverse driveways, that a usable connection cannot be provided within
accessibility regulations require that a the standard limits.
relatively level (2% max. cross fall) path, at
Where county or city regulations differ from the
least 1.22 m wide, is provided. Provision of
State's, it may be desirable to follow their
this feature, as indicated in the Standard Plans,
regulations, particularly where jurisdiction of the
may require the acquisition of a construction
frontage road will ultimately be in their hands.
easement or additional right of way.
Assessment of these needs must be performed Details for driveway construction are shown on the
early enough in the design to allow time for Standard Plans. For corner sight distance, see
acquiring any necessary permits or Index 405.1(2)(c).
November 1, 2001
205.5 Financial Responsibility (3) Lane Widening. An increase in lane width can
occur at short radius curves which are
Reconstructing or relocating any access openings,
widened for truck off-tracking, at ramp
private road connections, or driveways required by
terminals with large truck turning volumes, or
revisions to the State highway facility should be
when new construction matches existing
done at State expense by the State or its agents.
roadways with narrow lane widths. Extensive
Reconstruction or relocation requested by others
transition lengths are not necessary as the
should be paid for by the requesting party.
widening does not restrict the drivers
expectations. Transition tapers for these types
Topic 206 - Pavement Transitions of situations should be at 10:1.
(4) Shoulder Widening. Shoulder widening
206.1 General Transition Standards should normally be accomplished in a manner
Pavement transition and detour standards should be that provides a smooth transition, but can be
consistent with the section having the highest accomplished without a taper if necessary.
design standards. The transition should be made on
a tangent section whenever possible and should 206.3 Pavement Reductions
avoid locations with horizontal and vertical sight (1) Through Lane Drops. When a lane is to be
distance restrictions. Whenever feasible, the entire dropped, it should be done by tapering over a
transition should be visible to the driver of a distance equal to (2/3)WV, where W = Width
vehicle approaching the narrower section. The of lane to be dropped and V = Design Speed.
design should be such that intersections at grade In general, the transition should be on the
within the transition area are avoided. For decision right so that traffic merges to the left. Figure
sight distance at lane drops, see Index 201.7. 206.2 provides several examples of acceptable
lane drops at 4-lane to 2-lane transitions. The
206.2 Pavement Widenings exception to using the (2/3)WV criteria is for
(1) Through Lane Additions. Where through the lane drop/freeway merge movement on a
lanes, climbing lanes, or passing lanes are branch connection which is accomplished
added, the minimum recommended distance using a 50:1 taper.
over which to transition traffic onto the (2) Ramp and Speed Change Lanes. As shown in
additional width is 75 m per lane. Figure Figures 504.2A and 504.3C, the standard taper
206.2 shows several examples of acceptable for a ramp merge into a through traffic lane is
methods for adding a lane in each direction to 50:1. Where ramp lanes are dropped prior to
a two-lane highway. the merge with the through facility, the
(2) Turning, Ramp, and Speed Change Lanes. recommended taper is 50:1 for design speeds
Transitions for lane additions, either for left or over 75 km/h, and the taper distance should
right turns or to add a lane to a ramp, should be equal to (2/3)WV for speeds below 75
typically occur over a length of 35 m. km/h.
Lengths shorter than 35 m are acceptable The "Ramp Meter Design Guidelines" also
where design speeds are below 75 km/h or for provide information on recommended and
conditions as stated in Index 405.2(2)(c). minimum tapers for ramp lane merges. These
Where insufficient median width is available guideline values are typically used in retrofit
to provide for left turn lanes, through traffic or restricted right-of-way situations, and are
will have to be shifted to the outside. See acceptable for the specific conditions stated in
Figures 405.2A, B and C for acceptable the guidelines.
methods of widening pavement to provide for
median turn lanes.
November 1, 2001
Figure 206.2
Typical Two-lane to Four-lane Transitions
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 405.9 shows the standard taper to be and overcrossing structures, and equipment
used for dropping an acceleration lane at a used during construction.
signalized intersection. This taper can also be
(2) Reference. The Federal Aviation Administra-
used when transitioning median acceleration
tion (FAA) has published a Federal Aviation
lanes.
Regulation (FAR) relative to airspace
Figures 405.2A, B and C show the clearance entitled, “FAR Part 77, Obstructions
recommended methods of transitioning Affecting Navigable Airspace”, dated March
pavement back into the median area on 1993. This is an approved reference to be
conventional highways after the elimination of used in conjunction with this manual.
left turn lanes.
207.2 Clearances
(3) Lane Reductions. At any location where lane
widths are being reduced, the minimum length (a) Civil Airports--See Figure 207.2A.
over which to accomplish the transition should
(b) Heliports--See Figure 207.2B.
be equal to (2/3)WV. See Index 504.6 for
mainline lane reductions at interchanges. (c) Military Airports--See Figure 207.2C.
(4) Shoulder Reduction. Shoulder reductions (d) Navy Carrier Landing Practice Fields--See
should typically occur over a length equal to Figure 207.2D.
WV/2. However, when shoulder widths are
being reduced in conjunction with a lane 207.3 Submittal of Airway-Highway
addition or widening (as in Alt. A of Figure Clearance Data
504.3K), the shoulder reduction should be
The following procedure must be observed in
accomplished over the same distance as the
connection with airway-highway clearances in the
addition or widening.
vicinity of airports and heliports.
206.4 Temporary Freeway Transitions Notice to the FAA is required when highway
construction is planned near an airport (civil or
It is highly desirable that the design standards for a
military) or a heliport. A "Notice of Proposed
temporary transition between the end of a freeway
Construction or Alteration" should be submitted to
construction unit and an existing highway should
the FAA Administrator when required under
not change abruptly from the freeway standards.
criteria listed in Paragraph 77.13 of the latest
Temporary freeway transitions must be reviewed
Federal Aviation Regulations, Part 77. Such notice
by the Project Development Coordinator.
should be given as soon as highway alignment and
grade are firmly established. It should be noted
Topic 207 - Airway-Highway that these requirements apply to both permanent
Clearances objects and construction equipment. When
required, four copies of FAA Form 7460-1, “Notice
of Proposed Construction”, and accompanying
207.1 Introduction scaled maps must be sent to the FAA, Western-
(1) Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace. An Pacific Regional Office, Chief-Air Traffic
object is considered an obstruction to air Division, AWP-520, 15000 Aviation Boulevard,
navigation if any portion of that object is of a Hawthorne, CA 90260. Copies of FAA Form
height greater than the approach and 7460-1 may be obtained from the FAA, Western-
transverse surfaces extending outward and Pacific Regional Office or Caltrans, Division of
upward from the airport runway. These Aeronautics.
objects include overhead signs, light
standards, moving vehicles on the highway
November 1, 2001
Figure 207.2A
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements
(Civil Airports)
November 1, 2001
Figure 207.2B
Airway-Highway Clearance
Requirements (Heliport)
November 1, 2001
Figure 207.2C
Airway-Highway Clearance
Requirements (Military Airports)
November 1, 2001
Figure 207.2D
Airway-Highway Clearance Requirements
(Navy Carrier Landing Practice Field)
July 1, 2004
The scaled maps accompanying FAA Form 7460-1 The width should be measured normal to the
should contain the following minimum center line between faces of curb or railing
information. measured at the gutter line. For offsets to
safety shape barriers see Figure 208.1.
• Distance from project to nearest runway.
For horizontal and vertical clearances, see
• Elevation of runway thresholds.
Topic 309.
• Relationship between the proposed
(2) Roads Under Other Jurisdictions.
highway horizontal alignment and vertical
profile to the nearest runway or heliport (a) Overcrossing Widths--(See Index 308.1.)
primary surface. Include elevations of
(b) Undercrossing Span Lengths--Initial
objects referenced to the elevation of the
construction should provide for the
end of the runway, such as overhead lights,
ultimate requirements. In areas where the
signs, structures, landscaping, and vehicles.
local jurisdiction has a definite plan of
One copy of FAA form 7460-1 should be development, the ultimate right of way
forwarded to the Division of Design for width or at least that portion needed for
information and one copy to the Division of the roadbed and sidewalks should be
Aeronautics for information and land use spanned.
compatibility review.
If the undercrossing street or road has no
Note: The international language for flight is median, one should be provided where
English units. Therefore, all communication with necessary to accommodate left-turn lanes
the FAA and Division of Aeronautics, including all or the center piers of the undercrossing
mapping, must be in English units, not metric. structure.
Where it appears that a 2-lane road will be
Topic 208 - Bridges and Grade adequate for the foreseeable future, but no
Separation Structures right of way width has been established, a
minimum span length sufficient for a 12.0
m roadbed should be provided.
208.1 Bridge Width Additional span length should be provided
(1) State Highways. The clear width of all to permit future sidewalks where there is a
bridges, including grade separation foreseeable need. If it is reasonably
structures, shall equal the full width of the foreseeable that more than two lanes will
traveled way and paved shoulders on the be required ultimately, a greater width
approaches with the following exceptions: should be spanned.
(a) Bridges to be constructed as (c) For horizontal and vertical clearances, see
replacements on existing 2-lane, 2-way Topic 309.
roads shall not have less than a 9.6 m
wide roadbed for ADT less than 400, 208.2 Cross Slope
and not less than 12 m for ADT greater The crown is normally centered on the bridge
than 400. (see Index 307.2). except for one-way bridges where a straight cross
(b) When the approach shoulder width is slope in one direction should be used. The cross
less than 1.2 m, the minimum offset on slope should be the same as for the approach
each side shall be 1.2 m, and shall be pavement (see Index 301.2).
documented in accordance with Index
82.2.
November 1, 2001
Figure 208.1
Offsets to Safety-Shape Barriers
July 1, 2004
208.3 Median 208.8 Cattle Passes, Equipment, and Deer

On multilane divided highways a bridge median Crossings
that is 10.8 m wide or less should be decked. Private cattle passes and equipment crossings may
Exceptions require individual analysis. See be constructed when economically justified by a
Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for median barrier right of way appraisal, as outlined in Section
warrants. 7.09.09.00 of the Right of Way Manual.
208.4 Bridge Sidewalks The standard cattle pass should consist of either a
standard box culvert with an opening 2.4 m wide
Bridge sidewalks should be provided where
and 2.4 m high or a metal pipe 3000 mm in
justified by pedestrian traffic (see Figure 208.10B).
diameter. The invert of metal pipe should be paved
208.5 Open End Structures with concrete or bituminous paving material.
Embankment end slopes at open end structures If equestrian traffic is expected to use the culvert a
should be no steeper than 1:1.5 for all highways. minimum 3 m wide by 3 m high structure may be
provided. However, the user of the facility should
208.6 Pedestrian Overcrossings and be contacted to determine the specific
Undercrossings requirements.
The minimum width of walkway for pedestrian If conditions indicate a reasonable need for a larger
overcrossings should be 2.4 m. than standard cattle pass, it may be provided if
economically justified by the right of way
Determination of the width and height of pedestrian
appraisal.
undercrossings requires individual analysis to
insure adequate visibility through the structure and In some cases the installation of equipment or deer
approaches (see Index 105.2). crossings is justified on the basis of public interest
or need rather than economics. Examples are:
Pedestrian ramps should be provided on all
pedestrian separation structures. The ramp should (a) A deer crossing or other structure for
have a maximum longitudinal slope of 8.33% with environmental protection purposes.
a maximum rise of 760 mm between landings. The (b) Equipment crossings for the Forest
landing should be a minimum of 1525 mm in Service or other governmental agencies or
length. as a right of way obligation.
See Topic 309 for vertical clearances. These facilities should be installed where necessary
208.7 Equestrian Undercrossings as determined by consultation with the appropriate
affected entities.
Such structures should normally provide a clear
opening 3 m high and 3 m wide. Skewed crossings A clear line of sight should be provided through the
should be avoided. The structure should be straight structure.
so the entire length can be seen from each end. 208.9 Railroad Underpasses and Overheads
Sustained grades should be a maximum of 10%.
Decomposed granite or similar material should be Generally, it is desirable to construct overheads
used for the trail surface. While AC is permissible, rather than underpasses whenever it is necessary
a PCC surface should be avoided. for a highway and railroad to cross. Railroads
should be carried over highways only when there is
no other reasonable alternative.
Some undesirable features of underpasses are:
(a) They create bottlenecks for railroad
operations.
November 1, 2001
(b) It is difficult to widen the highway. (c) Pedestrian Railings--These railings pre-
vent pedestrians from accidentally falling
(c) Pumping plants are often required to drain
from the structure and, in the case of
the highway.
fence-type railing, reduce the risk of
(d) They are likely to lead to cost objects being dropped on the roadway
participation controversies for initial and below. Where the facility is accessible to
future construction. disabled persons and the profile grade
(e) Shooflies (temporary tracks) are generally exceeds 5%, a handrail for use by the
required during construction. disabled meeting both the State and
Federal regulations must be provided.
(f) Railroads are concerned about the
structure maintenance and liability costs (d) Bicycle Railings--These railings retain
they incur. bicycles and riders on the structure. They
may be specifically designed for bicycles,
Advantages of overheads are: or may be a combination type consisting
(a) Railroads can use most of their right of of a vehicular barrier surmounted by a
way for maintenance. fence or metal handrail.
(b) Overheads can be widened at a relatively (2) Policies. To reduce the risk of objects being
low cost and with little difficulty. dropped or thrown upon vehicles, protective
screening in the form of fence-type railings
(c) Less damage may be incurred in the event should be installed along new overcrossing
of a derailment. structure sidewalks in urban areas (Sec.92.6
(d) Agreements for design and maintenance California Streets and Highways Code).
can be reached more easily with railroads. Screening should be considered for the
opposite side of structures having one
(e) Initial costs are generally lower. sidewalk. Screening should be installed at
The State, the railroads, and the public in general such other locations determined to be
can usually benefit from the construction of an appropriate.
overhead structure rather than an underpass. The approved types of railings for use on
See Topic 309 for vertical clearances. bridge structures are listed below and
illustrated in Figures 208.10A, B, and C.
208.10 Bridge Barriers and Railings Railing types not listed are no longer in
general use; however, they may be specified
(1) General. There are four classes of railings, in those cases where it is desirable to match an
each intended to perform a different function. existing condition.
(a) Vehicular Barrier Railings--The primary The District should specify in the bridge site
function of these railings is to retain and data submittal the rail type to be used after
redirect errant vehicles. consideration has been given to the
(b) Combination Vehicular Barrier and Pedes- recommendations of the local agency (where
trian Railings--These railings perform the applicable) and the DES-SD.
dual function of retaining both vehicles (3) Vehicular Barriers. See Figure 208.10A.
and pedestrians on the bridge. They
consist of two parts--A concrete parapet (a) Concrete Barrier Type 732 and 736--
barrier, generally with a sidewalk, and These vehicular barriers are for general
metal handrailing or fence-type railing. use adjacent to traffic. Figure 208.1
illustrates the position of the barrier
relative to the edge of traveled way.
November 1, 2001
(b) Concrete Barrier Type 80--Use of this pedestrians. It should be used in lieu of
barrier requires approval by the Traffic Type 7 where object dropping will not be
Liaison. It is intended for use in lower a problem or at the ends of bridges to
speed scenic areas where more see- increase sight distance if fence-type
through area is desired than is provided by railing would restrict sight distance.
a solid concrete parapet.
(5) Pedestrian Railings. See Figure 208.10C
(4) Combination Railings. See Figure 208.10B.
(a) Chain Link Railing Type 3--This railing is
(a) Barrier Railing Type 26--This is the used on pedestrian structures to reduce the
barrier railing for general use when risk of objects being dropped on the
sidewalks are provided on a bridge. It roadway below.
must be accompanied with a tubular (b) Chain Link Railing Type 7 (Modified)--
handrailing or a fence-type railing. The This railing is similar to Type 7 except
minimum sidewalk width is 1.5 m, that it is mounted on the structure at the
however, this width may be varied as sidewalk level.
circumstances require.
(c) Chain Link Railing (Six-foot)--This
(b) Barrier Railing Type 80SW--Similar to railing is not as high as Types 3 or 7 and
the Type 80, modified with a raised therefore, its use is restricted to those
sidewalk and tubular handrailing. Use of locations where object dropping or
this barrier requires approval by the throwing will not be a problem.
Traffic Liaison. It is intended for use in
(d) Chain Link Railing (Modification)--
lower speed scenic areas where more see-
Existing railing may be modified for
through area is desired than is provided by
screening under the protective screening
a solid concrete parapet.
policy. The DOS should be contacted for
(c) Chain Link Railing Type 7--This is the details.
fence-type railing for general use with (6) Bicycle Railing. The minimum height of
Type 26 barrier railing with sidewalk to bicycle rail is 1.4 m above the deck surface.
reduce the risk of objects being dropped Pedestrian railings and combination railings
on the roadway below. When a sidewalk consisting of a concrete barrier surmounted by
(Type 26 railing) is provided on one side a fence or tubular railing are satisfactory for
of a bridge and Type 732 barrier railing bicycles, if at least 1.4 m high. Bicycles are
on the other side, Type 7 railing may be not considered to operate on a sidewalk,
placed on top of the Type 732 as except in special cases where signs
additional protection from dropped specifically direct cyclists to use the sidewalk.
objects. Consideration should be given to
the effect of the Type 7 railing on sight As a general policy, bicycle railings should be
distance at the bridge ends and view over installed at the following locations:
the side of the bridge. Lighting fixtures (a) On a Class I bikeway, except that a lower
may be provided with Type 7 railings. rail may be used if a curbed sidewalk, not
(d) Chain Link Railing Type 6--This railing signed for bicycle use, separates the
may be used in lieu of Type 7 when bikeway from the rail or a shoulder at
special architectural treatment is required. least 2.4 m wide exists on the other side of
It should not be used on curved alignment the rail.
because of fabrication difficulties. (b) On the outside of a Class II or III
(e) Tubular Handrailing--This railing is used bikeway, unless a curbed sidewalk, not
with Type 26 and Type 80SW to increase signed for bicycle use, separates the
the combined rail height for the safety of bikeway from the rail.
November 1, 2001
Figure 208.10A
Vehicular Railings for
Bridge Structures
November 1, 2001
Figure 208.10B
Combination Railings for
Bridge Structures
November 1, 2001
Figure 208.10C
Pedestrian Railings for
Bridge Structures
July 1, 2004
(c) In other locations where the designer (a) Retaining Wall Types 1 and 2 (Concrete
deems it reasonable and appropriate. Cantilever). These walls have standard
design heights up to 10 900 mm, but are
(7) Bridge Approach Railings. Approach
most economical below 6000 mm.
railings shall be installed at the ends of
Concrete cantilever walls accommodate
bridge railings exposed to approach traffic.
traffic barriers, sound walls, and drainage
Refer to Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for facilities efficiently.
placement and design criteria of guardrail.
(b) Retaining Wall Type 3 and 4 (Concrete
Counterfort). These walls may be used
Topic 209 – (currently not in use) where minimum wall deflection is desired.
When used in conjunction with concrete
cantilever walls, there should be an offset
Topic 210 - Earth Retaining in the plane of the wall faces to mask the
Systems difference in deflection between the two
210.1 Types and Uses wall types. The cost of these walls is
generally more than for concrete
Earth retaining systems can be divided into five
cantilever walls of similar height.
categories:
(c) Retaining Wall Type 5 (Concrete L-Type
• State designed systems which involve a
Cantilever). Although more costly than
Standard Plan,
cantilever walls, these walls may be
• State designed systems which require a required where site restrictions do not
special design, allow for a footing projection beyond the
• Proprietary systems which have been face of the wall stem.
pre-approved by DES-SD for listing in (d) Retaining Wall Type 6 (Concrete
Special Provisions for specific projects. Masonry Walls). These walls may be
• Proprietary systems which are awaiting used where the design height of the wall
DES-SD approval. does not exceed 1800 mm. These walls
are generally less costly than all other
• Experimental systems. standard design walls or gravity walls.
(1) State Designed Earth Retaining Systems With Where traffic is adjacent to the top of the
Standard Plans. Standard Plans are available wall, guardrail should be set back as noted
for a variety of earth retaining systems in the Standard Plans.
(retaining walls). Loading conditions and (e) Crib Walls. The following types are
foundation requirements are outlined in the available:
Standard Plans. For sites with requirements
that are not covered by the Standard Plans, a • Concrete Crib Wall - This type of crib
special design earth retaining system is wall may be used for design heights
required. To assure conformance with the up to 16 000 mm. Concrete crib walls
Standard Plan requirements and, therefore, are suited to coastal areas and higher
completion of the PS&E in a timely fashion, elevations where salt air and deicing
design engineers should request a foundation salts may limit the service life of other
investigation for all locations at which a types of crib walls. Concrete crib
retaining wall is being considered. Retaining walls may be closed face and,
walls which have Standard Plans are as therefore, useful where impinging
follows: flow is a problem.
July 1, 2004
• Steel Crib Wall - This type of crib require pile support for the wall
wall may be used for design heights necessitates a special design. Design is by
up to 10 900 mm. Steel crib walls are the DES-SD.
light in weight; easily transported and
(b) Bulkheads. These systems are also
installed; and, therefore, suited for
referred to as cantilevered pile, sheet pile,
relatively inaccessible installations
tied-back, anchored pile, or soldier pile
and for emergency repairs.
walls. These walls are most practical in
• Timber Crib Wall - This type of crib cut sections and are best suited for
wall may be used for design heights situations where excavation for a retaining
up to 6600 mm. Timber crib walls wall with a footing is impractical because
have a rustic appearance which makes of traffic, utilities, existing buildings, or
them suited to a rural environment. right of way restrictions. In embankment
When all of the wood members are sections, a bulkhead wall is a practical
pressure preservative treated, the solution for a roadway widening where
service life of timber crib walls is design heights are less that 1800 mm.
comparable to that of concrete or steel They are also practical for slip-out
crib walls. corrections. Bulkheads can consist of
either concrete, steel, or timber sheet
Timber and concrete crib walls
piles, or concrete, steel or timber soldier
constructed on horizontal alignments
piles either driven or placed in drilled
with curves or angle points require
holes and backfilled, with either concrete
special details, particularly when the
facing or lagging or timber lagging.
wall face is battered. Because crib
Bulkhead walls can be either cantilevered
wall faces can be climbed, they are
or anchored with tie rod and deadman
not recommended for urban sites
anchors, ground anchors, or rock anchors.
where they will be accessible to the
The method of support and anchorage
public. The economical height for all
depends on site conditions, design height,
crib walls is generally less than
and loading imposed. The cost of these
9000 mm.
walls is variable depending on earth
(2) State Designed Earth Retaining Systems retaining requirements, site geology,
Which Require Special Designs. Some sites aesthetic consideration, and site restraints.
require a special design earth retaining system Design is by DES-SD.
to accommodate existing and future ground
(c) Concrete or Rock Gravity Walls. These
contours, traffic, utilities or other constructed
walls are most economical at design
features, site geology, economy, or aesthetics.
heights below 1200 mm. They are
Some special design earth retaining systems constructed at heights between 1200 mm
are as follows: and 1800 mm only for short lengths, and
(a) Standard Plan Walls. The design then only if considerable length of the
loadings, heights, and types of walls in the shorter height is involved. These walls
Standard Plans cover frequent can be used in connection with a
applications for earth retaining systems. cantilever wall if long lengths of wall with
However, special designs are necessary if design heights of less than 1200 mm are
the imposed loading exceeds that in the required. A Type 50C concrete barrier,
Standard Plans. Railroad live load; which can be found in the Standard Plans,
building surcharge; loads imposed by sign can serve as a gravity retaining wall in
structures, electroliers, or sound walls are locations where a differential in height of
examples. Foundation conditions that up to 900 mm exists between adjoining
roadway grades. Design is by DES-SD.
July 1, 2004
(d) Soil Reinforcement Systems. Soil construction of an embankment. When

reinforcement systems consist of facing conditions permit their use, these
elements and soil reinforcing elements systems are generally the most
incorporated into a compacted or in situ economical choice for wall heights
soil mass. The reinforced soil mass greater than 6000 mm. They may also
functions similar to a gravity wall. be the most economical system for wall
heights in the 3000 mm to 6000 mm
Soil reinforcing elements can be any
range, depending on specific project
material that provides tensile strength and
requirements.
pullout resistance, and possesses
satisfactory creep characteristics and Because of the articulated nature of the
service life. Generally, reinforcing facing elements these systems use, they
elements are steel, but polymeric and can tolerate greater differential
fiberglass systems may be used. settlement than can conventional
concrete retaining walls.
Facing elements for most systems are
either reinforced concrete, light guage Steel elements used in this method are
steel, or treated wood. Polymeric walls sized to provide sacrificial steel to
may be faced with masonry-like elements offset corrosion; and, additionally, are
or even planted with local grasses. galvanized for permanent installations.
Selection of facing type is governed by
• "Top Down Methods" - At the time of
aesthetics and service life.
this revision, soil nailing is the only
Wall heights of soil reinforcement method of reinforcing undisturbed
systems are controlled mainly by bearing earth during excavation of a cut slope
capacity of the foundation material and practiced by Caltrans. This system
global stability of the site. Wall heights in involves insertion of reinforcement
excess of 18 000 mm are feasible where "soil nails" at an angle into
conditions permit. Foundation undisturbed in situ material during
investigations for soil reinforcement excavation. When site conditions
systems are similar to investigations for permit its use, soil nailing will
conventional retaining walls. generally be the most economic system
for all heights.
Special details are required when a soil
reinforcement system must accommodate Because soil nailing is accomplished
drainage structures, overhead sign concurrent with excavation, and thus
supports or sound walls on piles within results in an unloading of the
the reinforced soil mass. Concrete traffic foundation, there is generally no
barriers require a special design support significant differential movement.
slab when used at the top of the facing of
Steel "soil nails" used in this method
these systems. These systems can not be
are protected against corrosion either
used where site restrictions do not allow
by being epoxy coated or encapsulated
necessary excavation or placement of the
within a grout filled corrugated plastic
soil reinforcing elements.
sheath, and surrounded by portland
Soil reinforcement systems can be cement grout placed during
classified within two categories typified construction.
by the method of construction:
Soil reinforcement systems are
• "Bottom Up Methods" - These soil designed by both the state and private
reinforcement systems involve the firms. Vendor systems are termed
placement of reinforcement during "proprietary" and are listed in
July 1, 2004
paragraphs (3) and (4) of this section. • Tire Anchor Timber (TAT) Wall - This
Some state designed soil reinforcement system was developed by the DES-GS
systems that require special design are and utilizes steel bars with used tire
as follows: side walls attached by cross bars as soil
reinforcing elements. The facing
• Mechanically Stabilized Embankment
elements are treated timber. TAT
(MSE) - This system was developed by
walls have a rustic appearance which
the DES-Geotechnical Services (DES-
makes them suited to a rural
GS) and uses galvanized welded wire
environment. Design by the DES-GS.
mats as soil reinforcing elements. The
facing elements are precast concrete. (3) Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems (Pre-
In many cases, this system can be Approved). These conventional retaining
constructed using on-site backfill walls, cribwalls, and soil reinforcement
materials. Design by DES-SD. systems are designed, manufactured, and
marketed by a vendor. These systems are
• Salvaged Material Retaining Wall -
termed proprietary because most of these
This system was developed by the
systems are patented. Pre-approval status
DES-GS and utilizes C-channel
means that these systems may be listed in the
sections as soil reinforcement.
Special Provisions of the project as an
Galvanized metal beamguard rail,
Alternative Earth Retaining System (AERS)
timber posts or concrete panels are
when considered appropriate for a particular
used as facing elements. Often the
location. For a proprietary system to be given
materials involved can be salvaged
pre-approval status, the vendor must submit
from state rehabilitation projects. The
standard plans and design calculations to
District Recycle Coordinator should be
DES-SD for their review and approval.
consulted as to availability of salvaged
Preapproved proprietary earth retaining
materials. Design by DES-GS.
systems are as follows:
• Soil Nail Wall - This system reinforces
(a) Reinforced Earth (RE). This French,
either original ground or an existing
patented soil reinforcement system is
embankment during the excavation
marketed by the Reinforced Earth
process. Soil nailing is always
Company. Reinforced Earth utilizes steel
accomplished from the top down in
strips as soil reinforcing elements and
stages that are typically 1200 mm to
precast concrete face panels.
1800 mm in height. After each stage
of excavation, corrosion protected soil (b) Reinforced Soil Embankment (RSE).
reinforcing elements, "soil nails", are This patented soil reinforcement system is
placed and grouted into holes which marketed by The Hilfiker Company. RSE
have been drilled at angles into the in walls utilize welded wire mat soil
situ material. The face of each stage of reinforcement and precast concrete face
excavation is protected by a layer of panels.
reinforced shotcrete. After the full
(c) Welded Wire Walls. This patented soil
height of wall has been excavated and
reinforcement system is marketed by The
reinforced, a finish layer of concrete
Hilfiker Company. Welded Wire Walls
facing is placed either by the
are constructed using welded wire mat
shotcreting method or by casting
units which are both the soil
within a face form. Design by DES-
reinforcement and the facing element.
SD.
July 1, 2004
(d) Retained Earth Walls. This patented soil retaining system deemed appropriate for a
reinforcement system is marketed by the project and, therefore, the only system
Foster Geotechnical Corporation. Like contained in the project documents, the
MSE walls, retained earth walls use construction of that system must be designated
welded wire mat soil reinforcement and experimental construction in accordance with
precast concrete face panels. existing contract agreements concerning sole
source purchases.
(e) Criblock Walls. This patented concrete
cribwall system is marketed by Retaining (5) Experimental State Designed Earth Retaining
Walls Company. Systems. Every earth retaining system must
undergo a thorough evaluation before
(f) Port-O-Wall. This system is marketed by
becoming accepted for routine use. Newly
Port-O-Wall Enterprises. This system
introduced designs or untried combinations of
consists of cantilevered precast concrete
proprietary and non-proprietary designs or
stem panels supported by a cast-in-place
products are, therefore, considered
concrete footing.
experimental. Evaluation of the system may
(g) MSE Plus. This patented soil reinforce- take the form of either a Category 1 or a
ment system is marketed by the SSL Category 2 Experimental Construction
Company. MSE Plus uses welded wire Project. Category 1 projects are administered
mat soil reinforcement and precast by either the DES-GS or DES-SD. Category
concrete face panels. 2 projects are administered through the DES,
(h) Evergreen Retaining Wall System. This Value Analysis and Resource Conservation
system is marketed by the Quickset Branch, and require a minimum of paperwork.
Corporation. Evergreen Wall is The evaluation process in both cases is
composed of prefabricated concrete federally funded. Once a system has been
elements placed on top of each other evaluated the experimental status will be
which are then filled with earth and changed.
planted. Some earth retaining systems which are
It should be noted that this list includes only considered experimental are as follows:
those systems which were pre-approved by (a) Fabric or Plastic Reinforced Walls. These
DES-SD at the time of this revision. New systems utilize geotextiles or plastics as
systems will be added to the list as they are the soil reinforcing elements. The face of
submitted, evaluated, and approved. these walls can be left exposed if the
(4) Proprietary Earth Retaining Systems fabric has been treated to prevent decay
(Pending). The systems in this category have from ultra-violet rays. Concrete panels,
been submitted by a vendor to the DES-SD for mortarless masonry, tar emulsion, or air
evaluation. They will undergo thorough blown mortar may be used as facing
review and any necessary testing and with the materials or the face may be seeded if a
approval of DES-SD, they will be added to the more aesthetic treatment is preferred.
list of pre-approved proprietary earth retaining Design is by DES-GS.
systems and can be listed in the Special (b) Mortarless Masonry Gravity Walls. Each
Provisions under Alternative Earth Retaining of these systems utilizes the friction and
Systems. shear developed between facing units and
In most cases, proprietary systems will be the combined weight of the units to retain
listed in the Special Provisions for a project the backfill. Some of these systems have
under Alternative Earth Retaining Systems. been used as erosion protection at
However, if a proprietary system is the only abutments and on embankments. They
can be used as an aesthetic treatment for
July 1, 2004
facing fabric and plastic soil reinforced Under the AERS procedure, parts of the PS&E
walls. All of these systems require a package which pertain to the earth retaining
batter. Design is by the DES-GS. systems will be prepared as follows:
It should be noted that this list includes only • Project plans for the State designed
those systems which are being evaluated by systems can be prepared by the District
the Office of Structural Foundations at the Design Engineer (Standard Plan systems),
time of this revision. New systems will be the DES-GS (special design soil
added to the list as they are considered. reinforcement systems and experimental
systems), or DES-SD (Standard Plan
210.2 Alternative Earth Retaining Systems systems and special design systems).
(AERS) • Pre-approved proprietary systems will be
The Alternative Earth Retaining Systems procedure listed in the Special Provisions.
encourages competitive bidding and potentially • Specifications and Estimates for the fully
results in cost savings. Therefore, AERS should be detailed State designed system, which will
considered in preparing all project documents be used as the basis for payment, will be
involving earth retaining systems. prepared by DES-SD.
DES-SD initiated the AERS procedure in 1982. The earth retaining systems under this procedure
Implementation of the procedure means that will be measured and paid for by the square meter
various earth retaining systems are presented in the area of the face of the earth retaining system which
contract bid package and are, therefore, able to be has been indicated to be the basis of payment.
considered for use by a contractor. Under this Should an Alternative Earth Retaining System be
procedure, a fully detailed State designed earth constructed, payment will be made based on the
retaining system will be provided for each location, measurements of the State designed system which
and will be used as the basis for payment. was designated as basis of payment. The contract
Additional systems may be presented in the price paid per square meter is for all items of work
contract documents as alternatives to the fully involved and includes excavation, backfill,
detailed State design and can be considered for use drainage system, reinforcing steel, concrete, soil
at specified locations. The fully detailed State reinforcement, and facing. Any barrier, fence, or
designed earth retaining system which is used as railing involved is measured and paid for as
the basis for payment may be either a Standard separate items.
Plan system or a special design system. Additional
(or alternative) systems may be State designed 210.3 Cost Reduction Incentive Proposals
systems, pre-approved proprietary systems, an
(CRIP)
experimental system, or any combination thereof.
The State designed alternative systems, both The contractor may submit a proposal for an earth
Standard Plan walls and special design systems, retaining system under Section 5-1.14 of the
will be fully detailed on the plans. The alternative Standard Specifications, Cost Reduction Incentive.
systems which are pre-approved proprietary The proposed system may modify or replace the
systems will be listed in the Special Provisions as earth retaining system permitted by the contract.
Alternative Earth Retaining Systems. This gives vendors of proprietary earth retaining
systems a method for having their system used
Implementation of the AERS process requires the
prior to having pre-approval of a standard plan
involvement of the District Design Engineer, DES-
submittal for that system. CRIP submittals are
SD, and the DES-GS. The District Design
administered by the Resident Engineer. Contract
Engineer should submit pertinent site information
Change Orders are not to be processed until the
(site plans, typical sections, etc.) to both the DES-
CRIP is approved by Headquarters Construction
GS and DES-SD for feasibility studies as early as
possible in the project design stage.
July 1, 2004
with review assistance provided by other functional are shown in the Standard Plans. A special design
units. traffic slab is required if a concrete barrier is to be
used at the top of crib walls and most special
210.4 Aesthetic Consideration design earth retaining systems. DES-SD should be
contacted for preparation of the plans involved in
The profile of the top of wall should be designed to
the special design.
be as pleasing as the site conditions permit. All
changes in the slope at the top of cast-in-place Retaining walls joining right of way fences should
concrete walls should be rounded with vertical be a minimum of 1800 mm clear height.
curves at least 6000 mm long. Small dips in the
top of the wall should be eliminated. Sharp dips 210.6 Design Responsibility
should be improved by using vertical curves,
DES-SD has primary responsibility for the
slopes, steps, or combinations thereof. Side slopes
structural design and preparation of the contract
may be flattened or other adjustments made to
documents (PS&E) for earth retaining systems in
provide a pleasing profile.
the Standard Plans and for the special designs
Where walls are highly visible, special surface involving bulkheads, concrete and rock gravity
treatment or provisions for landscaping should be walls, pile support systems, Mechanically
considered. Aesthetic treatment of walls should be Stabilized Embankment, and soil nail walls. The
referred to DES-SD for study by the Transportation DES-GS has primary responsibility for the
Architecture Branch. geotechnical design of soil nail walls. DES-SD
prepares the Specifications and Engineer's Estimate
Walls should not have indentations or protrusions
for contracts where the Alternative Earth Retaining
less than 1800 mm above grade large enough to
Systems (AERS) procedure is used. DES-SD
snag errant vehicles.
reviews and approves standard plan submittals for
When alternative wall types are provided on proprietary earth retaining systems submitted by
projects with more than one wall site, any vendors. DES-SD and the DES-GS assist
restriction as to the combination of wall types Headquarters Construction in evaluating the Cost
should be specified in the Special Provisions. Reduction Incentive Proposals (CRIP) submitted
by contractors.
210.5 Safety Railing, Fences, and Concrete
Districts may prepare contract plans, specifications,
Barriers
and engineer's estimate for Standard Plan retaining
Cable railing should be installed for employee walls provided the foundation conditions and site
protection in areas where employees may work requirements permit their use. A foundation
adjacent to and above vertical faces of retaining investigation is required for all earth retaining
walls, wingwalls, abutments, etc. where the structures. Project plans, specifications, and
vertical fall is 1220 mm or more. estimates for Tire Anchored Timber walls,
Salvaged Material walls, and experimental walls
If cable railing is required on a wall which is less
will be prepared by the Districts with the assistance
than 1370 mm tall and that wall is located within
of the DES-GS. Earth retaining systems can be
the clear recovery zone, then the cable railing
included in the PS&E as either Highway or
should be placed behind the wall. See Standard
Structure items.
Plans for details of cable railing.
Requests for the special design of a retaining
Special designs for safety railing may be
system should be submitted at least 9 months
considered where aesthetic values of the area
before the PS&E is due. At least 3 months is
warrant special treatment.
required to conduct a foundation investigation for a
Concrete barriers may be mounted on top of retaining structure. A site plan, index map, cross
retaining walls. Details for concrete barriers sections, vertical and horizontal alignment, and
mounted on top of retaining walls Type 1 through 5
July 1, 2004
utility and drainage requirements should be sent (b) Footing Steps. For economy and ease of
along with the request. construction of wall Types 1 through 6,
the following criteria should be used for
DES-Geotechnical Services has responsibility for
layout of footing steps.
making foundation recommendations for all earth
retaining systems. They assist the District Design • Distance between steps should be in
Engineer with preparation of contract documents multiples of 2400 mm.
for special designs of Tire Anchor Timber walls,
• A minimum number of steps should be
Salvage Material walls, and experimental earth
used even if a slightly higher wall is
retaining systems.
necessary. Small steps, less than 300
Both the DES-GS and DES-SD have responsibility mm in height, should be avoided unless
for making feasibility studies for Alternative Earth the distance between steps is 29 200
Retaining Systems. The District should submit mm or more. The maximum height of
project site information (site plans, typical sections, steps should be held to 1200 mm. If
etc.) to both of them as early in the planning stages the footing thickness changes between
as possible so that determination of the most steps, the bottom of footing elevation
appropriate earth retaining systems to use can be should be adjusted so that the top of
made. footing remains at the same elevation.
(c) Sloping Footings. The following criteria
210.7 Guidelines for Plan Preparation
should be used for layout of sloping
(1) Type Selection. Wall type selection should be footings.
based on considerations set forth in Index
• The maximum permissible slope for
210.1. Both State designed earth retaining
reinforced concrete retaining walls is
systems and proprietary earth retaining
3%. Maximum footing slope for
systems may meet the requirements for a
masonry walls is 2%.
project. Therefore, to promote competitive
bidding which can result in cost savings, all • When sloping footings are used, form
appropriate earth retaining systems should be and joint lines are permitted to be
included in the contract documents. perpendicular and parallel to the
footing for ease of construction.
(2) Foundation Investigations. A foundation
investigation should be requested from the • In cases where vertical electroliers or
DES-Geotechnical Services for all sites fence posts are required on top of a
involving an earth retaining system. All log wall, the form and joint lines must also
of test boring sheets accompanying the be vertical. A sloping footing should
foundation reports must be included with the not be used in this situation since
contract plans. efficiency of construction would be
lost.
The following guidelines should be used to
prepare the contract plans for earth retaining • Sloping footing grades should be
systems which are found in the Standard constant for the entire length of the
Plans: wall. Breaks in footing grade will
complicate forming and result in loss
(a) Loads. All wall types selected must be
of economy. If breaks in footing grade
capable of supporting the field surcharge
are necessary, a level stepped footing
conditions. The design surcharges can be
should be used for the entire wall.
found in the Standard Plans. Deviance
from these loadings will require a special • When the top of wall profile of crib
design. walls is constant for the entire length,
the bottom of wall profile may be
July 1, 2004
sloped to avoid steps in the top of expansion joint waterstop, structure

wall. In this case, all steps to excavation, structure backfill, pervious
compensate for changes of wall height backfill material, concrete barrier or
and original ground profile would be railing, and gutter concrete must be
made in the bottom of wall. The tabulated also. Quantities should be
maximum permissible slope is 6%. If tabulated on the plans for each wall.
vertical electroliers or fence posts are
The following guidelines should be used to
required on top of the wall, the crib
prepare the contract plans for soil
wall should not be sloped. Sloping
reinforcement systems:
crib walls are permissible with guard
railing with vertical posts. (a) Leveling Slabs. Most soil reinforcement
systems do not require extensive
(d) Wall Joints. General details for required
foundation preparation. It may be
wall joints on wall Types 1, 1A, 2, and 5
necessary, however, to design a concrete
are shown on Standard Plan B0-3.
leveling slab on which to construct the
Expansion joints, Bridge Detail 3-3,
face elements. A reinforced concrete slab
should be shown at maximum intervals of
will be required in areas prone to
29 200 mm. Shorter spaces should be in
consolidation or frost disturbance.
multiples of 2400 mm. Expansion joints
should not be placed near an angle point • Steps in the leveling slab should be
in the wall alignment. When concrete the same height as the height of the
barriers are used on top of retaining walls, facing elements or thickness of the
the waterstop in the expansion joint must soil layer between the soil
be extended 150 mm into the barrier. This reinforcement.
detail should be shown or noted on the • Distance between steps in the leveling
wall plans. Weakened plane joints, slabs should be in increments
Bridge Detail 3-2, should be shown at equivalent to the length of individual
nearly equal spaces between joints. facing elements.
(e) Drainage. Gutters should be used behind • A minimum number of steps should
walls in areas where it is necessary to be used even if a slightly higher wall
carry off surface water or to prevent scour. is necessary.
Low points in wall vertical alignment or
areas between return walls must be (b) Drainage. Gutters should be used behind
drained by downspouts passing through walls in areas where it is necessary to
the walls. Standard Plan B3-9 shows carry off surface water or to prevent scour.
typical drainage details. Special design of Low points in wall vertical alignment or
surface water drainage facilities may be areas between return walls must be
necessary depending on the amount of drained by downspouts passing through
surface water anticipated. Where ground the walls. Special design of surface water
water is likely to occur in any quantity, drainage facilities will be necessary and
special provisions must be made to should be prepared by DES-SD. Where
intercept the flow to prevent inundation of ground water is likely to occur in any
the backfill and unsightly continuous flow quantity, special provisions must be made
through weep holes. to intercept the flow to prevent inundation
of the backfill.
(f) Quantities. When the AERS procedure is
not implemented, wall quantities for each (c) Quantities. When the AERS procedure is
item of work are usually set up for not implemented, quantities for each item
payment. The quantities for concrete, of work are usually set up for payment.
July 1, 2004
Bid items must include, but not be limited to provide a finished appearance. Return
to: excavation and backfill for the walls are necessary when wall offsets are
embedment depth, soil reinforcement, used or when the top of wall is stepped.
facing elements, and concrete for slab Return walls for soil reinforcement
construction. Additional bid items for systems will require special designs to
inclusion are any drainage system, accommodate the overlapping of
pervious backfill, concrete barrier, reinforcing elements.
railings, and concrete gutters. Quantities
All special wall details such as sign bases,
should be tabulated on the plans for each
utility openings, drainage features, fences,
wall.
and concrete barriers should be shown on
The following miscellaneous details are the plan sheet of the wall concerned or
applicable to all earth retaining systems: included on a separate sheet with the wall
plan sheets. As a minimum, these details
(a) Utilities. Provisions must be made to
should be cross referenced on the wall
relocate or otherwise accommodate
sheets to the sheets on which they are
utilities conflicting with the retaining
shown.
wall. A utility opening for a Type 1 wall
is shown in the Standard Plans. Any other
utility openings will require special design
details and should be reviewed by
DES-SD.
(b) Electroliers and Signs. Details for
mounting electroliers and signs on earth
retaining systems are designed by DES-
SD. Requests for preparation of details
should be made at least 3 months in
advance of PS&E. To accommodate the
base plates for overhead signs, a local
enlargement may affect the horizontal
clearance to both the edge of pavement
and the right of way line. The
enlargement should be considered at the
time of establishing the wall layout. For
mounting details, furnish DES-SD a
complete cross section of the roadway at
the sign and the layout and profile of the
earth retaining system.
(c) Fence and Railing Post Pockets. Post
pocket details shown for cable railing in
the Standard Plans may also be used for
mounting chain link fence on top of
retaining walls. Special details may be
necessary to accommodate the
reinforcement in soil reinforcement
systems.
(d) Return Walls. Return walls should be
considered for use on the ends of the walls
July 1, 2004
should be centered on the pavement and the

CHAPTER 300 pavement sloped toward the edges on a uniform
GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION grade.
For rehabilitation and widening projects, the
Topic 301 - Traveled Way maximum algebraic difference in cross slope
between adjacent lanes of opposing traffic for
Standards either 2-lane or undivided multilane highways
Index 301.1 - Traveled Way Width should be 6%. For new construction, the
maximum shall be 4%.
The traveled way width is determined by the
number of lanes demanded by the design hourly On divided highway roadbeds, the high point of
volume. The traveled way width does not include crown may be centered at, or left of, the center of
curbs, dikes, gutters, or gutter pans. The basic the traveled way, and preferably over a lane line
lane width for new construction on two-lane and (tent sections). This strategy may be employed
multilane highways, ramps, collector roads, and when adding lanes on the inside of divided
other appurtenant roadways shall be 3.6 m. highways, or when widening an existing "crowned"
For roads with curve radii of 90 m or less, 2-lane highway to a 4-lane divided highway by
widening due to offtracking should be considered. utilizing the existing 2-lane pavement as one of the
See Index 404.1 and Table 504.3A. For roads divided highway roadbeds.
under other jurisdictions, see Topic 308. The maximum algebraic difference in cross slope
301.2 Cross Slopes between same direction traffic lanes of divided
highway roadbeds should be 4%.
(1) General. The purpose of sloping on roadway
cross sections is to provide a mechanism to The maximum difference in cross slope between
direct water (usually from precipitation) off the traveled way and the shoulder should not
the traveled way. Undesirable accumulations exceed 8%. This applies to new construction as
of water can lead to hydroplaning or other well as pavement overlay projects.
problems which can increase accident At freeway entrances and exits, the maximum
potential. See Topics 831 and 833 for difference in cross slope between adjacent lanes, or
hydroplaning considerations. between lanes and gore areas, should not exceed
(2) Standards. 5%.
(a) The standard cross slope to be used for

new construction on the traveled way Topic 302 - Shoulder Standards
for all types of surfaces shall be 2%.
302.1 Width
(b) For resurfacing or widening when
necessary to match existing cross slopes, The shoulder widths given in Table 302.1 shall
the minimum shall be 1.5% and the be the minimum continuous usable width of
maximum shall be 3 percent. However, paved shoulder. For new construction, and major
the cross slope on 2-lane and multilane reconstruction projects on conventional highways,
AC highways should be increased to 2% if adequate width should be provided to permit shared
the cost is reasonable. use by motorists and bicyclists.
(c) On unpaved roadway surfaces, See Index 308.1 for shoulder width requirements
including gravel and penetration on city streets or county roads. See shoulder
treated earth, the cross slope shall be definition, Index 62.1(7).
2.5% to 5.0%. See Index 1102.2 for shoulder width requirements
On undivided highways with two or more lanes in a next to noise Barriers.
normal tangent section, the high point of the crown
July 1, 2004
Table 302.1
Standards for Paved
Shoulder Width
Paved Shoulder Width (m)

Left Right (8)
Freeways & Expressways
2 lanes (1) -- 2.4 (6)
4 lanes (1) 1.5 3.0
6 or more lanes (1) 3.0 3.0
Auxiliary lanes -- 3.0
Freeway-to-freeway connections
Single and two-lane connections 1.5 3.0
Three-lane connections 3.0 3.0
Single-lane ramps 1.2 (2) 2.4
Multilane ramps 1.2 (2) 2.4 (3)
Multilane undivided -- 3.0
Collector-Distributor 1.5 3.0
Conventional Highways
Multilane divided
4-lanes 1.5 2.4
6-lanes or more 2.4 2.4
Urban areas with speeds less than 75 km/h and curbed
medians 0.6 (4) 2.4 (7)
Multilane undivided -- 2.4 (7)
2-lane
RRR See Table 307.3
New construction See Table 307.2
Slow-moving vehicle lane -- 1.2 (5)
Local Facilities
Frontage roads See Index 310.1
Local facilities crossing State facilities See Index 308.1
NOTES:
(1) Total number of lanes in both directions including separate roadways (see Index 305.6). If a lane is added to
one side of a 4-lane facility (such as a truck climbing lane) then that side shall have 3.0 m left and right
shoulders. See Index 62.1.
(2) May be reduced to 0.6 m. 1.2 m preferred in urban areas and/or when ramp is metered. See Index 504.3.
(3) In restrictive situations, may be reduced to 0.6 m or 1.2 m (preferred in urban areas) in the 2-lane section of a
non-metered ramp which transitions from a single lane. May be reduced to 0.6 m in ramp sections having 3 or
more lanes. See Index 504.3.
(4) For posted speeds less than 60 km/h, shoulder may be omitted (see Index 303.5(5)) except where drainage flows
toward the curbed median.
(5) On right side of climbing or passing lane section only. See Index 1003.2 if bike lanes are present.
(6) 3.0 m shoulders preferred.
(7) Where parking is allowed, 3.0 m to 3.6 m shoulders preferred.
(8) Shoulders adjacent to abutment walls, retaining walls in cut locations, and noise barriers shall be 3.0 m.
July 1, 2004
302.2 Cross Slopes the lanes and the shoulders with the least
number of passes.
(1) General - When a roadway crosses a bridge
structure, the shoulders shall be in the same • If shoulders are PCC and the District plans
plane as the adjacent traveled way. to convert shoulders into through lanes
within the 20 years following construction,
(2) Left Shoulders - In depressed median sections,
then shoulders are to be built in the plane
shoulders to the left of traffic shall be
of the traveled way and to lane standards
sloped at 2% away from the traveled way.
for width and structural section. (See Index
In paved median sections, shoulders to the 603.4).
left of traffic shall be designed in the plane
• If use of the highway by pedestrians is
of the traveled way. Maintenance paving
expected in areas where sidewalks are not
beyond the edge of shoulder should be treated
to be constructed, new shoulder cross slope
as appropriate for the site, but consideration
and drainage design should accommodate
needs to be given to the added runoff and the
pedestrians and consideration should be
increased water depth on the pavement (see
given to pedestrian and bicycle needs on
discussion in Index 831.4 (5) "Hydroplan-
reconstruction of existing shoulders. This
ing").
decision should involve the local agency
(3) Right Shoulders- In normal tangent sections, and must be consistent with the design
shoulders to the right of traffic shall be guidance provided in Topic 105 and in
sloped at 2% to 5% away from the traveled Design Information Bulletin 82,
way. "Pedestrian Accessibility Guidelines for
The above flexibility in the design of the right Highway Projects" for people with
shoulder allows the designer the ability to disabilities.
conform to regional needs. Designers shall Shoulder slopes for super elevated curves are
consider the following during shoulder cross discussed under Index 202.2.
slope design.
See Index 307.2 for shoulder slopes on 2-lane roads
• In most areas a 5% right shoulder cross with 0.6 m and 1.2 m shoulders.
slope is desired to most expeditiously
remove water from the pavement and to Topic 303 - Curbs, Dikes, and
allow gutters to carry a maximum water
volume between drainage inlets. The Side Gutters
shoulders must have adequate drainage
interception to control the "water spread" 303.1 General Policy
as discussed in Table 831.3 and Index Curb (including curb with gutter pan), dike, and
831.4. Conveyance of water from the total side gutter all serve specific purposes in the design
area transferring drainage and rainwater of the roadway cross section. Curb is primarily
across each lane and the quantity of used for channelization, access control, separation
intercepting drainage shall also be a between pedestrians and vehicles, and to enhance
consideration in the selection of shoulder delineation. Dike is specifically intended for
cross slope. Hydroplaning is discussed in drainage and erosion control where stormwater
Index 831.4 (5). runoff cannot be cost effectively conveyed beyond
• In locations with snow removal operations the pavement by other means. Curb with gutter pan
it is desirable for right shoulders to slope serves the purpose of both curb and dike. Side
away from traffic in the same plane as the gutter is intended to prevent runoff from a cut slope
traveled way. This design permits the on the high side of a superelevated roadway from
snowplowing crew to remove snow from running across the pavement and is discussed
further in Index 834.3.
July 1, 2004
Aside from their positive aspects in performing (h) At separation islands between a freeway
certain functions, curbs and dikes can have and a collector-distributor to provide a
undesirable effects. In general, curbs and dikes positive separation between mainline
should present the least potential obstruction, yet traffic and collector-distributor traffic.
perform their intended function. As operating
(i) Where sidewalk is appropriate.
speeds increase, lower curb and dike height is
desirable. Curbs and dikes are not considered (j) As a tool for traffic calming where
traffic barriers. operating speeds are 65 km/h or less.
On urban and suburban conventional highways (k) To deter vehicular damage of traffic signal
where right of way is costly and/or difficult to standards.
acquire, it is appropriate to consider the use of a Dike is appropriate where controlling drainage is
“closed” highway cross section with curb, or curb not feasible via sheet flow or where it is necessary
with gutter pan. There are also some situations to contain/direct runoff to interception devices. On
where curb is appropriate in freeway settings. The cut slopes, dike also protects the toe of slope from
following criteria describe typical situations where erosion. Dike may also be necessary to protect
curb or curb with gutter pan may be appropriate: adjacent areas from flooding.
(a) Where needed for channelization, The use of curb should be avoided on facilities with
delineation, or other means of improving operating speeds greater than or equal to 75 km/h,
traffic flow and safety. except as noted in Table 303.1. For projects where
(b) At ramp connections with local streets for the use of curb is appropriate, it should be the type
the delineation of pedestrians walkways shown in Table 303.1.
and continuity of construction at a local
facility. 303.2 Curb Types and Uses
(c) As a replacement of existing curb with Depending on their intended function, one of two
gutter pan and sidewalk. general classifications of curb design are selected
as appropriate. The two general classifications are
(d) On frontage roads on the side adjacent to
vertical and sloped. Vertical curbs are actually
the freeway to deter vehicular damage to
nearly vertical (approximate batter of 4:1) and vary
the freeway fence.
in height from 150 to 200 mm. Sloped curbs
(e) When appropriate to conform to local (approximate batter of 1.5:1 or flatter) vary in
arterial street standards. height from 80 to 150 mm.
(f) Where it may be necessary to solve or Sloped curbs are more easily mounted by motor
mitigate operational deficiencies through vehicles than vertical curbs. Since curbs are not
control or restriction of access of traffic generally adequate to prevent a vehicle from
movements to abutting properties or leaving the roadway, a suitable traffic barrier
traveled ways. should be provided where redirection of vehicles is
needed. Where curb is placed to deter vehicles
(g) In freeway entrance ramp gore areas (at the
from intentionally entering the area behind the curb
inlet nose) when the gore cross slope
(e.g., truck offtracking), in most cases the curb will
exceeds standards.
not prevent an errant vehicle from mounting the
curb.
July 1, 2004
Table 303.1
Selection of Curb Type
Operating Speeds (km/h)
Location < 65 > 65 to < 75 > 75
Freeways and Expressways
Collector-distributor Roads
See Index 504.3(11)
Ramps
Conventional Highways
- Frontage Roads (1) A or B-150 B-150 B-100
- Traffic Signals A or B-150 B-150 B-100
- Raised Traffic & Median Islands(2) A or B-150 B-150 B-100 or D
- Adjacent to Sidewalks & A (3) A-150 B-150
Pedestrian Refuge Islands
- Bulb outs/curb extensions A (3) NA NA
- Bridges (4) H, A3, or B3 H or B3 B3
(1) Based on the operating speed along the frontage road.
(2) See Design Information Bulletin Number 80-01, “Roundabouts” for information on curbs at roundabouts.
(3) Type A curb includes types A1-150, A2-150, A1-200, and A2-200.
(4) Type H curb typically used in conjunction with Type A curbs next to sidewalks on approach roadway. Type
A3 curbs typically used with corresponding Type A curbs on median island of approach roadway. Type B3
curbs typically used with corresponding Type B curbs on approach roadway.
Curb with gutter pan may be provided to enhance of vehicles, and to deter vehicular damage of
the visibility of the curb and thus improve traffic signal standards. They may also be
delineation. This is most effective where the used as raised median islands in low speed
adjacent pavement is a contrasting color or environments (operating speed < 65 km/h).
material. B2-100 and B4 curbs are appropriate for These curbs do not constitute a positive
enhancing delineation. Where curb with gutter pan barrier as they can be mounted except at low
is intended as delineation and has no drainage speeds and flat angles of approach.
function, the gutter pan should be in the same plane
(2) Types A1-200, A2-200, and A3-200. These
as the adjacent pavement.
200 mm high curbs may be used in lieu of
The curb sections provided on the Standard Plans 150 mm curbs when requested by local
are approved types to be used as stated below. The authorities, if the curb criteria stated under
following types are vertical curb: Index 303.1 are satisfied and operating speeds
are 65 km/h or less. This type of curb may
(1) Types A1-150, A2-150, and A3-150. These
impede curbside passenger loading and may
curbs are 150 mm high. Their main function
make it more difficult to comply with curb
is to provide a more positive deterrent to
ramp design (see Design Information Bulletin
vehicles than is provided by sloped curb.
Number 82, “Pedestrian Accessibility
Specifically, they are used to separate
Guidelines for Highway Projects”).
pedestrians from vehicles, to control parking
July 1, 2004
(3) Type H Curb. This type may be used on Curbs and gutter pans are cross section elements
bridges with operating speeds less than considered entirely outside the traveled way, see
75 km/h where it is desired to match the Index 301.1.
approach roadway curb. Type H curb is often
Where bicycles are permitted and the shoulder
incorporated into bridge barrier/sidewalk
width is 1.2 m, gutter pan width should be reduced
combination railings (See Index 208.10(4)).
to 0.3 m, so 0.9 m is provided between the traffic
These types are sloped curbs: lane and the longitudinal joint at the gutter pan.
For mandatory requirements regarding drainage
(4) Types B1, B2, and B3 Curbs and Curbs with
inlet grates for bicycles, see Index 1003.6(3).
Gutter Pan. Types B1-150, B2-150, and B3-
150 are 150 mm high. Type B1-100, B2-100, 303.3 Dike Types and Uses
and B3-100 are 100 mm high. Since all have a
1.5:1 slope or flatter on the face, they are Use of dike is intended for drainage control and
mounted more easily than Type A curbs. should not be used in place of curb. Dikes placed
Typical uses of these curbs are for adjoining the shoulder, as shown in Figures 307.2,
channelization including raised median 307.4, and 307.5, provide a paved triangular gutter
islands. B2 curb with gutter pan also serves as within the shoulder area. The dike sections
drainage control. provided on the Standard Plans are approved types
to be used as stated below. Dikes should be
(5) Type B4 Curb. Type B4 curb with gutter pan selected as illustrated in Figure 303.3. Dikes
is 80 mm high and is typically used on ramp should be designed so that roadway runoff is
gores as described under Index 504.3(11). It contained within the limits specified in Index
may also be appropriate where a lower curb is 831.3. For most situations Type E dike is the
desirable. preferred dike type as discussed below.
(6) Type D Curb. Type D curb is 100 or 150 mm (1) Type A Dike. The use of Type A dike should
high and is typically used for raised traffic be avoided. For RRR projects, Type A dike
islands, collector-distributor separation may be used in cut sections with slopes
islands, or raised medians when operating steeper than 1:3 and where existing conditions
speeds equal or exceed 75 km/h. do not allow for construction of the wider
(7) Type E Curb. This essentially is a rolled gutter Type D or E dikes. Compacted embankment
used only in special drainage situations. material should be placed behind the back of
dike as shown in Figure 303.3.
Curbs with gutter pans, along with the shoulder,
may provide the principal drainage system for the (2) Type C Dike. This low dike, 50 mm in height,
roadway. Inlets are provided in the gutter pan or may be used to confine small concentrations
curb, or both. of runoff. The capacity of the shoulder gutter
formed by this dike is small. Due to this
Gutter pans are typically 0.6 m wide but may be 0.3 limited capacity, the need for installing an
to 1.2 m in width, with a cross slope of typically inlet immediately upstream of the beginning
8.33 percent to increase the hydraulic capacity. of this dike type should be evaluated. This
Gutter pan cross slopes often need to be modified low dike can be traversed by a vehicle and
at curb ramps in order to meet accessibility allows the area beyond the surfaced shoulder
requirements. See Design Information Bulletin to be used as an emergency recovery and
Number 82, “Pedestrian Accessibility Guidelines parking area. The Type C dike is the only
for Highway Projects” for accessibility standards. dike that may be used in front of guardrail. In
Warping of the gutter pan should be limited to the such cases, it is not necessary to place
portion within 0.6 to 0.9 m of the gutter flow line to compacted embankment material behind Type
minimize adverse driving effects. C dike.
July 1, 2004
Figure 303.3
(1)
Dike Type Selection and Placement
July 1, 2004
(3) Type D Dike. This 150 mm high dike All dimensions to curbs (i.e., offsets) are from the
provides about the same capacity as the Type near edge of traveled way to face of curb. All
A dike but has the same shape as the Type E dimensions to dikes are from the near edge of
dike. The quantity of material in the Type D traveled way to flow line. Curb and dike offsets
dike is more than twice that of a Type E dike. should be in accordance with the following:
It should only be used where there is a need to
(1) Through Lanes. The offset from the edge of
contain higher volumes of drainage.
traveled way to the face of curb or dike flow
Compacted embankment material should be
line should be no less than the shoulder width,
placed behind the back of dike as shown in
as set forth in Table 302.1.
Figure 303.3. For RRR projects that do not
widen pavement, compacted embankment (2) Channelization. Island curbs used to
material may be omitted on existing fill slopes channelize intersection traffic movements
steeper than 1:3 when there is insufficient should be positioned as described in Index
room to place the embankment material. 405.4.
(4) Type E Dike. This 100 mm high dike provides (3) Separate Turning Lanes. Curb offsets to the
more capacity than the Type C dike. Because right of right turn lanes in urban areas may be
Type E dike is easier to construct than Type D reduced to 0.6 m if design exception approval
dike, and has greater drainage capacity than for nonstandard shoulder width has been
Type C dike, it is the preferred dike type for obtained in accordance with Index 82.2. No
most installations. Compacted embankment curb offset is required to the left of left turn
material should be placed behind the back of lanes in urban areas unless there is a gutter
dike as shown in Figure 303.3. For RRR pan.
projects that do not widen pavement, (4) Median Openings. Median openings (Figure
compacted embankment material may be 405.5) should not be separated with curb
omitted on existing fill slopes steeper than 1:3 unless necessary to delineate areas occupied
where there is insufficient room to place the by traffic signal standards.
embankment material.
(5) Urban Conventional Highways. When the
(5) Type F Dike. This 100 mm high dike is to be posted speed is less than 60 km/h, no median
used where dike is necessary for drainage curb offset is required if there is no gutter pan.
underneath a guardrail installation. This dike
is placed directly under the face of metal beam (6) Bridges and Grade Separation Structures.
guardrail installations. When both roadbeds of a curbed divided
highway are carried across a single structure,
303.4 Side Gutters the median curbs on the structure should be in
the same location as on adjacent roadways.
For information on side gutters, see Index 834.3.
(7) Approach Nose. The approach nose of islands
303.5 Position of Curbs and Dikes should also be designed utilizing a parabolic
flare, as discussed in Index 405.4.
Curbs located at the edge of the traveled way may
have some effect on lateral position and speed of 303.6 Curbs and Dikes on Frontage Roads
moving vehicles, depending on the curb
and Streets
configuration and appearance. Curbs with low,
sloped faces may encourage drivers to operate Continuous curbs or dikes are not necessarily
relatively close to them. Curbs with vertical faces required on all frontage roads. Where curbs or
may encourage drivers to slow down and/or shy dikes are necessary for drainage control or other
away from them and, therefore, it may be desirable reasons, they should be consistent with the
to incorporate some additional roadway width. guidelines established in this topic and placed as
July 1, 2004
shown on Figure 307.4. Local curb standards slopes should be rounded to prevent
should be used when requested by local authorities vehicles from nosing into the ground.
for roads and streets that will be relinquished to
(b) Erosion Control. Slope designs steeper
them.
than 1:4 must be approved by the District
Landscape Architect in order to assure
Topic 304 - Side Slopes compliance with the regulations affecting
Stormwater Pollution contained in the
304.1 Side Slope Standards Federal Clean Water Act (see Index 82.4).
Slope steepness and length are two of the
Slopes should be designed as flat as is reasonable. most important factors affecting the
The factors affecting slope design are as follows: erodability of a slope. Slopes should be
(a) Safety. Flatter slopes provide better designed as flat as possible to prevent
recovery for errant vehicles that have run erosion. However, since there are other
off the road. A cross slope of 1:6 or factors such as soil type, climate, and
flatter is suggested for high speed exposure to the sun, District Landscape
roadways whenever it is achievable. Architecture and the District Stormwater
Cross slopes of 1:10 are desirable. Coordinator must be contacted for erosion
control requirements.
Recoverable slopes are embankment (fill)
slopes 1:4 or flatter. Motorists who (c) Structural Integrity. Slopes steeper than
encroach on recoverable slopes can 1:2 require approval of District
generally stop their vehicles or slow them Maintenance. The Geotechnical Design
enough to return to the traveled way Report (See Topic 113) will recommend a
safely. minimum slope required to prevent slope
failure due to soil cohesiveness, loading,
A slope which is between 1:3 and 1:4 is slip planes and other global stability type
considered traversable, but not failures. There are other important issues
recoverable. Since a high percentage of found in the Geotechnical Design Report
vehicles will reach the toe of these slopes, affecting slope design such as the
the recovery area should be extended consistency of the soil likely to be
beyond the toe of slope. The AASHTO exposed in cuts, identification of the
“Roadside Design Guide” should be presence of ground water, and
consulted for methods of determining the recommendations for rock fall.
preferred extent of the runout area.
(d) Economics. Economic factors such as
Embankment slopes steeper than 1:3 are purchasing right of way, imported borrow,
considered non-recoverable and non- and environmental impacts frequently
traversable. For new construction, play a role in the decision of slope length
widening, or where slopes are otherwise and steepness. In some cases, the cost of
being modified, embankment slopes stabilizing, planting, and maintaining
should be 1:4 or flatter. District Traffic, steep slopes may exceed the cost of
Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual, and the additional grading and right of way to
AASHTO “Roadside Design Guide” provide a flatter slope.
should be consulted for methods of
determining the preferred treatment. (e) Aesthetics. Flat, smooth, well transitioned
slopes are visually more satisfying than
Regardless of slope steepness, it is steep, obvious cuts and fills. In addition,
desirable to round the top of slopes so an flatter slopes are more easily revegetated,
encroaching vehicle remains in contact which provides for a more scenic
with the ground. Likewise, the toe of landscape. Contact District Landscape
July 1, 2004
Architecture when preparing a contour horizontal drains, control of surface erosion, or

grading plan. intercepting falling rocks. Design of the bench
should be compatible with the geotechnical features
In light grading where normal slopes catch in a
of the site.
distance less than 5.5 m from the edge of the
shoulder, a uniform catch point, at least 5.5 m from Benches should be at least 6 m wide and sloped to
the edge of the shoulder, should be used. This is form a valley at least 0.3 m deep with the low point
done not only to improve errant vehicle recovery a minimum of 1.5 m from the toe of the upper
and aesthetics, but also to reduce grading costs. slope. Access for maintenance equipment should
Uniform slopes wider than 5.5 m can be be provided to the lowest bench, and if feasible to
constructed with large production equipment all higher benches.
thereby reducing earthwork costs. In cuts over 45 m in height, with slopes steeper
Transition slopes should be provided between than 1:1.5, a bench above grade may be desirable to
adjoining cuts and fills. Such slopes should intercept rolling rocks. The Office of Structural
intersect the ground at the uniform catch point line. Foundations should be consulted for assistance in
recommending special designs to contain falling
In areas where heavy snowfall can be expected, and/or rolling rocks.
consideration should be given to snow removal
problems and snow storage in slope design. It is Cut widening may be necessary:
considered advisable to use flatter slopes in cuts on (a) To provide for drainage along the toe of
the southerly side of the roadway where this will the slope.
provide additional exposure of the pavement to the
sun. (b) To intercept and store loose material
resulting from slides, rock fall, and
304.2 Clearance From Slope to Right of erosion.
Way Line
(c) For snow storage in special cases.
The minimum clearance from the right of way line
(d) To allow for planting.
to catch point of a cut or fill slope should be 3 m
for all types of cross sections. When feasible, at Where the widened area is greater than that
least 5 m should be provided. required for the normal gutter or ditch, it should be
flush with the edge of the shoulder and sloped
Following are minimum clearances recommended
upward or downward on a gentle slope, preferably
for cuts higher than 10 m:
1:20 in areas of no snow; and downward on a 1:10
(a) 6 m for cuts from 10 m to 15 m high. slope in snow areas.
(b) 7.5 m for cuts from 15 m to 25 m high.
304.4 Contour Grading and Slope
(c) One-third the cut height for cuts above Rounding
25 m, but not to exceed a width of 15 m.
Pleasing aesthetic roadside effects can be
The foregoing clearance standards should apply to developed with smooth flowing contours. Contour
all types of cross sections. grading is an important factor in roadside design,
safe vehicle recovery (see Index 304.1), erosion
304.3 Slope Benches and Cut Widening control, planting, and maintenance of planting and
The necessity for benches, their width, and vertical vegetation. Contour grading plans should be
spacing should be finalized only after an adequate prepared to facilitate anticipated roadside treat-
materials investigation. Since greater traffic ment. These plans should show flattening of slopes
benefits are realized from widening a cut than from where right of way permits.
benching the slope, benches above grade should be
used only where necessary. Benches above grade
should be used for such purposes as installation of
July 1, 2004
The tops and ends of all cut slopes should be Topic 305 - Median Standards
rounded where the material is other than solid rock.
A layer of earth overlying a rock cut also should be
rounded. 305.1 Width
Median width is expressed as the dimension
304.5 Stepped Slopes between inside edges of traveled way, including the
Stepped cut slopes should be used to encourage inside shoulder. This width is dependent upon the
material revegetation from the adjacent plants. type of facility, costs, topography, and right of
Stepped slopes are a series of small benches 0.3 m way. Consideration may be given to the possible
to 0.6 m wide. Generally, stepped slopes can be need to construct a wider median than prescribed in
used in rippable material on slopes 1:2 or steeper. Cases (1), (2), and (3), below, in order to provide
Steps may be specified for slopes as flat as 1:3. for future expansion to accommodate:
Steps are provided to capture loose material, seed, (a) Other modes of transportation.
and moisture. Topsoil should be reapplied to
(b) Traffic needs more than 20 years after
stepped slopes to encourage revegetation.
completion of construction.
For appearance, steps on small cuts viewed from
Any recommendation to provide additional median
the roadway should be cut parallel to the road
width should be identified and documented as early
grade. Runoff is minimized on steps cut parallel to
as possible and must be justified in a Project Study
roads with grades up to 10%, as long as the natural
Report and/or Project Report. Attention should be
ravel from construction is left on the steps. Steps given to such items as initial costs, future costs for
less than one-half full should not be cleaned. outside widening, the likelihood of future needs for
High cuts viewed from surrounding areas should be added mixed flow or High Occupancy Vehicle
analyzed before a decision is made to form steps (HOV) lanes, traffic interruption, future mass
parallel to the roadway or horizontal. In some transit needs and right of way considerations. (For
cases, horizontal steps may be more desirable. instance, increasing median width may add little to
Special study is also necessary when a sag occurs the cost of a project where an entire city block must
in the vertical alignment within the cut. In all cases be acquired in any event.)
at the ends of cuts, the steps should wrap around If additional width is justified, the minimum
the rounded transition. median widths provided below should be increased
The detail or contract special provisions should accordingly.
allow about a 20% variation, expressed in terms of Minimum median widths for the design year (as
millimeters. Some irregularity will improve the described below) should be used in order to
appearance of the slope by making it appear more accommodate the ultimate highway facility (type
natural. and number of lanes):
In designing step width, the material's weathering (1) Freeways and Expressways.
characteristics should be considered. Widths over
approximately 0.6 m should be avoided because of (a) Urban Areas. Where HOV lanes or transit
prominence and excessive time to achieve a facilities are planned, the minimum
weathered and natural appearance. Contact the median width should be 18.6 m. Where
Office of Structural Foundations if questions arise there is little or no likelihood of HOV
about the width of steps. lanes or transit facilities planned for the
future, the minimum median width should
13.8 m. However, where physical and
economic limitations are such that a
13.8 m median cannot be provided at
reasonable cost, the minimum median
July 1, 2004
width for freeways and expressways in down to the limits given below, may be
urban areas should be 10.8 m. allowed with adequate justification. (See
Index 307.5.)
(b) Suburban Areas. The minimum median
width for freeways and expressways in (a) Freeways and Expressways. In areas
suburban areas should be 18.6 m. where restrictive conditions prevail the
Suburban areas can be described as those minimum median width shall be 6.6 m.
where there is a strong possibility that the
(b) Conventional Highways. Median widths
surrounding properties will be converted
should be consistent with requirements for
into urban type development during or
two way left turn lanes or the need to
beyond the design year. The additional
construct median barriers (as discussed in
median width will provide for
Index 305.1(2)), but may be reduced or
construction of mixed flow lanes, HOV
eliminated entirely in extreme situations.
lanes, or transit facilities.
The above stated minimum median widths should
(c) Rural Areas. The minimum median width
be increased at spot locations to accommodate the
for freeways and expressways in rural
construction of bridge piers or other planned
areas should be 18.6 m.
highway features while maintaining standard cross
(2) Conventional Highways. Appropriate median section elements such as inside shoulder width and
widths for non-controlled access highways horizontal clearance. If a bridge pier is to be
vary widely with the type of facility being located in a tangent section, the additional width
designed. In city street conditions the should be developed between adjacent horizontal
minimum median width for multilane curves; if it is to be located in a curve, then the
conventional highways should be 3.6 m. This additional width should be developed within the
median width will provide room for left turn limits of the curve. Provisions should be made for
pockets at intersections, and/or the construc- piers 2 m wide or wider. Median widths in areas of
tion of two way left turn lanes. Where multilevel interchanges or other major structures
medians are provided for proposed future two should be coordinated with the DOS.
way left turn lanes, median widths up to 4.8 m
Consideration should also be given to increasing
may be provided to conform with local agency the median width at unsignalized intersections on
standards (see Index 405.2). In rural areas expressways and divided highways in order to
the minimum median width for multilane provide a refuge area for large trucks attempting to
conventional highways shall be 3.6 m. This cross the State route.
provides the minimum space necessary to
accommodate a median barrier and 1.5 m In any case, the median width should be the
shoulders. Whenever possible, and where it is maximum attainable at reasonable cost based on an
appropriate, this minimum width should be individual analysis of each project.
increased to 9.0 m or greater. See Indexes 603.4 and 604.4 for median structural
At locations where a climbing or passing lane section requirements.
is added to a 2-lane conventional highway, a
1.2 m median (or “soft barrier”) between 305.2 Median Cross Slopes
opposing traffic lanes should be used. Unsurfaced medians up to 20 m wide should be
(3) Facilities under Restrictive Conditions. sloped downward from the adjoining shoulders to
Where certain restrictive conditions, including form a shallow valley in the center. Cross slopes
steep mountainous terrain, extreme right of should be 1:10 or flatter; 1:20 being preferred.
way costs, and/or significant environmental Slopes as steep as 1:6 are acceptable in exceptional
factors are encountered, the basic median cases when necessary for drainage, stage
widths above may not be attainable. Where construction, etc. Cross slopes in medians 20 m
such conditions exist, a narrower median,
July 1, 2004
and wider should be treated as separate roadways See Index 302.1 for shoulder widths and
(Index 305.6). Index 302.2 for shoulder cross slopes.
Paved medians, including those bordered by curbs,
should be crowned at the center, sloping towards Topic 306 - Right of Way
the sides at the slope of the adjacent pavement.
306.1 General Standards
305.3 Median Barriers
The right of way widths for State highways,
See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual. including frontage roads to be relinquished, should
provide for all cross section elements including
305.4 Median Curbs median, traffic lanes, outside shoulders, recovery
See Topic 303 for curb types and usage in medians areas, slopes, outer separations, ramps, walls, and
and Index 405.5(1) for curbs in median openings. other essential highway appurtenances. For
minimum clearance from the right of way line to
305.5 Paved Medians the catch point of a cut or fill slope, see Index
304.2. Fixed minimum widths of right of way,
(1) Freeways. except for 2-lane highways, are not specified
(a) 6 or More Lanes--Medians 9.0 m wide or because dimensions of cross-sectional elements
less should be paved. may require narrow widths, and right of way need
not be of constant width. The minimum right of
(b) 4 Lanes--Medians 6.6 m or less in width
way width on new construction for 2-lane
should be paved. Medians between 6.6 m
highways should be 40 m.
and 9.0 m wide, should be paved only if a
barrier is installed. With a barrier,
306.2 Right of Way Through the Public
medians wider than 9.0 m should not
Domain
normally be paved.
Right of way widths to be obtained or reserved for
Where medians are paved, each half generally
highway purposes through lands of the United
should be paved in the same plane as the
States Government or the State of California are
adjacent traveled way.
determined by laws and regulations of the agencies
(2) Nonfreeways. Unplanted curbed medians concerned.
generally are to be surfaced with 50 mm of
asphalt concrete.
Topic 307 - Cross Sections for
For additional information on median cross
slopes see Index 305.2.
State Highways
305.6 Separate Roadways 307.1 Warrants

(1) General Policy. Separate grade lines are not The selection of a cross section is based upon
considered appropriate for medians less than traffic, terrain, safety, and other considerations.
20 m wide (see Index 204.7). For 2-lane roads the roadbed width is influenced by
the factors discussed under Index 307.2. The
(2) Median Design. The cross sections shown in roadbed width for multilane facilities should be
Figure 305.6 with a 6.9 m graded area left of adequate to provide capacity for the design hourly
traffic are examples of median treatment to volume based upon capacity considerations
provide maneuvering room for out-of-control discussed under Index 102.1.
vehicles. This optional treatment may be used
where extra recovery area is desired (see
Index 307.6).
July 1, 2004
Figure 305.6
Optional Median Design for
Freeways with Separate Roadways
July 1, 2004
307.2 Two-lane Cross Sections for New Table 307.2

Construction Shoulder Widths for Two-lane Roadbed
These standards are to be used for highways on New Construction Projects
new alignment as well as on existing highways Two-way ADT
where the width, alignment, grade, or other Shoulder Width(1)
(Design Year) (m)
geometric features are being upgraded.
A 2-lane, 2-way roadbed consists of a 7.2 m wide Less than 400 (2)
0.6 or 1.2
traveled way plus paved shoulders. In order to
provide structural support, the minimum paved Over 400 2.4
width of each shoulder shall be 0.6 m.
Development and maintenance of 1.2 m paved (1) See Index 1003.2 for shoulder requirements
shoulders should be considered when bicyclists are when bike lanes are present.
present. See Topic 1003 for information on bicycle (2) Bridge width is to be 9.6 m minimum (see
design criteria and Figure 307.2 for typical 2-lane Index 208.1).
cross sections.
Shoulder widths based on design year traffic 307.3 Two-lane Cross Sections for RRR
volumes shall conform to the standards given in Projects
Table 307.2.
Standards and guidelines for two-lane cross
On 2-lane roads with 1.2 m shoulders, the shoulder sections on RRR projects are found in Design
slope may be increased to 7% for additional Information Bulletin Number 79-02 (DIB 79-02),
drainage capacity where a dike is used. With 0.6 m "Geometric Design Criteria for Resurfacing,
shoulders the shoulder slope should be 2% without Restoration, and Rehabilitation (RRR) and Certain
a dike, but may be increased to a maximum of 9% Safety, Storm Damage, Protective Betterment, and
for additional drainage capacity with a dike. Operational Improvement Projects." DIB 79-02
Shoulder widths of 1.2 m or less should be can be found on the HQ Division of Design website
constructed in accordance with the "All Paved under Design Information Bulletins at:
Cross Section" of Figure 307.2 in order to provide http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/dib/dib79-02.htm.
essentially the same structural section throughout The purpose of RRR projects is to preserve and
the full roadbed width. extend the service life of existing highways for a
Minimum width of 2-lane State highways minimum of ten years and enhance highway safety.
functionally classified as collectors may be as DIB 79-02 focuses on geometric design criteria
given in Table V1-4 of "A Policy on Geometric developed for RRR projects. The designer must
Design of Highways and Streets", AASHTO. Up- always emphasize implementation of cost-effective
to-date information on the functional classification safety improvements where practical.
of State highways may be obtained from RRR design criteria apply to all structure and
Headquarters Office of Highway System roadway RRR projects on two-lane conventional
Engineering. highways and three-lane conventional highways
not classified as multilane conventional highways.
RRR design criteria also apply to certain storm
damage, protective betterment, operational, and
safety nonfreeway improvement projects that are
considered spot locations as described in detail in
DIB 79-02.
July 1, 2004
Figure 307.2
Geometric Cross Sections for
Two-lane Highways (New Construction)
July 1, 2004
RRR criteria apply to geometric design features However, a design exception is required except
such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal and where 4-lane passing sections are constructed on 2-
vertical alignment, stopping sight distance, lane highways. Where the roadbed width does not
structure width, cross slope, superelevation, side contain 2.4 m shoulders, emergency parking areas
slope, clear recovery zone, and intersections. They clear of the traveled way should be provided by
may also apply to such features as curb ramps, using daylighted cuts and other widened areas
pavement edge drop, dike, curb and gutter, which develop during construction.
sidewalk, and drainage.
307.6 Multilane Cross Sections for RRR
307.4 Multilane Divided Cross Sections Projects
The general geometric features of multilane divided RRR projects on freeways, expressways, and
cross sections are shown in Figure 307.4. multilane conventional highways are generally
Divided highways may be designed as two separate required to meet new construction standards.
one-way roads where appropriate to fit the terrain. For additional information, see Design Information
Economy, pleasing appearance, and safety are Bulletin Number 79-02, "Geometric Design
factors to be considered in this determination. The Criteria for Resurfacing, Restoration, and
alignment of each roadway may be independent of Rehabilitation (RRR) and Certain Safety, Storm
the other (see Indexes 204.8 and 305.6). Optional Damage, Protective Betterment, and Operational
median designs may be as shown on Figure 305.6. Improvement Projects.”
307.5 Multilane All Paved Cross Sections

with Special Median Widths
Topic 308 - Cross Sections for
Roads Under Other Jurisdictions
A multilane cross section with a narrow median is
illustrated in Figure 307.5. This section is
appropriate in special circumstances where a wider 308.1 City Streets and County Roads
median would not be justified. It should not be The width of local roads and streets that are to be
considered as an alternative to sections with the reconstructed as part of a freeway project should
median widths set forth under Index 305.1. It may conform to AASHTO standards if the local road or
be used under the following conditions: street is a Federal-aid route. Otherwise the cross
(a) Widening of existing facilities. section should match the width of the city street or
county road adjoining the reconstructed portion, or
(b) Locations where large excavation the cross section should satisfy the local agency's
quantities would result if a multilane minimum standard for new construction.
roadway cross section with a basic median
width were used. Examples are steep Where a local facility within the State right of
mountainous terrain and unstable way crosses over or under a freeway or
mountainous areas. expressway but has no connection to the State
facility, the minimum design standards for the
(c) As an alternate cross section on 2-lane cross section of the local facility within the
roads having frequent sight distance State's right of way shall be those found in
restrictions. AASHTO. If the local agency has standards that
The median width should be selected in accordance exceed AASHTO standards, then the local agency
with the criteria set forth in Index 305.1(3). standards should apply.
In general, the outside shoulder should be 2.4 m AASHTO standards for local roads and streets are
wide (3.0 m on freeways and expressways) as given in "A Policy on Geometric Design of
mandated in Table 302.1. Where large excavation Highways and Streets," AASHTO.
quantities or other factors generate unreasonable
costs, 1.2 m shoulders may be considered.
July 1, 2004
Figure 307.4
Freeways and Expressways
July 1, 2004
Figure 307.5
All Paved Multilane Highways
July 1, 2004
It is important to note that "A Policy on Geometric than 1.2 m (shoulder width should not be less than
Design of Highways and Streets," AASHTO, 1.5 m where curbs with 600 mm gutter pans are
standards are based on functional classification and proposed and bicycle use is expected). The
not on a Federal-aid System. minimum width for two-lane overcrossings at
interchanges shall be 12.0 m curb-to-curb.
Chapters 5, 6, and 7 of "A Policy on Geometric
Design of Highways and Streets," AASHTO, 2001,
list standards for the following six functional Topic 309 - Clearances
classes:
• Local rural roads 309.1 Horizontal Clearances
• Local urban streets (1) General. The horizontal clearance to all fixed
• Rural collectors roadside objects including bridge piers,
• Urban collectors abutments, retaining walls, and noise barriers
should be based on engineering judgment with
• Rural arterials the objective of maximizing the distance
• Urban arterials between fixed objects and the edge of traveled
"A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and way. Engineering judgment should be
Streets," AASHTO, gives minimum lane and exercised in order to balance the achievement
shoulder widths. When selecting a cross section, of horizontal clearance objectives with the
the effects on capacity of commercial vehicles and prudent expenditure of available funds.
grades should be considered as discussed under Certain yielding objects, such as sand filled
Topic 102 and in the "Highway Capacity Manual," barrels, metal beam guard rail, breakaway
2000. wood posts, etc. may encroach within the
The minimum width of 2-lane overcrossing clear recovery zone (see Index 309.1(2)).
structures shall not be less than 8.4 m curb to While these objects are designed to reduce the
curb. Also see Index 208.1(2) and Index 307.3. severity of accidents, efforts should be made
to maximize the distance between any object
If the local agency has definite plans to widen the and the edge of traveled way.
local street either concurrently or within 5 years
following freeway construction, the reconstruction Clearances are measured from the edge of the
to be accomplished by the State should generally traveled way to the nearest point on the
conform to the widening planned by the local obstruction (usually the bottom). Horizontal
agency. Stage construction should be considered clearances greater than those cited below
where the planned widening will occur beyond the under subsection (3) - "Minimum
5-year period following freeway construction or Clearances" shall be provided where
where the local agency has a master plan indicating necessary to meet horizontal stopping sight
an ultimate width greater than the existing facility. distance requirements to median barriers,
Where an undercrossing is involved, the initial bridge rails, bridge columns, retaining
structure construction should provide for ultimate walls, cut slopes, and noise barriers. See
requirements. discussion on ".. technical reductions in
design speed .." under Topic 101.
Where a local facility crosses over or under a
freeway or expressway and connects to the State (2) Clear Recovery Zone (CRZ). The roadside
facility (such as ramp terminal intersections), environment can and should be made as safe
the minimum design standards for the cross as practical. A clear recovery zone is an
section of the local facility shall be at least unobstructed, relatively flat (1:4 or flatter) or
equal to those for a conventional highway with gently sloping area beyond the edge of the
the exception that the outside shoulder width traveled way which affords the drivers of
shall match the approach roadway, but not less errant vehicles the opportunity to regain
July 1, 2004
control. The AASHTO “Roadside Design When the planting of trees is being
Guide” provides detailed design guidance for considered, see the additional discussion and
creating a forgiving roadside environment. standards in Chapter 900.
See also Index 304.1 regarding side slopes and
Where compliance with the above stated
Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual.
clear recovery zone guidelines is impracti-
The following clear recovery zone widths are cal, the minimum horizontal clearance cited
the minimum desirable for the type of facility below shall apply to the unshielded fixed
indicated. Consideration should be given to object.
increasing these widths based on traffic
(3) Minimum Clearances. The following
volumes, operating speeds, terrain, and costs
minimum horizontal clearances shall apply
associated with a particular highway facility:
to fixed objects that are closer to the edge
• Freeways and Expressways - 9 m of traveled way than the clear recovery
zone distances listed above:
• Conventional Highways (no curbs) - 6 m
(a) The minimum horizontal clearance to
• Conventional Highways (with curbs)* - fixed objects, such as bridge rails and
0.5 m safety-shaped concrete barriers, on all
* This clear zone is measured from the freeway and expressway facilities,
face of curb to the obstruction. including auxiliary lanes, ramps, and
collector roads, shall be equal to the
Fixed objects closer to the edge of traveled standard shoulder width of the highway
way than the distances listed above should be facility as stated in Table 302.1. A
eliminated, moved, redesigned to be made minimum clearance of 1.2 m shall be
yielding, or shielded in accordance with the provided where the standard shoulder
following guidelines: width is less than 1.2 m. Approach rail
(a) Fixed objects should be eliminated or connections to bridge rail may require
moved outside the clear recovery zone to special treatment to maintain the standard
a location where they are unlikely to be shoulder width.
hit. (b) The minimum horizontal clearance to
(b) If sign posts 150 mm or more in any walls, such as abutment walls, retaining
dimension or light standards cannot be walls in cut locations, and noise
eliminated or moved outside the clear barriers on all freeway and expressway
recovery zone, they should be made facilities, including auxiliary lanes,
yielding with a breakaway feature. ramps and collector roads, shall not be
less than 3.0 m.
(c) If a fixed object cannot be eliminated,
moved outside the clear recovery zone, or (c) On two-lane highways, frontage roads,
modified to be made yielding, it should be city streets and county roads (all
shielded by guardrail or a crash cushion. without curbs), the minimum
horizontal clearance shall be the
Shielding must be in conformance with standard shoulder width as listed in
the guidance found in Chapter 7 of the Tables 302.1 and 307.2, except that a
Traffic Manual. For input on the need for minimum clearance of 1.2 m shall be
shielding at a specific location, consult provided where the standard shoulder
District Traffic. width is less than 1.2 m. For RRR
projects, widths are shown in Table 307.3.
July 1, 2004
On curbed highway sections, a minimum the shoulders of all portions of the

clearance of 1 m should be provided along the roadbed.
curb returns of intersections and near the
(2) Minor Structures. Pedestrian over-crossings
edges of driveways to allow for design vehicle
shall have a minimum vertical clearance
offtracking (see Topic 404). Where sidewalks
0.5 m greater than the standard for major
are located immediately adjacent to curbs,
structures for the State facility in question.
fixed objects should be located beyond the
back of sidewalk to provide an unobstructed Sign structures shall have a vertical
area for pedestrians. clearance of 5.5 m over the roadbed of the
State facility.
In areas without curbs, safety shaped barrier
face should be constructed integrally at the (3) Rural Interstates and Single Routing in Urban
base of any retaining, pier, or abutment wall Areas: This subset of the Interstate System is
which faces traffic and is 4.5 m or less from composed of all rural Interstates and a single
the edge of traveled way (right or left of routing in urban areas, and is a modification to
traffic and measured from the face of wall). what has previously been referred to as the
See Index 1102.2 for the treatment of noise 42 000 km Priority Network. Those routes
barriers. described in Table 309.2B and Figure 309.2
are given special attention in regards to
The minimum width of roadway openings
minimum vertical clearance as a result of
between temporary K-rail on bridge deck
agreements between the FHWA and the
widening projects should be obtained from the
Department of Defense. Vertical clearance
District Permit Engineer. The Regional
for structures on this system shall meet the
Permit Manager should be consulted on the
standards listed above for freeways and
use of the route by overwidth loads.
expressways. In addition to the standards
See Chapter 7 of the Traffic Manual for other listed above, vertical clearances of less than
requirements pertaining to clear recovery 4.9 m over any portion of this system will be
zone, guardrail at fixed objects and subjected to extensive review by FHWA and
embankments, and crash cushions. must be approved by the Military Traffic
Management Command Traffic Engineering
309.2 Vertical Clearances Agency (MTMCTEA) in Washington D. C.
Documentation in the form of a Design
(1) Major Structures.
Exception Fact Sheet must be submitted to
(a) Freeways and Expressways, All construc- FHWA to obtain approval for less than 4.9 m
tion except overlay projects -- 5.1 m shall of vertical clearance. Vertical clearances of
be the minimum vertical clearance over less than 4.9 m over any Interstate will require
the roadbed of the State facility (e.g., FHWA/MTMCTE notification. See Robert L.
main lanes, shoulders, ramps, collector- Buckley’s memo dated March 30, 2000 to
distributor roads, speed change lanes, District Directors for more information on this
etc.). subset of the Interstate system.
(b) Freeways and Expressways, Overlay (4) General Information. The standards listed
Projects -- 4.9 m shall be the minimum above and summarized in Table 309.2A are
vertical clearance over the roadbed of the minimum allowable on the State Highway
the State facility. system for the facility and project type listed.
(c) Conventional Highways, Parkways, and For the purposes of these vertical clearance
Local Facilities, All Projects -- 4.6 m standards, all projects on the freeway and
shall be the minimum vertical clearance expressway system other than overlay projects
over the traveled way and 4.5 m shall shall be considered to be covered by the "new
be the minimum vertical clearance over construction" standard.
July 1, 2004
Table 309.2A
Vertical Clearances
Traveled Way Shoulder

Freeways and Expressways, New Construction,
5.1 m 5.1 m
Lane Additions, Reconstruction and Modification
Freeways and Expressways, Overlay Projects 4.9 m 4.9 m
All Projects on Conventional Highways and Local
4.6 m 4.5 m
Facilities
Sign Structures 5.5 m 5.5 m
Pedestrian and Minor Structures Standard + 0.5 m
See 309.2(2)
Structures on the Rural and Single Interstate
See 309.2(3)
Routing System
July 1, 2004
Figure 309.2
Department of Defense
Rural and Single Interstate Routes
July 1, 2004
Table 309.2B
California Routes on the Rural and Single Interstate Routing System
ROUTE FROM TO
I-5 U. S. Border I-805 just N. of U. S. Border
I-5 I-805 N. of San Diego I-405 near El Toro
I-5 I-210 N. of Los Angeles Oregon State Line
I-8 I-805 near San Diego Arizona State Line
I-10 I-210 near Pomona Arizona State Line
I-15 I-8 near San Diego Nevada State Line
I-40 Junction at I-15 near Barstow Arizona State Line
I-80 I-680 near Cordelia Nevada State Line
I-205 Junction at I-580 Junction at I-5
I-210 I-5 N. of Los Angeles I-10 near Pomona
I-215 I-15 near Temecula I-15 near Devore

At or near south city limits of San Francisco to
I-280 Junction at I-680 in San Jose provide access to Hunter's Point
I-405 I-5 near El Toro Palo Verde Avenue just N. of I-605
I-505 Junction at I-80 Junction at I-5
I-580 I-680 near Dublin Junction at I-5
I-605 I-405 near Seal Beach I-210
I-680 Junction at I-280 in San Jose I-80 near Cordelia
I-805 I-5 just N. of U. S. Border I-5 N. of San Diego

July 1, 2004
When approved by a design exception (see • 7.1 m over the top of rails for non-
HDM Index 82.2) clearances less than the electrified rail systems.
values given above may be allowed on a case
• 7.4 m over the top of rails for existing
by case basis given adequate justification
or proposed 25 kv electrification.
based upon engineering judgment, economic,
environmental or right of way considerations. • 8.0 m over the top of rails for existing
Typical instances where lesser values may be or proposed 50 kv electrification.
approved are where the structure is protected
These clearances include an allowance
by existing lower structures on either side or
for future ballasting of the rail facility.
where a project includes an existing structure
The cost of reconstructing or modifying
that would not be feasible to modify to the
any existing railroad-highway grade
current standard. In no case should vertical
separation structure solely to
clearance be reduced below 4.6 m over the
accommodate electrification will not be
traveled way or 4.5 m over the shoulders over
eligible for Federal-aid highway fund
any portion of a State highway facility.
participation. Where a rail system is not
Efforts should be made to avoid decreasing currently electrified, the railroad must
the existing vertical clearance whenever have a plan adopted which specifies the
possible and consideration should be given to intent to electrify the subject rail segment
the feasibility of increasing vertical clearance within a reasonable time frame in order to
on projects involving structural section provide clearances in excess of 7.1 m.
removal and replacement. Any project that
Any exceptions to the clearances listed above
would reduce vertical clearances below 5.1 m
should be reviewed with the FHWA early in
or lead to an increase in the vertical clearance
the design phase to ensure that they will
should be brought to the attention of the
participate in the structure costs. All excess
Project Development Coordinator, the District
clearances should be documented in the
Permit Engineer and the Regional Permit
project files as to reasons and appropriate
Manager at the earliest possible date.
concurrences.
The Regional Permit Manager should be
informed of any changes (temporary or
309.3 Tunnel Clearances
permanent) in vertical clearance. (1) Horizontal Clearances. Tunnel construction
(5) Federal Aid Participation. Federal-aid is so infrequent and costly that the width
participation is normally limited to the should be considered on an individual basis.
following maximum vertical clearances unless For the minimum width standards for freeway
there are external controls such as the need to tunnels see Index 309.1.
provide for falsework clearance or the vertical Normally, the minimum horizontal clearance
clearance is controlled by an adjacent on freeways should include the full roadbed
structure in a multi-structure interchange: width of the approaches.
(a) Highway Facilities. In one-way tunnels on conventional
highways the minimum side clearance from
• 5.3 m over freeways and expressways.
the edge of the traveled way shall be 1.5 m
• 4.8 m over other highways (4.7 m on the left and 2.0 m on the right. For two-
over shoulders). way tunnels, this clearance shall be 2.0 m
on each side.
• For pedestrian structures, 0.7 m
greater than the above values. (2) Vertical Clearances. The minimum vertical
clearance shall be 4.6 m measured at any
(b) Railroad Facilities.
point over the traveled way and 4.5 m
above the gutter at the curb line. On
July 1, 2004
freeways and expressways, the vertical All curbs, including median curbs, should be
clearance listed in Index 309.2(1)(a) shall be designed with 3.05 m of clearance from the
used. Cost weighed against the probability of track centerline measured normal thereto.
over-height vehicles will be the determining
The principal clearances which affect the
factors.
design of highway structures and curbs are
summarized in Tables 309.5A and B. It
309.4 Lateral Clearance for Elevated
should be noted that collision walls may be
Structures required for the clearances given in Columns
Adequate clearance must be provided for (3) and (4) of Table 309.5B. Usually, no
maintenance, repair, construction, or reconstruction collision walls are required if the clearance
of adjacent buildings and of the structure; to avoid 3.05 m or more on tangent track and 3.35 m or
damage to the structure from a building fire or to more on curved track.
buildings from a vehicle fire; to permit operation of
equipment for fire fighting and other emergency Table 309.5A
teams. The minimum horizontal clearance
between elevated highway structures, such as
Minimum Vertical Clearances
freeway viaducts and ramps, and adjoining Above Highest Rail
buildings or other structures, shall be 4.6 m for
single-deck structures and 6.1 m for double- Type of Operation
deck structures. Spot encroachments on this
Type of Structure Normal No Freight
clearance shall be approved in accordance with
Freight Cars Operated
Index 82.2.
Highway 7.01 m 5.79 m
309.5 Structures Across or Adjacent to overhead and
Railroads other structures
including through
Regulations governing clearances on railroads and
railroad bridges.
street railroads with reference to side and overhead
structures, parallel tracks, crossings of public roads,
highways, and streets are established by the PUC. (2) Off-track Maintenance Clearance. The
(1) Normal Horizontal and Vertical Clearances. 5.49 m horizontal clearance is intended for
Although General Order No. 26-D specifies a sections of railroad where the railroad
minimum vertical clearance of 6.86 m above company is using or definitely plans to use
tracks on which freight cars not exceeding a off-track maintenance equipment. This
height of 4.72 m are transported, a minimum clearance is provided on one side of the
of 7.01 m should be used in design to allow railroad right of way.
for reballasting and normal maintenance of On Federal-aid projects, where site conditions
track. Railroads on which freight cars are not are such that off-track maintenance clearance
operated, should have a minimum vertical at an overpass is obtained at additional cost,
clearance of 5.79 m. In establishing the grade Federal-aid funds may participate in the costs
line, the District should consult the DES to of such overhead designs that provide up to
obtain the depth of structures and false work 5.49 m horizontal clearance on one side of the
requirements, if any (see Index 204.6(4)). track. In such cases, the railroad is required to
At underpasses, General Order No. 26-D present a statement that off-track maintenance
establishes a minimum vertical clearance of equipment is being used, or is definitely
4.27 m above any public road, highway or planned to be used, along that section of the
street. However, the greater clearances railroad right of way crossed by the overhead
specified under Index 309.2 shall be used. structure.
July 1, 2004
Table 309.5B
Minimum Horizontal Clearances to

Centerline of Nearest Track
Curved Track Clearances

(1)
When Space is Limited
Type of Off-track Tangent Track Normal Curved o o
Curves of 0 Curves of 12 or
Structure Maintenance Clearance (1)
Track o more
Clearance to 12
Clearance
Through rail- None (2)(4) (2)(4)
2.44 m 2.74 m
road bridge
Highway over- 5.49 m clear to (4) (4) 2.59 m (3)
2.59 m 2.90 m 2.59 m + 0.013 m
head and other face of pier or (3)
(Min.) per degree of curve.
structures abutment on
side railroad
requires for
equipment road.
Curbs 3.05 m
(1) The minimum, in general, is 0.30 m greater than for tangent track.
(2) With approval of P.U.C.
(3) Greater clearance necessary if walkway is required.
(4) Collision walls may be required. See Index 309.5(1).
July 1, 2004
(3) Walkway Clearances Adjacent to Railroads. it is obtainable at reasonable additional cost, for
All plans involving construction adjacent to example, on an urban highway centered on a city
railroads should be such that there is no block and paralleling the street grid.
encroachment on the walkway adjoining the
In rural areas, other than mountainous terrain, the
track. Walkway requirements are set forth in
outer separation should be a minimum of 12 m
General Order No. 118 of the PUC. Where
wide from edge of traveled way to edge of traveled
excavations encroach into walkway areas, the
way.
contractor is required to construct a temporary
walkway with handrail as set forth in the See Figure 307.4 for cross sections of outer
contract special provisions. separation and frontage road.
(4) Approval. All plans involving clearances
310.3 Headlight Glare
from a railroad track must be submitted to the
railroad for approval as to railroad interests. Care should be taken in design of new frontage
Such clearances are also subject to approval roads to avoid the potential for headlight glare
by the PUC. interfering with the vision of motorists traveling in
opposite directions on the frontage roads and in the
To avoid delays, early consideration must be
outer freeway lanes. The preferred measures to
given to railroad problems when design is
prevent headlight glare interference on new
started on a project.
construction are wider outer separations, revised
alignment and raised or lowered profiles.
Topic 310 - Frontage Roads
310.1 Cross Section

Frontage roads are normally relinquished to local
agencies. When Caltrans and a county or city enter
into an agreement (cooperative agreement, freeway
agreement, or other type of binding agreement), the
CTC may relinquish to the county or city any
frontage or service road or outer highway within
that city or county. The relinquished right of way
(called a collateral facility) should be at least
12.2 m wide and have been constructed as part of a
State highway project, but not as a part of the main
State highway. Index 308.1 gives width criteria for
city streets and county roads. These widths are also
applicable to frontage roads. However, the
minimum paved cross section for urban
frontage roads shall be two 3.6 m lanes with
1.2 m outside shoulders. (See Chapter 1000 for
shoulder requirements when bicycles are present.)
The minimum paved cross section for rural
frontage roads shall be 7.2 m.
310.2 Outer Separation

In urban areas and in mountainous terrain, the
width of the outer separation should be a minimum
of 8 m from edge of traveled way to edge of
traveled way. A greater width may be used where
July 1, 2004
Table 401.3
CHAPTER 400
INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE Vehicle Characteristics Intersection Design
Element Affected
Length Length of storage lane
Topic 401 - Factors Affecting
Width Lane width
Design
Height Clearance to overhead
Index 401.1 - General signs and signals
At-grade intersections must handle a variety of Wheel base Corner radius and width
conflicts among vehicles, pedestrians, and bicycles. of turning lanes
These recurring conflicts, a unique characteristic of Acceleration Tapers and length of
intersections, play a major role in the preparation of acceleration lane
design standards and guidelines. Arriving,
departing, merging, turning, and crossing paths of Deceleration Tapers and length of
moving traffic have to be accommodated within a deceleration lane
relatively small area.
401.2 The Driver Rural intersections in farm areas with low traffic
volumes may have special visibility problems or
The assumption of certain driver skills is a factor in require shadowing of left-turn vehicles from high
intersection design. A driver's perception and speed approach traffic.
reaction time set the standards for sight distance and
length of transitions. 401.5 The Pedestrian
401.3 The Vehicle Pedestrian considerations are an integral part of
intersection design because of their potential
Size and maneuverability of vehicles are factors that conflict with motor vehicles. Such factors include
influence the design of an intersection. pedestrian volumes, their age and physical abilities,
Table 401.3 compares vehicle characteristics to etc. Geometric features which may affect the
intersection design elements. pedestrian should be taken into account. See Topic
105 Pedestrian Facilities and Chapters 6 and 10 of
A design vehicle is a convenient means of the Traffic Manual.
representing a particular segment of the vehicle
population. See Topic 404 for a further discussion 401.6 The Bicyclist
of the uses of design vehicles.
The presence of bicyclists on State routes should be
401.4 The Environment considered early in design. Chapter 1000 gives
information on bikeway planning and design
In highly developed urban areas, street parking, criteria.
pedestrians, and transit buses add to the complexity
of a busy intersection.
Industrial development may require special attention
to the movement of large trucks.
Residential areas may have school children and
bicycles to accommodate (see Indexes 105.1 and
1003.2).
July 1, 2004
Topic 402 - Operational Features Topic 403 - Principles of

Affecting Design Channelization
402.1 Capacity 403.1 Preference to Major Movements

Adequate capacity to handle peak period traffic The provision of direct free-flowing high-standard
demands is a basic goal of intersection design. alignment to give preference to major movements is
good channelization practice. This may require
(1) Unsignalized Intersections. Chapter 10 of the
some degree of control of the minor movements
“Highway Capacity Manual”, gives
such as stopping, funneling, or even eliminating
methodology for capacity analysis of unsignal-
them. These controlling measures should conform
ized intersections controlled by stop or yield
to natural paths of movement and should be
signs. The assumption is made that major
introduced gradually to promote smooth and
street traffic is not affected by the minor street
efficient operation.
movement. Unsignalized intersections
generally become candidates for signalization
403.2 Areas of Conflict
when traffic backups begin to develop on the
cross street. See Chapter 9 of the Traffic Large multilane undivided intersectional areas are
Manual for signal warrants. usually undesirable. The hazards of conflicting
movements are magnified when drivers and
(2) Signalized Intersections. See Topic 406 for
bicyclists are unable to anticipate movements of
analysis of simple signalized intersections,
other traffic within these areas. Channelization
including ramps. The analysis of complex
reduces areas of conflict by separating or regulating
signalized intersections should be referred to
traffic movements into definite paths of travel by the
the District Traffic Branch.
use of pavement markings or traffic islands.
402.2 Accidents Large areas of intersectional conflicts are
characteristic of skewed intersection angles.
(1) General. Intersections have a higher potential
Therefore, angles of intersection approaching 90˚
for conflicts compared to other sections of the
will aid in reducing conflict areas.
highway. At an intersection continuity of
travel is interrupted, traffic streams cross, and
403.3 Angle of Intersection
many types of turning movements occur.
A right angle intersection provides the most
The type of traffic control affects the type of
favorable conditions for intersecting and turning
accidents. Signalized intersections tend to
traffic movements. Specifically, a right angle (90
have more rear enders and same-direction
degrees) provides:
sideswipes than stop-controlled intersections.
The latter tend to have more angle or crossing • The shortest crossing distance for motor
accidents due to a lack of positive control. vehicles, bicycles, and pedestrians.
(2) Undesirable Geometric Features. • Sight lines which optimize corner sight
distance and the abilitiy of drivers to judge
• Inadequate approach sight distance.
the relative position and speed of approach
• Inadequate corner sight distance. vehicles.
• Steep grades. Minor deviations from right angles are generally
• Inappropriate traffic control. acceptable provided that the potentially detrimental
impact on visibility and turning movements for
• Five or more approaches. large trucks (see Topic 404) can be mitigated.
• Presence of curves within intersections. However, large deviations from right angles
may decrease visibility, hamper certain turning
November 1, 2001
operations, and will increase the size of the

intersection and therefore crossing distances for Figure 403.3
bicyclists and pedestrians. When a right angle Angle of Intersection
cannot be provided due to physical constraints, the
interior angle should be designed as close to 90 (Minor Leg Skewed to the Right)
degrees as is practical, but should not be less than
75 degrees. Mitigation should be considered for the
affected intersection design features. (See Figure
403.3). A 75 degree angle does not unreasonably
increase the crossing distance or generally decrease
visibility.
When existing intersection angles are less than 75
degrees, the following retrofit improvement
strategies should be considered:
• Realign the subordinate intersection legs if
the new alignment and intersection
location(s) can be designed without
introducing new geometric or operational
deficiencies. 403.4 Points of Conflict
• Provide acceleration lanes for difficult Channelization separates and clearly defines points
turning movements due to radius or limited of conflict within the intersection. Drivers should
visibility. be exposed to only one conflict or confronted with
• Restrict problematic turning movements; one decision at a time.
e.g. for minor road left turns with
potentially limited visibility.
403.5 Speed-change Areas
For additional guidance on the above and other Speed-change areas for vehicles entering or leaving
improvement strategies, consult the Design main streams of traffic are beneficial to the safety
Reviewer or Traffic Liaison. and efficiency of an intersection. Entering traffic
merges most efficiently with through traffic when
Particular attention should be given to skewed the merging angle is less than 15 degrees and when
angles on curved alignment with regards to sight speed differentials are at a minimum.
distance and visibility. Crossroads skewed to the
left have more restricted visibility for drivers of Speed-change areas for diverging traffic should
vans and trucks than crossroads skewed to the right. provide adequate length clear of the through lanes to
In addition, severely skewed intersection angles, permit vehicles to decelerate after leaving the
coupled with steep downgrades (generally over 4%) through lanes.
can increase the potential for high centered vehicles
to overturn where the vehicle is on a downgrade and
403.6 Turning Traffic
must make a turn greater than 90 degrees onto a A separate turning lane removes turning movements
crossroad. These factors should be considered in from the intersection area. Abrupt changes in
the design of skewed intersections. alignment or sight distance should be avoided,
particularly where traffic turns into a separate
turning lane from a high-standard through facility.
July1, 2004
403.7 Refuge Areas • Restrict undesirable moves with traffic

The shadowing effect of traffic islands may be used islands.
to provide refuge areas for turning and crossing • Coordinate channelization with effective
vehicles. Adequate shadowing provides refuge for a signal control.
vehicle waiting to cross or enter an uncontrolled
• Install signs in traffic islands when neces-
traffic stream. Similarly, channelization also may
sary, but avoid built-in hazards.
provide a safer crossing of two or more traffic
streams by permitting drivers to select a time gap in
403.12 Precautions
one traffic stream at a time.
• Striping is usually preferable to curbed is-
Traffic islands also may serve the same purposes for lands, especially adjacent to high-speed
pedestrians and disabled persons. traffic where curbing can be an obstruction
to out-of-control vehicles.
403.8 Prohibited Turns
• Where curbing must be used, first consid-
Traffic islands may be used to divert traffic streams
eration should be given to mountable curbs.
in desired directions and prevent undesirable
Barrier curbs are usually justified only
movements. Care should be taken that islands used
where protection of pedestrians is a primary
for this purpose accommodate convenient and safe
consideration.
pedestrian crossings, drainage, and striping options.
See Topic 303. • Avoid complex intersections that present
multiple choices of movement to the driver.
403.9 Effective Signal Control
• Traffic safety should be considered.
At intersections with complex turning movements, Accident records provide a valuable guide
channelization is required for effective signal to the type of channelization needed.
control. Channelization permits the sorting of
approaching traffic which may move through the
intersection during separate signal phases. This Topic 404 - Design Vehicles
requirement is of particular importance when traffic-
actuated signal controls are employed. 404.1 Offtracking
Any vehicle whether car, bus, truck, or combination
403.10 Installation of Traffic Control tractor semi-trailer while turning a curve covers a
Devices wider path than the width of the vehicle. The front
Channelization may provide locations for the steering axle can generally follow a circular curve,
installation of essential traffic control devices, such but the following axles (and trailers) will swing
as stop and directional signs. See Index 405.4 for inside toward the center of the curve. Some
information about the design of traffic islands. terminology is vital to understanding the
engineering concepts. Tracking width is the
403.11 Summary distance measured along the curve radius from the
outside front steering tire track to the inside rear tire
• Give preference to the major move(s).
track as they traverse around a curve. Offtracking is
• Reduce areas of conflict. the difference between the tracking width and the
• Cross traffic at right angles or skew no more vehicle axle width. Swept width is the total path
than 75 degrees. (90 degrees preferred.) width needed by the vehicle body to traverse a
• Separate points of conflict. curve. Swept width always exceeds tracking width.
Therefore a swept width is the preferred vehicle
• Provide speed-change areas and separate performance reference for design of tight curves on
turning lanes where appropriate. narrow mountainous roads and tight intersections
• Provide adequate width to shadow turning with obstructions.
traffic.
November 1, 2001 E
Computer software can determine the swept width are in mountainous areas and construction
at any point around a circular curve. An automated areas. On curvilinear alignments, it is
plotter can draw the swept width of vehicle body allowable to utilize the shoulders for off
path for the preparation of a vehicle turn template. tracking. For further discussion and guidance
refer to the current AASHTO publication, “A
Computer aided designs for truck turns plotted
Policy on Geometric Design of Highway and
directly on geometric drawings must utilize curves
Streets.”
with the same radii used to develop the truck turn
templates included in Topic 407. Compound curves (2) California. California statutes limit the overall
or multiple curves with intervening tangents should length of a tractor semi-trailer combination to
not be used. 19.81 m for trucks operating on all highways in
California unless National Network provisions
For lane width requirements for accommodating
apply. The law also limits the kingpin to
offtracking on freeway ramps, see Topic 504.
rearmost axle dimension to 12.19 m for semi-
trailers with two or more axles (11.58 m for
404.2 Design Vehicles
single axle) and the width to 2.6 m.
(1) STAA. The Surface Transportation Assistance
The California Legal Design Vehicle shown in
Act of 1982 (STAA), allows large trucks to
Figure 404.2 is the model for truck-turn
operate on the Interstate and certain Federal
templates to be used on all routes off the
Aid Primary System routes collectively called
National Network and the Terminal Access
the National Network. For guidance refer to
Routes.
the current AASHTO publication, “A Policy
on Geometric Design of Highway and Streets.” (3) Bus. The AASHTO Bus Design Vehicle
Vehicle dimensions are spelled out in federal shown in Figure 404.2 is an AASHTO
law on the maximum length of the semi-trailer standard. Its 7.6 m wheel base and 12.2 m
(14.63 m for single and 8.69 m for double overall length are typical of transit and
semi-trailers) and the maximum width (2.6 m). intercity buses. It is the model for the bus-turn
The truck shown in Figure 404.2 is rep- template to be used under special
resentative of the large tractor semi-trailer circumstances.
combinations allowed on the National Net-
work. 404.3 Turning Templates
The STAA Design Vehicle is the model for (1) General. The truck-turn template is a design
truck-turn templates to be used on the National aid for locating the wheel paths of large
Network, Terminal Access Routes and Service vehicles as they turn through at-grade
Access Routes (STAA Network of Highways). intersections. Consideration should be given to
the overhang of the truck, where the body of
A current map titled "Truck Networks on
the truck slightly extends (approximately
California State Highways" is available
0.6 m) beyond the wheel path. The template is
through the Truck Size Branch of the Division
useful for determining corner radii, for
of Traffic Operations in Headquarters, or
positioning island noses, and for establishing
through the District Traffic Engineer in each
clearance to bridge piers, signal poles, and
District. This map identifies the State highway
other hardware at intersections. Templates can
routes on which defined trucks (STAA or
help determine the width of a channeled
California) can operate.
separate turning lane. Topic 407 illustrates
Consideration to widening the roadway width scaled turning templates for the various design
may be needed when encountering curved vehicles and turning radii.
alignments. Depending on the severity of the
curved alignment, trucks may off-track onto
adjacent or opposing lanes. Some examples
November 1, 2001
Figure 404.2
Design Vehicles
November 1, 2001
(2) STAA Truck. The STAA truck-turn templates Adequate time must be provided for the
should be used in the design of all new waiting vehicle to either cross all lanes of
interchanges and intersections on the National through traffic, cross the near lanes and
Network and on routes leading from the turn left, or turn right, without requiring
National Network to designated service and through traffic to radically alter their
terminal routes. On rehabilitation projects they speed.
should be used at interchanges and
The values given in Table 405.1A provide
intersections proposed as service or terminal
7-1/2 seconds for the driver on the
access routes. In some cases, factors such as
crossroad to complete the necessary
cost, right of way, environmental issues, local
maneuver while the approaching vehicle
agency desires, and the type of community
travels at the assumed design speed of the
being served may limit the use of the STAA
main highway. The 7-1/2 second criterion
templates. In those cases, other appropriate
is normally applied to all lanes of through
templates should be used.
traffic in order to cover all possible
The minimum practical turning radius is 15 maneuvers by the vehicle at the crossroad.
m. However, the 18 m radius develops less However, by providing the standard corner
swept width and may have an advantage. The sight distance to the lane nearest to and
18 m radius should be used in most situations, farthest from the waiting vehicle, adequate
but the 15 m radius is acceptable in restricted time should be obtained to make the
situations. necessary movement. On multilane
highways a 7-1/2 second criterion for the
(3) California Truck. The California truck-turn
outside lane, in both directions of travel,
template should be used in the design of
normally will provide increased sight
highways not on the National Network. The
distance to the inside lanes. Consideration
minimum practical turning radius is 15 m.
should be given to increasing these values
(4) Bus. At intersections where truck volumes are on downgrades steeper than 3% and longer
light or where the predominate truck traffic than 2 km (see Index 201.3), where there
consists of mostly 3-axle and 4-axle units, the are high truck volumes on the crossroad, or
bus turning template may be used. Its wheel where the skew of the intersection
paths sweep a greater width than 3-axle substantially increases the distance traveled
delivery trucks and the smaller buses such as by the crossing vehicle.
school buses, but a slightly lesser width than a
In determining corner sight distance, a set
4-axle truck.
back distance for the vehicle waiting at the
crossroad must be assumed. Set back for
Topic 405 - Intersection Design the driver on the crossroad shall be a
Standards minimum of 3 m plus the shoulder width
of the major road but not less than 4 m.
405.1 Sight Distance Corner sight distance is to be measured
from a 1070 mm height at the location of
(1) Stopping Sight Distance. See Index 201.1 for the driver on the minor road to a 1300 mm
minimum stopping sight distance requirements. object height in the center of the
(2) Corner Sight Distance. approaching lane of the major road. If the
major road has a median barrier, a 600
(a) General--At unsignalized intersections a
mm object height should be used to
substantially clear line of sight should be
determine the median barrier set back.
maintained between the driver of a ve-
hicle waiting at the crossroad and the
driver of an approaching vehicle.
November 1, 2001
In some cases the cost to obtain 7-1/2 (3) Decision Sight Distance. At intersections
seconds of corner sight distances may be where the State route turns or crosses another
excessive. High costs may be attributable State route, the decision sight distance values
to right of way acquisition, building given in Table 201.7 should be used. In
removal, extensive excavation, or computing and measuring decision sight
unmitigable environmental impacts. In distance, the 1070 mm eye height and the 150
such cases a lesser value of corner sight mm object height should be used, the
distance, as described under the following object being located on the side of the inter-
headings, may be used. section nearest the approaching driver.
(b) Public Road Intersections (Refer to Topic The application of the various sight distance
205)--At unsignalized public road intersec- requirements for the different types of intersec-
tions (see Index 405.7) corner sight tions is summarized in Table 405.1B.
distance values given in Table 405.1A
(4) Acceleration Lanes for Turning Moves onto
should be provided.
State Highways. At rural intersections, with
At signalized intersections the values for stop control on the local cross road,
corner sight distances given in Table acceleration lanes for left and right turns onto
405.1A should also be applied whenever the State facility should be considered. At a
possible. Even though traffic flows are minimum, the following features should be
designed to move at separate times, evaluated for both the major highway and the
unanticipated vehicle conflicts can occur cross road:
due to violation of signal, right turns on
• divided versus undivided
red, malfunction of the signal, or use of
flashing red/yellow mode. • number of lanes
Where restrictive conditions exist, • design speed
similar to those listed in Index • gradient
405.1(2)(a), the minimum value for
corner sight distance at both signalized • lane, shoulder and median width
and unsignalized intersections shall be • traffic volume and composition
equal to the stopping sight distance as
given in Table 201.1, measured as • turning volumes
previously described. • horizontal curve radii
(c) Private Road Intersections (Refer to Index • sight distance
205.2) and Rural Driveways (Refer to
Index 205.4)--The minimum corner sight • proximity of adjacent intersections
distance shall be equal to the stopping • types of adjacent intersections
sight distance as given in Table 201.1,
measured as previously described. For additional information and guidance, refer
to the AASHTO publication, “A Policy on
(d) Urban Driveways (Refer to Index 205.3)-- Geometric Design of Highways and Streets”,
Corner sight distance requirements as the Headquarters Traffic Liaison and the
described above are not applied to urban Project Development Coordinator.
driveways.
July 1, 2004
Table 405.1A The District Traffic Branch normally

establishes the need for left-turn lanes.
Corner Sight Distance See "Guidelines for Reconstruction of
(7-1/2 Second Criteria) Intersections," August 1985, published by the
California Division of Transportation
Design Speed Corner Sight Operations.
(km/h) Distance (m)
(2) Design Elements.
40 90
50 110 (a) Lane Width -- The lane width for both
60 130 single and double left-turn lanes on
70 150 State highways shall be 3.6 m. Under
80 170 certain circumstances (listed below), left-
90 190 turn lane widths of 3.3 m or as narrow as
100 210 3.0 m may be used on RRR or other
110 230
projects on existing State highways and on
roads or streets under other jurisdictions
Table 405.1B when supported by an approved design
Application of Sight Distance exception pursuant to Index 82.2. When
considering lane width reductions adjacent
Requirements to curbed medians, refer to Index 303.5 for
Intersection Sight Distance guidance on effective roadway width;
which may vary depending on drivers’
Types Stopping Corner Decision
lateral positioning and shy distance from
Private Roads X X(1) raised curbs.
Public Streets and X X • On high speed rural highways or
Roads moderate speed suburban highways
Signalized X (2) where width is restricted, the minimum
Intersections width of single or dual left-turn lanes
may be reduced to 3.3 m.
State Route Inter- X X X
sections & Route • In severely constrained situations on
Direction low to moderate speed urban highways
Changes, with or where large trucks are not expected,
without Signals the minimum width of single left-turn
lanes may be reduced to 3.0 m. When
(1) Using stopping sight distance between an eye height of 1070 mm
and an object height of 1300 mm. See Index 405.1(2)(a) for setback
double left-turn lanes are warranted
requirements. under these same circumstances the
(2) Apply corner sight distance requirements at signalized intersections width of each lane shall be no less than
whenever possible due to unanticipated violations of the signals or
3.3 m. This added width is needed to
malfunctions of the signals. See Index 405.1(2)(b).
assure adequate clearance between
405.2 Left-turn Channelization turning vehicles.
(1) General. The purpose of a left-turn lane is to (b) Approach Taper -- On a conventional
expedite the movement of through traffic, highway without a median, an approach
control the movement of turning traffic, in- taper provides space for a left-turn lane by
crease the capacity of the intersection, and im- moving traffic laterally to the right. The
prove safety characteristics. approach taper is unnecessary where a
median is available for the full width of the
left-turn lane. Length of the approach
July 1, 2004
taper is given by the formula on Figures may be reduced 15 to 30 km/h for a lower
405.2A, B and C. entry speed. In urban areas where cross
streets are closely spaced and deceleration
Figure 405.2A shows a standard left-turn
lengths cannot be achieved, the District
channelization design in which all
Traffic branch should be consulted for
widening is to the right of approaching
guidance.
traffic and the deceleration lane (see
below) begins at the end of the approach
taper. This design should be used in all
situations where space is available, usually Table 405.2A
in rural and semi-rural areas or in urban Bay Taper for Median
areas with high traffic speeds and/or
volumes.
Speed-change Lanes
Figures 405.2B and 405.2C show alternate
designs foreshortened with the deceleration
lane beginning at the 2/3 point of the
approach taper so that part of the
deceleration takes place in the through
traffic lane. Figure 405.2C is shortened
further by widening half (or other
appropriate fraction) on each side. These
designs may be used in urban areas where
constraints exist, speeds are moderate and
traffic volumes are relatively low.
(c) Bay Taper -- A reversing curve along the
left edge of the traveled way directs traffic
into the left-turn lane. The length of this
bay taper should be short to clearly delin-
eate the left-turn move and to discourage
through traffic from drifting into the left-
turn lane. Table 405.2A gives offset data
for design of bay tapers. In urban areas,
lengths of 18 m and 27 m are normally
used. Where space is restricted and speeds
are low, a 18 m bay taper is appropriate. NOTES:
On rural high-speed highways, a 36 m
(1) The table gives offsets from a base line parallel to the
length is considered appropriate.
edge of traveled way at intervals measured from point
(d) Deceleration Lane Length -- Design speed "A". Add "E" for measurements from edge of traveled
of the roadway approaching the way.
(2) Where edge of traveled way is a curve, neither base line
intersection should be the basis for nor taper between B & C will be a tangent. Use
determining deceleration lane length. It is proportional offsets from B to C.
desirable that deceleration take place en- (3) The offset "E" is usually 0.6 m along edge of traveled
tirely off the through traffic lanes. De- way for curbed medians; Use "E" = 0 m for striped
celeration lane lengths are given in Table medians.
405.2B; the bay taper length is included.
Where partial deceleration is permitted on
the through lanes, as in Figures 405.2B and
405.2C, design speeds in Table 405.2B
July 1, 2004
Table 405.2B turn lanes given under Index 405.2(2) apply to

double as well as single left-turn lanes.
Deceleration Lane Length
The design of double left-turn lanes can be
Design Speed Length to accomplished by adding one or two lanes in the
(km/h) Stop (m) median. See "Guidelines for Reconstruction of
50 75 Intersections", published by Headquarters,
60 94 Division of Traffic Operations, for the various
70 113 treatments of double left-turn lanes.
80 132 (4) Two-way Left-turn Lane (TWLTL). The
90 150 TWLTL consists of a striped lane in the
100 169 median of an arterial and is devised to address
the special capacity and safety problems
(e) Storage Length--At unsignalized inter-
associated with high-density strip develop-
sections, storage length may be based on
ment. It can be used on 2-lane highways as
the number of turning vehicles likely to
well as multilane highways. Normally, the
arrive in an average 2-minute period
District Traffic Operations Branch should
during the peak hour. As a minimum,
determine the need for a TWLTL.
space for 2 passenger cars should be
provided at 7.5 m per car. If the peak hour The minimum width for a TWLTL shall be
truck traffic is 10 % or more, space for one 3.6 m (see Index 301.1). The preferred width
passenger car and one truck should be is 4.2 m. Wider TWLTL's are occasionally
provided. provided to conform with local agency
standards. However, TWLTL's wider than
At signalized intersections, the storage
4.2 m are not recommended, and in no case
length may be based on one and one-half
should the width of a TWLTL exceed 4.8 m.
to two times the average number of vehi-
Additional width may encourage drivers in
cles that would store per signal cycle
opposite directions to use the TWLTL
depending on cycle length, signal phasing,
simultaneously.
and arrival and departure rates. As a
minimum, storage length should be 405.3 Right-turn Channelization
calculated the same manner as (1) General. For right-turning traffic, delays are
unsignalized intersection. The District less critical and conflicts less severe than for
Traffic Branch should be consulted for this left-turning traffic. Nevertheless, right-turn
information. lanes can be justified on the basis of capacity,
When determining storage length, the end analysis, and accident experience.
of the left turn lane is typically placed at In rural areas a history of high speed rear-end
least 1 m, but not more than 10 m, from the accidents may warrant the addition of a right-
nearest edge of shoulder of the intersecting turn lane.
roadway. Although often set by the
placement of a crosswalk stripe or limit In urban areas other factors may contribute to
line, the end of the storage lane should the need such as:
always be located so that the appropriate • High volumes of right-turning traffic
turning template can be accommodated. causing backup and delay on the through
(3) Double Left-turn Lanes. At signalized in- lanes.
tersections on multilane conventional highways • Pedestrians conflicting with right turning
and on multilane ramp terminals, double left- vehicles.
turn lanes should be considered if the left-turn • Frequent rear-end and sideswipe accidents
demand is 300 vehicles per hour or more. The involving right-turning vehicles.
lane widths and other design elements of left-
November 1, 2001
Figure 405.2A
Standard Left-turn Channelization
November 1, 2001
Figure 405.2B
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on one Side of Highway)
November 1, 2001
Figure 405.2C
Minimum Median Left-turn Channelization
(Widening on Both Sides in Urban Areas with Short Blocks)
November 1, 2001
(2) Design Elements. Bay tapers are treated as a mirror image of

the left-turn bay taper.
(a) Lane and Shoulder Width--The basic lane
width for right turn lanes shall be 3.6 m. (c) Deceleration Lane Length--The conditions
Shoulder width shall be a minimum of and principles of left-turn lane deceleration
1.2 m. Whenever possible, consideration apply to right-turn deceleration. Where
should be given to increasing the shoulder full deceleration is desired off the high-
width to 2.4 m to facilitate the passage of speed through lanes, the lengths in Table
bicycle traffic and provide space for 405.2B should be used. Where partial de-
vehicle breakdowns. Although not celeration is permitted on the through lanes
desirable, lane and shoulder widths less because of limited right of way or other
than those given above can be considered constraints, average running speeds in
for right turn lanes under the following Table 405.2B may be reduced 15 to 30
conditions and with the approval of a km/h for a lower entry speed. For
design exception pursuant to Index 82.2. example, if the main line speed is 80 km/h
and a 20 km/h deceleration is permitted on
• On high speed rural highways or
the through lanes, the deceleration length
moderate speed suburban highways
may be that required for 60 km/h.
where width is restricted, consideration
may be given to reducing the lane width (d) Storage Length--Right-turn storage length
to 3.3 m with approval of a design is determined in the same manner as left-
exception. turn storage length. See Index 405.2(2)(e).
• On low to moderate speed roadways in (3) Right-turn Lanes at Off-ramp Intersections.
severely constrained situations, consid- Diamond off-ramps with a free right turn at the
eration may be given to reducing the local street and separate right-turn off-ramps
minimum lane width to 3.0 m with around the outside of a loop will cause
approval of a design exception. problems as traffic volumes increase. Serious
conflicts occur when the right-turning vehicle
• Shoulder widths may also be considered
must weave across multiple lanes on the local
for reduction under constricted
street in order to turn left at a major cross street
situations. Whenever possible, at least
close to the ramp terminal. Also, rear-end
a 0.6 m offset should be provided where
accidents can occur as right-turning drivers
the right turn lane is adjacent to a curb.
slow down or stop waiting for a gap in local
Entire omission of the shoulder should
street traffic. Free right turns usually end up
only be considered in the most severely
with yield, stop, or signal controls thus de-
constricted situations and where an
feating their purpose of increasing intersection
3.3 m lane can be constructed. Gutter
capacity.
pans can be included within a shoulder,
but cannot be included as part of the Free right turns should generally be avoided
lane width. unless there is room for a generous
acceleration lane or a lane addition on the local
Additional right of way for a future right-
street. See Index 504.3(2) for additional
turn lane should be considered when an
information.
intersection is being designed.
(b) Tapers--Approach tapers are usually un- 405.4 Traffic Islands
necessary since main line traffic need not
A traffic island is an area between traffic lanes for
be shifted laterally to provide space for the
control of vehicle movements or for pedestrian
right-turn lane. If, in some rare instances,
refuge. An island may be designated by paint,
a lateral shift were needed, the approach
raised pavement markers, curbs, pavement edge, or
taper would use the same formula as for a
left-turn lane.
July 1, 2004
other devices. Examples of traffic island designs Figure 405.4

are shown on Figure 405.4.
Traffic islands usually serve more than one function, Traffic Island Designs
but may be generally classified in three separate
types:
(a) Channelizing islands which are designed to
confine specific traffic movements into
definite channels;
(b) Divisional islands which serve to separate
traffic moving in the same or opposite di-
rection; and
(c) Refuge islands to aid and protect
pedestrians crossing the roadway. If a
divisional island is located in an urban area
where pedestrians are present, portions of
each island can be considered a refuge is-
land. (2) Delineation of Traffic Islands. Generally,
islands should present the least potential
Traffic islands are also used to discourage or conflict to approaching vehicles and yet
prohibit undesirable movements. perform their intended function. When curbs
(1) Design of Traffic Islands. Island sizes and are used, Type B is preferable except where a
shapes vary from one intersection to another. Type A curb is needed for traffic control or
They should be large enough to command pedestrian refuge (see Index 303.2). Islands
attention. Channelizing islands should not be may be designated as follows:
2 2
less than 5 m in area, preferably 7 m . Curbed, (a) Raised paved areas outlined by curbs.
elongated divisional islands should not be less
than 1.2 m wide and 6 m long. (b) Flush paved areas outlined by pavement
markings.
The approach end of each island should be
offset 1 m to the left and 1.5 m to the right of (c) Unpaved areas (small unpaved areas
approaching traffic, using standard 1:15 should be avoided).
parabolic flares, and clearly delineated so that On facilities with speeds over 75 km/h, the use
it does not surprise the motorist. These offsets of any type of curb is discouraged. Where
are in addition to the normal 0.6 m left and 2.4 curbs are to be used, they should be located at
m right shoulder widths. Table 405.4 gives or outside of the shoulder edge, as discussed in
standard parabolic flares to be used in island Index 303.5.
design. On curved alignment, parabolic flares
may be omitted for small triangular traffic In rural areas, painted channelization sup-
islands whose sides are less than 7.5 m long. plemented with raised pavement markers
would be more appropriate than a raised
The approach nose of a divisional island curbed channelization. The design is as
should be highly visible day and night with forgiving as possible and decreases the
appropriate use of signs (reflectorized or consequence of a driver's failure to detect or
illuminated) and object markers. The approach recognize the curbed island.
nose should be offset 1 m from the through
traffic to minimize accidental impacts.
November 1, 2001
Table 405.4
Parabolic Curb Flares Commonly Used
OFFSET IN METERS FOR GIVEN "X" DISTANCE

Distance 2 4 5 8 10 12 15 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 45
L X
Length
of Flare
1:5 FLARES
5 00.16 0.64 1.00
10 00.08 0.32 0.50 1.28 2.00
15 00.05 0.21 0.33 0.85 1.33 1.92 3.00
1:10 FLARES
10 00.04 1.06 0.25 0.64 1.00
20 0.02 0.08 0.13 0.32 0.50 0.72 1.13 1.28 1.62 2.00
30 00.01 0.05 0.08 0.21 0.33 0.48 0.75 0.85 1.08 1.33 1.61 1.92 2.25 2.61 3.00
1:15 FLARES
15 00.02 0.07 0.11 0.28 0.44 0.64 1.00
30 00.01 0.04 0.06 0.14 0.22 0.32 0.50 0.57 0.72 0.89 1.08 1.28 1.50 1.74 2.00
45 00.01 0.02 0.04 0.09 0.15 0.21 0.33 0.38 0.48 0.59 0.72 0.85 1.00 1.16 1.33 1.52 1.71 1.92 3.00
November 1, 2001
In urban areas, speeds less than 75 km/h allow is the path of the design vehicle making a
more frequent use of curbed islands. Local minimum left turn at 8 to 15 km/h. The length
agency requirements and matching existing of median opening varies with width of
conditions are factors to consider. median and angle of intersecting road.
Usually a median opening of 18 m is adequate
405.5 Median Openings
for 90 degree intersections with median
(1) General. Median openings, sometimes called widths of 6.6 m or greater. When the median
crossovers, provide for vehicular crossings of width is less than 6.6 m, a median opening of
the median at designated locations. Except for 21 m is needed. When the intersection angle
emergency passageways in a median barrier, is other than 90 degrees, the length of median
median openings are not allowed on urban opening should be established by using truck
freeways. turn templates (see Index 404.3).
Median openings on expressways or divided (4) Cross Slope. The cross slope in the median
conventional highways should not be curbed opening should be limited to 5%. Crossovers
except when the median between openings is on curves with super elevation exceeding 5%
curbed, or it is necessary for delineation or for should be avoided. This cross slope may be
protection of traffic signal standards and other exceeded when an existing 2-lane roadbed is
necessary hardware. In these special cases B4 converted to a 4-lane divided highway. The
curbs should be used. An example of a elevation of the new construction should be
median opening design is shown on Figure based on the 5% cross slope requirement
405.5. when the existing roadbed is raised to its
ultimate elevation.
(2) Spacing and Location. By a combination of
interchange ramps and emergency (5) References. For information related to the
passageways, provisions for access to the design of intersections and median openings,
opposite side of the freeway may be provided "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
for law enforcement, emergency, and and Streets," AASHTO, should be consulted.
maintenance vehicles to avoid extreme out-of-
direction travel. Access should not be more 405.6 Access Control
frequent than at 5 km intervals. See Chapter 7
The basic principles which govern the extent to
of the Traffic Manual for additional informa-
which access rights are to be acquired at
tion on the design of emergency passageways.
interchanges (see Index 205.1 and 504.8) also
Emergency passageways should be located
apply to intersections at grade on expressways.
where decision sight distance is available (see
Cases of access control which frequently occur at
Table 201.7).
intersections are shown in Figure 405.7. This
Median openings at close intervals on other illustration does not presume to cover all situations.
types of highways create interference with fast Where required by traffic conditions, access taking
through traffic. Median openings should be should be extended in order to ensure proper
spaced at intervals no closer than 500 m. If operation of the expressway lanes. Reasonable
a median opening falls within 100 m of an variations which observe the basic principles
access opening, it should be placed opposite referred to above are acceptable.
the access opening.
(3) Length of Median Opening. For any three or
four-leg intersection on a divided highway,
the length of the median opening should be at
least as great as the width of the crossroads
pavement, median width, and shoulders. An
important factor in designing median openings
November 1, 2001
Figure 405.5
Typical Design for Median Openings
July 1, 2004
width, the number of lanes on the intersecting

405.7 Public Road Intersections
street, and the number of pedestrians.
The basic design to be used at right-angle public
At urban intersections, the California truck or the
road intersections on the State Highway System is
Bus Design Vehicle template may be used to
shown in Figure 405.7. The essential elements are
determine the corner radius. Where STAA truck
sight distance (see Index 405.1) and the treatment
access is anticipated, the STAA Design Vehicle
of the right-turn on and off the main highway.
template may be used giving consideration to
Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes by the
factors mentioned above. (See Index 404.3.)
turning vehicle should be avoided or minimized.
Smaller radii of 5 to 8 m are appropriate at minor
(1) Right-turn Onto the Main Highway. The
cross streets where few trucks are turning. Local
combination of a circular curve joined by a
agency standards may be appropriate in urban and
2:1 taper on the crossroads and a 22.5 m taper
suburban areas.
on the main highway is designed to fit the
wheel paths of the appropriate turning Encroachment into opposing traffic lanes should be
template chosen by the designer. avoided.
It is desirable to keep the right turn as tight as
405.9 Widening of 2-lane Roads at
practical, so the stop or yield sign on the
Signalized Intersections
minor leg can be placed close to the inter-
section. Two-lane state highways may be widened at
intersections to 4-lanes whenever signals are
(2) Right-turn Off the Main Highway. The
installed. Sometimes it may be necessary to widen
combination of a circular curve joined by a 45
the intersecting road. The minimum design is
m taper on the main highway and a 4:1 taper
shown in Figure 405.9. More elaborate treatment
on the crossroads is designed to fit the wheel
may be warranted by the volume and pattern of
paths of the appropriate turning template and
traffic movements. Unusual turning movement
to move the rear of the vehicle off the main
patterns may possibly call for a different shape of
highway. Deceleration and storage lanes may
widening.
be provided when necessary (see Index
405.3).
(3) Alternate Designs. Offsets are given in Figure
Topic 406 - Ramp Intersection
405.7 for right angle intersections. For skew Capacity Analysis
angles, roadway curvature, and possibly other
reasons, variations to the right-angle design The following procedure for ramp intersection
are permitted, but the basic rule is still to analysis may be used to estimate the capacity of
approximate the wheel paths of the design any signalized intersection where the phasing is
vehicle. relatively simple. It is useful in analyzing the need
for additional turning and through traffic lanes.
A three-center curve is an alternate treatment
that may be used at the discretion of the (a) Ramp Intersection Analysis--For the
designer. typical local street interchange there is
usually a critical intersection of a ramp
405.8 City Street Returns and Corner Radii and the crossroads that establishes the
capacity of the interchange. The capacity
The pavement width and corner radius at city street of a point where lanes of traffic intersect
intersections is determined by the type of vehicle to is 1500 vehicles per hour. This is
be accommodated taking into consideration the expressed as intersecting lane vehicles per
amount of available right of way, the roadway hour (ILV/hr). Table 406 gives values of
ILV/hr for various traffic flow conditions.
November 1, 2001
Figure 405.7
Public Road Intersections
November 1, 2001
Figure 405.9
Widening of Two-lane Roads at Signalized Intersections
November 1, 2001
If a single-lane approach at a normal

intersection has a demand volume of 1000 Table 406
vph, for example, then the intersecting
single-lane approach volume cannot Traffic Flow Conditions at
exceed 500 vph without delay. Intersections at Various Levels
The three examples that follow illustrate of Operation
the simplicity of analyzing ramp intersec-
tions using this 1500 ILV/hr concept.
(b) Diamond Interchange--The critical inter- ILV/hr Description
section of a diamond type interchange
must accommodate demands of three con-
flicting travel paths. As traffic volumes < 1200:
approach capacity, signalization will be Stable flow with slight, but acceptable delay.
needed. For the spread diamond (Figure Occasional signal loading may develop. Free
406A), basic capacity analysis is made on midblock operations.
the assumption that 3-phase signalization
is employed. For the tight diamond 1200-1500:
(Figure 406B), it is assumed that 4-phase Unstable flow with considerable delays possible.
signal timing is used. Some vehicles occasionally wait two or more
(c) 2 Quadrant Cloverleaf--Because this inter- cycles to pass through the intersection. Continuous
change design (Figure 406C) permits 2- backup occurs on some approaches.
phase signalization, it will have higher ca- 1500 (Capacity):
pacities on the approach roadways. The
critical intersection is shared two ways in- Stop-and-go operation with severe delay and heavy
stead of three ways as in the diamond congestion(1). Traffic volume is limited by
case. maximum discharge rates of each phase.
Continuous backup in varying degrees occurs on all
approaches. Where downstream capacity is
restrictive, mainline congestion can impede orderly
discharge through the intersection.
(1) The amount of congestion depends on how much
the ILV/hr value exceeds 1500. Observed flow rates
will normally not exceed 1500 ILV/hr, and the excess
will be delayed in a queue.
November 1, 2001
Figure 406A
Spread Diamond
November 1, 2001
Figure 406B
Tight Diamond
November 1, 2001
Figure 406C
Two-quadrant Cloverleaf
November 1, 2001 E
• Figure 407E is the template for the

Topic 407 - Truck and Bus AASHTO Bus Design Vehicle turning on a
Turning Templates 12.8-meter radius.
Figures 407A through E are turning templates at an

approximate scale of 1:500 for the three types of
design vehicles described in Topic 404. A
computer model of truck offtracking generated
these “hard copy” templates. The printed templates
can be used as overlays to evaluate the adequacy of
the geometric layout of a curve when reproduced
on clear film and scaled to match the highway
drawings. The lines on the template delineate the
path of the wheels and the body of the vehicle as
the truck moves through the turn. These lines must
clear any “obstacles” including curbs, islands,
adjacent lanes, sign structures, traffic delineators,
traffic signal and lighting poles, guardrails, trees
and rock outcrops.
If any "obstacles" are encroached by the vehicle
path on the template, then an alternative design is
needed. If the wheel paths stay within the roadbed
without "hitting" any obstacles, then the geometry
is adequate for that design vehicle.
See Topic 404 for information on the design
vehicles. A 15-meter and 18-meter radius template
is given for each of the STAA and California Legal
Design vehicles. The radius of the template is
measured to the outside front wheel path through
the curve. The 18-meter radius template is more
conservative and is preferred. The 18-meter radius
template requires less right of way on the inside of
the curve, and it leaves a margin of error for the
truck driver. The 18-meter radius template should
be used for conditions where the vehicle may not
be required to stop before entering the intersection.
The 15-meter radius template can be used if the 18-
meter radius template does not clear all obstacles.
A 15-meter radius is the minimum radius that a
STAA or California Design Vehicle can navigate.
• Figures 407A and B are templates for the
STAA Design Vehicle turning on 15-
meter and 18-meter radii, respectively.
• Figures 407C and D are templates for the
California Design Vehicle turning on 15-
meter and 18-meter radii, respectively.
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 407A
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks
15 m Radius
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 407B
STAA Semitrailer Wheel Tracks
18 m Radius
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 407C
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks
15 m Radius
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 407D
California Semitrailer Wheel Tracks - 18 m Radius
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 407E
Bus Wheel Tracks - 12.8 m Radius
November 1, 2001
following: the speed, volume, and composition of

CHAPTER 500 traffic to be served, the number of intersecting legs,
the standards and arrangement of the local street
TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES system including traffic control devices,
topography, right of way controls, local planning,
proximity of adjacent interchanges, community
Topic 501 - General impact, and cost. Even though interchanges are, of
necessity, designed to fit specific conditions and
Index 501.1 - Concepts controls, it is desirable that the pattern of
A traffic interchange is a combination of ramps and interchange ramps along a freeway follow some
grade separations at the junction of two or more degree of consistency. It is frequently desirable to
highways for the purpose of reducing or eliminating rearrange portions of the local street system in
traffic conflicts, to improve safety, and increase connection with freeway construction in order to
traffic capacity. Crossing conflicts are eliminated effect the most desirable overall plan of traffic
by grade separations. Turning conflicts are either service and community development.
eliminated or minimized, depending upon the type Interchange types are characterized by the basic
of interchange design. shapes of ramps: namely, diamond, loop,
directional, hook, or variations of these types.
501.2 Warrants Many interchange designs are combinations of these
All connections to freeways are by traffic basic types. Schematic interchange patterns are
interchanges. An interchange or separation may be illustrated in Figure 502.2 and Figure 502.3. These
warranted as part of an expressway (or in special are classified as: (a) Local street interchanges and
cases at the junction of two non-access controlled (b) Freeway-to-freeway interchanges. See Chapter
highways), to improve safety or eliminate a X of "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways
bottleneck, or where topography does not lend itself and Streets," AASHTO, for additional examples.
to the construction of an intersection.
502.2 Local Street Interchanges
501.3 Spacing The use of isolated off ramps or partial inter-
The minimum interchange spacing shall be 1.5 changes should be avoided because of the potential
km in urban areas, 3.0 km in rural areas, and 3.0 for wrong-way movements and added driver
km between freeway-to-freeway interchanges confusion. In general, interchanges with all ramps
and local street interchanges. To improve connecting with a single cross street are preferred.
operations of closely spaced interchanges the use of (a) Diamond Interchange--The simplest form
auxiliary lanes, grade separated ramps, collector of interchange is the diamond. Diamond
distributor roads, and/or ramp metering may be interchanges provide a high standard of
warranted. ramp alignment, direct turning maneuvers
See Design Information Bulletin No. 77 for at the crossroads, and usually have
additional information on interchange spacing, minimum construction costs. The diamond
including the procedural and documentation type is adaptable to a wide range of traffic
requirements to be fulfilled prior to requesting an volumes. The capacity is limited by the
exception to the above standards. capacity of the intersection of the ramps at
the crossroad. This capacity may be
increased by widening the ramps to two or
Topic 502 - Interchange Types three lanes at the crossroad and by
widening the crossroad in the intersection
502.1 General area. Crossroad widening will increase
the length of under-crossings and the
The selection of an interchange type and its design width of over-crossings, thus adding to the
are influenced by many factors including the
November 1, 2001
Figure 502.2
Typical Local Street Interchanges
November 1, 2001
Figure 502.2
Typical Local Street Interchanges
(continued)
November 1, 2001
bridge cost. Ramp intersection capacity intersection should exceed 50 m and a

analysis is discussed in Topic 406. tangent of at least 50 m should be provided
between the last curve on the ramp and the
The compact diamond (Type L-1) is most
ramp terminal. Special attention should
adaptable where the freeway is depressed
always be given to exit ramps that end in a
or elevated and the cross street retains a
hook to ensure that adequate sight distance
straight profile. Type L-1's are suitable
around the curve, deceleration prior to the
where physical, geometric or right of way
curve or end of anticipated queue, and
restrictions do not permit a spread diamond
adequate superelevation for anticipated
configuration.
driving speeds can be developed.
The spread diamond (Type L-2) is
(c) Cloverleaf Interchanges--The simplest
adaptable where the grade of the cross
cloverleaf interchange is the two-quadrant
street is changed to pass over or under the
cloverleaf, Type L-7 or Type L-8, or a
freeway. The ramp terminals are spread in
combination where the two loops are on
order to achieve maximum sight distance
the same side of the cross street. Type L-7
and minimum intersection cross slope,
eliminates the need for left-turn storage
commensurate with construction and right
lanes, on or under the structure, thus
of way costs, travel distance, and general
reducing the structure costs. These
appearance. A spread diamond has the
interchanges should be used only in
advantage of flatter ramp grades, greater
connection with controls which preclude
crossroads left-turn storage capacity, and
the use of diamond ramps in all four
the flexibility of permitting the
quadrants. These controls include right of
construction of future loop ramps if
way controls, a railroad track paralleling
required.
the cross street, and a short weaving
The split diamond with braids (Type L-3) distance to the next interchange.
may be appropriate where two major
The Type L-9, partial cloverleaf
crossroads are closely spaced.
interchange, provides loop on-ramps in
(b) Interchanges with Parallel Street Systems-- addition to the four diamond-type ramps.
Types L-4, L-5 and L-6 are interchange This interchange is suitable for large
systems used where the freeway alignment volume turning movements. Left-turn
is placed between parallel streets. Types movements from the crossroads are
L-4 and L-5 are used where the parallel eliminated, thereby permitting two-phase
streets will operate with one-way traffic. operation at the ramp intersections when
In Type L-4 slip ramps merge with the signalized. Because of this feature, the
frontage street and in Type L-5 the ramps Type L-9 interchange usually has capacity
terminate at the intersection of the frontage to handle the volume of interchange traffic
road with the cross street, forming five- which can be accommodated on the
legged intersections. In Type L-6 the crossroads.
freeway ramps connect with two-way
The four-quadrant cloverleaf interchange
parallel streets. The parallel streets in the
(Type L-10) has free-flow characteristics
Types L-4, L-5 and L-6 situation are
for all movements. It has the disadvantage
usually too close to the freeway to permit
of a higher cost than a diamond or partial
ramp intersections on the cross street
cloverleaf design and a relatively short
between the parallel frontage streets.
weaving section between the loop ramps
The "hook" ramps of the Type L-6 are which limits capacity. Collector-
often forced into tight situations that lead distributor roads should be incorporated in
to less than desirable geometrics. The the design of four-quadrant cloverleaf
radius of the curve at the approach to the
November 1, 2001
interchanges to separate the weaving segments together so as to provide the

conflicts from the through freeway traffic. optimum highway system. Parameters such as
cost, environment, community values, traffic
(d) Trumpet Interchanges--A trumpet design,
volumes, route continuity, map relatability, and
Type L-11 or L-12, may be used when a
safety should all be considered. Both the sign
crossroads terminates at a freeway. This
route and the major traffic volume should be to
design should not be used if future
the left at a freeway-to-freeway interchange, if
extension of the crossroads is probable.
possible.
The diamond interchange is preferable if
future extension of the crossroads is (2) Design Considerations.
expected.
(a) Cost--The differential cost between
(e) Single Point Interchange (SPI)--The Type interchange types is often significant. A
L-13 is a concept which essentially cost-effective approach will tend to assure
combines two separate diamond ramp that an interchange is neither over nor
intersections into one large at-grade underdesigned. Decisions as to the relative
intersection. It is also known as an urban values of the previously mentioned
interchange. Detailed information on parameters must be consistent with
SPI’s is provided in the Single Point decisions reached on adjacent main line
Interchange Planning, Design and freeways.
Operational Guidelines (SPI Guidelines),
(b) System Balance--The freeway-to-freeway
originally issued by memorandum on June
interchange is a critical link in the total
15, 2001. Per the SPI Guidelines, the
freeway system. The level of traffic
Project Development Coordinator and the
service provided will have impact upon the
Traffic Liaison must approve the SPI
mobility and overall effectiveness of the
concept.
entire roadway system. For instance,
Type L-13 requires approximately the same traffic patterns will adjust to avoid
right of way as the compact diamond. repetitive bottlenecks, and to the greatest
However, the construction cost is degree possible, to temporary closures,
substantially higher due to the structure accidents, etc. The freeway-to-freeway
requirements. The capacity of the L-13 interchange should provide flexibility to
can exceed that of a compact diamond if respond to these needs so as to maximize
long signal times can be provided and left the cost effectiveness of the total system.
turning volumes are balanced.
(c) Elimination of Connections--Freeway-to-
This additional capacity may be offset if freeway interchanges need not include all
nearby intersection queues interfere with possible turning movements. Connections
weaving and storage between intersections. serving minor traffic volumes or
The disadvantages of the L-13 are: 1) significantly out-of-direction traffic move-
Future expansion of the interchange is ments should be omitted unless it can be
extremely difficult; 2) Stage construction demonstrated that traffic service and other
for retrofit situations is costly; 3) Long benefits justify the costs. Considerations
structure spans require higher than normal include:
profiles and deeper structure depths; and 4)
• Traffic volumes--Turning traffic
Poor bicycle and pedestrian circulation.
volumes may be nominal or a small
percentage of the total interchanging
502.3 Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges traffic.
(1) General. The function of the freeway-to- • Circuitry--Connections may only serve
freeway interchange is to link freeway significantly out-of-direction traffic
movements.
November 1, 2001
• Freeway location--Where three Combinations of local and freeway-to-

freeways cross so as to form a freeway interchanges can result in designs
relatively small triangle, the omission that are both costly and so complex that the
of the backward freeway-to-freeway important design concepts of simplicity
connections from one leg of the and consistency are compromised.
triangle to another may have little Therefore, alternate plans separating local
negative impact on local or through and freeway-to-freeway interchanges
traffic service. should be fully explored. Less than
desirable local interchange spacing may
• Use of local streets--Low turning
result; however, this may be compensated
volumes may be accommodated
for by upgrading the adjacent local
reasonably well by way of local
interchanges and street system.
interchanges and the local street
system. There may be both traffic Local traffic service interchanges should
operational advantages and economic not be located within freeway-to-freeway
savings from utilizing and improving interchanges unless geometric standards
this local system in lieu of providing and level of service will be substantially
the freeway-to-freeway connections. maintained.
• Staging--Staging possibilities should (e) Alignment--It is not considered practical to
be thoroughly assessed. Provisions establish fixed freeway-to-freeway
should be made for adding or interchange alignment standards. An
upgrading ramps and connectors at a interchange must be designed to fit into its
later time. For example, an initial loop environment. Alignment is often
ramp might be later upgraded to direct controlled by external factors such as
connector. terrain, buildings, street patterns, route
• Effect on other traffic movements-- adoptions, and community value
Provision of minor movements may be considerations. Normally, loops have radii
detrimental to traffic operation on in the range of 50 m to 65 m and direct
major branch connections and the main connections should have minimum radii of
line freeways. 260 m. Larger radii may be proper in
situations where the skew or other site
• Costs--All construction and right of conditions will result in minimal increased
way savings and costs attributable to costs. Direct connection radii of at least
the elimination of turning movements 350 m are desirable from a traffic
should be considered. This includes operational standpoint. High alignment
possible additional local interchange and sight distance standards should be
and street costs as well as reductions in provided where possible.
the freeway-to-freeway interchange
costs. Drivers have been conditioned to expect a
certain standard of excellence on
• Signing--Freeway-to-freeway traffic
California freeways. The designer's
may be signed via the local street
challenge is to provide the highest possible
system. Routes should be sufficiently
standards consistent with cost and level of
direct and well oriented to insure that
service.
the unfamiliar driver can follow them.
(d) Local Traffic Service--In metropolitan (3) Types. Several freeway-to-freeway inter-
areas a freeway-to-freeway interchange is change design configurations are shown on
usually superimposed over an existing Figure 502.3. Many combinations and
street system. Local and through traffic variations may be formed from these basic
requirements are often in conflict. interchange types.
November 1, 2001
(a) Four-Level-Interchange--Direct conflicts which ordinarily constitute the

connections are appropriate in lieu of loops most restrictive traffic constraint are
when required by traffic demands or other eliminated, yet cost and right of way
specific site conditions. The Type F-1 requirements may be kept within
interchange with all direct connections reasonable bounds. Consideration should
provides the maximum in mobility and be given to providing an auxiliary lane in
safety. However, the high costs associated advance of the loop off-ramps to provide
with this design require that the benefits be for vehicle deceleration.
fully substantiated.
(c) Four-Quadrant Cloverleaf--The four-
The Type F-1 Alternative "A" interchange quadrant cloverleaf with collector-
utilizes a single divergence ramp for traffic distributor roads, Type F-4, is ordinarily
bound for the other freeway; then provides the most economical freeway-to-freeway
a secondary directional split. Each interchange solution when all turning
entrance ramp on a Type F-1A interchange movements are provided. The four-
is provided separately. The advantages of quadrant cloverleaf is generally applicable
the Type F-1A are: 1) reduced driver in situations where turning volumes are
confusion since there is only one exit to the low enough to be accommodated in the
other freeway, and 2) operations at the short weaving sections. It should be
entrance may be improved since the ramps designed with collector-distributor roads to
merge with the mainline one at a time. separate weaving conflicts from the
through freeway traffic.
The Type F-1 Alternative "B" interchange
provides separate directional exit ramps (d) Freeway Terminal Junction--Types F-5, F-
and then merges the entering traffic into a 6, F-7, and F-8 are examples of
single ramp before converging with the interchange designs where one freeway
mainline. Since the Type F-1B combines terminates at the junction with another
traffic from two ramps before entering the freeway. In general, the standard of
freeway, it is important to verify that alignment provided on the left or median
adequate weaving capacity is provided lane connection from the terminating
beyond the entrance. Separating the freeway should equal or approach as near
directional split of exiting traffic reduces as possible that of the terminating freeway.
the volume to each of the two ramps and Terminating the median lane on a loop
therefore may improve the level of service should be avoided. It is preferable that
of the weave section prior to the exit. both the sign route and the major traffic
volume be to the left at the branch
Design for a four-level interchange may
connection diverge. The choice between
combine the configuration of the Type F1-
Types F-7 and F-8 should include
A and F1-B interchange to best suit the
considerations of traffic volumes, route
conditions at a given location.
continuity, and map relatability. When
(b) Combination Interchanges--The three- these considerations are in conflict, the
quadrant cloverleaf, Type F-2, with one choice is made on the basis of judgment of
direct connection may be necessary where their relative merits.
a single move carries too much traffic for a
loop ramp or where the one quadrant is
restricted by environmental, topographic,
or right of way controls.
The two-loop, two-direct connection
interchange, Type F-3, is often an
appropriate solution. The weaving
November 1, 2001
Figure 502.3
Typical Freeway-to-freeway
Interchanges
November 1, 2001
Figure 502.3
Typical Freeway-to-freeway Interchanges
(continued)
November 1, 2001 E
Topic 503 - Interchange Design Topic 504 - Interchange Design

Procedure Standards
503.1 Basic Data 504.1 General

Data relative to community service, traffic, physical Topic 504 discusses the standards that pertain to
and economic factors, and potential area both local service interchanges (various ramp
development which may materially affect design, configurations) and freeway-to-freeway
should be obtained prior to interchange design. connections. The design standards, policies and
Specifically, the following information should be practices covered in Indexes 504.2, and 504.5
available: through 504.8 are typically common to both ramp
and connector interchange types. Indexes 504.3 and
(a) The location and standards of existing and
504.4 separately discuss ramp standards and
proposed local streets including types of
freeway-to-freeway connector standards,
traffic control.
respectively.
(b) Existing and proposed land use including
such developments as shopping centers, 504.2 Freeway Entrances and Exits
recreational facilities, housing
developments, schools, and other (1) Basic Policy. All freeway entrances and
institutions. exits, except for direct connections with
median High Occupancy Vehicle lanes, shall
(c) A traffic flow diagram showing average connect to the right of through traffic.
daily traffic and design hourly volumes, as
well as time of day (a.m. or p.m.), (2) Standard Designs. Design of freeway
anticipated on the freeway ramps and entrances and exits should conform to the
affected local streets or roads. standard designs illustrated in Figure 504.2A-B
(single lane), and Figure 504.3L (two lane
(d) The relationship with adjacent entrances and exits) and/or Figure 504.4
interchanges. (diverging branch connections), as appropriate.
(e) The location of major utilities, railroads, or The minimum deceleration length shown on
airports. Figure 504.2B shall be provided prior to the
first curve beyond the exit nose to assure
503.2 Reviews adequate distance for vehicles to decelerate
Interchanges are among the major design features before entering the curve. The same standard
which are to be reviewed by the Project should apply for the first curve after the exit
Development Coordinator, Traffic Liaison, other from a collector-distributor road. The range of
Headquarters staff, and the FHWA Transportation minimum "DL" (distance) vs. "R" (radius) is
Engineer, as appropriate. Major design features given in the table in Figure 504.2B. Strong
include the freeway alignment, geometric cross consideration should be given to lengthening
section, location of separation structures, closing of the "DL" distance given in the table when the
local roads, frontage road construction, and work on subsequent curve is a descending loop or hook
local roads. Particularly close involvement should ramp, or if the upstream condition is a
occur during preparation of the Project Study Report sustained downgrade (see AASHTO, A Policy
and Project Report (see the Project Development on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets,
Procedures Manual). Such reviews can be for additional information).
particularly valuable when exceptions from advisory
or mandatory design standards are being considered
and alternatives are being sought.
July 1, 2004
Figure 504.2A
Single Lane Freeway Entrance
July 1, 2004
Figure 504.2B
Single Lane Freeway Exit
July 1, 2004
The exit nose shown on Figure 504.2B may be (4) Design Speed Considerations. In the design of
located downstream of the 7 m dimension; interchanges it is important to provide vertical
however, the maximum paved width between and horizontal alignment standards which are
the mainline and ramp shoulder edges should consistent with driving conditions expected on
be 6 m. Also, see pavement cross slope branch connections. Sight distance on crest
requirements in Index 504.2(5). vertical curves should be consistent with
expected approach speeds.
Contrasting surface treatment beyond the gore
pavement may be considered on both entrance (a) Freeway Exit--The design speed at the exit
and exit ramps as shown on Figures 504.2A nose should be 80 km/h or greater for both
and 504.2B. This treatment can both enhance ramps and branch connections.
aesthetics and minimize maintenance efforts.
It should be designed so that a driver will be
able to identify and differentiate the contrasting
Figure 504.2C
surface treatment from the pavement areas that Location of Freeway Ramps
are intended for regular or occasional vehicular on a Curve
use (e.g., traveled way, shoulders, paved gore,
etc.). Consult with the District Landscape
Architect, District Materials Engineer, and
District Maintenance Engineer to determine the
appropriate contrasting surface treatment of the
facility at a specific location.
Refer to the HOV Guidelines for additional
information specific to direct connections to
HOV lanes.
(3) Location on a Curve. Freeway entrances and
exits should be located on tangent sections
wherever possible in order to provide
maximum sight distance and optimum traffic
operation. Where curve locations are
necessary, the ramp entrance and exit tapers
should be curved also. The radius of the exit
taper should be about the same as the freeway
edge of traveled way in order to develop the
same degree of divergence as the standard Decision sight distance given in Table
design (see Figure 504.2C). 201.7 should be provided at freeway exits
and branch connectors. At secondary exits
On entrance ramps the distance from the inlet on collector-distributor roads, a minimum
nose (4.25-meter point) to the end of the of 190 m of decision sight distance should
acceleration lane taper should equal the sum of be provided. In all cases, sight distance is
the distances shown on Figure 504.2A. The measured to the center of ramp lane right
50:1 taper may be curved to fit the conditions, of the nose.
and the 1000 m radius curve may be adjusted
(see Figure 504.2A, note 5). (b) Freeway Entrance--The design speed at the
inlet nose should be consistent with
When an exit must be located where physical approach alignment standards. If the
restrictions to visibility cannot be corrected by approach is a branch connection or
cut widening or object removal, an auxiliary diamond ramp with high alignment
lane in advance of the exit should be provided. standards, the design speed should be at
The length of auxiliary lane should be a least 80 km/h.
minimum 180 m, 300 m preferred.
July 1, 2004
(c) Ramps--See Index 504.3(1)(a). necessary to prevent crossroads water from

draining onto the ramp.
(d) Freeway-to-Freeway Connections -- See
Index 504.4(2). On descending off-ramps, the sag vertical
curve at the ramp terminal should be a
(5) Grades. Grades for freeway entrances and
minimum of 30 m in length.
exits are controlled primarily by the
requirements of sight distance. Ramp profile (b) Freeway Entrances--Entrance profiles
grades should not exceed 8% with the should approximately parallel the profile of
exception of descending entrance ramps and the freeway for at least 30 m prior to the
ascending exit ramps, where a 1% steeper inlet nose to provide intervisibility in
grade is allowed. However, the 1% steeper merging situations. The vertical curve at
grade should be avoided on descending loops the inlet nose should be consistent with
to minimize overdriving of the ramp (see Index approach alignment standards.
504.3 (8)).
Where truck volumes (three-axle or more)
Profile grade considerations are of particular exceed 20 per hour on ascending entrance
concern through entrance and exit gore areas. ramps to freeways and expressways with
In some instances the profile of the ramp or sustained upgrades exceeding 2%, a 450 m
connector, or a combination of profile and length of auxiliary lane should be provided
cross slope, is sufficiently different than that of in order to insure satisfactory operating
the freeway through lanes that grade breaks conditions. Additional length may be
across the gore may become necessary. Where warranted based on the thorough analysis
adjacent lanes or lanes and paved gore areas at of the site specific grades, traffic volumes,
freeway entrances and exits are not in the same and calculated speeds; and after
plane, the algebraic difference in pavement consultation with representatives of the
cross slope should not exceed 5% (see Index Headquarters Division of Traffic
301.2). The paved gore area is typically that Operations and the Division of Design.
area between the diverging or converging edge Also, see Index 204.5 "Sustained Grades".
of traveled ways and the 7 meter point.
In addition to the effects of terrain, grade lines
504.3 Ramps
are also controlled by structure clearances (see (1) General.
Indexes 204.6 and 309.2). Grade lines for
(a) Design Speed -- When ramps terminate at
overcrossing and undercrossing roadways
an intersection at which all traffic is
should conform to the requirements of HDM
expected to make a turning movement, the
Topic 104 Roads Under Other Jurisdictions.
minimum design speed along the ramp
(a) Freeway Exits--Vertical curves located just should be 40 km/h. When a “through”
beyond the exit nose should be designed movement is provided at the ramp
with a minimum 80 km/h stopping sight terminus, the minimum ramp design speed
distance. Beyond this point, progressively should meet or exceed the design speed of
lower design speeds may be used to the highway facility for which the through
accommodate loop ramps and other movement is provided. The design speed
geometric features. along the ramp will vary depending on
Ascending off-ramps should join the alignment and controls at each end of the
crossroads on a reasonably flat grade to ramp. An acceptable approach is to set
expedite truck starts from a stopped design speeds of 40 km/h and 80 km/h at
condition. If the ramp ends in a crest the ramp terminus and exit nose,
vertical curve, the last 15 m of the ramp respectively, the appropriate design speed
should be on a 5% grade or less. There for any intermediate point on the ramp is
may be cases where a drainage feature is then based on its location relative to those
two points. When short radius curves with
July 1, 2004
relatively lower design speeds are used, the taper of no less than 30 to 1. However,
vertical sight distance should be consistent the lane drop taper past the limit line
with approach vehicle speeds. See Index shall not be less than 15 to 1.
504.2(4) for additional information
Lane drop tapers should not extend beyond
regarding design speed for ramps.
the 2-meter point (the beginning of the
(b) Lane Width--Ramp lanes shall be a weaving length) without the provision of
minimum of 3.6 m in width. Where an auxiliary lane.
ramps have curve radii of 90 m or less,
(e) Lane Additions -- Lane additions to ramps
measured along the outside ETW for
are usually accomplished by use of a 36 m
single lane ramps or along the outside
bay taper. See Table 405.2A for the
lane line for multilane ramps, with a geometrics of bay tapers.
central angle greater than 60 degrees,
the single ramp lane, or the lane furthest (2) Ramp Metering
to the right if the ramp is multilane, All geometric designs for ramp metering
shall be widened in accordance with installations must be discussed with the Project
Table 504.3A in order to accommodate Development Coordinator or Design Reviewer
large truck wheel paths (see Topic 404). from the Division of Design. Design features
Consideration may be given to widening or elements which deviate from the
more than one lane on a multilane ramp mandatory standards require the approvals
with short radius curves if there is a described in Index 82.2. Before beginning
likelihood of considerable bus or truck any ramp meter design, the designer must
usage of that lane. contact the District Traffic Operations Branch
responsible for ramp metering for direction in
Table 504.3A the application of procedural requirements of
the Division of Traffic Operations.
Ramp Widening for Trucks
Geometric ramp design for new facilities
Ramp Radius Widening (m) Lane Width should normally be based upon the projected
(m) (m) peak-hour traffic volumes 20 years after
<40 2.0 5.6 completion of construction, except as stated in
40 - 44 1.6 5.2 Index 103.2.
45 - 54 1.3 4.9 Geometric ramp design for operational
55 - 64 0.9 4.5 improvement projects for ramp meters should
65 - 74 0.6 4.2 be based on current peak-hour traffic volume
75 - 90 0.3 3.9 (this is considered to be data that is less than
>90 0 3.6 two years old). If this data is not available it
should be obtained before proceeding with
(c) Shoulder Width--Shoulder widths for design. Peak hour traffic data from the annual
ramps shall be as indicated in Table Traffic Volumes book is not adequate for this
302.1. Typical ramp shoulder widths are application.
1.2 m on the left and 2.4 m on the right. The design advice and typical designs that
(d) Lane Drops--Typically, lane drops are to follow should not be directly applied to ramp
be accomplished over a distance equal to meter installation projects, especially retrofit
2/3WV. Where ramps are metered, the designs, without giving consideration to
recommended lane drop taper past the "customizing" the geometric design features to
meter limit line is 50 to 1. Where meet site and traffic conditions (i.e., design
conditions preclude the use of a 50 to 1 highway volume, geometry, speeds, etc.).
taper, the lane should be dropped using a Every effort should be made by the designer to
November 1, 2001 E
exceed the recommended minimum standards etc.) is minimized when the ramp
provided herein, where conditions are not alignment is tangential or consists of curve
restrictive. radii not less the 90 m.
(a) Metered Single-Lane Entrance Ramps The recommended widths for metered
ramps are shown in Table 504.3B.
Geometrics for a single-lane ramp meter
should be provided for volumes up to 900 On local street entrance ramps, the multi-
vehicles per hour (vph) (see Figures lane segment should transition to a single
504.3A and 504.3B). Where truck volumes lane width between the ramp meter limit
(3-axle or more) are 5% or greater on line and the 2 m separation point (from the
ascending entrance ramps to freeways with mainline edge of traveled way). See
sustained upgrades exceeding 3% (i.e., at Figures 504.3C, 504.3D, 504.3E, 504.3F,
least throughout the merge area), a 504.3G, 504.3H and 504.3I.
minimum 150 m length of auxiliary lane
should be provided beyond the ramp
convergence point. For additional
Table 504.3B
guidance see Table X-5 of “A Policy on Pavement Widths
Geometric Design of Highways and
Streets”, AASHTO. Metered Traveled Inside Outside
Ramp Way Shoulder Shoulder
A multi-lane ramp segment may be
provided to increase vehicle storage within 1-lane 3.6 m 1.2 m 2.4 m
the available ramp length (see 504.3(2)(d) 2-lane 7.2 m 1.2 m 2.4 m
Storage Length) and/or to create a
preferential lane for HOVs, as required in 3-lane 10.8 m 0.6 m 0.6 m
Section 504.3(2)(h).
(b) Metered Multi-Lane Entrance Ramps The lane drop transition should be
When entrance ramp volumes exceed 900 accomplished with a taper of 50:1 unless a
vph, and/or when an HOV lane is lesser taper is warranted by site and/or
determined to be necessary, a two or three project specific conditions which control
lane ramp segment should be provided. the ramp geometry and/or anticipated
Figures 504.3C, 504.3D and 504.3E maximum speed of ramp traffic. For
illustrate typical designs for metered two- example, "loop" entrance ramps would
lane ramps; and Figures 504.3F and normally not allow traffic to attain speeds
504.3G illustrate typical designs for which would warrant a 50:1 lane drop
metered three lane ramps. On two-lane taper. Also, in retrofit situations, existing
loop ramps, normally only the right lane physical, environmental or right of way
needs to be widened to accommodate constraints may make it impractical to
design vehicle off-tracking. See provide a 50:1 taper, especially if the
504.3(1)(b). maximum anticipated approach speed will
be less than 80 km/h. Therefore, depending
Three-lane metered ramps are typically on approach geometrics and speed, the lane
needed to serve peak (i.e., commute) hour drop transition should be accomplished
traffic along urban and suburban freeway with a taper of between 30 and 50:1.
corridors. The adverse effects of bus and
However, the lane drop taper past the
truck traffic on the operation of these
limit line shall not be less than 15 to 1.
ramps (i.e., off-tracking, sight restriction,
acceleration characteristics on upgrades,
November 1, 2001
Where truck volumes (3-axle or more) are All lane drop transitions on connectors
5% or greater on ascending entrance ramps shall be accomplished with a taper of
to freeways with sustained upgrades 50:1 minimum (see Figures 504.3H and
exceeding 3% (i.e. at least throughout the 504.3I).
merge area), a minimum 300 m length of
(d) Storage Length
auxiliary lane should be provided beyond
the ramp convergence point. Table X-5, In keeping the Strategic Plan to maximize
“A Policy on Geometric Design of High- the effectiveness of operational strategies,
ways and Streets”, AASHTO, provides an important design consideration for a
additional guidance on acceleration lane ramp meter system is providing adequate
length on grades. storage for queues. The District Operations
Branch responsible for ramp metering shall
When ramp volumes exceed 1,500 vph, a
be consulted to determine the desirable
300 m minimum length of auxiliary lane
ramp meter storage.
should be provided beyond the ramp
convergence point. If an auxiliary lane is Ramp meters have practical lower and
included, the ramp lane transition may be upper output limits of 240 and 900 vph per
extended to the convergence point. lane, respectively. Ramp meter signals set
However, the proximity of the nearest for flow rates outside this range tend to
interchange may warrant weaving analysis have high violation rates and cannot
to determine the acceptability of extending effectively control traffic. Therefore, on a
the ramp lane transition beyond the 2 m ramp with peak hour volume between 500
separation point. A longer auxiliary lane and 900, a two-lane ramp meter may be
should be considered where mainline/ramp provided to double the vehicles stored
gradients and truck volumes warrant within the available storage area. A single-
additional length. lane ramp meter should be used when rates
are below 500 vph and no HOV
(c) Metered Freeway-to-Freeway Connectors
preferential lane is provided.
Freeway-to-freeway connectors may also
To minimize the impact on local street
be metered when warranted. The need to
operation, every effort should be made to
meter a freeway-to-freeway connector
meet the recommended storage length.
should be determined on an individual
Wherever feasible, ramp metering storage
basis. Because connector ramps provide a
should be contained on the ramp by either
link between two high speed facilities,
widening or lengthening it. Improvements
drivers do not expect to stop, nor do they
to the local street system in the vicinity of
expect to approach a stopped vehicle.
the ramp should also be thoroughly
The installation of ramp meters on investigated where there is insufficient
connector ramps shall be limited to storage length on the ramp and the ramp
those facilities which meet or exceed the queue will adversely affect local street
following geometric design criteria: operation. The storage length that can be
provided on the ramp may be limited by
• standard lane and shoulder widths
the weaving distance to the next off-ramp
• "tail light" sight distance, measured and available right of way. Local street
from 1070 mm eye height to a improvements can include widening or
600 mm object height, is provided restriping the street(s) or intersection(s) to
for a design speed of 80 km/h provide additional storage or capacity.
minimum Signal timing revisions along the corridor
November 1, 2001
feeding the ramp can also enhance the (f) Meter Location
storage capability. These will require
On single-lane ramps, the ramp meter
coordination with the local agency
signal standard should be placed on the
consistent with the regional traffic
driver’s left.
operations strategy. Ultimately system-
wide adaptive ramp metering will (g) Limit Line Location
coordinate with local street and arterial The limit line location will be determined
signal systems. by the selected transition taper, but should
The current peak period 5, 6, or 15 minute be a minimum of 23 m upstream of the 7 m
arrival rates and anticipated or current point on the entrance ramp as shown in
ramp meter discharge rates should be used Figures 504.3A-I. A single 300 mm solid
to determine the storage length required for white line shall be placed across all
ramp metering. It is recommended that a metered lanes. Staggered limit lines shall
minimum vehicle spacing of 9 m be used not be used.
for designing storage on metered ramps. (h) HOV Preferential Lane
Additional spacing should be provided for
locations where there are significant Ramp meter installations should operate in
percentages of trucks, buses, or conjunction with, and complement other
recreational vehicles. transportation management system
elements and transportation modes. As
It is the responsibility of Caltrans, on such, ramp meter installations should
Caltrans initiated projects, to mitigate the include preferential treatment of carpools
effect of ramp metering, for initial as well and transit riders. Specific treatment(s)
as future operational impacts, on local must be tailored to the unique conditions at
streets that intersect and feed entrance each ramp location, however the standard
ramps to the freeway. Developers and/or or base treatment upon which other
local agencies, however, should be strategies are designed is the High
required to mitigate any impact to existing Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) preferential
ramp meter facilities, future ramp meter lane.
installations, or local streets, when those
impacts are attributable to new Division of Traffic Operations policy
development and/or local agency roadway requires an HOV preferential lane be
improvement projects. provided at all ramp meter locations.
Deviation from this policy requires
(e) Structural Section concurrence from the Traffic Liaison,
In planning for the possibility of future which must be reflected in the Project
widening, the structural section for the Initiation Document.
ramp shoulders should be equal to the In general, the vehicle occupancy
ramp traveled way structural section. In requirement for ramp meter HOV
locations where failure of loop detectors preferential lanes will be two or more
due to asphalt concrete pavement persons per vehicle. At some locations, a
deterioration is a concern, a Portland higher vehicle occupancy requirement may
Cement Concrete (PCC) pad may be be necessary. The occupancy should be
considered on new construction and based on the HOV demand and
rehabilitation projects. The concrete pad coordination with other HOV facilities in
should cover the metering detector loop the vicinity.
area upstream and downstream of the limit
line.
November 1, 2001 E
A preferential lane should typically be Changes in traffic conditions, proposals for

placed on the left, however demand and interchange modifications, recurrent
operational characteristics at the ramp en- operational problems affecting the local
trance may dictate otherwise. The District facility, or the need to further improve
Operations Branch responsible for ramp mainline operations through more restric-
metering shall determine which side of the tive metering all provide an opportunity to
ramp they shall be placed, and whether or reevaluate the need for an HOV
not the HOV lane will be metered. preferential lane. HOV preferential lanes
should remain in place or be added to the
• It is the policy of Districts 4, 6, 8, and
scope of projects generated in response to
11 to meter the HOV preferential lane
any of the above scenarios. Alternate
• Districts 3, 7, and 12 typically do not solutions should be investigated before
meter the HOV preferential lane removal is considered. For example: Better
control over ramp traffic can be attained by
Access to the HOV preferential lane may
retrofitting ramps to meter HOV traffic
be provided in a variety of ways depending
which bypasses the ramp meter (District 3,
on interchange type and the adequacy of
7, and 12). Underutilization of an existing
storage provided for queued vehicles.
lane plus the need for additional right of
Where queued vehicles are expected to
way for storage, the availability of an
block access to the HOV preferential lane,
alternate HOV entrance ramp within 2 km,
direct or separate access should be
or the availability of a direct HOV access
considered. Designs should consider
(drop) ramp will typically provide
pedestrian/ bicycle volumes, especially
adequate justification for the removal of a
when the entrance ramp is located near a
preferential lane at specific locations.
school or the local highway facility
includes a designated bicycle lane or route. The Deputy District Director of Operations,
Contact the Traffic Liason and the Design in consultation with the HQ Traffic
Reviewer to discuss the application of Liaison, is responsible for approving
specific design and/or general issues decisions to remove HOV preferential
related to the design of HOV preferential lanes. Written documentation should be
lane access. provided in the appropriate project
document(s).
Signing for an HOV preferential lane
should be placed to clearly indicate which (j) Enforcement Areas and Maintenance
lane is designated for HOVs. Real-time Pullouts
signing at the ramp entrance, such as an Division of Traffic Operations policy
overhead extinguishable message sign, requires an enforcement area be provided
may be necessary at some locations if on all two-lane and three-lane on-ramps
pavement delineation and normal signing with HOV lanes. Deviation from this
do not provide drivers with adequate lane policy requires concurrence from the
usage information. To avoid trapping Traffic Liaison, which must be reflected in
Single Occupancy Vehicles (SOVs) in an the Project Initiation Document.
HOV preferential lane, pavement
delineation at the ramp entrance should On single-lane ramps, a paved enforcement
lead drivers into the SOV lane. area is not necessary but the area should be
graded to facilitate future ramp widening
(i) Modifications to Existing HOV (see Figure 504.3A). Enforcement areas
Preferential Lanes are used by the California Highway Patrol
November 1, 2001
(CHP) to enforce vehicle occupancy For left-turn maneuvers from an off-ramp at an

requirements. At locations where the HOV unsignalized intersection, the length of
lane is metered, the enforcement area crossroads open to view should be greater than
should begin as close to the limit line as the product of the prevailing speed of vehicles
practical. Where unmetered, it should on the crossroads, and the time required for a
begin approximately 50 m downstream of stopped vehicle on the ramp to execute a left-
the limit line. On three-lane ramps, the turn maneuver. This time is estimated to be
enforcement area should be downstream of 7-1/2 seconds.
the mast arm standard, approximately 21 m
Where a separate right-turn lane is provided at
from the limit line. The length of the
ramp terminals, the turn lane should not
enforcement area and its distance
continue as a "free" right unless pedestrian
downstream of the limit line may be
volumes are low, the right-turn lane continues
adjusted to fit conditions at the ramp with
as a separate full width lane for at least 60 m
CHP approval.
prior to merging and access control is
The District Operations Branch responsible maintained for at least 60 m past the ramp
for ramp metering shall coordinate intersection. Provision of the "free" right
enforcement issues with the California should also be precluded if left-turn
Highway Patrol. The CHP Area movements of any kind are allowed within
Commander shall be contacted during the 125 m of the ramp intersection.
Project Report stage, prior to design, to
Horizontal sight restrictions may be caused by
discuss any variations needed to the
bridge railings, bridge piers, or slopes. Sight
enforcement area designs shown in this
distance is measured between the center of the
manual. Variations shall be discussed with
outside lane approaching the ramp and the eye
the Traffic Liason and the Project
of the driver of the ramp vehicle assumed
Development Coordinator and/or Design
3.0 m back from the edge of shoulder at the
Reviewer.
crossroads. Figure 504.3J illustrates the
A paved pullout area near the controller determination of ramp setback from an
cabinet (see Standard Plan H8) should be overcrossing structure on the basis of sight
provided for safe and convenient access for distance controlled by the bridge rail. The
Maintenance and Operations personnel. If same relationship exists for sight distance
a pullout cannot be provided, a paved or controlled by bridge piers or slopes.
"all weather" walkway should be provided
Where ramp set back for the 7-1/2 second
to the controller cabinet.
criterion is unobtainable, sight distance should
(3) Location and Design of Ramp Intersections on be provided by flaring the end of the
the Crossroads. overcrossing structures or setting back the piers
or end slopes of an undercrossing structure.
Factors which influence the location of ramp
intersections on the crossroads include sight If signals are warranted within 5 years of
distance, construction and right of way costs, construction, consideration may be given to
circuitry of travel for left-turn movements, installing signals initially in lieu of providing
crossroads gradient at ramp intersections, horizontal sight distance which meets the 7-1/2
storage requirements for left-turn movements second criterion. (See Chapter 9 of the Traffic
off the crossroads, and the proximity of other Manual for a discussion of traffic signal
local road intersections. warrants.) However, this is not desirable and
corner sight distance commensurate with
Ramp terminals should connect where the
design speed should be provided where
grade of the overcrossing is 4% or less to avoid
potential overturning of trucks.
November 1, 2001
obtainable (see AASHTO, A Policy on Documentation shall be as required by the

Geometric Design of Highways and Streets). Coordinator.
For additional information on sight distance (5) Single-lane Ramps. Single lane ramps are
requirements at signalized intersections, see those ramps that either enter into or exit from
Index 405.1. the freeway as a single lane. These ramps are
often widened near the ramp intersection with
For new construction or major reconstruc-
the crossroads to accommodate turning
tion of interchanges, the minimum distance
movements onto or from the ramp. When
(curb return to curb return) between ramp
additional lanes are provided near all
intersections and local road intersections
entrance ramp intersection, the lane drop
shall be 125 m. The preferred minimum
should be accomplished over a distance equal
distance should be 160 m. This does not apply
to (2/3)WV. The lane to be dropped should be
to Resurfacing, Restoration and Rehabilitation
on the right so that traffic merges left.
(RRR), ramp widening, restriping or other
projects which do not reconfigure the Exit ramps in metropolitan areas may require
interchange. This standard does apply to multiple lanes at the intersection with the
projects proposing to realign a local street. crossroads to provide additional storage and
capacity. If the length of a single lane ramp
Where intersections are closely spaced, traffic
exceeds 300 m, an additional lane should be
operations are often inhibited by short weave
provided on the ramp to permit passing
and storage lengths, and signal phasing. In
maneuvers. Figure 504.3K illustrates
addition it is difficult to provide proper signing
alternative ways of transitioning a single lane
and delineation. Whenever it becomes
exit ramp to two lanes. The decision to use
necessary to locate a ramp terminal close to an
Alternate A or Alternate B is generally based
intersection, the District Traffic Branch should
on providing the additional lane for the minor
be consulted regarding the requirement for
movement.
signing, delineation and signal phasing.
(6) Two-lane Exit Ramps. Where design year
(4) Superelevation for Ramps. The factors
estimated volumes exceed 1500 equivalent
controlling superelevation rates discussed in
passenger cars per hour, a 2-lane width of ramp
Topic 202 apply also to ramps. As indicated in
should be provided initially.
Table 202.2 use the 12% emax rate except
where snow and ice conditions prevail. In Provisions should be made for possible
restrictive cases where the length of curve is widening to three or more lanes at the
too short to develop standard superelevation, crossroads intersection. Figure 504.3L
the highest obtainable rate should be used (see illustrates the standard design for a 2-lane exit.
Index 202.5). If feasible, the curve radius can An auxiliary lane approximately 400 m long
be increased to reduce the standard should be provided in advance of a 2-lane exit.
superelevation rate. Both edge of traveled way For volumes less than 1500 but more than 900,
and edge of shoulder should be examined at a one-lane width exit ramp should be provided
ramp junctions to assure a smooth transition. with provision for adding an auxiliary lane and
an additional lane on the ramp.
Under certain restrictive conditions the
standard superelevation rate discussed above (7) Two-lane Entrance Ramps. A standard two
may not be required on the curve nearest the lane entrance ramp is illustrated in Figure
ramp intersection of a ramp. The specific 504.3L. This design may be utilized in
conditions under which lower superelevation situations where the estimated design year
rates would be considered must be evaluated volume exceeds 1500 equivalent passenger
on a case-by-case basis and must be discussed cars per hour. The configuration shown in
with the Project Development Coordinator. Figure 504.3L, which includes the provision of
a 300 m auxiliary lane parallel to the freeway,
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3A
Typical Freeway Entrance
With 1-Lane Ramp Meter
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3B
Typical Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 504.3C
Typical Freeway Entrance Loop Ramp
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 504.3D
Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes < 1500 VPH
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 504.3E
Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes > 1500 VPH
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 504.3F
Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes < 1500 VPH
3-Lane Ramp Meter
(2 mixed-flow lanes + HOV lane)
November 1, 2001 E
Figure 504.3G
Typical Freeway Entrance for Ramp Volumes > 1500 VPH
3-Lane Ramp Meter
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3H
Typical Freeway Connector
2-Lane Meter
(1 mixed-flow lane + HOV lane)
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3I
Typical Freeway Connector
3-Lane Meter
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3J
Location of Ramp Intersections
on the Crossroads
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3K
Transition to Two-lane Exit Ramp
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.3L
Two-Lane Entrance and Exit Ramps
July 1, 2004
will typically only be used where adequate Where the loop is of short radius and is also
capacity exists on the effected corridor of the on a steep descent (over 6%), it is important to
through facility in the design year. Where develop the standard 2/3 full superelevation
capacity is limited, consideration should be rate by the beginning of the curve (see Index
given to extending the auxiliary lane to the 504.2(5)). On loop entrance ramps this can
next interchange or adding additional lanes to often be facilitated by beginning the ramp
the freeway. For most situations, the multiple with a short tangent (20 m to 30 m) that
ramp lanes taper to a single lane prior to the 2- diverges from the cross street at an angle of 4
meter separation point (where merging is to 9 degrees. Consideration should be given
considered to begin). A thorough investiga- to developing additional tangent length if
tion of ramp volumes versus through facility conditions allow.
volumes must be made for off-peak as well as
The ramp lane structural section should be
peak periods if metering of the ramp is
provided on shoulders for curves with a radius
anticipated. Early discussion with the
less than 90 m (see Indexes 603.6 and 604.5).
Headquarters Traffic Liason and Project
Development Coordinator or Design Reviewer (9) Distance Between Successive On-ramps. The
is recommended whenever two lane entrance minimum distance between two successive
ramps are being considered. on-ramps to a freeway lane should be the
distance needed to provide the standard on-
(8) Loop Ramps. Normally, loop ramps should
ramp acceleration taper shown on Figure
have one lane and shoulders unless a second
504.2A. This distance should be about 300 m
lane is needed for capacity or ramp metering
unless the upstream ramp adds an auxiliary
purposes. Consideration should be given to
lane in which case the downstream ramp
providing a directional ramp when loop
should merge with the auxiliary lane in a
volumes exceed 1500 vehicles per hour. If
standard 50:1 convergence. The distance
two lanes are provided, normally only the
between on-ramp noses will then be controlled
right lane needs to be widened for trucks. See
by interchange geometry.
Topic 404 for additional discussion on lane
widths and design of ramp intersections to (10) Distance Between Successive Exits. The
accommodate the design vehicle. See Index minimum distance between successive exit
504.3(1) for a discussion on ramp widening ramps for guide signing should be 300 m on
for trucks. the freeway and 180 m on collector-distributor
roads.
Radii for loop ramps should normally range
from 45 m to 60 m. Increasing the radii (11) Curbs. Curbs should not be used on ramps
beyond 60 m is typically not cost effective as except in the following locations:
the slight increase in design speed is usually (a) A Type B-100 or Type D curb (see Index
outweighed by the increased right of way 303.2) may be used on both sides of the
requirements and the increased travel distance. separation between freeway lanes and a
Curve radii of less than 35 m should also be parallel collector-distributor road.
avoided. Extremely tight curves lead to
increased off-tracking by trucks and increase (b) A B4 curb may be used as shown in
the potential for vehicles to enter the curve Figure 504.2A to control drainage or
with excessive speed. where the gore cross slope would be
greater than allowed in Index 504.2(5).
Of particular concern in the design of loop When the optional B4 curb is used at the
ramps are the constraints imposed on large entrance ramp inlet nose, the shoulder
trucks. Research indicates that trucks often adjacent to the curb should be the same
enter loops with excessive speed, either due to width as the ramp shoulder approaching
inadequate deceleration on exit ramps or due the curb. The B4 gutter pan can be
to driver efforts to maintain speed on entrance
ramps to facilitate acceleration and merging.
July 1, 2004
included as part of the shoulder width. As (4) Shoulder Width.

stated in Index 405.4(2), curbs are
(a) Single-lane and Two-lane Connections--
typically discouraged where design speeds
The width of shoulders on single-lane
are over 75 km/h. The appropriateness of
and two-lane (except as described
curbs at gore areas must be determined on
below) freeway-to-freeway connectors
a case-by-case basis.
shall be 1.5 m on the left and 3.0 m on
(c) Curbs may be used where necessary at the the right. A single lane freeway-to-
ramp connection with the local street for freeway connector that has been
the protection of pedestrians, for widened to two lanes solely to provide
channelization, and to provide passing opportunities and not due to
compatibility with the local facility. capacity requirements shall have a 1.5
(d) The Type E curb may be used only in m left shoulder and at least a 1.5 m
special drainage situations, for example, right shoulder (see Index 504.4(5)).
where drainage parallels and flows against (b) Three-lane Connections--The width of
the face of a retaining wall. shoulders on three-lane connectors shall
In general, curbs should not be used on the be 3.0 m on both the left and right sides.
high side of ramps or in off-ramp gore areas (5) Single-lane Connections. Freeway-to-freeway
except at collector-distributor roads. The connectors may be single lane or multilane.
offtracking of trucks should be analyzed when Where design year volume is between 900 and
considering curbs on ramps. 1500 equivalent passenger cars per hour,
(12) Dikes. Dikes may be used where necessary to initial construction should provide a single
control drainage. For additional information lane connection with the capability of adding
see Index 303.3. an additional lane. Single lane directional
connectors should be designed using the
504.4 Freeway-to-Freeway Connections general configurations shown on Figure
504.2A and 504.2B, but utilizing the flatter
(1) General. All of the design criteria discussed divergence angle shown in Figure 504.4.
in Indexes 501.3, 504.2 and 504.3 apply to Single lane loop connectors may use a diverge
freeway to freeway connectors, except as angle of as much as that shown on Figure
discussed or modified below. 504.2B for ramps, if necessary. The choice
(2) Design Speed. The design speed for single will depend upon interchange configuration
lane directional and all branch connections and driver expectancy. Single lane connectors
should be a minimum of 80 km/h. When in excess of 300 m in length should be
smaller radius curves, with lower design widened to two lanes to provide for passing
speeds, are used the vertical sight distance maneuvers (see Index 504.4(4)).
should be consistent with approaching vehicle (6) Branch Connections. A branch connection is
speeds. Design speed for loop connectors defined as a multilane connection between
should be consistent with Index 504.2(4). two freeways. A branch connection should be
(3) Grades. The maximum profile grade on provided when the design year volume
freeway-to-freeway connections should not exceeds 1500 equivalent passenger cars per
exceed 6%. Flatter grades and longer vertical hour.
curves than those used on ramps are needed to Merging branch connections should be
obtain increased stopping sight distance for designed as shown in Figure 504.3L.
higher design speeds. Diverging branch connections should be
designed as shown in Figure 504.4. The
diverging branch connection leaves the main
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.4
Diverging Branch Connections
November 1, 2001 E
freeway lanes on a flatter angle than the weaving distance, measured as shown in Figure
standard 2-lane ramp exit connection shown in 504.2A, is less than 600 m. Where interchanges
Figure 504.3K. The standard ramp exit are more widely spaced and ramp volumes are
connects to a local street. The diverging high, the need for an auxiliary lane between the
branch connection connects to another interchanges should be determined in accordance
freeway and has a flatter angle that allows a with Index 504.7.
higher departure speed.
Auxiliary lanes may be used for the orientation of
At a branch merge, an 800 m length of traffic at 2-lane ramps or branch connections as
auxiliary lane should be provided beyond the illustrated on Figure 504.3L and Figure 504.4. The
merge of one lane of the inlet, except where it length and number of auxiliary lanes in advance of
does not appear that capacity on the freeway 2-lane exits are based on percentages of turning
will be reached until five or more years after traffic and a weaving analysis.
the 20 year design period. In this case the
Auxiliary lanes should be considered on all
length of auxiliary lane should be a minimum
freeway entrance ramps with significant truck
of 300 m. For diverging connections where
volumes. The grade, volumes and speeds should be
less than capacity conditions beyond the
analyzed to determine the need for auxiliary lanes.
design year are anticipated, the length of
An auxiliary lane would allow entrance ramp
auxiliary lane in advance of the exit should be
traffic to accelerate to a higher speed before
400 m.
merging with mainline traffic, or simply provide
(7) Lane Drops. The lane drop taper on a more opportunity to merge. See Index 504.2 for
freeway-to-freeway connector should not be specific requirements.
less than (2/3)WV.
(8) Metering. Any decision to meter freeway-to-
504.6 Mainline Lane Reduction at
freeway connectors must be carefully Interchanges
considered as driver expectancy on these types The basic number of mainline lanes should not be
of facilities is for high-speed uninterrupted dropped through a local service interchange. The
flow. If metering is anticipated on a same standard should also be applied to
connector, discussions with the Headquarters freeway-to-freeway interchanges where less than
Traffic Liaison and Project Development 35% of the traffic is turning (see Figure 504.4).
Coordinator should take place as early as Where more than 35% of the freeway traffic is
possible. Issues of particular concern are turning, consideration may be given to reducing the
adequate deceleration lengths to the end of the number of lanes. No decision to reduce the number
queue, potential need to widen shoulders if of lanes should be made without the approval of the
sight distance is restricted (particularly on District Traffic Operations Unit. Additionally,
ramps with 1.5 m shoulders on each side), and adequate structure clearance (both horizontal and
the potential for queuing back onto the vertical) should be provided to accommodate future
freeway. construction of the dropped lane if required.
504.5 Auxiliary Lanes Where the reduction in traffic volumes is sufficient

to warrant a decrease in the basic number of lanes,
In order to ensure satisfactory operating conditions, a preferred location for the lane drop is beyond the
auxiliary lanes may be added to the basic width of influence of an interchange and preferably at least 1
traveled way. km from the nearest exit or inlet nose. It is
Where an entrance ramp of one interchange is desirable to drop the right lane on tangent
closely followed by an exit ramp of another alignment with a straight or sag profile so vehicles
interchange, the acceleration and deceleration lanes can merge left with good visibility to the pavement
should be joined with an auxiliary lane. Auxiliary markings in the merge area (see Index 201.7).
lanes should be provided in all cases when the
November 1, 2001
504.7 Weaving Sections Volumes in passenger car equivalents per hour

(PCEPH) should be adjusted for freeway grade and
A weaving section is a length of one-way roadway truck volumes. Table 504.7C and Figures 504.7D
where vehicles are crossing paths, changing lanes, and E are reprinted from the 1965 HCM and
or merging with through traffic as they enter or exit provide information regarding vehicle distribution
a freeway or collector-distributor road. by lane.
A single weaving section has an inlet at the The results obtained from Figure 504.7A (the
upstream end and an exit at the downstream end. A Leisch Method) for single-lane ramps with an
multiple weaving section is characterized by more auxiliary lane and weaving rates exceeding 2500
than one point of entry followed by one or more PCEPH should be checked using the LOS D
points of exit. method.
A rough approximation for adequate length of a Weaving capacity analyses other than those
weaving section is 0.3 m of length per weaving described above should not be used on California
vehicle per hour. This rate will approximately highways. Other methods, such as the one
provide a level of service C. Refer to the January contained in the 1994 HCM, may not always
31, 1995 Design Information Bulletin Number 77 produce accurate results.
on Interchange Spacing for additional weaving
requirements. Weaving sections in urban areas should be
designed for level of service C or D. Weaving
There are various methods for analyzing weaving sections in rural areas should be designed for level
sections. Two methods which provide valid results of service B or C. Design rates for lane balanced
are described below. weaving sections where at least one ramp or
The Leisch method, which is usually considered the connector will be two lanes should not result in a
easiest to use, is illustrated in Figure 504.7A. This level of service lower than the middle of level of
method was developed by Jack Leisch & service D using Figure 504.7A. In determining
Associates and may be used to determine the length acceptable hourly operating volumes, peak hour
of weaving sections for both freeways and factors should be used.
collector-distributor roads. The Leisch weaving On main freeway lanes the weaving length
charts determine the level of service for the measured as shown in Figure 504.2A should not
weaving volumes for the length of the weaving be less than 500 m except where excessive cost or
section from the first panel on the lower left of the severe environmental constraints would require
chart. The analysis is dependent on whether the consideration of a shorter length. 300 m of length
section is balanced or unbalanced, as defined in should be added for each additional lane to be
Figure 504.7B. The level of service for the total crossed by weaving vehicles. The volumes used
volume over all lanes of the weaving section is then shall be volumes unconstrained by metering
found from the panels on the right of the chart. regardless of whether metering will be used. It
The weaving chart should not be extrapolated. should be noted that a weaving analysis must be
Pages 234-238 of the 1965 Highway Capacity considered over an entire freeway segment as
Manual (HCM) provide a method for determining weaving can be affected by other nearby ramps.
the adequacy of weaving sections near single lane The District Traffic Operations Branch should be
ramps. It is often referred to as the Level of consulted for difficult weaving analysis problems.
Service (LOS) D method. This method is also
documented in Traffic Bulletin 4 which is available
504.8 Access Control
from the Division of Traffic Operations. The LOS
D method can be used to project volumes along a Access rights shall be acquired along
weaving section. These volumes can be compared interchange ramps to their junction with the
to the capacities along the same weaving section. nearest public road. At such junctions, for new
construction, access control should extend 30 m
beyond the end of the curb return or ramp radius in
November 1, 2001
urban areas and 100 m in rural areas, or as far as

necessary to ensure that entry onto the facility does
not impair operational characteristics. Access
control shall extend at least 15 m beyond the end
of the curb return, ramp radius, or taper.
Typical examples of access control at interchanges
are shown in Figure 504.8. These illustrations do
not presume to cover all situations or to indicate the
most desirable designs for all cases. Whenever
there is access control on both sides of a local
street, the State owns that R/W and a maintenance
agreement is needed.
For new construction or major reconstruction,
access rights shall be acquired on the opposite
side of the local road from ramp terminals to
preclude the construction of future driveways or
local roads within the ramp intersection. This
access control would limit the volume of traffic and
the number of phases at the intersection of the ramp
and local facility, thereby optimizing capacity and
operation of the ramp. Through a combination of
access control and the use of raised median islands
along the local facility, intersections should be
located at least 125 m from the ramp intersection.
Right in - right out access may be permitted beyond
60 m from the ramp intersection. The length of
access control on both sides of the local facility
should match.
In Case 2 consider private ownership within the
loop only if access to the property is an adequate
distance from the ramp junction to preserve
operational integrity.
In Case 3 if the crossroads is near the ramp junction
at the local road it is recommended that full access
control be acquired on the local street from the
junction to the intersection with the crossroads.
Case 6 represents a slip ramp design. If the ramp is
perpendicular to the local/frontage road refer to
Case 3. In Case 6 if the crossroads is near the ramp
junction to the local road it is recommended that
access control be acquired on the opposite side of
the local street from the junction.
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.7A
Design Curve for Freeway and Collector Weaving
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.7B
Lane Configuration of Weaving Sections
November 1, 2001
Table 504.7C
Percent of Through Traffic Remaining in Outer Through Lane
(Level of Service D Procedure)
APPROXIMATE PERCENTAGE OF THROUGHa TRAFFIC

REMAINING IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE IN
THE VICINITY OF RAMP TERMINALS AT
LEVEL OF SERVICE D.
TOTAL VOLUME OF
THROUGH TRAFFIC,
ONE DIRECTION (vph)
8-LANEb 6-LANEc 4-LANEd
FREEWAY FREEWAY FREEWAY
6500 and over 10 - -
6000 - 6499 10 - -
5500 - 5999 10 - -
5000 - 5499 9 - -
4500 - 4999 9 18 -
4000 - 4499 8 14 -
3500 - 3999 8 10 -
3000 - 3499 8 6 40
2500 - 2999 8 6 35
2000 - 2499 8 6 30
1500 - 1999 8 6 25
Up to 1499 8 6 20
a. Traffic not involved in a ramp movement within 1200 m in either direction.

b. 4 lanes one way
c. 3 lanes one way
d. 2 lanes one way
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.7D
Percentage Distribution of On- and Off-ramp Traffic
in Outer Through Lane and Auxiliary Lane
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.7E
Percentage of Ramp Traffic in the Outer Through Lane
(No Auxiliary Lane)
A - NORMAL CALCULATION B - CHECK CALCULATIONS
2 LANES ONE-WAY BECAUSE % IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 450 M IS

BELOW DASHED LINE, RECALCULATE ASSUMING ON-RAMP TRAFFIC IS
"THROUGH TRAFFIC" = 2,400 VPH THROUGH TRAFFIC.
"ON-RAMP" = 800 VPH
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 1
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT 1 THROUGH (FROM TABLE 504.7C) 0.40 X 3,200 = 1,280
THROUGH (FROM TABLE 504.7C) = 0.30 X 2,400 = 720 SINCE CALCULATION B (1,280) IS GREATER THAN
ON-RAMP (FROM CHART ABOVE) = 0.30 X 800 = 240 CALCULATION A (960) USE 1,280.
960
*THESE PERCENTAGES ARE NOT NECESSARILY THE DISTRIBUTIONS UNDER FREE FLOW OR LIGHT RAMP TRAFFIC, BUT UNDER
PRESSURE OF HIGH VOLUMES IN THE RIGHT LANES AT THE LOCATION BEING CONSIDERED AND WITH AVAILABLE ROOM IN
OTHER LANES.
NOTE: IF RAMP PERCENTAGE IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE AT POINT UNDER CONSIDERATION IS BELOW DASHED LINE, THEN
AMOUNT IN THE OUTER THROUGH LANE SHOULD BE RECALCULATED ASSUMING RAMP TRAFFIC IS THROUGH TRAFFIC. USE
HIGHER VALUE. SEE EXAMPLE ABOVE.
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.8
Typical Examples of Access
Control at Interchanges
November 1, 2001
Figure 504.8 (cont.)

Typical Examples of Access
Control at Interchanges
July 1, 2004
of each project. Pavement type selection may be

CHAPTER 600 dictated by specific project conditions such as:
PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL • Predicted uneven foundation settlements
SECTION • Maintaining or changing grade profile
• Highly expansive basement soils
Topic 601 - General
• Groundwater
Considerations
• Availability of materials
Index 601.1 - Introduction • Type of pavement on existing adjacent lanes or
facilities
Pavement structural section design is determined by
a combination of pavement, base, and subbase • Corridor continuity
layers that are best suited to specific project
• Traffic considerations
conditions. In California, this combination of
materials placed in layers above the top of the • Maintenance considerations
basement soil (the grading plane) is most often
• Climate impacts
referred to as the "structural section." The
AASHTO "Guide for Design of Pavement • Stage construction
Structures" refers to it as the "pavement structure."
• Size of project
“Pavement,” the uppermost surface layer of the
structural section that carries the traffic, is normally • Other factors
either portland cement concrete or asphalt concrete.
If the pavement type is not dictated by any of these
The asphalt concrete pavement layer may include a
factors, alternative designs (flexible and rigid) must
layer of open graded asphalt concrete.
be considered for each project. The final decision
It is impossible to reduce the design of the structural on pavement type should be the most economical
section into exact mathematical formulas based design based on “life-cycle costs” which include
entirely on theory because of the many variables initial cost, maintenance cost, traffic delay cost, and
involved. The design guidelines and standards rehabilitation cost. Topic 605 discusses pavement
included herein are based on a wide range of type selection and economic analysis in more detail.
information including: theory; test track studies; The various basic structural elements of the
experimental sections; research on materials, roadway are shown diagrammatically in Figure
methods, and equipment; and, perhaps most 601.2.
important of all, the observation of structural section
performance throughout the state and the nation. 601.3 Roles and Responsibilities
The final structural section design must be based on
The roles and responsibilities listed below apply
a thorough investigation of specific project
only to the design of the pavement structural
conditions including materials, environmental
section.
conditions, projected traffic, cost effectiveness, and
on the performance of other project structural (1) Project Engineer (PE) - The registered civil
sections under similar conditions in the same area. engineer in responsible charge of appropriate
project development documents (i.e., PSR,
601.2 Structural Section Design Objectives Project Report, etc.) and project design; is
responsible for project technical decisions,
Structural sections are to be designed using the
design quality, and estimates; obtains input and
standards and guidance described herein. This will
recommendations from the District Materials
assure adequate strength, consistency, and durability
Engineer and other subject matter experts (as
to carry the predicted traffic loads for the design life
appropriate) regarding pavement structural
section design and details; selects pavement
July 1, 2004
Figure 601.2
1,2
Basic Structural Elements of the Roadway
July 1, 2004
structural section, final rehabilitation strategy, (5) Materials Engineering and Testing Services
and pavement design details; and clearly (METS) - A subdivision of the Division of
conveys this information on the project plans Engineering Services, METS is responsible for
and specifications for a Contractor to bid and conducting standard and specialized laboratory
build the project. and field testing, inspections, giving expert
advice on all phases of transportation
(2) District Materials Engineer (DME) -
engineering involving materials and
Responsible for Materials information, when
manufactured products; provides technical
requested, for each project; prepares the
expertise for the development of statewide
Materials Report for each project; provides
standards, guidelines, and procedure manuals;
recommendations to and in continuous
works closely with the District Materials
consultation with the Project Engineer and
Engineers and Resident Engineers to
Resident Engineer throughout planning,
investigate ongoing field problems and/or
design, and construction; coordinates Materials
disputes.
information with Caltrans functional units,
Material Engineering and Testing Services (6) Division of Design (DOD) - Responsible for
(METS), Headquarters functional units, local statewide consistency in the project design
agencies, industry, and consultants. process. The Office of State Pavement Design
(OSPD) is part of the DOD. OSPD is
(3) Pavement Program Steering Committee
responsible for communicating and
(PPSC) - Provides leadership and
maintaining pavement structural section design
commitment to assure safe, effective, and
standards, policies, procedures, and practices
environmentally sensitive highway pavement
that are used statewide.
structural sections that improve mobility across
California. Responsible for assuring structural
601.4 Research and Experimentation
section pavement initiatives, policies, and
standards that reflect departmental goals; Research and experimentation are continuing in
provides clear direction and priorities on order to provide improved design methods and
pavement structural section initiatives; standards, which take advantage of new technology,
implements pavement structural section materials, and methods. Submittal of new ideas by
policies, standards, and specifications. Headquarters and District staff, especially those
Members include Headquarters Division involved in the design, construction, maintenance,
Chiefs and some District Directors. and materials engineering of the structural section,
is encouraged. Suggested research should be sent to
(4) Pavement Standards Team (PST) -
the Division of Research and Innovation in
Multifunctional group consisting of METS,
Sacramento. The Pavement Standards Team must
Design, Construction, Maintenance, Research
approve experimental construction features before
and Innovation, Office Engineer, and selected
completing the final design phase of a project (refer
District Materials Engineer representatives;
to Index 601.5(2)). District Maintenance should
provides structural section related policies,
also be engaged in the discussion involving
procedures, and practices to ensure quality of
experimental construction features.
structural section features regarding design,
construction, maintenance, and rehabilitation; Suggestions for research studies and changes in
develops and maintains structural section design standards may also be submitted to the
standards, specifications, and procedures; Pavement Standards Team (PST).
provides recommendations to the PPSC;
approves nonstandard specifications. The 601.5 Record Keeping
chairperson of this team is the single focal
The following are instructions for the retention of
point of contact for pavement related issues.
pavement structural section design information:
July 1, 2004
(1) Selection of Pavement Type. One complete product. The use of proprietary items is
copy of the documentation for the type of discouraged in the interest of promoting
pavement approved by the District Director competitive bidding.
should be retained in permanent District
When proprietary items are needed and
Project History files as well as subsequent
beneficial to the State, their use must be
updates of construction changes to the
approved by the District Director or by the
structural section. The documentation must
Deputy District Director of Design if such
contain the design period, R-values of the
approval authority has been specifically
basement soil, the R-value(s) selected for the
delegated by the District Director. The Deputy
structural section(s) design, and the lane traffic
Division Chief of Engineering Services,
index (TI) for each design. In addition, it must
Structure Design, approves the use of
include the data required by the instructions set
proprietary materials on structures and other
forth under Topic 605 for selection of
design elements under their jurisdiction. The
pavement type, including a life-cycle cost
use of proprietary items requires approval (i.e.,
analysis.
Public Interest Finding) by the Federal
A life-cycle cost analysis should be completed Highway Administration (FHWA) Division
for pavement type selection on new Office if the project is on the Interstate System
construction projects with TI > 10 unless the of the National Highway System (NHS).
pavement type is dictated by specific project Caltrans’ policy and guidelines on the use of
conditions as discussed in Index 601.2. proprietary items are covered in the Office
Engineer’s Ready to List and Construction
(2) “Special” Designs. “Special” designs to
Contract Award Guide (RTL Guide) under
satisfy unique project specific conditions or for
“Trade Names.” This policy is based on Public
research purposes must be fully justified and
Contract Code, Division 2, Chapter 3, Article
submitted to DOD Office of Pavement Design
5, Paragraph 3400. It is also consistent with
for approval. “Special” designs are defined as
FHWA regulatory requirements. The use of
those designs which involve products or
proprietary materials, methods, or products
strategies for which the Department has not
will not be approved unless:
developed a standard special provision or for
designs which propose the use of products or (a) There is no other known material of equal
strategies which reduce the structural sections or better quality that will perform the same
to less than what is determined by this manual function, or
and accompanying technical guidance. The
(b) There are overwhelming reasons for using
submittals must be in duplicate and include the
the material or product in the public’s
proposed structural section design(s) and a
interest, which may or may not include
location strip map. The letter of transmittal
savings, or
should include the design period, the R-
value(s) of the basement soil(s), the R-value(s) (c) It is essential for synchronization with
selected for the structural section(s) design, the existing highway or adjoining facilities, or
lane TI for each structural section, and (d) Such use is on an experimental basis, with
justification for the “special” design(s). DOD a clearly written plan for “follow-up and
will act as the Headquarters focal point to evaluation.”
obtain concurrence, as required, of PST
representatives prior to DOD granting approval In addition to the RTL Guide requirements, the
of the “special” designs. FHWA requires that the following information
be documented when a proprietary item is
(3) Proprietary Items. The use of new materials, specified in the design of a pavement structural
methods, or products may involve specifying a section:
patented or brand name method, material, or
July 1, 2004
(a) If it must be constructed on or immediately can be found on the Pavement website at

adjacent to an existing facility: year the http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/index.htm.
existing facility was constructed and the
(1) Standard Plans. Generally, these are
original structural section details,
collections of commonly used design details
(b) Traffic data (Average Daily Traffic (ADT), intended to provide consistency for Contractors
Peak Hour Flow, Annual Average Daily and designers in defining the scope of work for
Truck Traffic (AADTT), TI), projects and assist in the biddability of the
project contract plans.
(c) Accident data,
(2) Standard Specifications and Standard Special
(d) Construction cost of the project,
Provisions. The Standard Specifications
(e) As applicable, name of FHWA provide material descriptions, materials quality
representative who reviewed the proposed and workmanship requirements, contract
project per stewardship, and administration terms and definitions, and
(f) Tentative advertising schedule. measurement and payment clauses for items
entering the project. The Standard Special
If the proprietary item is to be used Provisions are additional specification
experimentally and there is Federal standards used to modify the Standard
participation, the request for FHWA approval Specifications for those items entering the
must be submitted to the Chief, Office project and include descriptions, quality
of CTC Highway Appearances, Highway requirements, and measurement and payment.
Encroachments, and Resource Conservation,
Division of Design. The request must include (3) Pavement Technical Guidance. Pavement
a Construction Evaluated Work Plan (CEWP), Technical Guidance is a collection of
which indicates specific functional managers, supplemental guidance and manuals regarding
and units, which have been assigned pavement design which is intended to assist
responsibility for objective follow-up, designers, materials engineers, specialists,
evaluation, and documentation of the construction oversight personnel, and
effectiveness of the proprietary item. See maintenance workers in making informed
Section 3-404 Scope of Work (“Construction- decisions on pavement structural section
Evaluated Research”) of the Construction issues. Information includes, but is not limited
Manual for further details on the work plan and to, aids for assistance in decision making, rigid
the approval procedure. and flexible pavement structural section
rehabilitation strategies, and guidelines for the
Technical assistance is available from the use of various products and materials. These
Division of Engineering Services – Materials Technical Guidance documents may be
Engineering and Testing Services (METS) and accessed on the Pavement website at:
the Division of Design (DOD) to assist with http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guid
designs that utilize new materials, methods, ance.htm.
and products.
(4) The AASHTO “Guide for Design of Pavement
(4) Subsequent Revisions. Any subsequent Structures.” The AASHTO "Guide for Design
changes in structural sections must be of Pavement Structures," although not adopted
documented and processed in accordance with by Caltrans, is a comprehensive reference
the appropriate instructions stated above and guide that provides background that is helpful
with proper reference to the original design. to those involved in design of pavement
601.6 Other Resources structural sections. This reference is on file in
the Division of Design and a copy should be
The following resources provide additional informa- available in each District. Design procedures
tion on pavement design. Much of this information included in the AASHTO Guide are used by
FHWA to check the adequacy of the specific
July 1, 2004
structural sections adopted for Caltrans a unit specifically responsible for providing travel
projects, as well as the procedures and forecasting information. These units are responsible
standards included in Chapter 600 of this for developing traffic projections (including trucks
manual. The AASHTO Guide was developed and equivalent single axle loads) for the planning
by a team of nationally recognized pavement and designing of State highways. The District
structural section design experts with detailed Office Chief responsible for travel forecasting
input from several states, including California. should notify the Headquarters Office of Travel
Forecasting and Analysis (OTFA) in the Division of
(5) Supplemental District Guidance. Some
Transportation Systems Information if there is a
Districts have developed additional structural
significant difference between the traffic used to
section guidance to address local issues. Such
determine ESAL's and the traffic forecast by the
guidance only supplements and does not
regional agency in urban areas. The notification
replace the Headquarters guidance found in
should include the reasons for the deviation so that
this manual, the Pavement Technical
OTFA may offer recommendations or provide
Guidance, the standard plans, specifications,
consultation relative to the chosen methodology.
and special provisions. Supplemental District
Guidance can be obtained by contacting the
602.2 Pavement Service Life
District Materials Engineer.
Pavement Service Life is the period of time that a
Topic 602 – Pavement Service Life newly constructed or rehabilitated pavement
and Traffic Data structural section is designed to perform before
reaching its terminal serviceablility or a condition
that requires major rehabilitation or reconstruction;
602.1 Introduction
this is also referred to as the performance period.
This topic discusses the factors to be considered and The selected pavement service life varies depending
procedures to be followed in developing an estimate on the characteristics of the highway facility, the
of traffic loading for design of the "pavement objective of the project, and the severity of traffic.
structure" or the structural section for specific The strategy or structural section selected for any
projects. project needs to provide the minimum pavement
Pavement structural sections are designed to carry service life that meets the objective of the project as
the projected truck traffic expected to occur during described below.
the pavement service life. This truck traffic is the On resurfacing projects, the entire paved
primary factor affecting pavement life. Passenger shoulder and traveled way shall be resurfaced.
cars, pickups, and two-axle trucks are considered to Not only does this help provide a smoother finished
be negligible. surface, it also benefits bicyclists and pedestrians
Truck traffic information that is required for when they are allowed to use the shoulder.
structural section design includes axle loads, axle (1) Capital Preventive Maintenance (CAP-M)
configurations, and number of applications. A Projects. The pavement service life for
mixed truck traffic stream of different axle loads CAP-M projects shall be a minimum of 5
and axle configurations are converted to an years to meet FHWA funding criteria.
equivalent number of 80 kN axle loads for the CAP-M guidelines are available by contacting
design life. Finally, this sum is converted to a Headquarters Maintenance, Pavement Mainte-
Traffic Index or TI (Topic 602.4), which is used to nance Managers. Additional information and
select a standard portland cement concrete pavement guidance may be found in the Project
structural section (Topic 603) or design an asphalt Development Procedures Manual (PDPM)
concrete pavement structural section (Topic 604). Appendix H at the following website
Because of the complexity involved in developing address: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pdpm/
travel forecasts, Districts typically have established pdpm.htm.
July 1, 2004
(2) Pavement Rehabilitation Projects. The adjacent roadway’s pavement service life,
minimum pavement service life for but not be less than the pavement service life
rehabilitation projects shall be at least 10 required for new construction and
years. Longer service lives of 15, 20, and even reconstruction as noted in Index 602.2(3).
30 years may be more appropriate when the See Index 604.4 for shoulder design
cost of the additional work is only considerations if future roadway widening is
incrementally higher. A Life-cycle Cost a potential. An economic analysis is
Analysis (LCCA) can be an effective tool in recommended to assist in project decisions.
determining the most cost effective service life.
To minimize traffic handling, it may be
LCCA is discussed further in Index 605.3. A
advantageous to combine a widening project
pavement service life longer than 10 years
with needed rehabilitation. For example,
needs concurrence from the District
grinding the adjoining PCC lane next to the
Maintenance Engineer and the Headquarters
proposed widening can improve
Rehabilitation Program Manager. For corridors
constructability and provide a smoother
with at least a current Annual Average Daily
pavement surface for the widening. The
Traffic (AADT) of 150 000 or Annual Average
Project Development Procedures Manual
Daily Truck Traffic (AADTT) of 15 000, it is
Chapter 8, Section 7 provides additional
recommended that a minimum pavement
guidance on widening adjacent to existing
service life of 30-40 years be used.
facilities.
(3) New Construction and Reconstruction. The
(5) Temporary Pavements and Detours. During
minimum pavement service life must be no
construction, lane detours should be designed
less than the project design period (see
to accommodate the anticipated traffic during
Index 103.2) or 20 years, whichever is
construction. This period of time may be
greater. Where a project will meet either of
several years and it is important to determine
the following criteria, the minimum
the traffic index based on the truck traffic the
pavement service life shall be 40 years:
pavement will actually experience.
• The projected AADT 20 years after
completion of construction equals or 602.3 Truck Traffic Projection
exceeds 150 000.
(1) Mainline Traffic. Considerable judgment is
• The projected AADTT will equal or exceed required to develop realistic traffic volume
15 000 trucks 20 years after the completion projections.
of construction. Truck traffic volume and loading projections
The development of a 30 or 40 year TI may be on State Highways can come from weigh-in-
difficult. District Transportation Planning motion (WIM) stations, the Vehicle
and/or Traffic Operations should be involved Classification Program, and the Truck Weight
in determining a realistic and appropriate TI. Studies. Traffic and truck volume projections
Refer to Index 62.7 for the definition of new and loading can be obtained from District
construction and reconstruction. Traffic or Planning.
(4) Widening. Additional consideration is needed The Division of Design uses information from
when determining the service life for pavement the Truck Weight Study to develop 80
widening. Factors to consider include the kilonewton (kN) Equivalent Single Axle Load
remaining service life of the existing (ESAL) constants that represent the estimated
pavement, planned future projects, and future total accumulated ESAL, for each of the four
corridor plans for any additional lane widening axle configurations, during the design service
and shoulders. At a minimum, the pavement life. The current 10-, 20-, and 40-year ESAL
service life for widenings shall match the Constants are shown in Table 602.3A.
July 1, 2004
Table 602.3A way ESAL's for the lane, which is converted

into the TI for the lane (See Table 602.4B
ESAL Constants Example).
Vehicle 10-year 20-year 40-year +
Type Constants Constants Constants Table 602.3B
2-axle 690 1380 2760
Lane Distribution Factors
trucks for Multilane Roads
3-axle 1840 3680 7360 Number Factors to be Applied to Expanded
trucks of Lanes Average Daily Trucks
in One Lane 1 Lane 2 Lane 3 Lane 4
4-axle 2940 5880 11 760
Direction
trucks
One 1.0 - - -
5-axle 6890 13 780 27 560
trucks or Two 1.0 1.0 - -
more Three 0.2 0.8 0.8 -
The ESAL constants are used as multipliers of Four 0.2 0.2 0.8 0.8
the expanded AADTT to determine the total NOTES:
design period ESAL's and in turn the TI. The
ESAL's and the resulting TI are the same 1. Lane 1 is next to the centerline or median.
2. For more than four lanes in one direction, use a
magnitude for both AC and PCC pavement
factor of 0.8 for the outer two lanes and any
design alternatives. auxiliary/collector lanes and a factor of 0.2 for
The distribution of truck traffic by lanes must all other lanes.
be considered in the structural section design
for all multilane facilities. Truck traffic is When other than a straight-line projection of
generally lightest in the median lanes and available truck traffic data is used for design
heaviest in the outside lanes. Because of the purposes, the procedure to be followed in
uncertainties and the variability of lane developing traffic projections will vary. It will
distribution of trucks, lane distribution factors be dependent on a coordinated effort of the
have been established for design purposes as District's Planning and Traffic Divisions
shown in Table 602.3B. working closely with the Regional Agencies.
Finally, an expansion factor is developed for (2) Shoulder Traffic. See Index 603.4 and 604.4
each axle classification. In its simplest form, for PCC and AC shoulder design respectively.
the expansion is a straight-line projection of (3) Ramp Traffic. Estimating future truck traffic
the AADTT data. When using the straight-line on ramps is more difficult than on through
projection the data is projected to find the traffic lanes. The relative effect of the
AADTT at the middle of the design period, commercial and industrial development in an
thus representing the average AADTT for each area is much greater on ramp truck traffic than
axle classification for the design period. The it is on mainline truck traffic.
expanded AADTT, for each axle classification,
is multiplied by the appropriate lane As an alternative to estimating and projecting
distribution factor (fraction of the total an AADTT to determine the ramp TI, ramps
AADTT) to arrive at the expanded AADTT for may be classified and designed as follows:
the lane. The lane AADTT is multiplied by the (a) Light Traffic Ramps - Ramps serving
design period ESAL constant for each undeveloped and residential areas with
corresponding axle classification. Finally, the light to no truck traffic should be designed
summation of these totals equals the total one- for a TI of 8.0.
July 1, 2004
(b) Medium Traffic Ramps - Ramps in Topic 603 - Portland Cement

metropolitan areas, business districts, or
where increased truck traffic is quite likely Concrete Pavement Structural
to develop because of anticipated Section Design
commercial development within the design
period should be designed for a TI of 10.0. 603.1 Introduction
(c) Heavy Traffic Ramps - Ramps that serve Portland cement concrete (PCC) pavement, or rigid
weigh stations, industrial areas, truck pavement, should be considered as a potential
terminals, and/or maritime shipping alternative for all state highway facilities. PCC
facilities should be designed for a TI of pavement should always be considered on Interstate
12.0 for a pavement service life of 20 years and other interregional freeways. Standard
or less and 14.0 for a pavement service life structural sections are included herein for a range
of greater than 20 years. from very high to relatively low volumes of traffic.
When ramps are widened to handle truck Truck traffic and soil conditions are the principal
offtracking, the full structural section, based on factors considered in selecting the structural section,
the ramp TI, should be extended to the inner however life-cycle economics and other pertinent or
edge of the required widening, see 504.3(1)(b). overriding factors may ultimately determine the
pavement type to be used on any given project.
(4) Auxiliary Lane Traffic. Because of structural
section drainage considerations, the auxiliary
603.2 Design Procedure for Rigid Pavement
lane structural section should perpetuate any
drainage layer of the existing adjacent lane. (1) Tie Bars and Dowel Bars.
(5) Freeway-to-Freeway Connectors. TI's for New or reconstructed PCC pavements shall
connectors should be determined the same way be doweled and tied except as noted below:
as for mainline traffic.
• Interior lane replacements (lanes not
adjacent to a shoulder) should be
602.4 Traffic Index undoweled if all adjacent lanes are
The Traffic Index or TI is a measure of the number undoweled.
of ESAL's expected in the design lane over the
• PCC shoulders being placed or
design period. The TI does not vary linearly with
reconstructed next to an undoweled PCC
the ESAL's but rather according to the following
lane can be undoweled.
exponential formula and as illustrated in Table
602.4A. • PCC pavement should not be tied to
adjacent PCC pavement with tie bars when
TI = 9.0 x (ESAL/106)0.119
the spacing of transverse joints of adjacent
Where: slabs is not the same.
TI = Traffic Index • No more than 15 m width of PCC should be
ESAL = Total number of 80 kN Equivalent tied together with tie bars to preclude
Single Axle Loads random cracks from occurring due to the
pavement acting as one large PCC slab.
Table 602.4B illustrates the determination of the TI
for outside and median lanes of an 8-lane freeway. For slab replacements, the placement of dowel
The expanded AADTT and the TI's shown in Table bars and tie bars should be determined on a
602.4B are not intended to be used in the design for project by project basis based on proposed
a specific project. service life, construction work windows,
existence of dowel bars and tie bars in adjacent
slabs, condition of adjacent slabs, and other
July 1, 2004
Table 602.4A
Conversion of ESAL to Traffic Index
ESAL TI* ESAL TI* ESAL TI*
48 164 000 9 490 000
3.0 7.5 12.0
194 288 000 13 500 000
3.5 8.0 12.5
646 487 000 18 900 000
4.0 8.5 13.0
1850 798 000 26 100 000
4.5 9.0 13.5
4710 1 270 000 35 600 000
5.0 9.5 14.0
10 900 1 980 000 48 100 000
5.5 10.0 14.5
23 500 3 020 000 64 300 000
6.0 10.5 15.0
47 300 4 500 000 84 700 000
6.5 11.0 15.5
89 800 6 600 000 112 000 000
7.0 11.5
164 000 9 490 000
*NOTE:
The determination of the TI closer than 0.5 is not justified. No interpolations should be made.
Table 602.4B
Example Determination of the 20 Year Traffic Index
for an 8-lane Freeway
Outside Lanes Median Lanes
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Vehicle Type ESAL 20 Year Expanded Total 20 Year Expanded Total 20 Year
Constants Annual Average ESAL Annual ESAL
Daily Truck (Col.2 x Col.3) Average Daily (Col.2 x Col.5)
Traffic Truck Traffic
2-axle trucks 1380 935 1 290 300 235 324 300
3-axle trucks 3680 550 2 024 000 140 515 200
4-axle trucks 5880 225 1 323 000 55 323 400
5-axle or more 13 780 1025 14 124 500 255 3 513 900
Totals ---- ---- 18 761 800 ---- 4 676 800
Traffic Index (TI) for 20 Year Design, From Table 602.4A = 12.5 11.0
July 1, 2004
pertinent factors. Further information on slab perpetuated along the same plane. Questions
replacement design, see “Slab Replacement on selection of base material for rehabilitation
Guides” and companion documents on the projects may be directed to the Office of
Pavement website http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/ Pavement Rehabilitation in METS. Questions
oppd/pavement/guidance.htm. concerning structural section features for new
construction and reconstruction projects may
Dowel bars are smooth round bars that act as a
be directed to the Division of Design.
load transfer device across a pavement joint.
Consultation with the District Materials
Tie bars are deformed bars or connectors that
Engineer should be an ongoing process for the
are used to hold the faces of abutting PCC
project. The Office of Rigid Pavement
slabs in contact. PCC shoulders used with
Materials and Structural Concrete is also
PCC pavement are to be tied to the adjacent
available to provide forensic studies and
lane with tie bars, see Figure 603.2. Further
project specific consultation.
details regarding dowel bars and tie bars can be
found in the Standard Plans and Pavement (3) Drainage.
Technical Guidance on the Pavement website.
Structural sections should be designed to
(2) Structural Section Thickness. promote free drainage whenever possible.
Alternative designs are provided, as shown in
Standard structural section thicknesses shown
Figure 606.2. Incorporation of a treated
in Table 603.2 should be used in the design for
permeable base daylighting to the edge of
new, widening, and reconstruction projects.
embankment may be considered; otherwise, an
Structural section element thicknesses vary
edge drain collector and outlet system may
with Traffic Index (TI) and R-value of the
provide positive drainage of the structural
basement soil material. Procedures for
section. The climatic region of the project site
developing the TI are described in Topic 602.
should be a factor in selection of a drainable or
The R-Value for the basement soil to be used is
dense base layer under the PCC pavement. A
contained in the project Materials Report or
dense non-erodible base (lean concrete base or
available from the District Materials Engineer.
asphalt concrete base) may also be considered
With an expansive basement soil (Plasticity
with or without an edge drain collector and
Index > 12) and/or basement soil R-value < 10,
outlet system as discussed in Topic 606.
an asphalt concrete, or flexible pavement,
structural section should be specified. If based When placing PCC over a lean concrete base,
on engineering analysis, the R-value of the it is important to avoid bonding between the
basement soil can be raised above 10 by two layers. Bonding can cause cracks and
treatment, to a minimum depth of 200 mm, joints in the lean concrete base to reflect
with an approved stabilizing agent such as through the PCC, which will lead to premature
lime, cement, asphalt, or fly ash, PCC cracking failure. Several methods are available
pavement can be specified. for preventing bonding including application of
wax curing compound, slurry seals, or placing
The final selection of which of the five bases,
a 30 mm interlayer of AC. Application rates
as shown in Table 603.2, should be used on a
may be found in the Standard Specifications.
given project depends on specific factors
For specific project recommendations on how
relative to the available materials, terrain,
to prevent bonding between PCC and lean
environmental conditions, and past
concrete base, consult the District Materials
performance of PCC pavement under similar
Engineer.
project or area conditions. When the TI is
greater than 10, only lean concrete base or Alternative combinations are diagramed in
asphalt concrete base is allowed, except on Table 603.2. Details of structural section
widening projects where existing pavement drainage systems are provided in Topic 606
structural sections having treated permeable and the Standard Plans.
base, the treated permeable base should be
July 1, 2004
Table 603.2
4
PCC Pavement Structural Section Thickness Guidelines (mm)
Basement Soil R-value 10-40
Aggregate Treated
Base3
1
TI PCC Subbase Permeable Base Aggregate Aggregate
Pavement (LCB, ACB) (AS) (ATPB, CTPB) Base (AB) Subbase (AS)
8 or less 205 105 120 105 105 105
8.5-10 215 105 105 105 105 105
10.5-12 230 120 185 -- -- --
2
12.5-13.5 270 150 215 -- -- --
2
14+ 300 150 215 -- -- --
Basement Soil R-value > 40

Aggregate Treated
Base3
1
TI PCC Subbase Permeable Base Aggregate Aggregate
Pavement (LCB, ACB) (AS) (ATPB, CTPB) Base (AB) Subbase (AS)
8 or less 205 105 -- 105 105 --
8.5-10 215 120 -- 105 120 --
10.5-12 230 120 -- -- -- --
2
12.5-13.5 270 150 -- -- -- --
2
14+ 300 150 -- -- -- --
NOTES :
1. Additional thickness should be considered where chains are used for winter weather driving. Consult District
Materials Engineer for recommendations.
2. Includes 10 mm of sacrificial thickness for future grinding.
3. In desert environment, where large temperature differentials occur, use ACB or, for LCB, place a minimum 25 mm
AC between the LCB and PCC pavement layers.
4. The thicknesses shown in this table are only applicable for PCC pavement that includes either tied PCC shoulders or
widened slab (see Index 603.4) and whose adjacent lanes are PCC pavement.
Legend
LCB = Lean Concrete Base PCC = Portland Cement Concrete
ACB = Asphalt Concrete Base CTPB = Cement Treated Permeable Base
ATPB = Asphalt Treated Permeable Base AS = Aggregate Subbase
AB = Aggregate Base
July 1, 2004
Figure 603.2
Portland Cement Concrete Pavement Details
July 1, 2004
Tied PCC shoulders or widened slabs increase the

603.3 Structural Section Geometry
service life of PCC pavement by reducing edge
On projects with three or more lanes in one stresses from trucks, buses, and other vehicles. PCC
direction, the PCC pavement thickness should be shoulders have the added benefit of reducing future
constant for the median and outside lanes. When maintenance costs and worker exposure.
PCC shoulders are specified, a hinge point may be
The structural section selected must meet the
required at the median edge of the traveled way to
pavement service life standards in Index 602.2. In
minimize drainage across the pavement.
selecting whether to construct PCC or AC shoulders
the following factors should be considered:
603.4 Shoulders
(a) Life-cycle cost of the shoulder
It is recommended that the shoulders be constructed
of the same material as the mainline pavement in (b) Construction cost of the shoulder
order to facilitate construction, improve pavement (c) Ability and safety of maintenance crews
performance, and reduce maintenance cost. to maintain the shoulder. In confined
However, shoulders adjacent to PCC traffic lanes areas, such as in front of retaining walls
can be either PCC or AC with the following or narrow shoulders, and on high volume
conditions: roadways (AADT > 150,000)
(a) PCC shoulders shall be used for: consideration should be given to
providing a shoulder design that requires
• PCC pavements constructed in the least amount of maintenance, even if it
mountainous areas that experience is more expensive to construct.
chain control (above 1300 m elevation)
(d) Future plans to widen the facility or
• Paved buffers between PCC High convert the shoulder to a traffic lane
Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes and
PCC mixed flow lanes (e) Width of shoulder. When shoulder
widths are less than 1.5 meters, tied PCC
• PCC ramps to and from truck shoulders are preferable to a widened
inspection stations concrete slab and narrow AC shoulder
(b) When AC shoulders are used, a widened (<0.9 m).
concrete slab (4.27 m) shall be used in the The structural section for the PCC shoulder should
outside lane, HOV lane(s), and truck bypass match the structural section of the adjacent traffic
lanes (see Figure 603.2). A rumble strip or a lane. Cross slopes should meet the requirements
raised pavement marking is recommended next found in Index 302.2. If the future conversion of
to the pavement edge line of widened concrete the shoulder to a traffic lane is anticipated within the
slabs to discourage trucks from driving on the pavement service life of the pavement, it is
outside 0.6 meters of the slab. The use of preferred that the shoulder width match the width of
rumble strips or raised markings requires the future lane. Special delineation of concrete
approval from District Traffic Operations. shoulders may be required to deter the use of the
These conditions apply to all PCC paving projects shoulder as a traveled lane. District Traffic
including new construction, reconstruction, Operations should be consulted to determine the
widening, adjacent lane replacements, and shoulder potential need for anything more than the standard
replacements. Typically existing AC shoulders next edge stripe.
to PCC pavement are not replaced for rehabilitation In those instances where AC shoulders are used with
projects that involve only grinding, dowel bar PCC pavement, the minimum AC thickness should
retrofits, and intermittent slab replacements unless be determined in accordance with Index 604.4
the AC shoulder needs to be rehabilitated or
replaced as part of the project.
July 1, 2004
603.5 Freeway-to-Freeway Connectors and conformance with current standard specifications in

Ramps the braking area, especially where oil drippage is
concentrated.
PCC should be considered for all freeway-to-
freeway connectors and ramps near major The PCC pavement for the termini of AC exit ramps
commercial or industrial areas, truck terminals, and should meet the minimum TI requirements found in
truck weighing and inspection facilities (TI >12.0) Table 603.2 except that the minimum TI used
Heavy trucks cause deterioration by repeated heavy should be 12.5. Special attention should be given to
loading on the outside edge of pavement, at the base type selection to assure continuity and
corners, or at the midpoint of the slab leading to adequacy of drainage. District Traffic Operations
flexure of the pavement. Distress is compounded on should be consulted for recommendations regarding
AC ramps by the dissolving action of oil drippings construction windows to mitigate traffic impacts.
combined with the braking of trucks. At a
minimum, PCC pavement should be used as exit 603.7 Pavement Joints
ramp termini on AC ramps where a significant In Portland cement concrete pavement, there are
volume of trucks is anticipated (see Index 603.6). longitudinal and transverse construction joints,
When the entire new ramp is concrete, it is longitudinal and transverse weakened plane joints,
recommended to utilize the same base and thickness and transverse pressure relief joints. Required
as that to be used under the traveled way, especially spacing for transverse joints is found in the Standard
when concrete shoulders are utilized. If the base is Plans and Standard Specifications. Dowel bars are
Treated Permeable Base (TPB) under the traveled required in all transverse joints along with tie
way and shoulder, TPB should be utilized in the bars for longitudinal joints as discussed in Index
ramp area. 603.2(1). Joints are sawed into the new pavement.
Additional PCC pavement joint and slab saw cutting
For ramp reconstruction, consider recycling the requirements are available on the Pavement
existing base and subbase layers. In some Technical Guidance page of the Pavement website
situations, underground water from landscape http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.htm,
irrigation or other sources may tend to saturate the Standard Specifications, Standard Special
existing slow-draining layers, thereby creating the Provisions, and the Standard Plans.
potential for pumping and pavement damage. In
this case, the design should provide for removal of Joints should be sealed to prevent incompressible
such water by a TPB drainage layer when materials from filling the joints and causing the
reconstruction is required or by using other positive concrete to spall. Seals also limit the entry of water
drainage features which minimize maintenance that could otherwise degrade the underlying
(e.g., daylighting the structural section layers). structural section layers. Various products or
systems for sealing joints are available or are being
603.6 Ramp Termini developed. Each one differs in cost and service life.
The need to specify the sealing of joints should be
PCC pavement is placed at ramp termini instead discussed in the Materials Report or by contacting
of AC to preclude pavement failure due to high the District Materials Engineer. For additional
truck traffic (TI > 12), vehicular braking, turning information on various joint seal products, consult
movements, and oil dripping from vehicles. The the Pavement Technical Guidance on the Pavement
length of PCC pavement to be placed at the termini website http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/
will depend on the geometric alignment of the ramp, guidance.htm, Standard Specifications, Standard
ramp grades, and the length of queues of stopped Special Provisions, Standard Plans, or contact your
traffic. The PCC pavement should extend to the District Materials Engineer or METS Office of
first set of signal loops on signalized intersections. Rigid Pavement Materials and Structural Concrete.
A length of 45 m should be considered the
minimum on unsignalized intersections. Special
care should be taken to assure skid resistance in
July 1, 2004
603.8 PCC Pavement Maintenance and highway facilities since it adjusts readily to
Rehabilitation differential settlement that is likely to occur where
the roadway is constructed on relatively flexible or
Pavement maintenance and rehabilitation is the use variable quality basement soil. Asphalt concrete is
of a single or combination of several preventive or readily repaired or recycled and should be
corrective strategies, which will provide the best considered when traffic impacts must be minimized.
overall solution to extend the pavement service life
for a predetermined number of years. The choice of Asphalt concrete structural sections may be
strategies depends primarily on the pavement constructed from new or recycled materials
condition, traffic impacts, life-cycle cost including rubberized asphalt concrete (RAC), cold
considerations, and apparent rate of deterioration. or hot recycling, cold foam in-place recycling, and
The Materials Report should discuss any historical pulverization, to name a few. Additionally,
problems observed in the performance of PCC different asphalt binders have been developed to
pavement constructed with aggregates found near address different climatic and environmental
the proposed project and subjected to similar constraints. The Pavement website includes
physical and environmental conditions. The use of discussions of the various asphalt pavement types
rapid strength concrete in the replacement of and their applicability. The site may be found at:
concrete slabs should be given consideration to http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.
minimize traffic impacts and open the facility to htm.
traffic in a minimal amount of time. The rate of 604.2 Design Data Requirements and
deterioration is based on experience, field
Sources
observation, and a review of successive annual
Pavement Condition Survey Reports provided by The data needed to design a structural section are R-
Caltrans Division of Maintenance. The selection of value of the basement soil and the Traffic Index (TI)
the appropriate strategy may be based upon for the design period. The R-value is a measure of
constructability, cost, deflection testing (if load the resistance to deformation of the basement soil
transfer is a concern), materials testing, ride quality, under saturated soil conditions and wheel loading.
safety, visual inspection of pavement distress, and The R-value method of design is based on two
other factors based upon project needs. separate measurements:
Pavement Scoping Team reviews are scheduled and (1) The R-value determines the thickness of cover
coordinated by the District, with final approval by or structural section required to prevent plastic
the District Director. See the Project Development deformation of the soil under imposed wheel
Procedures Manual for further procedures and loads.
details. (2) The expansion pressure test determines the
PCC pavement structural section rehabilitation thickness or weight of cover required to
strategies may be found on the Design Pavement maintain the compaction of the soil.
website under Technical Guidance at: Fine grained and sandy soils may exhibit high R-
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance. values (greater than 50) and on occasion, the R-
htm. value test may not provide sufficient thickness of
cover. Local experience with these soils should
Topic 604 - Asphalt Concrete govern in assigning a design R-value. The
Pavement Structural Section determination of R-Value for basement soils is
provided under California Test Method (CTM) 301.
Design Further discussion may be found on the Division of
Design’s Pavement website under Technical
604.1 Introduction Guidance located at the following link:
Asphalt concrete (AC) pavement should be http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.
considered as a potential alternative for all state htm.
July 1, 2004
The R-Values of materials to be used on a project Gravel equivalency (GE) may be defined as the
are contained in the Materials Report. The R-Value required gravel thickness needed to carry a load
of basement soils within a project may vary compared to a different material’s ability to carry
substantially but cost and constructability should be the same load. Gravel factor (Gf) is the relative
considered in specifying one R-value for the project. strength of a material to gravel. Gravel factors for
the various types of base materials are provided in
Judgment based on experience should still be
Table 604.2. The relationship between the two is
exercised to assure a reasonably "balanced design"
that the GE may be divided by the Gf to obtain the
which will avoid excessive costs resulting from over
material’s thickness as follows:
conservatism.
Thickness (t) = GE
If the range of R-value is small or if most of the
values are in a narrow range with some scattered Gf
higher values, the lowest R-value should be selected Structural section safety factors are utilized to
for the structural section design. The lowest R- compensate for construction tolerances allowed by
value should not, however, necessarily govern the the contract specifications. For structural sections
structural section design throughout the length of that include base and/or subbase, a safety factor of
long projects. If there are a few exceptionally low 60 mm is added to the GE requirement for the AC
R-values and they represent a relatively small layer. Since the safety factor is not intended to
volume of basement soil or they are concentrated in increase the GE of the structural section, a
a small area, it may be possible to specify placing compensating thickness is subtracted from the
this material in the bottom of an embankment or in subbase layer (or base layer if there is no subbase).
the slope area outside the structural section limits. For structural sections that are full depth AC, a
Occasionally lime treatment of a short length may safety factor of 30 mm is added to the required GE
be cost effective. of the AC and is not removed. When determining
The placement of geotextiles below the structural the appropriate safety factor to be added, ACB and
section will provide subgrade enhancement by ATPB should be considered as part of the AC layer.
bridging soft areas and providing a separation
between soft pumpable subgrade fines and high 604.3 Structural Section Design Procedures
quality subbase or base materials. for New and Reconstruction Projects
Where changing geological formations and soil A computer program for flexible pavement
types are encountered along the length of a project, structural section design is available from METS’
it may be cost-effective to design more than one Office of Pavement Rehabilitation or the District
structural section to accommodate major differences Materials Engineer. The use of this program is
in R-value that extend over a considerable length. recommended because it automatically employs the
Care should be exercised, however, to avoid rules of the flexible pavement design procedure and
multiple variations in the structural section design enables the designer to compare numerous
that may actually result in increased construction combinations of materials in seeking the most
costs that exceed potential materials cost savings. economical structural section. Numerous examples
of flexible structural section design solutions are
Design of the flexible pavement structural section is available on the Division of Design’s Pavement
based on a relationship between the "gravel website located at: http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/
equivalent" (GE) of the structural section materials, pavement/guidance.htm.
the Traffic Index (TI), and the R-value (R) of the
underlying material. This relationship was The procedures and rules governing flexible
developed by the Department through research and structural section design are:
field experimentation and is represented by the (1) The TI is determined to the nearest 0.5.
following equation:
GE = 0.975 (TI)(100-R)
July 1, 2004
Table 604.2
Gravel Factor and R-Values for Subbases and Bases
Type of Material Abbreviation Gravel Factor (G ) Design R-Value
f
Aggregate Subbase AS-Class 1 1.0 60
AS-Class 2 1.0 50
AS-Class 3 1.0 40
AS-Class 4 1.0 specify
AS-Class 5 1.0 specify
Aggregate Base AB-Class 2 1.1 78
2
AB-Class 3 1.1 specify
Asphalt Treated Permeable Base ATPB 1.4 NA
Cement Treated Base CTB-Class A 1.7 NA
CTB-Class B 1.2 80
Cement Treated Permeable Base CTPB 1.7 NA
Lean Concrete Base LCB 1.9 NA
Lime Treated Subbase LTS 0.9 + UCS NA
6.9
Notes: Legend:
1. For Asphalt Concrete Base (ACB), see Pavement NA = Not Applicable
Technical Guidance at: UCS = Unconfined Compressive Strength in MPa
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.htm
2. Must conform to the quality requirements of AB-Class 2.

July 1, 2004
(2) The following standard design equation is value. Finally, determine the GE(AC) value
applied to calculate the gravel equivalent (GE) from Table 604.3 that the design layer
requirement of the entire structural section or thickness provides or corresponds to.
each layer:
Untreated Base Layer: Calculate the
GE = 0.975(TI)(100-R) initial GE(AC+AB) from the standard design
equation using the R-value of the subbase
where:
material and add the safety factor. From
GE = gravel equivalent in mm this, subtract the GE(AC) taken from Table
TI = traffic index (See Index 602.4) 604.3 to get the required GE(AB) (i.e., GE(AB)
= GE(AC+AB) – GE(AC)). Refer to Table 604.3
R = R-value of the basement material. and select the closest layer thickness.
This may also be the R-value of the Determine the adjusted GE(AB) that the
material below the layer for which design layer thickness provides.
the GE is being calculated.
Untreated Subbase Layer: Calculate the
(3) GE values for each type of material are found GE (total) (without the safety factor) for the
in Table 604.3 by layer thicknesses. The Gf of entire structural section using the standard
design equation with the R-value of the
asphalt concrete increases for any given TI as
basement material. Then subtract the
follows:
GE (AC+AB), as taken from Table 604.3,
provided by the AC layer and AB layer
5.67
Gf = (GE (AS) = GE (total) – GE (AC+AB)). Finally,
t ≤ 150 mm: (TI)1 / 2 refer to Table 604.3 and select the closest
layer thickness. (In this way, the GE of the
( t )1 / 3
t > 150 mm: G f = (1.04) subbase is decreased by the amount of the
(TI)1 / 2 safety factor.) This thickness is also the
adjusted GE (AS) that the subbase provides
(4) Design – The GE to be provided by each type since the Gf for the subbase is 1.0.
of material in the structural section is Finally, summarize the structural layer
determined for each layer, starting with the AC thicknesses and adjusted GE’s to easily
and proceeding downward. The thickness of check that all the requirements are
each material layer is calculated by dividing satisfied.
the GE by the appropriate gravel factor from
Table 604.3. When selecting the design layer (b) Full Depth AC:
thickness, the value is rounded to the nearest Full depth AC (FDAC) is asphalt concrete
15 mm. A value midway between 15 mm used for the entire structural section in lieu
increments is rounded to the next higher value. of base and subbase. Considerations
The following design example illustrates the regarding worker safety, short construction
general methodology to be followed. windows, the amount of area to be paved,
or temporary repairs may make it desirable
(a) AC/Untreated Base/Aggregate Subbase: to reduce the total thickness of the
AC Layer: Calculate the initial GE(AC) structural section by placing full depth AC.
from standard design equation using the FDAC also is less affected by moisture or
R-value of the aggregate base material frost, provides no moisture build up in the
(AB) and add the safety factor to get the subgrade, provides no permeable layers to
required GE(AC). Refer to Table 604.3 and entrap water, and is a more uniform
select the closest GE layer thickness. A structural section. Use the standard design
GE value midway between two GE values equation with the R-value of the basement
should be rounded to the next higher material to calculate the initial GE for the
July 1, 2004
entire structural section. Increase this by base and AC surfacing layers are determined as
adding the safety factor (indicated in Index though AS is the planned subbase material.
604.2) to obtain the required GE of the The LTS is then substituted for the AS.
AC. Then refer to Table 604.3, select the
Since AS has a Gf of 1.0, the actual thickness
closest layer thickness for AC, and
determine the adjusted GE that it provides. and the GE are equal. When LTS is substituted
The GE of the safety factor is not removed for the AS, the actual thickness is determined
in this design. by dividing the GE by the appropriate Gf based
on unconfined compressive strength. The
An asphalt concrete base (ACB) may be gravel factor for LTS is calculated from the
utilized for part of the full depth AC Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of
pavement since ACB is considered part of the treated soil measured in MPa using the
the pavement design. The dense graded formula:
AC surface layer should have a minimum
Gf = 0.9 + UCS
thickness of 45 mm.
6.9
A treated permeable base (TPB) layer may
Generally, the layer thickness of LTS should
be placed below full depth AC or within
be limited, with 200 mm as the minimum and
the AC layer on widening projects to
600 mm as the maximum thickness. An
perpetuate, or match, an existing treated
asphalt concrete layer placed directly on the
permeable base layer for continuity of
LTS should have a thickness of at least 75mm.
drainage. Reduce the GE of the AC by the
amount of GE provided by the TPB. In no Because the lime treatment of the basement
case should the initial GE of the AC layer soil may be less expensive than the base
over the TPB be less than 40% of the GE material, the calculated base thickness can be
required over the subbase as calculated by reduced and the LTS thickness increased
the standard design equation. When there because of cost considerations. The base layer
is no subbase, use 50 for the R-value for thickness is reduced by the corresponding
this calculation. In cases where a working gravel equivalency provided by the lime
table will be used, the GE of the working treated basement soil or subbase.
table is subtracted from the GE of the AC A subbase layer or even a base layer may be
as well. A working table is a minimum omitted if the R-value of the basement soil is
thickness of material, asphalt, base, or relatively high. Lime treatment (or
subbase, used to place construction stabilization) may in some cases increase the
equipment and achieve compaction R-value of a soil so that the subbase or even
requirements when compaction is difficult the base layer may be omitted.
or impossible to meet.
(7) The thickness of other structural section layers
(5) Base and subbase materials, other than ATPB, (other than AC, ATPB, and CTPB) determined
should each have a minimum thickness of 105 by the procedures described herein may be
mm. When the calculated thickness of base or adjusted to accommodate construction practice
subbase material is less than the desired 105 and to minimize cost provided the minimum
mm minimum thickness, either (a) increase the GE and construction requirements are satisfied.
thickness to the minimum without changing the
thickness of the overlying layers or (b) (8) Alternate Designs. The design thickness
eliminate the layer and increase the thickness determined by the procedures provided in
of the overlying layers to compensate for the Index 604.3(4) are not intended to prohibit
reduction in GE. other combinations and thickness of materials.
Adjustments to the thickness of the various
(6) When Lime Treated Subbase (LTS) is used as materials (other than AC, ATPB, and CTPB)
a subbase it is substituted for all, or part, of the may be made to accommodate construction
required AS layer. The design thickness of the
July 1, 2004
Table 604.3
Gravel Equivalents of Structural Layers (mm)
ASPHALT CONCRETE (DGAC) BASE AND SUBBASE
Traffic Index (TI)

5& 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 CTPB;
below 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 & up ACB; CTB CTB
LCB (Cl. A) ATPB (Cl. B) AB AS
Actual Gravel Factor (Gf)
Thickness
of Layer Gf varies with TI4 Gf constant
(mm) 2.54 2.32 2.14 2.01 1.89 1.79 1.71 1.64 1.57 1.52 1.46 1.9 1.7 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0
30 76 70 64 60 57 54 51 49 47 46 44 -- -- -- -- -- --
45 114 104 96 90 85 81 77 74 71 68 66 -- -- -- -- -- --
60 152 139 128 121 113 107 103 98 94 91 88 -- -- -- -- -- --
2
75 191 174 161 151 142 134 128 123 118 114 110 -- -- 105 -- -- --
90 229 209 193 181 170 161 154 148 141 137 131 -- -- 126 -- -- --
2
105 267 244 225 211 198 188 180 172 165 160 153 200 180 147 126 116 105
120 305 278 257 241 227 215 205 197 188 182 175 228 204 168 144 132 120
135 343 313 289 271 255 242 231 221 212 205 197 257 230 189 162 149 135
150 381 348 321 302 284 269 257 246 236 228 219 285 255 210 180 165 150
165 421 392 362 338 318 301 287 275 264 254 247 314 281 231 198 182 165
180 473 441 407 380 357 338 322 308 296 285 278 342 306 252 216 198 180
195 526 490 453 422 397 377 359 343 329 317 309 371 332 273 234 215 195
210 -- 541 500 466 439 416 396 379 363 350 341 399 357 -- 252 231 210
225 -- 593 548 511 481 456 434 415 399 384 374 428 383 -- 270 248 225
240 -- 647 597 557 524 497 473 452 434 418 407 456 408 -- 288 264 240
255 -- -- 647 604 568 538 513 491 471 453 442 485 434 -- 306 281 255
270 -- -- 698 652 613 581 553 529 508 489 477 513 459 -- 324 297 270
285 -- -- -- 701 659 625 595 569 546 526 512 542 485 -- 342 314 285
300 -- -- -- 750 706 669 637 609 585 563 548 570 510 -- 360 330 300
315 -- -- -- 801 753 714 680 650 624 601 585 599 536 -- 378 347 315
330 -- -- -- -- 802 759 723 692 664 639 623 -- -- -- -- -- 330
345 -- -- -- -- 851 806 767 734 705 679 661 -- -- -- -- -- 345
360 -- -- -- -- 900 853 812 777 746 718 699 -- -- -- -- -- 360
375 -- -- -- -- -- 901 858 820 787 758 738 -- -- -- -- -- 375
390 -- -- -- -- -- 949 904 864 830 799 778 -- -- -- -- -- 390
405 -- -- -- -- -- 998 950 909 873 840 818 -- -- -- -- -- --
420 -- -- -- -- -- -- 997 954 916 882 859 -- -- -- -- -- --
435 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1045 1000 960 924 900 -- -- -- -- -- --
450 -- -- -- -- -- -- 1094 1046 1004 967 942 -- -- -- -- -- --
465 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1093 1049 1010 984 -- -- -- -- -- --
480 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1140 1094 1054 1026 -- -- -- -- -- --
495 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1188 1140 1098 1069 -- -- -- -- -- --
510 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1187 1143 1113 -- -- -- -- -- --
525 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1233 1188 1156 -- -- -- -- -- --
540 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1280 1233 1201 -- -- -- -- -- --
555 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1279 1245 -- -- -- -- -- --
570 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1325 1290 -- -- -- -- -- --
585 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1372 1336 -- -- -- -- -- --
600 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1382 -- -- -- -- -- --
Notes:
1. Standard layer thicknesses of 75 mm and 105 mm have been adopted respectively for ATPB and CTPB. These in turn correspond respectively to GEs
of 105 mm and 180 mm. A thicker TPB drainage layer may be considered only under a unique combination of conditions.
2. DGAC Gf also increases as the thickness increases, if the thickness is greater than 150mm - See Index 604.3(3).
3. Rubberized layer thicknesses may be found in the Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Manual, Table 3 and 4.
4. Open Graded Asphalt Concrete is a surface wearing course and provides no structural value.
July 1, 2004
restrictions or practices, and minimize costs, The total GE of the shoulder section is usually
provided the minimum GE requirements, more than required due to the thickness of AB
including safety factors, of the basement soil and/or AS.
and each layer in the structural section are
(3) Future Conversion to Lane.
satisfied.
On new facilities, if the future conversion of
At times, experimental designs and/or
the shoulder to a traffic lane is within the
alternative materials are proposed. These
pavement service life, the shoulder structural
should be designed, constructed, and evaluated
section should be equal to that of the adjacent
in cooperation with METS and the District
traveled way.
Materials Engineer. Refer to Index 601.5(2)
for further discussion. If a decision has been made to convert an
existing shoulder to a portion of a traffic lane, a
Alternative design examples are provided in deflection study must be made to determine the
the Design Pavement website found at: structural adequacy of the in-place material.
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guid The condition of the existing shoulder must
ance.htm also be evaluated for undulating grade, rolled-
up AC at the PCC joint, surface cracking,
604.4 Shoulder Structural Section Design raveling, brittleness, oxidation, etc.
The structural section design of median and outside The converted facility must provide a roadway
shoulders is based on the same method described for that is structurally adequate for the proposed
the traveled way in Index 604.3. pavement service life. This is to eliminate or
(1) Traffic Index (TI). minimize the likelihood of excessive
maintenance or rehabilitation being required in
Where possible, it is recommended that the TI a relatively short period of time because of
for the shoulder should match that of the inadequate structural strength and deterioration
adjacent traffic lane except that the thickness of the existing AC.
of the base or AC pavement may vary to
account for the different cross slope between (4) Medians.
the shoulder and traffic lane. At a minimum In addition to the information in Index
the design for an AC shoulder is based on no 305.5(2), when a median is 4.2 m wide or less
less than 2% of the projected ESAL's in the on multi-lane undivided cross sections, the
adjacent lane; however, a TI less than 5.0 median structural section should be equivalent
should not be used. to the adjacent lanes.
In an area where there are sustained steep
604.5 Ramp Structural Section Design
grades (over 4%) without a truck climbing
lane, the potential for slow moving trucks to Structural section design for AC ramps is based on
encroach on the shoulder should be the same method used for the traveled way, as
investigated. If said encroachment results in described in Index 604.3. Refer to Index 602.3(3)
the ESAL’s exceeding 2%, the shoulder for determination of design traffic for ramps.
structural section should be designed to (1) Structural Section Drainage. Provisions for
accommodate the larger ESAL value. positive, rapid drainage of the structural
(2) Grading Plane. section is very important, as stated in Topic
606, on ramps as well as main lanes. However,
Normally, there is no break in the grading
including drainage systems in ramp structural
plane under the pavement shoulder contact
sections can sometimes create drainage
joint. The shoulder structural section can be
problems such as accumulation of water in the
designed with or without an aggregate subbase
subgrade of descending ramps approaching
(AS) layer, depending on the comparative
local street intersections in flat terrain. Such
initial cost of aggregate base (AB) versus AS.
July 1, 2004
situations, where there may be no cost effective is used to minimize initial costs, the full
way to provide positive drainage outlets, call subbase and base thicknesses should be placed
for careful evaluation of local conditions and in the initial construction. Table 604.6A
judgment in determining whether a drainage considers R-value of the basement soil as the
system should be included or not in each AC only variable under each traffic usage
ramp structural section. classification. Safety factors were applied in
the ramp design but not for the other areas.
(2) Shoulder Structural Section. Ramp shoulder
structural sections are to be designed in (2) Park and Ride Lot Pavement Design. The
accordance with Index 604.4 except where layer thicknesses shown in Table 604.6B are
ramp widening is required to handle truck off- based on successful practice. These designs
tracking, see Index 404.1. In such cases, the are minimal to keep initial costs down, but are
full ramp structural section should extend to considered reasonable since additional AC
the outer shoulder edge of the widened ramp, surfacing can be added later, if needed, without
see Index 504.3(1)(b). the exposure to traffic or traffic-handling
problems typically encountered on a roadway.
For the design of ramp termini, see Index 603.6.
The surface of Park and Ride Lots should be
604.6 Structural Section Design for Roadside crowned or sloped to minimize the amount of
Rests and Parking Lots surface water penetrating into the structural
section. Drainage facilities for the surface
Following the standard pavement structural section
runoff should be provided. A 9.5 mm or 12.5
design procedure for roadside rests and park and
mm maximum AC mix is recommended to
ride lots is not practicable because of the
provide a relatively low permeability. The AC
unpredictability of traffic. Therefore, standard
pavement should be placed in one lift to
sections, based on anticipated typical load, have
provide maximum density.
been adopted. However, if project site specific
traffic information is available, it should be used Table 604.6A, Structural Sections for Roadside
with the standard design procedure. Rests, should be used in designing the
structural section for areas of park and ride lots
(1) Roadside Rest Pavement Design. Table
that will be used by buses and/or trucks.
604.6A gives recommended thicknesses for the
Unique conditions may require other special
elements of structural sections to be used on
considerations.
entrance and exit ramps, roads, truck parking
areas - including maintenance stations, Coal tar pitch emulsion treatment should not be
facilities, maintenance pull-out areas, and auto applied to park and ride lots. However, a fog
parking areas in safety roadside rests. The seal coat may be required after placing the AC,
surface of the parking areas in safety roadside particularly if the facility will not be used
rests should be crowned or sloped to minimize immediately after construction.
the amount of surface water penetrating into
the structural section. Drainage facilities for 604.7 Asphalt Concrete Pavement
the surface runoff should be provided. Maintenance and Rehabilitation
TI assumptions have been made which are the Policies and procedures governing AC pavement
basis for Table 604.6A. The structural sections rehabilitation are contained in the Department’s
are minimal, to keep initial costs down, but are “Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Manual,”
reasonable because additional AC surfacing available from METS’ Office of Pavement
can be added later, if needed, and generally Rehabilitation or the District Materials Engineer.
without incurring exposure to traffic or traffic The “Flexible Pavement Rehabilitation Manual”
handling problems. When stage construction may be accessed at: http://www.dot.ca.gov
/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.htm.
July 1, 2004
Table 604.6A
Structural Sections for Roadside Rests
1
(Thickness of Layers in mm)
R-value of Basement Soil
Usage TI Material 50 & 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19- 10-14 5-9
3
(Class) Over
Ramps 8.0 AC 75 90 90 105 75 75 75 75 75 75
& CTB(A) 180 180 210 210 180 180 180 180 180 180
Truck AS(2) 0 0 0 0 105 120 165 195 240 270
Roads AC 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105 105
AB(2) 195 240 270 330 195 195 195 195 195 195
AS(2) 0 0 0 0 105 150 195 225 270 300
2
AC 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 285 285 300
Truck 6.0 AC 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Parking AB(2) 135 165 195 210 135 135 135 135 135 135
Areas AS(2) 0 0 0 0 120 150 165 195 225 255
2
AC 120 135 150 165 165 180 195 195 210 210
Auto 5.5 AC 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60
Roads AB(2) 120 135 165 180 210 120 120 120 120 120
AS(2) 0 0 0 0 0 120 150 180 210 225
2
AC 120 120 135 150 150 165 180 180 195 195
Auto 5.0 AC 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45
Parking AB(2) 120 150 165 195 210 120 120 120 120 120
Areas AS(2) 0 0 0 0 0 105 135 165 180 210
2
AC 90 105 120 120 135 135 150 165 165 180
Notes:
1. AC thicknesses of 75 mm or less must be placed in one lift.
2. Full Depth AC option (No base or subbase).
3. Structural section material options listed for each Usage, TI, and R-value are equivalent. The option
chosen is the Project Engineer’s decision based on recommendations from the District Materials
Engineer, economics, and material availability.
July 1, 2004
Table 604.6B Topic 605 - Selection of

Structural Sections for Pavement Type
Park and Ride Lots
605.1 Introduction
The two types of pavement generally considered
Thickness of Layers for new construction are rigid and flexible
R-Value AC* AB pavements as typified by Portland cement concrete
Basement (mm) (mm) (PCC) pavement and asphalt concrete (AC)
Soil pavement, respectively. There is no formula or
clear-cut procedure which will produce a definite
> 40 45 0
answer as to which pavement type is the most
< 40 75 0 appropriate. In addition, because physical
conditions are so variable and the influence of other
45 105
factors differs significantly from location to
> 40 and < Penetration location, projects must be studied individually.
60 Treatment, using a Therefore, the Project Engineer must consider the
liquid asphalt or factors in Index 605.2, make certain assumptions,
dust palliative on and use engineering judgment based on the best
compacted information available when determining which type
roadbed material. or strategy to specify.
See Standard
Specifications 605.2 Pavement Type/Strategy
Section 93 or Determination
Section 18.
The choice of pavement type or strategy should
* Place in one lift. consider the following factors, which are listed and
discussed in Appendix B of the 1993 AASHTO
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures. These
The Division of Maintenance has committed factors should be considered and addressed
dedicated funding to pavement preservation. This specifically in all project approval documents (PR,
pavement preservation funding implements a PSSR, etc.).
preventive maintenance program as a
Departmental business practice. Preventive Primary factors listed are:
maintenance is applied to roadway surfaces in good • Traffic,
condition. This effectively provides additional
• Soils characteristics,
service life by minimizing the effects of weathering
and reducing maintenance costs. For further • Weather,
information, contact the HQ Division of • Construction considerations,
Maintenance. • Recycling, and
Refer to the Maintenance Manual for preventive • Cost comparisons (initial and life-cycle).
maintenance strategies and to the CAP-M
No significance is attached to the order in which
guidelines for capital preventive maintenance
the factors are listed.
strategies. CAP-M guidelines are available by
contacting Headquarters Maintenance, Pavement Secondary factors which may be pertinent, should
Maintenance Managers. also be considered and addressed. These factors
include:
July 1, 2004
• Performance of similar pavements in the The new construction design and rehabilitation
project area, strategy should also minimize the exposure and
• Adjacent existing pavements, maximize the safety of construction or maintenance
forces and their equipment.
• Conservation of materials and energy,
• Availability of local materials or contractor The final decision on pavement type should be the
capabilities, most economical design based on a life-cycle cost
analysis (LCCA) which includes initial cost,
• Traffic and worker safety, maintenance cost, traffic delay cost and
• Incorporation of experimental features, rehabilitation cost. At a minimum, a life-cycle cost
• Stimulation of competition, and analysis should be done for pavement type
selection with TI > 10 unless the pavement type is
• Municipal preference, participating local
dictated by specific project conditions (see Index
government preference, and recognition of
601.2 for examples).
local industry.
Pavement type selection may be dictated by After considering the various governing factors,
specific project conditions such as: alternative structural sections should be developed
for economic analysis. If a detailed life-cycle cost
• Predicted uneven foundation settlements or analysis is not performed, a less comprehensive
expansive soils dictate the use of AC, analysis must still be completed. This analysis is
• Groundwater or periodic inundation basically to determine the most economical
suggest the use of PCC pavement, structural section utilizing available structural
section materials.
• Short freeway to freeway connections
made between pavements of the same type, If a detailed LCCA is performed, it should follow
• Existing pavement widening with a similar the procedure in Index 605.3.
material,
605.3 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)
• Traffic considerations,
LCCA comparisons must be made between
• Stage construction, and properly designed, viable structural sections that
• Size of project less than 6.5 lane would be approved for construction if selected.
kilometers. The structural section chosen in the economic
comparison should be included in the final plans
Another consideration that may have a possible unless a revision is subsequently approved. In this
effect on the final decision is the presence of grade event, a short memorandum is prepared referring to
controls, such as: the original documentation, stating the details of
• median barriers, the change, the reasons for the change, and the
revised life-cycle costs. See Index 601.5 for
• drainage facilities,
documentation requirements.
• curbs and dikes
(1) General. The economic comparison of
• lateral and overhead clearances, and structural sections should be based on total
• structures which may limit the structural expected life-cycle cost. The following
section design or rehabilitation strategies. general guidelines should be used:
The pavement type selection should consider how (a) The structural sections to be compared
these appurtenant features might affect the should be shown by sketches so that
pavement structural section. quantities can be computed and checked.
July 1, 2004
(b) A 35-year economic life-cycle period (b) Maintenance Costs.

should be used for each project that is • Maintenance records should be
designed for a 20-year life. This assumes obtained for cost data, including seal
that the pavement structural section will joints and cracks, undersealing to fill
be maintained and rehabilitated to carry voids, repairing spalls, occasional
the projected traffic over a 35-year slab replacement, etc., and
period. The chart below provides for
other analysis periods for different • Traffic delay.
pavement service lives. (c) Rehabilitation Costs.
Pavement Service Economic • Replacing slabs in truck lanes in year
Life Analysis Period 15,
(years) (years) • Placing AC overlay (preceded by slab
10 20 cracking and seating) in year 25,
20 35 • Engineering cost (preliminary and
30 45 construction charges as percent of
40 50 rehabilitation costs),
• Appurtenant and supplemental work
(c) A discount rate of 4% is used to convert (all work to be done to appurtenant
costs to present worth. drainage, safety, and other features
(d) Life-cycle costs are to be computed for made necessary by the rehabilitation
the entire pavement structural section, work),
including shoulders, for a length of one • Traffic delay (obtain cost data from
kilometer in one direction of travel on District Division of Planning),
divided highways. The entire structural
• Detours (may be included in
section is included for 2-lane roadways.
appurtenant and supplemental work),
Use one half of the normal maintenance
and
cost per kilometer for divided highways.
• Salvage value (estimated remaining
(2) PCC Pavement Structural Section. The service life of pavement or value of
life-cycle cost analysis for a PCC pavement structural section materials).
structural section should include the following
items as appropriate: (3) AC Pavement Structural Section. The
life-cycle cost analysis for an AC pavement
(a) Initial Costs. structural section should include the following
• PCC pavement, items:
• Treated base (LCB, ACB, ATPB, CTPB) (a) Initial Cost.
• Aggregate base (AB), • AC pavement,

• Base (ACB, CTB, ATPB, CTPB,
• Aggregate subbase (AS), AB),
• PCC shoulders, • Aggregate subbase (AS),
• Shoulder base, • AC shoulders,
• Shoulder subbase, • Shoulder base,
• Shoulder subbase, and
• Structural section drainage system
(TPB layer under PCC pavement • Structural section drainage system
and/or edge drains), and (TPB under AC pavement and/or
edge drains)
• Joint seals.
July 1, 2004
(b) Maintenance Cost. An economic life-cycle cost comparison

outline for a 35-year period is presented in
•
Maintenance records should be
Table 605.3.
obtained for cost data, including thin
AC blanket, chip seals, patching, Topic 606 - Drainage of the
sealing cracks, etc., and
Pavement Structural Section
• Traffic delay.
(c) Rehabilitation Cost.
606.1 Introduction
• AC overlay for all lanes and
Distress in both flexible and rigid pavements is
shoulders once every 12 years,
generally caused by exposure to heavy truck traffic
• Engineering cost (preliminary and when the pavement structural section is in a
construction charges as percent of saturated condition. Saturation of the structural
rehabilitation costs determined from section or underlying foundation materials, or both,
past district records), generally results in a decrease in strength or ability
• Appurtenant and supplemental work to support truck axle loads. Potential problems
(all work to be done to appurtenant associated with saturation of the structural section
drainage, safety, and other features and the subgrade foundation include:
made necessary by the rehabilitation • Pumping action,
work),
• Differential expansion (swelling) of
• Traffic delay (obtain costs from expansive subgrade soils,
District Division of Planning),
• Detours (may be included in • Frost damage in freeze-thaw areas,
appurtenant and supplemental work), • Erosion and piping of fine materials
and creating voids which result in the loss of
• Salvage value (estimated remaining subgrade support,
service life of pavement or value of • Icing of pavement surface from upward
structural section materials). seepage,
(4) Present Worth Cost Calculation. • Stripping of asphalt concrete aggregates,
PWC = IC + [(RC + EC + SC + DC) x PWF and
No.1] + (MC x PWF No. 2) - (SV x PWF No. 3)
• Accelerated oxidation of asphalt binder.
Where:
Water can enter the structural section as surface
PWC = Present worth cost water through cracks, joints, and pavement
IC = Initial costs infiltration, and as groundwater from an intercepted
RC = Rehabilitation costs aquifer, a high water table, or a localized spring.
EC = Engineering cost Both sources of water should be considered and
SC = Supplemental work costs provisions should be made to handle both. The
DC = Traffic delay costs structural section drainage system, which is
PWF = Present worth factor designed to handle surface water inflow, is
MC = Maintenance costs generally separate from the subsurface drainage
SV = Salvage value system that is designed to accommodate
encroaching sub-surface water. Local rainfall data
It is imperative that careful attention is given
should be used in the design of the roadway
to the calculations involved and the data used
drainage system as discussed in Chapter 830 of this
in the calculations to ensure the most realistic
manual.
and factual comparison between pavement
types.
July 1, 2004
Table 605.3
Life-Cycle Economic Comparison of Pavement Types
(Variable-Year Analysis Period and 4% Discount Rate)
ALTERNATIVE 1 Cost Per Kilometer With
Shoulders
Initial Cost = $(_A_)
Rehabilitation Costs in Year _____:
Repair Cost = $(_b_)
Engineering $(_b_)(0.1225) = $(___)
Appurtenant and Supplemental Work $(_b_)(0.1350) = $(___)
Traffic Delay = $(___)
$(_c_)
Present Worth Cost of Rehabilitation Work in Year ____ $(_c_) (PWF) = $(_C_)
Rehabilitation Costs in Year _____: ****
Repair Cost = $(_d_)
Engineering $(_d_)(0.1225) = $(___)
Appurtenant and Supplemental Work $(_d_)(0.1350) = $(___)
$(_e_)
Present Worth Cost of Rehabilitation Work in Year ____ $(_e_) (PWF) = $(_E_)
Annual/Average Maintenance over ____ years (See Index 605.3(2)(b)) $(_*_)(16.3742) = $(_F_)
Subtotal (A+C+E+F) $(___)
Less Salvage Value (of rehabilitation)** (Variable Ratio) $(_c_)(PWF) = - $(___)
PCC Pavement Net Present Worth Cost $(___)
ALTERNATIVE 2 Cost Per Kilometer
With Shoulders
Initial Cost = $(_G_)
Rehabilitation Costs in Year _____:
Repair Cost = $(_h_)
Engineering $(_h_)(0.1225) = $(___)
Appurtenant and Supplemental Work $(_h_)(0.1350) = $(___)
$(_i_)
Present Worth Cost of Rehabilitation Work in Year ____ $(_i_) (PWF) = $( _I_)
Present Worth Cost of Rehabilitation Work in Year ____ $(_i_) (PWF) = $(_ J_)
Annual/Average Maintenance over ___ years (See Index 605.3(3)(b)) $(_*_)(16.3742) = $(_K_)
Subtotal (G+I+J+K) $(___)
Less Salvage Value (of Resurfacing) ** (Variable Ratio) $(_i_)(PWF) = - $(___)
ALT2 Net Present Worth Cost $(___)
Savings Per Kilometer Using (ALT1/ALT2) [Circle appropriate alternative] $(___)
NOTES
* As an initial estimate, use the average annual district maintenance cost for the respective type of pavement (use WIMS Data).
** Salvage Value Assumptions: For purposes of this example, the original PCC pavement is expected to require some type of
rehabilitation work at 15 and 25 years. At the end of the 35-year comparison, the second rehabilitation is expected to serve 2
years longer. This provides a salvage value of 2/12 the cost of the second rehabilitation. The original AC pavement is expected
to require resurfacing or recycling in 12 and 24 years, and the AC overlay or recycling is assumed to last 12 years for a total
service of 36 years.
*** The above format is an example of an outline for guidance only. Actual rehabilitation strategies for a specific project should be
used. Refer to Pavement website – “LCCA” for further discussion.
**** Repeat as necessary over pavement analysis period.
July 1, 2004
The estimated sub-surface water inflow can be 606.3 Drainage Components and Related
determined by a combination of field investigations, Design Considerations
analytical techniques, and graphical methods.
"Subsurface Drainage" is discussed in Chapter 840. The basic components of a pavement structural
The Materials Report contains findings on section drainage system are:
subsurface conditions and recommendations for • Drainage layer.
design. The District Materials Engineer and
Division of Design can provide assistance in • Collector system.
developing appropriate features in the plans and • Outlets, vents, and cleanouts.
specifications to address the problem of water in the
structural section. • Filter Fabric (Selected for project specific
soil conditions)
606.2 Structural Section Drainage Practices • Storm Water Management
(1) New Construction Projects. The structural (1) Drainage Layer. A drainage layer consisting
section should include a layer of Treated of either 75 mm of asphalt treated permeable
Permeable Base (TPB) under the pavement base (ATPB) or 105 mm of cement treated
except in areas where the mean annual rainfall permeable base (CTPB) should be placed
is very low (less than 125 mm) or where the immediately below the pavement for
basement soil is free draining (a permeability interception of surface water that enters the
-4
greater than 3.53 x 10 m/s). The surface of structural section. The drainage layer, base,
the traveled way and shoulders should employ and subbase should extend the full width of the
materials that will prevent surface water roadbed (see Figure 606.2). If constraints
intrusion and any joints should be sealed. If exist, then the drainage layer should utilize a
sufficient right of way is available, it is collector system of edge drains and collector
desirable to grade the roadbed to allow for a pipes (see Figure 606.2).
free draining outlet for the structural section.
When there is concern that the infiltrating
The TPB, AB and AS layers of the structural
surface water may saturate and soften the
section extend the full width of the roadbed
underlying subbase or subgrade (due either to
(see Figure 606.2).
exposure during construction operations or
(2) Widening and Reconstruction Projects. The under service conditions) a filter fabric or other
widened structural section layers should suitable membrane should be utilized. It
conform to the existing structural section layers should be applied to the base, subbase, or
to perpetuate existing drainage. The widened subgrade on which the TPB layer is placed to
layers should extend the full width of the prevent migration of fines and contamination
roadbed to a free outlet, if feasible, as in new of the TPB layer by the underlying material.
construction. (See Figure 606.2). Joints Either of the standard ATPB or CTPB layers
should be sealed as discussed in Index 603.7. (75 mm or 105 mm respectively) will generally
(3) Rehabilitation Projects. The surface of the provide greater drainage capacity than is
traveled way and shoulders should employ needed. The standard thicknesses are based
methods and materials that will help prevent primarily on constructability with an added
surface water intrusion and any joints should allowance to compensate for construction
be sealed. Existing structural section drainage tolerances. If material other than ATPB or
should be perpetuated or restored, if feasible. CTPB with a different permeability is used, it
is necessary to check the permeability and
adequacy of the layer thickness.
July 1, 2004
Figure 606.2
Typical Section with Treated Permeable Base
Drainage Layer
July 1, 2004
When using TPB, special attention should be surface layer. Cross drain interceptor trenches
given to drainage details wherever water must be sloped to drain.
flowing in the TPB encounters impermeable In addition, cross drains need to be provided at
abutting structural section layers, a bridge the low-end terminal of TPB projects, as
approach slab, a sleeper slab, a pavement end shown in Figure 606.3B. Care should be taken
anchor, or a pressure relief joint. In any of to coordinate the cross drains with the
these cases, a cross drain interceptor should be longitudinal structural section drainage system.
provided. Drainage layers in roadway intersections and
Details of cross drain interceptors at various interchanges may require additional collector
locations are shown in Figure 606.3A. The trenches, pipes, and outlets to assure rapid
cross drain outlets should be tied into the drainage of the structural section.
longitudinal edge drain collector and outlet
A standard longitudinal collector trench width
system with provision for maintenance access
of 0.3 m has been adopted for new construction
to allow cleaning.
to accommodate compaction and consolidation
When TPB is encountered as a drainage layer of the TPB alongside and above the 80 mm
in widening of a facility, the TPB should be slotted plastic pipe. The TPB type (cement or
perpetuated so water is not trapped within the asphalt treated) for use in the collector trenches
structural section. will be at the contractor’s option.
(2) Structural Section Design Considerations. The Filter fabric should be placed as shown in
standard flexible pavement design procedure, Figures 606.2 and 606.3A, respectively, to
as covered under Index 604.4, is followed to provide protection against clogging of the
develop AC pavement structural sections TPM by intrusion of fines. Filter fabric should
which incorporate a drainage layer to be selected based upon project specific
accommodate surface infiltration. A gravel materials conditions to ensure continuous flow
factor (Gf) of 1.4 is used for ATPB with a of water and preclude clogging of the filter
standard thickness of 75 mm. A standard fabric openings. Consult with METS’ Office
thickness of 105 mm is used for CTPB with a of Pavement Rehabilitation to assist in
Gf of 1.7. Because of their relative rigidity, no selecting the most appropriate filter fabric for
R-value is assigned to either ATPB or CTPB the project.
and the design is handled in the same manner On curvilinear alignments, superelevation of
as Class A CTB. For design examples see the roadway may create depressions at the low
Structural Section Design Examples on the side of pavement where the collected water
Design Pavement website http://www.dot.ca. cannot be drained away. An adjustment to the
gov/hq/oppd/pavement/guidance.htm. profile grade may be necessary to eliminate
(3) Collector System. Where it is not practical to these depressions. Refer to Chapter 200 for
drain water out of the structural section by superelevation design guidelines.
other means, an 80 mm slotted plastic pipe When a superelevation cross slope begins to
edge drain should be installed in a longitudinal drain the water through the TPB to the low side
collector trench as shown in Figure 606.2. In of pavement in cut sections, an edge drain
areas where the profile grade is equal to or system may be considered to direct water to an
greater than 4%, intermediate cross drain area where ponding will not occur.
interceptors, as shown in Figure 606.3B
should be provided at an approximate spacing (4) Outlet Pipes. When edge drains are used,
of 150 m. This will limit the longitudinal plastic pipe (unslotted) outlets should be
seepage distance in the drainage layer, provided at proper intervals for the pavement
minimizing the drainage time and preventing structural section drainage system to be free
the buildup of a hydrostatic head under the draining. The spacing of outlets (including
July 1, 2004
Figure 606.3A
Cross Drain Interceptor Details
For Use with Treated Permeable Base
July 1, 2004
Figure 606.3B
Cross Drain Interceptor Trenches
July 1, 2004
vents and cleanouts) should be approximately Topic 607 - Structure Approach

60 m (75 m maximum). Outlets should be
placed on the low side of superelevations or Pavement and Structure
blockages such as bridge structures. Abutment Embankment Design
The trench for the outlet pipe must be
backfilled with material of low permeability, 607.1 Introduction
or provided with a cut-off wall or diaphragm, The ultimate goal of structure approach slab design
to prevent piping. is to provide a smooth transition between a
pavement that is generally supported on a yielding
The outlets must be daylighted, connected to
medium (soil that is subject to consolidation and
culverts or drainage structures, or discharged
settlement) and a structure, which is supported on a
into gutters or drainage ditches. The area
relatively unyielding foundation (piling or spread
under the exposed end of a daylighted outlet
footings).
should have a splash block or be paved to
prevent erosion and the growth of vegetation, The approaches to any structure, new or existing,
which will impede flows from the outlet. often present unique geometric, drainage, structural
Ready access to outlets, and the provision of section, and traffic situations that require special
intervening cleanouts when outlet spacing design considerations.
exceeds a maximum distance of 75 m, should Adequate information must be available early in
be provided to facilitate cleaning of the the project development process if all factors
structural section drainage system. Typical affecting the selection and design of a structure
details are shown on the Standard Plans for approach system are to be properly assessed. A
Edge Drain Outlet and Vent Details. field review will often reveal existing conditions,
The end of each outlet pipe should be which must be taken into consideration during the
indicated by an appropriate marker to design.
facilitate location and identification for These design guidelines must be followed in the
maintenance purposes and to reduce the design of all projects involving new construction,
likelihood of damage by vehicles and reconstruction, or rehabilitation of structure
equipment. Consult the District Division of approaches. They are not, however, a substitute for
Maintenance for the preferred method of engineering knowledge, experience, or judgment.
identification.
(5) Storm Water Management. Drainage 607.2 Functional Area Responsibilities
emanating from either the pavement surface or (1) Project Engineer - The Project Engineer (PE)
from subsurface drains (edge drains, is responsible for the Plans, Specifications,
underdrains, and daylighting of the structural and Estimate (PS&E) of all structure approach
section layers) is to be handled in accordance contract items below the grading plane,
with the procedures provided in Chapter 800 except for the contiguous drainage system
of the HDM for conveyance and with the components placed within the abutments and
procedures in the Project Planning and Design wingwalls. The PE is responsible for PS&E
Guide (PPDG) for treatment consideration. of drainage outside the abutments and
Storm water Best Management Practices wingwalls. The PE is also responsible for
(BMP’s) are to be incorporated in the design coordinating and reviewing the adequacy of
of projects as prescribed in the PPDG. all drainage ties between the structure
approach drainage features and other new or
existing drainage facilities.
July 1, 2004
The PE should contact the Structures District on new construction projects should perform a
Liaison Engineer as early as possible in the foundation investigation and analysis. At the
project development process to facilitate request of the DES, the OSF Roadway
project scheduling. The PE must provide Geotechnical Engineering Branch will prepare
pertinent site information and traffic staging a Geotechnical Design Report based upon its
plans to DES and may submit studies and information supplied by the
recommendations concerning the need for District. The report should include a summary
concrete approach systems. Close of field investigations, estimate of settlement
coordination between the District staff and by areas, specific recommendations for
DES staff is necessary for the proper selection foundation treatment, and a history of
and design of a structure approach system. the performance of structure abutment
foundations and embankments in the same
(2) Division of Engineering Services – The DES
area. All foundation and embankment
is responsible for the PS&E of all structure
recommendations by the OSF Branches must
approach contract items above the grading
be carefully followed in development of the
plane and for the drainage system components
project PS&E or documented as to why they
placed within the abutments and wingwalls.
were not followed.
Coordination between DES and the District
should be as discussed in Index 607.2(1). (4) District Materials Engineer - Responsible for
Questions concerning approach slab design materials information requested for each
should be directed to DES. Figures 607.4, project from Planning through Maintenance.
607.5A and 607.5B show diagrammatically Prepares the District Materials Report for each
the structure approach features which are DES project. Continuous consultation with the
responsibilities. When the construction or PE and Construction should take place.
rehabilitation of a concrete pavement Coordinates Materials information with
approach is necessary, the DES is responsible Caltrans functional units, METS,
for selecting the type of concrete approach Headquarters functional units, local agencies,
system to be used. On new construction industry, and consultants. The District
projects, the DES is responsible for Materials Unit is responsible for conducting a
determining whether or not a concrete preliminary soils investigation, which
pavement approach system is used at each addresses the quality of the materials available
bridge site. On rehabilitation projects, the in and under the roadway prism for
Pavement Rehabilitation Scoping Team will constructing the project. Poor quality
recommend whether or not replacement or material, such as expansive soils, must be
construction of a PCC approach slab(s) is precluded from structure abutment
necessary. The Pavement Rehabilitation embankments. If sufficient quality roadway
Scoping Team is comprised of the Project excavation material is unavailable for
Engineer, District Maintenance, other District constructing structure abutment embankments,
functional unit representatives, Headquarters the designer may specify select material, local
Program Advisors and others as needed. borrow or imported borrow to satisfy the
design requirements.
(3) Office of Structural Foundations (OSF) -
Provides the Districts, Structures, and (5) Traffic Operations - Recommends Traffic
Headquarters with expertise in foundation Management Plans (TMP’s) and assists in the
investigations. Prepares Geotechnical Design determination of construction windows. On
Reports recommending estimates of approach slab rehabilitation projects, complete
settlement by areas, specific recommendations investigations by the District Division of
for foundation treatment, and a history of the Traffic Operations will be necessary to assess
performance of structure abutment the impact of lane closures and detours on the
foundations and embankments in the same traveling public.
area. The OSF Structure Foundation Branch
July 1, 2004
607.3 Structure Approach Embankment On all new construction projects, regardless of the
type of structure approach selected, provisions for
Structure approach embankment is that portion of
positive drainage of the approach system are to be
the fill material within approximately 50 m
incorporated into the design. (See Structures
longitudinally of the structure. Refer to Figure
Design Standard Details for requirements.)
607.3 for limits, the Standard Specifications, and
other requirements. On rehabilitation projects, provisions for positive
drainage of the structural section must be
Quality requirements for embankment material are
incorporated into the structure approach design.
normally specified only in the case of imported
borrow. When select material or local borrow for On new construction projects, overcrossing
use in structure abutment embankments is shown structures constructed in conjunction with the State
on the plans, the Resident Engineer (RE) is highway facility should receive the same
responsible for assuring the adequacy of the considerations as the highway mainline.
quantity and quality of the specified material. The A brief discussion of the types of structure
RE File should include adequate information and approach pavement systems follows:
guidance to assist the RE in fulfilling this
responsibility. (1) Type 14 Structure Approach System
(Approach and Sleeper Slabs/Drainage). The
607.4 Structure Approach Pavement Type 14 system includes a 9 m long
Systems reinforced concrete pavement slab and a 4.5 m
long structure approach sleeper slab (see
Concrete pavement structure approach systems are Figure 607.4). The structure approach system
used on all Portland cement concrete (PCC) extends laterally across all traffic lanes and
pavements and on multilane asphalt concrete (AC) shoulder areas. The approach slab is designed
pavements located within currently designated to either cantilever over (preferred) or extend
urbanized areas. Urbanized areas are identified, by to the inside faces of both abutment
kilometer post, in the Route Segment Report, wingwalls.
Project Management Control System (PMCS) Data
Base and State Highway Inventory. The current The Type 14 approach system is used only on
boundaries of urbanized areas are also shown on new construction with structures having
the official State Highway Map. diaphragm type abutments. It is primarily
used on PCC pavement but may be used on
There are several pavement slab alternatives that AC pavement if warranted by special site
may be considered in the design of a structure conditions.
approach pavement system. These alternatives are
designated Types 14, 9, and 3 structure approach (2) Type 9 Structure Approach Pavement System
systems. Standard details and special provisions (Approach Slab/Drainage). This approach
have been developed for each type of approach slab is a 9 m long reinforced concrete
system. DES will select the appropriate alternate pavement slab which rests on and is tied to the
and provide applicable details, specifications, and structure abutment backwall or paving notch.
an estimate of cost for inclusion in the PS&E The slab extends laterally across all traffic
package. It is recommended that dowel bars be lanes and shoulder areas. The approach slab
placed at the transverse joint of PCC pavement is designed to either cantilever over or extend
where the pavement and approach slab meet to to the inside faces of both abutment
ensure load transfer at the joint. The thinner of wingwalls.
either the pavement or the approach slab will
govern placement of the dowel at half the thickness
of the thinner slab.
July 1, 2004
Figure 607. 3
Limits of Structure Approach Embankment Material
July 1, 2004
Figure 607.4
Type 14 Structure Approach Layout
July 1, 2004
The Type 9 system is the design standard for post construction settlement/ consolidation is
new construction at structures with seat type essential. Factors that influence settlement/
abutments. The Type 9 system is also consolidation include soil types and depths,
adaptable to diaphragm type abutments where static and dynamic loads, ground water level,
the Type 14 approach system may be adjacent operations, and changes in any of the
inappropriate. The Type 9 slab is the standard above. The PE must carefully follow all
rehabilitation treatment at structures with either foundation and embankment recommendations
diaphragm or seat type abutments. by the OSF Branches and District Materials
(3) Type 3 Structure Approach Pavement System - Unit, and any deviations from their
Earthquake Zones (Seismic Ramp Slab). The recommendations must be approved by them.
Type 3 structure approach slab, 3 m in length, The relative compaction of material within the
is used only on AC pavement located within embankment limits must not be less than 95%,
areas of high magnitude seismic activity. This except for the outer 1.5 m of embankment
approach slab is designed to provide a ramp to measured horizontally from the side slope.
accommodate the passage of motor vehicles The District Materials Engineer or OSF may
over the structure in the event that an recommend using select material, local and/or
earthquake creates settlement of the structure imported borrow to assure that the compaction
abutment embankment and approach requirements are met and that shrink/swell
pavement. The Type 3 seismic ramp slab is problems are avoided. They may also
provided when both the following conditions recommend a height and duration of
(a) and (b) exist or when the following embankment surcharge to accelerate
condition (c) exists: foundation consolidation.
(a) Peak rock acceleration is estimated to be (2) Abutment Details. The Type 14 approach slab
0.6 x gravity or greater, as documented in is rigidly tied to the structure abutment and acts
the Geotechnical Design Report, District as an extension of the structure. Any
Materials Report or Foundation Report. movement of the abutment will also occur in
(b) Approach embankment or fill height the approach slab. A sealed joint between the
exceeds 3 m. approach slab and the sleeper slab, parallel to
(c) Geologic conditions, as documented in and 9 m from the abutment wall, provides for
the Geotechnical Design Report, District this movement.
Materials Report, or Foundation Report, The Type 9 approach system is used at
indicate the need for a seismic approach structures having either diaphragm or seat type
ramp. abutments. At a diaphragm type abutment,
If an alternate and convenient route is available structure movement is accommodated at the
for use by emergency vehicles, the use of the sealed joint between the approach slab and
Type - 3 structure approach system is not abutment. Structure movement at a seat type
necessary. abutment will occur at the structure side of the
abutment. The structure/abutment joint is
607.5 Structure Approach Pavement System designed to handle the movement.
- New Construction The Type 3 approach system is also used at
(1) Foundation and Embankment Design. The both seat and diaphragm type abutments.
structural stability and overall performance of Various abutment/slab tie details are available
the structure approach system depends, to a to accommodate structure movement.
significant degree, upon the long-term (3) Structure Approach Drainage. Special
settlement/consolidation of the approach attention must be given to providing a positive
foundation and structure abutment drainage system that minimizes the potential
embankment. A design that minimizes this
July 1, 2004
for water damage to the structure approach sleeper slab; likewise, structure deck
embankment. The following features should drainage, when practicable, should be
be included: intercepted before reaching the abutment
joint or paving notch. Cross drain
(a) Abutment and Wingwall Drainage
interceptors are discussed in Topic
A geocomposite drain covered with filter 606.3(3) and shown in Figures 606.2B and
fabric is used behind both the abutment 606.3. The objective is to keep water away
wall and wingwalls, as indicated in Figures from the structure approach embankment.
607.4, 607.5A and 607.5B. The surface water, once collected, should
A slotted plastic pipe drain, encapsulated be discharged at locations where it will not
with treated permeable material, is placed create erosion.
along the base of the inside face of the Containment of surface drainage requires
abutment wall as illustrated in Figure special treatment when the approach slab
607.5B. A pipe outlet system carries the edge extends only to the inside faces of the
collected water to a location where it will abutment wingwalls. A 76 mm x 76 mm x
not cause erosion. Storm Water Best 6.4 mm galvanized steel angle (see Figure
Practices should be incorporated. 607.5A), pourable seal, and hardboard
Coordination with DES is necessary for the spacer prevent water from entering the
exit location of the pipe system. The outlet structural section and embankment. On
type should be chosen from the standard wingwalls longer than 9 m, the angle is
edge drain outlet types shown in the terminated at the sealed joint between the
Standard Plans. The PE must review the approach slab and the sleeper slab. A
drainage design to insure the adequacy of 155 mm x 6.4 mm steel plate will be used
the drainage ties between the abutment and instead of angle for the single slope
wingwall drainage system and either new barriers such as concrete barrier Type 732
or existing drainage facilities. or Type 736.
(b) Structural Section Drainage When a dike is required to protect the side
Figure 607.4 shows the components of the slope from erosion, it should be placed on
positive structural section drainage system. the approach and sleeper slabs and aligned
Filter fabric should be placed on the to tie into the end of the structure railing.
grading plane to minimize contamination The guardrail alignment and edge of
of the TPB for all types of approach shoulder govern the positioning of the dike.
systems. For the Type 14 approach When the Type 14 approach system is
system, a transverse slotted plastic pipe is used, an AC dike will inevitably crack due
installed in the treated permeable layer to expansion and contraction at the
under the approach slab and adjacent to the approach/sleeper slab joint. PCC dikes
sleeper slab to intercept water that enters may be considered for this application. A
through this joint. The plastic pipe shall metal dike insert is used to carry the flow
have a proper outlet to avoid erosion of the across the sealed joint. The insert acts as a
structure approach embankment. Storm water barrier to minimize erosion of the fill
Water Best Practices should be slope. Details of the metal dike insert are
incorporated. The Districts are responsible shown in the structure approach plans
for all drainage considerations of the provided by DES. Index 837.3(2) should
roadway while DES Structures is be referenced when drainage inlets are to
responsible for structure related drainage. be placed at bridge approaches and
(c) Surface Drainage departures.
Roadway surface drainage should be
intercepted before reaching the approach/
July 1, 2004
Figure 607.5A
Approach Slab Edge Details
July 1, 2004
Figure 607.5B
1
Abutment Drainage Details
July 1, 2004
(4) Pavement Details. Approach/sleeper slabs 607.6 Structure Approach Slab -

extend the full width of the traveled way Rehabilitation Projects
and shoulders. On new construction, or
rehabilitation work where the structure railing (1) Approach Slab Replacement. The Type 9
will be replaced, the approach slab extends approach slab is the primary rehabilitation
laterally to coincide with the edge of the standard for both PCC pavement and AC
structure superstructure. The slab extends pavement. The Type 3 approach slab may be
over the wingwall, but is separated from the used on AC pavement only, if warranted by
top of the wingwall by polystyrene fillers to special site considerations (see Index
preclude vertical loading of the wingwalls 607.4(3)).
when settlement of the embankment occurs. Replacement of a PCC approach slab consists
The new structure railing is then attached to the of removing the existing pavement, approach
approach slab. slab, cement treated base and subsealing
material (if applicable) and then replacing with
The Type 14 approach slab system utilizes a
an appropriate type of structure approach
woven tape fabric, which is used as an
system. Depending on the thickness of the
interlayer separator on top of the treated
existing pavement and base materials to be
permeable base to reduce friction and
removed, the minimum 300 mm approach slab
accommodate movement of the approach slab.
thickness (Type 9 approach system) may have
The sleeper slab functions as a bearing surface
to be increased.
for the approach slab in the event that
settlement/consolidation of the structure (2) Structure Approach Structure Section
abutment foundation or embankment occurs. Drainage. Typical details for positive drainage
The sleeper slab also functions as a transition of a full-width structure approach system are
slab to the pavement structural section. shown in Figure 607.6A. Cross drains are
placed at the abutment backwall and at the
Any longitudinal construction joints (cold transverse joint between the existing pavement
joints) required during construction of the and the concrete approach slab. A
structure approach or sleeper slabs should be collector/outlet system is placed adjacent to the
placed on lane lines. The contact joint at the wingwall at the low side of pavement. The
end of the sleeper slab is normal to the collected water is carried away from the
centerline. Transverse joints may be staggered structure approach embankment to a location
at the lane lines at skewed structures; as where it will not cause erosion. Storm Water
illustrated in Figure 607.4. The stagger may Best Practices should be implemented.
occur 7.2 m or 10.8 m apart for skews of 20 to
45 degrees and at each lane line for skews The approach slab edge details to prevent entry
greater than 45 degrees. of water at the barrier rail face (see Figure
607.5A- Type E2) apply when the wingwalls
Structural adequacy must be met under the and/or bridge barrier railing are not being
approach slabs. reconstructed.
(5) Guardrail. The extension of the approach and (3) Pavement Details. Special pavement details
sleeper slabs across the full width of the are necessary when PCC approach slabs will
outside shoulder creates a conflict between the be replaced in conjunction with the crack, seat,
outside edge of these slabs and the standard and AC overlay pavement rehabilitation
horizontal positioning of some guardrail posts. strategy for PCC pavement. Figure 607.6B,
Spacers are attached to the posts that conflict which is applicable to full-width slab
with the approach and sleeper slabs to move replacement, illustrates a method of
the postholes outside the edge of shoulder transitioning from the typical 105 mm AC
without changing the standard alignment of the overlay thickness to the minimum 45 mm
guardrail. These details are covered by DES final AC lift thickness. Care should be taken in
Standard Details and by Standard Plans.
July 1, 2004
Figure 607.6A
Structure Approach Drainage Details
(Rehabilitation)
July 1, 2004
Figure 607.6B
Structure Approach Pavement Transition Details
(Rehabilitation)
July 1, 2004
areas with flat grades to avoid creating a

ponding condition at the structure abutment.
Cracking and seating of the existing PCC
pavement as well as the pavement
reinforcement fabric (PRF) should be
terminated at the start of the transition from the
maximum AC overlay depth.
AC overlays should not be placed on structure
decks without the concurrence of Structures
Maintenance Investigations (SMI). The need
for overlays on structure decks is the
responsibility of the SMI. SMI is responsible
for maintaining the structural adequacy of all
State bridges. Some reasons for overlays
include ride quality and/or deck protection. If
an overlay is needed, SMI will provide the
recommended strategy. If the recommended
strategy is AC or slurry seal, the District will
typically provide the details. If another
strategy, such as polyester concrete, the details
will be provided by either SMI or Office of
Structure Design.
(4) Composite Pavements. Flexible surfacing over
rigid pavement is considered to be a rigid
pavement for structure approach rehabilitation.
The guidelines for rigid pavement apply to all
composite pavement rehabilitation projects,
which include structure approach slab
replacements.
(5) Traffic Handling. Traffic handling
considerations generally preclude full-width
construction procedures. Structure approach
rehabilitation is therefore usually done under
traffic control conditions, which require
partial-width construction.
District Division of Traffic Operations should
be consulted for guidance on lane closures and
traffic handling.
Pavement joint should not be located
underneath the wheel paths.
November 1, 2001
(b) Other Fencing--In rural areas, fences on

CHAPTER 700 freeways normally should be either Type
MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS BW or Type WM on either wood or metal
posts. Wood posts may be more aesthetic
than metal posts, depending on the
Topic 701 - Fences surrounding terrain.
(c) Median Fencing--Type CL-1.2 fence,
Index 701.1 - Policy and Purpose of Fences raised 150 mm above the ground, should
(1) Policy. The type and location of fences be used where median fencing is required
should be as described herein and in the (see Index 701.1(2)).
Standard Plans and Specifications, except in (3) Exceptions to Standard Fence Types.
special situations for which provision is made
below. (a) If walls or fences equal to or better than
the standard fence in durability,
(2) Purpose of Fences. maintenance requirements, and dimen-
(a) Fences on freeway and expressways are sions exist along the right of way line, the
State-owned facilities placed within the standard fence may be omitted or
right of way to help enforce observance of removed. To avoid a gap in the access
the acquired access rights. control, standard fences should be
securely joined to the existing fence or
(b) Fences on other highways are privately wall at its terminals, if the access control
owned facilities along the right of way line extends beyond these points.
line which primarily serve the abutting
property owners' needs. (b) Fences of special design may be installed
where needed for wild animal control.
(c) Median fences are constructed to help
prevent indiscriminate crossings of the (c) While standard fences are generally equal
median by vehicles or pedestrians. to or better than those normally
constructed by ranchers for the control of
(3) Approval. The District Director has the their stock, construction of a different
authority and responsibility for approval of type of fence for this purpose may be
fence type and location within the policies appropriate in special cases. The property
stated herein. owner is required to pay any extra cost
incurred unless the more costly fence is
701.2 Fences on Freeways and Expressways intended to:
(1) Policy. Fences shall be provided on • Match that by which the balance of
freeways and expressways to control access the property is enclosed.
(except as otherwise provided under
paragraph (3)(e)). Freeway fencing or • Benefit the public.
equivalent access control should extend to the • Be part of the consideration paid for
limit of the legal access control on local the right of way.
streets at ramp termini.
(d) In special cases, where improvements are
(2) Standard Fence Types. The standard types of scattered, the area is aesthetically
freeway fence are: sensitive, and a lower fence would be in
(a) Chain Link Fencing--Type CL-1.8 fence keeping with the height of adjacent
or equivalent access control should be property fence, a Type CL-1.2 fence may
used along the right of way and in the be substituted for Type CL-1.8 along the
outer separation in urban or developed right of way in locations where Type CL-
areas. 1.8 would otherwise be used.
November 1, 2001
(e) Fencing may be omitted in remote areas authorizing the substitution. On new
where access control appears unneces- construction, the property owner is to
sary. assume similar costs and responsibili-
ties subject to a credit for the value of
(f) In special cases, nonstandard fencing may
a standard fence.
be considered at freeway ramp terminals
on local streets when the adjacent (4) Location of Fences. Normally, fences on
property either is, or is proposed to be, freeways should be placed adjacent to, but on
developed in such a way that the owner the freeway side of the right of way line.
feels that standard fencing is aesthetically
Fences in the outer separation normally
objectionable. If it is concluded that the
should be placed as shown in Figure 307.4 so
objection is valid, a more compatible
that the area outside of the fence may be
facility may be substituted, subject to the
relinquished to the local agency.
following controls:
When viewed at a flat angle, chain link
• Preference should be given to retaining
fencing restricts sight distance. This fact
the standard fence along the ramp to
should be considered in the location of such
the end of the curb return or beginning
fencing at intersections. To eliminate hand
of the taper on the local road. Where
maintenance, right-angle jogs should be
this is not reasonable, there may be
avoided.
substituted a fence or wall of equal or
better durability and utility that is at (5) Locked Gates. Locked gates may be provided
least 1.2 m high relative to the grade of in access control fences in special situations.
freeway right of way line. Walls, The criterion should be necessity and not
ornamental iron fences with closely desirability. Although openings controlled by
spaced members, or chain link fences locked gates do not constitute access openings
are examples of acceptable in the usual sense of access control, they must
possibilities. be included in the plans. Where locked gates
are provided in the plans, each gate must be
• Along the local road, beyond the end
fully justified by specific reasons stated in the
of the curb return or the beginning of
"General Features" section of the PS&E
the taper, a facility of somewhat lower
report. In addition, a statement is required as
standards may be employed, if
to who will hold the keys to each gate.
considered appropriate. The minimum
Locked gates fall into two categories:
allowable height is 0.8 m above the
grade at the edge of the right of way. (a) Locked gates to be used exclusively by
In addition to the fence types suitable highway maintenance forces do not
for use along the ramp, split rail require FHWA approval and may be
fences, wooden picket fences, and approved by the District Director if
permanent planter boxes are examples integrity of access is assured during
of possibilities. The intent is to construction in existing access fences,
delineate the access control line and maintenance forces keep gates locked
discourage access violations in an when not in actual use by person or
effective manner. equipment, and one or more of the
following criteria apply:
• Generally, all costs for the removal of
the existing freeway fence and the • Circuitous routes would be
installation and future maintenance of eliminated.
a nonstandard fence are to be the • Parking on the freeway which may
property owner's responsibility under expose maintenance workers to
the terms of the encroachment permit freeway traffic and parking is
November 1, 2001
available or can be developed near the 701.3 Fences on Other Highways

gate.
(1) Policy. The State will construct or pay the
• Slow moving equipment could be cost of fences on private property only as a
kept off the freeway. right of way consideration to mitigate
• Site not accessible to equipment from damages. State construction of such fences
the freeway. should be limited to:
• Gates necessary for access to (a) The reconstruction or replacement of

facilities outside the freeway right of existing fences.
way that cannot be reached from local (b) The construction of fences across
streets or roads. property that had been previously
(b) Proposals for locked gates to be used by enclosed by fences.
other public agencies or utility companies This policy applies to all private as well as
must be submitted to the Chief, Division public lands.
of Design for approval. The submittal
(2) Types of Fences. Only Type BW and Type
should give all the facts justifying
WM fences on either metal or wood posts are
approval and comparisons with alternate
to be constructed by the State on highways
solutions.
other than freeways and expressways.
Criteria for justification are generally the
(3) Location of Fences. Fences on other
same as for gates used exclusively by
highways are placed along the right of way
highway maintenance forces except for
line inside the abutting property.
parking. Safe and adequate parking is a
necessary part of the solution to access by
other agencies. Topic 702 - Miscellaneous Traffic
Locked gates to be used by non-utility Items
entities require FHWA approval under
any of the following circumstances: 702.1 References
• The gate is on an Interstate route. (1) Guardrail and Crash Cushions. See Chapter
• Federal-aid funds participated in the 7 of the Traffic Manual.
cost of right of way. (2) Markers. See Chapter 6 of the Traffic
• Federal-aid funds participated or may Manual.
participate in the cost of construction. (3) Truck Escape Ramps. See Traffic Bulletin
When proposals for locked gates No. 24, 1986 and NCHRP Report 178.
requiring FHWA approval are included in (4) Mailboxes. See "A Guide for Erecting
the plans for new construction, including Mailboxes on Highways," 1994, published by
landscaping projects, FHWA approval of AASHTO.
such gates will be included in FHWA
approval of the project PS&E.
Topic 703 - Special Structures
Subsequent installations requiring FHWA
approval will be submitted separately to and Installation
FHWA by the Division of Design after
approval by the Chief, Division of 703.1 Truck Weighing Facilities
Design.
The Traffic Operations Program is responsible for
coordination of design and construction activities
for truck weighing facilities with the California
November 1, 2001
Highway Patrol in Sacramento. Typical plans See Chapter 6 of the Traffic Manual for additional
showing geometric details of these facilities are information on contrast treatment.
available from the Traffic Operations Program.
The District should refer maintenance issues on Topic 705 - Materials and Color
truck weighing facilities to the District
maintenance units. Selection
See Index 107.1 for additional details on roadway
705.1 Special Treatments and Materials
connections for truck weighing facilities.
Special materials or treatments, such as painted
703.2 Rockfall Restraining Nets concrete, or vinyl-clad fences, are sometimes
proposed for aesthetic reasons, or to comply with
Rockfall Restraining Nets are protective devices
special requirements.
designed to control large rockfall events and
prevent rock from reaching the traveled way. The The following guidelines are to be used for the
systems consist of rectangular panels of woven selection of these items:
wire rope vertically supported by steel posts and (a) Concrete should not be painted unless
designed with frictional brake elements capable of exceptional circumstances exist, due to
absorbing and dissipating high energies. For the continuing and expensive maintenance
additional information on the characteristics and required. Concrete subject to staining
applications for rockfall restraining nets, designers should be textured during construction to
should contact the Office of Structural minimize the appearance of the stains, if
Foundations. other methods of controlling stain-
producing runoff or dripping cannot be
Topic 704 - Contrast Treatment accomplished.
(b) Vinyl-clad fences are sometimes specified
704.1 Policy for aesthetic reasons. The cost of this
In general, delineation should be composed of the material is considerably higher than that
standard patterns discussed under Chapter 6, of galvanized steel. The use of 0.9 m high
Markings, of the Traffic Manual. black vinyl-clad mesh for safety fencing
at the top of retaining walls and
Markings include lines and markings applied to the pedestrian overcrossing fencing is
pavement, raised pavement markers, delineators, acceptable.
object markers, and special pavement treatments.
Contrast treatment is designed primarily to provide 705.2 Colors for Steel Structures
a black color contrast with an adjacent white Colors for steel bridges and steel sign structures
surface. Normally, contrast treatment should be are limited to aluminum, green, gray, or neutral
used only in special cases such as the following: tones of brown, tan, or light blue, unless local
(a) To provide continuity of surface texture requirements dictate otherwise.
for the guidance of drivers through Criteria for selection of colors are:
construction areas.
(a) General continuity along any given route.
(b) To provide added emphasis on an existing
facility where driver behavior has (b) Coordination of color schemes with
demonstrated that standard signs and adjacent Districts for interdistrict routes.
markings have proven inadequate. (c) Requests from local organizations
When contrast treatment is applied, a slurry seal oriented toward improvement of
should be used. aesthetics in their community.
November 1, 2001
Color selection for steel bridges should be Formal safety reviews should be accomplished as
mutually satisfactory to the Division of Structures discussed in Section 110.7 for roadside
and the District. The Division of Structures will management issues. Consultation with the
initiate the color selection process by submitting District Maintenance unit and District Landscape
the proposed color to the District for review. The Architect is recommended early in design
color for steel sign structures will be selected by development to minimize potential roadside
the District. management conflicts and to determine roadside
needs for future projects. Consultation with these
Topic 706 - Roadside Treatment units may also provide information to reduce the
potential for redundant placement of roadside
facilities.
706.1 Roadside Management
The following conditions should be considered in
The management of roadsides is to be considered roadway design to accommodate long term
in roadway design. Roadside management is the roadside management:
concept of designing the highway to provide cost
effective improvements in consideration of long • Unpaved areas or strips parallel and
term maintenance costs. Roadsides should be immediately adjacent to the roadway are
designed to minimize the frequency and duration of often created by the construction of noise
labor intensive maintenance operations, to reduce barriers or by the placement of solid
the exposure of maintenance personnel to traffic, median barriers beyond the paved inside
and to assist the Department in meeting shoulder edge. These areas create debris
environmental goals. Designers should strive to traps, require vegetation control and cannot
provide transportation improvements that minimize be maintained mechanically. Unpaved
the need for repetitive, ongoing maintenance tasks, strips which are 4.5 m or less in width
or to allow those tasks to be accomplished through should be paved to the barrier with
automated, or mechanical means. Maintenance minimum structural section to facilitate
tasks that typically require ongoing effort include mechanical maintenance efforts. Full
litter control, vegetation control, graffiti abatement, structural sections may be appropriate in
etc. some areas. The additional paved areas
may be marked, delineated, colored or
Roadway design includes facilities or equipment specially treated to minimize the potential
placed on the roadside that require manual labor to for inappropriate use.
operate or maintain, such features should be
located to provide maximum safety for • Unpaved areas with widths greater than
maintenance personnel. It may be necessary and 4.5 m may include permanent surfacing
cost effective to shield facilities and equipment, to alternatives such as soil polymers, binders
pave narrow areas or areas under guard rail, or to or decorative paving such as stamped
locate facilities so that access is made from outside concrete. The planting of low maintenance
the right of way, to accomplish this. The designer native grasses and forbes may be appropri-
should evaluate the potential for distracting the ate in some non-urban locations. Consult
motorist when placing roadside facilities and with the District Maintenance unit and the
equipment, especially those that require manual District Landscape Architect for options.
maintenance. Facilities placed out of the motorists • The designer should strive to minimize the
sight or those that may be accessed from outside placement of roadside facilities that require
the right of way will reduce the possibility of intensive long term maintenance efforts.
motorist distraction and will be safer to maintain. Designs should include low maintenance
alternatives to provide a roadside that
reduces maintenance costs and increases
worker safety.
November 1, 2001
• Noise barrier projects should include 706.4 Irrigation Crossovers for Highway
planting of appropriate vines and shrubs to Construction Projects
prevent graffiti.
Irrigation crossovers normally consists of a conduit
• In narrow rights of way, locating a with a waterline crossover and sprinkler control
concrete safety shape barrier one meter conduit with pull wire. Irrigation crossovers
from the face of the wall to allow for should be provided under new roadways and ramps
planting and irrigation facilities within the when future highway planting is anticipated. The
protected area. District Landscape Architect should be consulted
to determine the need for such crossovers and
• Gore areas, narrow strips, terminus of
specifics such as size and location. Attention
ramps, auxiliary lanes and areas with
should also be given to extending existing conduits
traffic control devices, are inherently areas
when widening or modifying roadways and ramps.
in which maintenance activity frequency
and duration are increased. These areas The following factors should be considered in
should be designed in a manner which sizing and locating crossovers :
reduces future maintenance.
(a) A standard irrigation crossover consists of
a minimum size of 200 mm diameter
706.2 Vegetation Control with Soil nominal (DN) conduit, with a 75 mm DN
Sterilants water supply line and a 50 mm DN
Vegetation control soil sterilant chemicals may be sprinkler control conduit with pull wire.
applied to prevent weed growth through surfaced Sizes of irrigation crossovers and water
medians, traffic islands, and other paved areas. supply lines are usually larger when
nonpotable water is to be used.
The Division of Maintenance is responsible for
specifications for the use of all such herbicides. (b) Typically, full freeway irrigation
Approval is required for any changes from the crossovers are spaced 300 m apart where
currently approved Standard Specifications and future highway planting is anticipated.
Standard Special Provisions. (c) Undercrossings may be considered
Since soil sterilant may be transported by water, alternative crossing opportunities.
they should not be used where they may affect Drainage facilities should not be used for
native vegetation, landscape plantings, agricultural waterline crossings.
crops, adjacent residential, commercial or Standard details and special provisions for the
recreation areas, streams, or bodies of water. irrigation crossover should be furnished by the
Before specifying soil sterilants, the District District Landscape Architect to the Project
Landscape Architect should be consulted to Engineer for highway construction projects.
determine the possibility of future planting.
706.5 Water Supply Line (Bridge) and
706.3 Topsoil Sprinkler Control Conduit for Bridge
In areas of new construction, where topsoil is of Water supply line and sprinkler control conduit
good quality, it should be stockpiled during with pull wire should be provided in new bridge
construction and respread during the final stages of structures.
construction. Where natural revegetation is
The District Landscape Architect should be
desired, the native brush should be crushed or
consulted to determine the need for such water
chipped and mixed with the stockpiled soil. Since
supply lines and sprinkler control conduits and
topsoil contains beneficial microorganisms and
other specifics such as size and location.
seed, it is best to stockpile it in shallow windrows
so that oxygen can penetrate the soil.
November 1, 2001
Attention should also be given to modifying, Topic 707 - Slope Treatment

changing existing or installing new water supply
lines and sprinkler control conduits when widening
Under Structures
or modifying bridge structures.
707.1 Policy
The following factors should be considered in
sizing and locating water supply lines and sprinkler Bridge end slope should be treated to:
control conduits: (a) Protect slopes.
(a) Generally, locate on one side of the (b) Improve aesthetics.
bridge, the side nearest the water source.
(c) Reduce long term maintenance costs.
(b) Consider the maximum water demand and
number of irrigation controller stations Slopes need to be protected when erosion or high
anticipated to be used. The pipe for the maintenance costs are anticipated. The District
water supply line should be a minimum will determine where slopes are to be treated and
75 mm DN and the conduit for the the type of treatment to be used.
sprinkler control conduit should be a Caltrans maintenance, landscape architecture,
minimum 50 mm DN and contain a pull materials, design, and other interested units will
wire. furnish input to determine slope treatment needed
(c) Ductile iron pipe is required for the water at each site. Local agency input should be obtained
supply line for pipes 100 mm DN or as necessary for urban undercrossings.
larger because of its superior strength and All types of slope treatments require adequate
flexible joints. drainage facilities for water from upper roadway.
Inadequate drainage is a major source of slope
706.6 Water Supply for Future Roadside erosion.
Rest Areas, Vista Points, or Planting
In the preparation of a major highway construction 707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment
project, consideration should be given to the (a) Full slope paving has high initial costs
possibility of using the water source needed for and low long-term maintenance costs. It
construction as part of a future permanent water may be justified where anticipated
supply system. Provision for a permanent water maintenance costs will be high due to
supply should be included in the major erosion by pedestrians, wind, small
construction project. If this appears to be a amounts of water, or other causes. High
feasible solution, consider such factors as: landscape maintenance costs caused by
(a) Probability of a future planting, vista inadequate moisture, sunlight, etc., may
point, or roadside rest project. also justify use of full slope paving in lieu
of planting. The District Landscape
(b) Economy. Architect will provide aesthetic input and
(c) Possible reduction in the flexibility of the locations for waterline crossover conduits
highway contractor's operation. under slope paving.
The District Landscape Architect should be (b) Landscaped slopes have moderate initial
consulted. costs and maintenance costs vary with the
site. Landscaped bridge end slopes may
be justified when adjacent slopes are
landscaped and when landscaping is
compatible with adjacent development.
Conditions must exist where plants would
November 1, 2001
have a strong likelihood of survival

(adequate sunlight, etc.).
(c) Bare slopes have minimum initial costs
and higher maintenance costs which vary
with the site. Bare bridge end slopes may
be justified at rural sites and other areas
where anticipated maintenance activity
will be low and there is little likelihood
for erosion. Appropriate drainage design
is critical when slopes are left bare.
(d) An analysis of the "life cycle" costs
should be made using the method
contained in the Structures Value
Engineering Report, "Bridge End Slope
Treatment," April 1978.
(e) Adequate drainage facilities must be
provided to prevent saturation of
abutment foundation materials and
damage to slope treatment.
(f) Additional protection may be required at
stream crossings to provide for flow
velocity.
707.3 Procedure
Based on consultation with the District Landscape
Architect and Structures Bridge Architect and in
consideration of economic and aesthetic factors,
the District will determine, and set forth with the
bridge site plan submittal, the type of slope
treatment indicating whether:
(a) The Division of Structures is to design the
slope treatment with the bridge and
include the cost in the Structure items; or
(b) The District will design the slope
treatment and include the details with the
road plans.
May 1, 2001
CHAPTERS 800 - 890 801.3 Drainage Standards

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN Drainage design criteria should be selected that
are commensurate with the relative importance
CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL of the highway, associated risks, and possible
ASPECTS damage to adjacent property. The objective of
drainage design should be to provide optimum
Topic 801 - General facilities considering function versus cost rather
than to just meet minimum standards.
Index 801.1 - Introduction Engineers, and other professional disciplines
This section is not a textbook, and is not a substitute using this guide must recognize that hydrologic
for fundamental engineering knowledge or analysis, as practiced by the highway engineer,
experience. has not advanced to the level of precise
mathematical expression. All hydrologic
The fields of hydrology and the hydraulics of analysis methods, whether deterministic or
highway drainage are rapidly evolving and it is the statistical, are based on the information
responsibility of the engineer to keep abreast of available. A common problem faced by the
current design practices. As new practices or highway design engineer is that there maybe
procedures are adopted by the Department, this insufficient flow data, and often no data at all, at
section will be updated. the site for which a stream crossing is to be
Instructions for the design of highway drainage designed. By applying analytical principles and
features provided are for information and guidance methods it is possible to obtain peak discharge
of Department employees. Drainage policies, estimates which are functionally acceptable for
procedures and standards given are subject to the design of highway drainage structures and
amendment as conditions warrant and are neither other features.
intended as, nor do they establish, legal standards. The design of highway drainage structures and
Special situations may call for variations from these other features must consider the probability of
requirements, subject to approval of the Division of flooding and provide protection which is
Design or approval by others as may be specifically commensurate with the importance of the
referenced. highway, the potential for property damage, and
traffic safety. Traditionally, the level of
801.2 Drainage Design Philosophy assurance for such protection has been specified
Highway drainage design is much more than the in terms of the peak rate of flow during passage
mere application of the technical principles of of a flood or storm of the severity associated
hydrology and hydraulics. Good drainage design is with the frequency of occurrence, i.e. a 10-year
a matter of properly balancing technical principles storm, the 50-year flood, etc. State-of-the-art
and data with the environment giving due methods and procedures associated with the
consideration to other factors such as safety and necessary hydrologic analysis required to
economics. Such design can only be accomplished determine the severity and probability of
through the liberal use of sound engineering occurrence of possible rare storms and flood
judgment. Drainage features to remove runoff from events are inherently ambiguous. Therefore, the
the roadway and to convey surface and stream suggested drainage design criteria relating to
waters originating upstream of the highway to the frequency of occurrence references in this
downstream side should be designed to accomplish manual are provided for guidance only and are
these functions without causing objectionable not intended to establish either legal or design
backwater, excessive velocities, erosion or unduly standards which must be strictly adhered to.
affecting traffic safety. A goal in highway drainage Rather, they are intended as a starting point of
design should be to perpetuate natural drainage, reference for designing the most cost effective
insofar as practical. drainage structures and facilities considering the
May 1, 2001
importance of the highway, safety, legal obligations, (l) Providing for removal of detrimental
ease of maintenance, and aesthetics. amounts of subsurface water.
(m) Designing the most efficient drainage
801.4 Objectives of Drainage Design facilities consistent with the factors
Drainage design seeks to prevent the retention of listed above, economic considerations,
water by the highway and provide for removal of the importance of the highway, ease and
water from the roadway through a detailed analysis economy of maintenance, engineering
considering all pertinent factors. judgement, and aesthetics.
Specific steps to be taken generally include: (n) Checking the structural adequacy of
designs by referral to the Division of
(a) Estimating the amount and frequency of
Structures or by use of data furnished by
storm runoff.
the Division of Structures.
(b) Determining the natural points of
(o) Preventing water from crossing slopes in
concentration and discharge, the limiting
concentrated flows.
elevations of entrance head, and other
hydraulic controls.
801.5 Economics of Design
(c) Estimating the amount and composition of
An economic analysis of alternate drainage
bedload and its abrasive and bulking
designs, where a choice is available, should
effects.
always be made. Non-engineering constraints
(d) Determining the necessity for protection may severely limit the design alternatives
from floating trash and from debris moving available to the drainage design engineer for a
under water. specific project or location. Generally, however,
(e) Determining the requirements for energy the design engineer has a wide range of
dissipation and bank protections. materials and products to choose from in
selecting the most economical design from
(f) Determining the necessity of providing for available alternatives for highway drainage
the passage of fish and recognizing other structures and other features.
ecological conditions and constraints.
Water quality and pollution control are The following factors should be considered in
discussed under Index 110.2. Aspects of the selection of alternative designs and economic
wetlands protection are covered under comparisons:
Index 110.4. (a) Initial cost of construction and right of
(g) Analyzing the deleterious effects of way.
corrosive soils and waters on structures. (b) Evaluation of flood related risks to the
(h) Comparing and coordinating proposed highway and to adjacent properties
design with existing drainage structures and including potential liabilities for
systems handling the same flows. damage.
(i) Coordinating, with local agencies, proposed (c) Cost of detours and traffic handling.
designs for facilities on roads to be (d) Service life of the highway and of the
relinquished. drainage structure.
(j) Providing access for maintenance (e) Cost of providing traffic safety features.
operations.
(f) Aesthetics.
(k) Providing for removal of detrimental
(g) Costs to traveling public for delays or
amounts of water on traveled ways (see
extra travel distance due to road
Topics 831 and 833).
closures.
May 1, 2001
(h) Initial cost versus long term maintenance public agencies, and industry that might
costs for cleanout, repair, traffic control and lead to improvement in drainage design
other pertinent maintenance charges that practices.
may be incurred during the life of the
(c) Promote statewide uniformity of design
facility.
procedures, and the exchange of
(i) Safety of required maintenance activities, information between Districts.
ability to provide maintenance mechani-
(d) Coordinate drainage design practices
cally and to reduce worker exposure.
with other Caltrans Offices.
(j) Inlet and outlet treatment.
(e) Review special drainage problems and
(k) Potential for causing erosion and effective unusual drainage designs on the basis of
water pollution control. statewide experience.
(f) Act in an advisory capacity to the
801.6 Use of Drainage References Districts when requested.
No attempt has been made herein to detail basic
(2) Engineering Services Center. The
hydrologic and hydraulic engineering techniques.
Engineering Services Center is responsible
Various sources of information, including FHWA for:
Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC's); Title 23,
(a) The hydraulic design of bridges, bridge
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 650,
deck drains, and special culverts.
Subpart A; AASHTO Guidelines; Federal-Aid
Policy Guide and numerous hydrology and (b) The structural adequacy of all drainage
hydraulics reports and texts have been used to facilities.
compile this highway drainage guide. Frequent (c) The adequacy of pumping plant
references are made to these publications. Where characteristics and temporary storage.
there is a conflict in information or procedure, Refer to Topic 839 for further discussion
engineers must look at all pertinent parameters and on pumping stations.
use their best judgment, to determine which
approach is the most consistent with the objectives (d) Compliance with Federal-Aid Policy
of Caltrans drainage design principles and which Guide, Transmittal 1, G 6012.1 and
most closely relates to the specific design problem submittal of preliminary hydraulic data
or project. as outlined under Topic 805.
(e) Geotechnical (soil mechanics and
Topic 802 - Drainage Design foundation engineering) considerations.
Responsibilities (3) Legal Division. The Legal Division
provides legal advice and guidance to other
802.1 Functional Organization Caltrans Offices concerning the
responsibilities of the Department and
(1) Division of Design. The Office of State
owners of property along State highways
Highway Drainage Design in Division of
with regard to surface water drainage.
Design performs the following functions under
the direction of the Headquarters Hydraulics (4) Districts. The District Director is
Engineer: responsible for:
(a) Provide design information, guidance and (a) The hydrology for all drainage features
standards to the Districts for the design of except bridges.
surface and subsurface drainage.
(b) The hydraulic adequacy of all drainage
(b) Keep informed on the latest data from features, except bridges and any special
research, experimental installations, other
May 1, 2001
culverts and appurtenances designed by the representing the District at meetings

Division of Structures. and maintaining an active liaison
with these agencies at all times.
(c) Consulting with the Division of Structures
when it is proposed that an existing bridge • Furnish data as required on special
be replaced with a culvert. problems, bridges, large culverts,
(d) Bank and shore protection designs, culverts under high fills and
including erosion protection measures at pumping plants that are to be
ends of bridges and other structures designed by the Division of
designed by the Division of Structures. Structures.
(e) Assigning one or more engineers in • Make field inspections of proposed

responsible charge of hydrologic study culvert sites, existing drainage
activities and the hydraulic design of structures during storms, and storm
drainage features. damage locations.
(f) Compliance with Federal-Aid Policy Guide, • Document condition and file data
Transmittal 1, G 6012.1 for storm drain that might forestall or defend future
systems. lawsuits.
(g) Providing additional staff as necessary with • Review permits for drainage
the training and background required to facilities to be constructed by other
perform the following: agencies or private parties within the
highway right of way.
• Accomplish the objectives of drainage
design as outlined under Index 801.4 • Investigate and prepare responses to
complaints relative to drainage
• Prepare drainage plans or review plans conditions on or adjacent to the right
prepared by others. of way.
• Study drainage problems involving Assignment of the duties described above
cooperative agreements and make will vary between districts. Due to the
recommendations to the decision increasing complexity of hydraulic and
makers. hydrologic issues it is imperative that the
• Accumulate and analyze hydrologic and more complex analyses be performed by
hydraulic data reflecting the local experienced hydraulic designers. To provide
conditions throughout the District for guidance on those issues where district
use in design. hydraulic units should become involved, the
following list is provided.
• Review drainage changes proposed
during construction. • Storm drain design and calculations.
• Drainage basins exceeding 1.3 km2.
• Make investigations and
recommendations on drainage problems • Hydrograph development or routing.
arising from the maintenance of • Open channel modification or
existing State highways. realignment.
• Coordinate drainage design activities • Retention or detention basins.
with other District Offices and
• Backwater analysis.
Branches.
• High potential for flood damage
• Coordinate drainage designs with flood litigation.
control districts and other agencies
concerned with drainage by
May 1, 2001
• Scour analysis or sediment transport (b) Coordinates drainage design practice

(typically forwarded to DOS). with other headquarters departments.
• Culvert designs greater than 900 mm in (c) Follows current research and takes steps
diameter. to implement successful findings.
• Encroachments on FEMA designated (d) Acts as an advisory group to Districts
floodplains. and other Caltrans Offices when
• Modifications to inlet or outlet requested.
capacities on existing culverts or (e) Serves as Caltrans liaison with
drainage inlets (e.g., placement of manufacturers, suppliers, contractors
safety end grates, conversion of side and industry associations.
opening inlets to grated inlets, etc.).
The authority of the Committee is advisory only,
• Unique hydraulic design features (e.g., and recommendations of the Committee are
energy dissipator design, pumping submitted to the Chief, Division of Design for
stations, siphons, etc.). approval and implementation through design
This list is not all inclusive, and many guidelines and standards.
additional functions are likely to be performed Requests for consideration of new materials,
by hydraulic units. Although various methods, or procedures should be directed to the
constraints may preclude the hydraulic unit Committee Chairman.
from actively performing the design or analysis
of these items, a thorough review by that unit 802.3 Bank and Shore Protection
should be performed, at a minimum.
Committee
(5) Division of Materials Engineering and Testing
The Caltrans Bank and Shore Protection
Services. METS provides advice and guidance
Committee is composed of representatives from
to other Caltrans Offices and Branches
the ESC Division of Structures Maintenance and
concerning:
Investigation, Office of State Highway Drainage
(a) Service life, physical properties, and Design, METS, Construction Program, and
structural adequacy of materials used in Maintenance Program. It is chaired by the
drainage design. Office of State Highway Drainage Design
representative.
(b) Water quality considerations.
The Committee performs the following
802.2 Culvert Committee functions:
The Caltrans Culvert Committee is composed of (a) Acts as a service and an advisory group
nine members representing the Offices of State available to Districts and Caltrans
Highway Drainage Design, Structure Design, Office Offices and Branches upon written
Engineer, and Materials Engineering and Testing request for special investigations or
Services, along with the Construction Program and study. Requests for special investigation
Maintenance Program. The Committee is chaired of rock slope protection, channel or
by the Headquarters Hydraulics Engineer in the bridge protection, major channel
Office of State Highway Drainage Design. The changes, etc. should be directed to the
Committee performs the following functions: Committee Chair.
(a) Investigates new materials and new
installation methods that may improve the
economic service life of culverts and other
drainage facilities.
May 1, 2001
(b) Provides conceptual input and acts as processed in accordance with instructions in
approval authority for supplements or the Caltrans Cooperative Agreement
modifications to bank and shore protection Manual.
practice publications as warranted.
(2) Federal and State Flood Control Projects.
(c) Investigates and provides input toward the The cost of upgrading or modifying existing
development of detailed design criteria for State highway facilities to accommodate
the various types of bank and shore Federal and/or State funded flood control
protection. projects is normally the responsibility of the
agency funding the project. As necessary,
(d) Observes performances of existing and/or
Caltrans may enter into agreements
experimental installations during or
containing provisions that the cost of
following severe exposures. The Districts
betterments to existing highways, including
or Caltrans Offices or Branches are
drainage features, will be paid for by the
requested to inform the Chair, Bank and
Department. The Cooperative Agreement
Shore Protection Committee, or any
Manual contains procedures for preparing
available members of the Committee, of
interagency agreements.
damage to installations by flood or high
seas.
803.3 Up-Grading Existing Drainage
(e) Upon submission by the Department's New Facilities
Products Coordinator, the Committee
evaluates new products and processes (1) Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Projects.
related to bank and shore protection for The hydraulic adequacy, as well as the
possible approval. structural adequacy of existing drainage
facilities should be evaluated early in the
project development process on pavement
Topic 803 - Drainage Design rehabilitation and highway reconstruction
Policies projects.
Repair or replacement of structurally
803.1 Basic Policy deficient drainage structures and up-grading
In drainage design, the basic consideration is to of hydraulically inadequate drainage
protect the highway against damage from storm and facilities should, whenever practicable, be
subsurface waters, taking into account the effect of included in the work of the proposed project.
the proposed improvement on traffic and property. A thorough investigation of upstream and
Unless the State would benefit thereby, or the cost downstream conditions is often required to
is borne by others, no improvement in the drainage reveal what adverse effects there may be
of areas outside the right of way is to be considered with increasing the capacity or velocity of
on Caltrans projects. existing cross drainage.
A cooperative agreement should be
803.2 Cooperative Agreements negotiated when the proposed work includes
The extent of the department's financial the upgrading of an existing storm drain
participation in cooperative drainage improvement system under the jurisdiction of a local or
projects must be commensurate with the benefits to other public agency.
the Department and the traveling public. (2) Proposed Upstream Development. Unless
(1) Local Agencies. Caltrans may participate with developers of land in the drainage basin
Local Agencies, Flood Control Districts or upstream of existing State highways
Drainage Assessment Districts on drainage incorporate positive stormwater manage-
improvement projects. Such projects must be ment practices, such as detention or
covered by a formal agreement prepared and retention storage basins within their
May 1, 2001
improvement areas, the peak flow from still be accomplished cooperatively with the
stormwater runoff is nearly always increased. local agency in accordance with the general
As a practical matter, minor increases in peak rule for participation under Index 803.2
flow are usually not objectionable. However, Cooperative Agreements.
uncontrolled upstream development or
diversions can significantly increase the peak Topic 804 - Floodplain
flow run-off causing the passable capacity of
the downstream drainage systems, including Encroachments
existing highway culverts, to be exceeded. 804.1 Purpose
When reasonable solutions to potential drainage The purpose of these instructions is to provide
problems associated with such increased flows uniform procedures and guidelines for Caltrans
include the up-grading of drainage facilities multi-disciplinary evaluation of proposed
within the State highway right-of-way, highway encroachments on floodplains.
cooperative agreements with the responsible
local agency should be negotiated. The local 804.2 Authority
agency having permit authority has the
responsibility for assessing liabilities and Title 23, CFR, Part 650, Subpart A, prescribes
seeking commensurate funding for mitigation of FHWA's "...policies and procedures for the
run-off impacts from the developers. The local location and hydraulic design of highway
agency should not allow potentially harmful encroachments on floodplains, ...". The CFR’s
developments to proceed until all issues have may be found on-line at:
been resolved. If it becomes apparent that the http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/cfr-table-
District, the local agency and the developer may search.html
not amiably reach agreement, the matter should
804.3 Applicability
be referred to Caltrans Legal Division before
there is an impasse in the negotiations. The guidance provided herein establishes
Caltrans procedures whenever a floodplain
Caltrans financial participation in such drainage
encroachment is anticipated. Adherence to these
improvements must be based on the general rule
procedures will also ensure compliance with
stated in Index 803.2 Cooperative Agreements.
applicable Federal regulations which apply to
(3) Hydraulically Inadequate Facilities. Land use any Federally approved highway construction,
changes nearly always cause areas to become reconstruction, rehabilitation, repair, or
less pervious and drainage basins to yield improvement project which affects the (100-
greater volumes and increase peak stormwater year) base floodplain. Work outside the limits
run-off flows. Even development of a small of the base floodplain should be reviewed to see
parcel of land within a drainage basin causes if it affects the (100-year) base floodplain. The
some increase in stormwater run-off. only exception is repairs made during or
Individually the increase may be negligible. immediately following a disaster. The premise
Collectively these incrementally small increases is that all Federal-aid projects be evaluated and
over time may cause the design capacity of an that diligent efforts be made to:
existing culvert to be exceeded. • Avoid significant floodplain encroach-
The up-grading of this category of hydraulically ments where practicable.
inadequate drainage facilities may be partially • Minimize the impact of highway actions
or fully financed by Caltrans. Only if the that adversely affect the base floodplain.
benefit cost (b/c) ratio is equal to or greater than
one is up-grading viable for normal Caltrans • Be compatible with the National Flood
project funding. When the benefits to the Insurance Program (NFIP) of the Federal
Department and the traveling public do not Emergency Management Agency
justify increasing the capacity, up-grading may (FEMA).
May 1, 2001
804.4 Definitions (7) Overtopping Flood. The flood described by

the probability of exceedance and water
The following definitions of terms are made for the
surface elevation at which flow occurs over
purpose of uniform application in the
the highway, over the watershed divide, or
documentation and preparation of floodplain
through structure(s) provided for emergency
evaluation reports. Refer to Title 23, CFR, Part
relief.
650, Section 650.105 for a complete list of
definitions. (8) Regulatory Floodway. The floodplain area
that is reserved in an open manner by
(1) Base Flood. The flood or tide having a 1
Federal, State or local requirements, i.e.,
percent chance of being exceeded in any given
unconfined or unobstructed either
year (100-year flood).
horizontally or vertically, to provide for the
(2) Base Floodplain. The area subject to flooding discharge of the base flood so that the
by the base flood. Every watercourse (river, cumulative increase in water surface
creek, swale, etc.) is subject to flooding and elevation is no more than a designated
theoretically has a base floodplain. amount (not to exceed 0.3 m as established
by the Federal Emergency Management
(3) Design Flood. The peak discharge, volume if
Agency (FEMA) for administering the
appropriate, stage or wave crest elevation of the
National Flood Insurance Program).
flood associated with the probability of
exceedance selected for the design of a highway
804.5 Procedures
encroachment. By definition, the highway will
not be inundated from the stage of the design Floodplain evaluations are essentially an
flood. extension of the environmental assessment
process and instructions contained in the
(4) Encroachment. An action within the limits of
Environmental Handbook and the Project
the base floodplain. Any construction activity
Development Procedures Manual are to be
(access road, building, fill slopes, bank or slope
followed. Early in the planning of a project it is
protection, etc.) within a base floodplain
necessary to first determine:
constitutes an encroachment.
(a) If a proposed route alternative will
(5) Location Hydraulic Study. A term from 23
encroach on a base floodplain (refer to
CFR, Section 650.111 referring to the
Index 804.4 (2)) or,
preliminary investigative study to be made of
base floodplain encroachments by a proposed (b) Where proposed construction on
highway action. The extent of investigation and existing highway alignment encroaches
the discussion content in the required on a base floodplain.
documentation of the "Location Hydraulic
A Location Hydraulic Study is used to determine
Study" is very site specific and need be no more
(a) and (b) above. Refer to Index 804.4 (4) and
than that which is commensurate with the
804.7 (2)(b) for further discussion.
risk(s) and impact(s) particular to the location
under consideration. The information Where National Flood Insurance Program
developed, documented (refer to Figure (NFIP) Maps and study reports are available,
804.7A) and retained in the project file is the their use is mandatory in determining whether a
suggested minimum necessary for compliance. highway location alternative will include an
encroachment on the base floodplain. Three
(6) Natural and Beneficial Floodplain Values.
types of NFIP maps are published which, if
This shall include but is not limited to fish,
available, may be obtained from the District
wildlife, plants, open space, natural beauty,
Hydraulics Branch: Flood Hazard Boundary
scientific study, outdoor recreation, agriculture,
Map (FHBM), Flood Boundary and Floodway
forestry, natural moderation of floods, water
Map (FBFM), and Flood Insurance Rate Map
quality maintenance, and groundwater recharge.
(FIRM).
May 1, 2001
If NFIP Maps are not available, the District needed to determine if such risks are
Hydraulics Engineer should develop hydrologic significant or acceptable. The detail of study
data and hydraulic information to estimate the limits and documentation shall be commensurate
of the 100-year base floodplain to determine with the risk(s) or floodplain impact(s) and,
whether a highway location alternative will include in all cases, should be held to the minimum
an encroachment. necessary to address 23 CFR 650.111.
Projects which involve proposed construction (2) Impacts. The assessment of potential
within a regulatory floodplain or floodway need to impacts on the floodplain environment will
be analyzed to determine whether it may be include:
necessary to obtain a map revision. A map revision
(a) Impacts on natural and beneficial
is required when construction in the floodplain
floodplain values.
increases the base flood elevation (BFE) more than
0.3 m. Not all new construction projects require a (b) Support of probable incompatible
map revision. floodplain development.
Except for the more environmentally
804.6 Responsibilities sensitive projects, a single visit to the project
The District Project Engineer is generally the site by the District Project Engineer,
responsible party for initiating and coordinating the Hydraulics Engineer, and Environmental
overall multi-disciplinary team activities of Planner, to assess and document the risks
evaluation and documentation of floodplain and environmental impacts associated with
impacts. Discussion of specific hydraulic and the proposed project is generally all that is
environmental aspects are required by 23 CFR 650, necessary to obtain enough information for
Subpart A. Preparing the project floodplain the "Location Hydraulic Study". Any
evaluation report and the summary for the reasonable adaptation of the floodplain
environmental document or project report is evaluation report summary form, Figure
normally the responsibility of the Environmental 804.7, may be utilized to document and
Planning Branch. The District Hydraulics Engineer summarize the findings of the "Location
will, as necessary, develop the hydrological and Hydraulic Study" when the project is
hydraulic information and provide technical expected to be processed with a categorical
assistance for assessing impacts of floodplain exclusion. Items listed in 23 CFR 650.111
encroachments. as follows must be addressed:
(a) National Flood Insurance Program
804.7 Preliminary Evaluation of Risks and (NFIP) maps or information developed
Impacts for Environmental Document Phase by the highway agency, if NFIP maps
Virtually all proposed highway improvements that are not available, shall be used to
are considered as floodplain encroachments will be determine whether a highway location
designed to have: alternative will include an encroach-
ment.
(a) No significant risks associated with
implementation and, (b) Location studies shall include evaluation
and discussion of the practicability of
(b) Negligible environmental impacts on the alternatives to any longitudinal
base floodplain. encroachments.
(1) Risks. There will always be some potential for (c) Location studies shall include discussion
property damage and flooding that may affect of the following items, commensurate
public safety, associated with highway drainage with the significance of the risk or
design. In a majority of cases, a field review environmental impact, for all
with a NFIP or USGS map and the application alternatives containing encroachments
of good engineering judgment are all that is
May 1, 2001
and for those actions which would support For projects requiring an Environmental
base flood-plain development: Impact Statement or Environmental
Assessment (EIS/EA) or a finding of no
(1) The risks associated with
significant impact (FONSI) with alternatives
implementation of the action,
that have permanent features that encroach
(2) The impacts on natural and beneficial on the floodplain, a back-up report entitled
flood-plain values, Floodplain Evaluation is normally prepared
(3) The support of probable incompatible by the District Environmental Branch. The
flood-plain development, technical requirements are typically
developed jointly by the District Project
(4) The measures to minimize flood-plain Engineer and District Hydraulics Engineer.
impacts associated with the action, See Figure 804.7B for the Floodplain
and Evaluation Report Summary form that is
(5) The measures to restore and preserve used when an environmental document is to
the natural and beneficial flood-plain be prepared.
values impacted by the action.
804.8 Design Standards
(d) Location studies shall include evaluation
and discussion of the practicability of The design standards for highways encroaching
alternatives to any significant on a floodplain are itemized in 23 CFR, Section
encroachments or any support of 650.115. One requirement often overlooked is
incompatible flood-plain development. the need to assess the costs and risks associated
with the overtopping flood for design
(e) The studies required by Sec. 650.111 (c) alternatives in those instances where the
and (d) shall be summarized in overtopping flood exceeds the base flood. The
environmental review documents prepared content of design study information to be
pursuant to 23 CFR part 771. retained in the project file are described in 23
(f) Local, State, and Federal water resources CFR, Section 650.117.
and flood-plain management agencies 804.9 Coordination with the Local
should be consulted to determine if the Community
proposed highway action is consistent with
existing watershed and flood-plain The responsibility for enforcing National Flood
management programs and to obtain current Insurance Program (NFIP) regulations rests with
information on development and proposed the local community that is participating in the
actions in the affected watersheds. NFIP. It is the community who must submit
proposals to Federal Emergency Management
Figure 804.7A is considered the suggested
Agency (FEMA) for amendments to NFIP
minimum hydraulic and engineering ordinances and maps in that community, or to
documentation for floodplain encroachments demonstrate that an alternative floodway
(bridge, culvert, channel change, slope configuration meets NFIP requirements.
protection, embankment, etc.). It is intended as
However, this responsibility may be borne by the
a guide tool to help address the items listed in agency proposing to construct the highway
23 CFR 650.111 and should be prepared jointly crossing. Therefore, the highway agency should
by the Project Engineer and Hydraulics deal directly with the community and, through
Engineer. Since every location is unique, some them, deal with FEMA. Determination of the
of the questions may not apply, or additional status of a community’s participation in the
considerations may need to be added. NFIP and review of applicable NFIP maps and
study reports are, therefore, essential first steps
in conducting location hydraulic studies and
preparing environmental documents.
May 1, 2001
Figure 804.7A
Technical Information for Location Hydraulic Study
Dist. ________ Co. ________ Rte.________ K.P.________________
EA __________________ Bridge No._________________
Floodplain Description
1. Description of Proposal (include any physical barriers i.e. concrete barriers,

soundwalls, etc. and design elements to minimize floodplain impacts)
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
2. ADT: Current Projected
3. Hydraulic Data: Base Flood Q100=_______ m3 / s

WSE100= _______ The flood of record, if greater than Q100:
Q=_______ m3 / s WSE=_______
Overtopping flood Q=______ m3 / s WSE= _______
Are NFIP maps and studies available? Yes_____ No_____
Yes No
4. Is the highway location alternative within a regulatory floodway? ______ ______
5. Attach map with flood limits outlined showing all buildings or other
improvements within the base floodplain.
Potential Q100 backwater damages:
A. Residences? ______ ______
B. Other Bldgs? ______ ______
C. Crops? ______ ______
D. Natural and beneficial Floodplain values? ______ ______
6. Type of Traffic:
A. Emergency supply or evacuation route? ______ ______
B. Emergency vehicle access? ______ ______
C. Practicable detour available? ______ ______
D. School bus or mail route? ______ ______
7. Estimated duration of traffic interruption for 100-year event ______ hours.

May 1, 2001
8. Estimated value of Q100 flood damages (if any) - moderate risk level.
A. Roadway $________
B. Property $________
Total $________
9. Assessment of Level of Risk

Low ___ Moderate ___ High ___
For High Risk projects, during design phase, additional Design Study Risk
Analysis may be necessary to determine design alternative.
PREPARED BY:
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Hydraulic Engineer Date
(Item numbers 3, 4, 5, 7, 9)
Is there any longitudinal encroachment, significant encroachment, or any support of incompatible

Floodplain development? No ____ Yes ____
If yes, provide evaluation and discussion of practicability of alternatives in accordance with

23 CFR 650.113
Information developed to comply with the Federal requirement for the Location Hydraulic Study
Shall be retained in the project files.
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Project Engineer Date
(Item numbers 1, 2, 6, 8)
May 1, 2001
Figure 804.7B
Floodplain Evaluation Report Summary
Dist. ________ Co. ________ Rte.________ K.P.________________
Project No. __________________ Bridge No._________________
Limit
Floodplain Description
Yes No
1. Is the proposed action a longitudinal encroachment of the base floodplain? _____ _____
2. Are the risks associated with the implementation of the proposed action
significant? _____ _____
3. Will the proposed action support probable incompatible floodplain
development? _____ _____
4. Are there any significant impacts on natural and beneficial floodplain
values? _____ _____
5. Routine construction procedures are required to minimize impacts on the
floodplain. Are there any special mitigation measures necessary to minimize
impacts or restore and preserve natural and beneficial floodplain values? If
_____ _____
yes, explain.
6. Does the proposed action constitute a significant floodplain encroachment
as defined in 23 CFR, Section 650.105(q). _____ _____
7. Are Location Hydraulic Studies that document the above answers on file? If
not explain. _____ _____
PREPARED BY:
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Hydraulic Engineer Date
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Environmental Branch Chief Date
_____________________________________________ ____________________
Signature - Dist. Project Engineer Date
May 1, 2001
804.10 National Flood Insurance Program • The participating cities and/or counties agree
to regulate new development in the designated
The Flood Disaster Protection Act of 1973 (Pl 93-
floodplain and floodway through regulations
234, 87 Stat. 975) denies Federal financial
adopted in a floodplain ordinance. The
assistance to flood prone communities that fail to
ordinance requires that development in the
qualify for flood insurance. The Act requires
designated floodplain be consistent with the
communities to adopt certain land use controls in
intent, standards and criteria set by the
order to qualify for flood insurance. These land
National Flood Insurance Program.
use requirements could impose restrictions on the
construction of highways in floodplains and 804.11 Coordination with FEMA
regulatory floodplains in communities which have
There should be Caltrans coordination with
qualified for flood insurance.
FEMA in situations where administrative
The National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, as determinations are needed involving a regulatory
amended (42 U.S.C. 4001-4127) requires that floodway or where flood risks in NFIP
communities adopt adequate land use and control communities are significantly impacted. The
measures to qualify for insurance. To implement circumstances which would ordinarily require
this provision, the following Federal criteria coordination with FEMA include the following.
contains requirements which may affect certain
highways: • When a proposed crossing encroaches on a
regulatory floodway and, as such, would
• In riverine situations, when the Administrator require an amendment to the floodway map.
of the Federal Insurance Administration has • When a proposed crossing encroaches on a
identified the flood prone area, the community floodplain where a detailed study has been
must require that, until a floodway has been performed but no floodway designated and the
designated, no use, including land fill, be maximum 0.3 m increase in the base flood
permitted within the floodplain area having elevation would be exceeded.
special flood hazards for which base flood
elevations have been provided, unless it has • When a local community is expected to enter
been demonstrated that the cumulative effect into the regular program within a reasonable
of the proposed use, when combined with all period and detailed floodplain studies are
other existing and reasonably anticipated uses under way.
of similar nature, will not increase the water • When a local community is participating in
surface elevation of the 100-year flood more the emergency program and the base FEMA
than 0.3 m at any point within the community. flood elevation in the vicinity of insurable
• After the floodplain area having special flood buildings is increased by more than 0.3 m.
hazards has been identified and the water Where insurable buildings are not affected, it
surface elevation for the 100-year flood and is sufficient to notify FEMA of changes to the
floodway data have been provided, the base flood elevations as a result of highway
community must designate a floodway which construction.
will convey the 100-year flood without The draft (EIS/EA) should indicate the NFIP
increasing the water surface elevation of the status of affected communities, the encroachments
flood more than 0.3 m at any point and anticipated and the need for floodway or
prohibit, within the designated floodway, fill, floodplain ordinance amendments. If a
encroachments and new construction and determination by FEMA would influence the
substantial improvements of existing selection of an alternative, a commitment from
structures which would result in any increase FEMA should be obtained prior to the final
in flood heights within the community during environmental impact Statement (FEIS) or
the occurrence of the 100-year flood FONSI.
discharge.
May 1, 2001
More information regarding FEMA can be found exceeding 150 m, and bridges which include ultra
on-line @: “http://www.fema.gov/nfip/”. high strength concrete or steel.
FEMA has developed a comprehensive listing of
all numberical models that are accepted for NFIP
805.3 Storm Drain Systems
usage. These models can be accessed online at: The District will submit preliminary plans and
http://www.fema.gov/mit/tsd/EN_modl.htm. hydraulic data for unusual storm drain systems to
the California FHWA Division Office in
Topic 805 - Preliminary Plans Sacramento for storm drain systems that carry
more than 5.6 m3/s or have an accumulated
surface detention storage system of more than
805.1 Required FHWA Approval 6150 m3.
Current Federal policy requires the review and
approval of plans for unusual structures. (See 805.4 Unusual Hydraulic Structures
Indicies 805.2 - 805.6) by FHWA. FHWA will no The District will submit preliminary plans and
longer review and approve major structures (those hydraulic data for unusual hydraulic structures to
with greater than 11,612 square meters of deck the California FHWA Office in Sacramento.
area) or pumping plants with greater than 0.6 FHWA Headquarters Bridge Division approval is
m3/sec design discharge. Submittal of plans for required for hydraulic structures involving
unusual structures for review applies only to new unusual stream stability countermeasures or
construction on the Interstate system. The unique design technique. The Division of
responsibility for the oversight of unusual Structures will submit preliminary plans and
structures on other Federal-aid and non-Federal- hydraulic data to the California FHWA Division
aid highways will be assumed by the state. Office in Sacramento for unusual structures such
Federal review and approval may take place at as tunnels, complex or unique geotechnical
either their Division Office or FHWA structures and complex or unique hydraulic
Headquarters in Washington, D.C. Early structures.
submission of necessary data is critical in order to
receive a timely approval. 805.5 Levees and Dams Formed by
Highway Fills
805.2 Bridge Preliminary Report
The District will submit preliminary plans and
A Bridge Preliminary Report will be prepared by
other supportive data to the California FHWA
the Division of Structures and submitted to the Division Office in Sacramento for approval of:
California FHWA Division Office in Sacramento
for approval of unusual bridges and structures. (a) Highway fills which will function as a
levee and serve the purpose of reducing
An unusual bridge involves difficult or unique the flooding of adjacent areas.
foundation problems, new or complex designs
involving unique design or operational features, (b) Dams formed by highway fills which will
longer than normal spans or bridges for which the permanently impound water more than 7.6
design procedures depart from current acceptable m in depth or 61 500 m3 in volume. See
practice. Examples include cable stayed, Index 829.9 Dams, for legal definition of
suspension, arch, segmental concrete bridges, a dam and regulations relative to approval
trusses and other bridges which deviate from by the California Department of Water
AASHTO Standard Specifications or Guide Resources.
Specifications for Highway Bridges, bridges
requiring abnormal dynamic analysis for seismic
design, bridges designed using a three-
dimensional computer analysis, bridges with spans
May 1, 2001
805.6 Geotechnical The FHWA requires that three copies of

supportive information be submitted to the
The District shall submit preliminary plans and
California FHWA Division Office when approval
technical data for major or unusual geotechnical
by FHWA Headquarters Bridge Division is
features to the California FHWA Division Office
required. Four copies of supportive information
for approval. Major geotechnical features include
are to be furnished to the Division of Structures to
unusually deep cuts or high fills where the site
prepare the FHWA approval requests for bridges.
geology is potentially unstable, landslide
corrections, and large retaining walls (cantilever,
permanent ground anchor, and soil reinforcement). Topic 806 - Definitions of
FHWA Headquarters Bridge Division approval is Drainage Terms
required for unusual geotechnical features, such as
new or complex retaining wall systems or ground 806.1 Introduction
improvement systems.
These definitions are for use with Sections 800
805.7 Data Provided by the District through 890 of this manual and the references
cited. They are not necessarily definitions as
The following items of supportive information established by case or statutory law.
must be provided with requests for FHWA
approval: See Index 874 for an additional listing of drainage
related terms. This separate listing includes those
(a) Preliminary plans and profiles: terms particularly applicable to Channel and Shore
• Approach layouts. Protection - Erosion Control.
• Drainage plans.
806.2 Drainage Terms
(b) Hydraulic design studies:
Accretion. Outward growth of bank or shore by
• Design Q and frequency. sedimentation. Increase or extension of
• Hydraulic grade lines. boundaries of land by action of natural forces.
• Inflow - Outflow hydrographs. Action. Any highway construction,
• Capacity of reservoirs or pump reconstruction, rehabilitation, repair, or
storage systems. improvement.
• Pump capacity. Aggressive. Refers to the corrosive properties of
soil and water.
• Stream velocities.
• Water surface profiles. Alluvial. Referring to deposits of silts, sands,
gravels and similar detrital material which have
• Slope protection, toe and top
been transported by running water.
elevations.
Alluvium. Stream-borne materials deposited in
(c) Proposed specifications.
and along a channel.
(d) Estimated cost.
Aqueduct. (1) A major conduit. (2) The entire
(e) Foundation report: transmission main for a municipal water supply
which may consist of a succession of canals,
• Embankment design for fills
pipes, tunnels, etc. (3) Any conduit for water;
functioning as dams.
especially one for a large quantity of flowing
(f) Subsurface investigations. water. (4) A structure for conveying a canal
over a river or hollow.
(g) Coordination with Federal, state and local
agencies. Aquifer. Water-bearing geologic formations that
permit the movement of ground water.
(h) Other pertinent data.
May 1, 2001
Artesian Waters. Percolating waters confined Camber. An upward adjustment of the profile of a
below impermeable formations with sufficient drainage facility under a heavy loading (usually
pressure to spring or well up to the surface. a high embankment) and poor soil conditions, so
that as the drainage facility settles it approaches
Avulsion. (1) A forcible separation; also, a part
the design profile.
torn off. (2) The sudden removal of land from
the estate of one man to that of another, as by a Capacity. The effective carrying ability of a
sudden change in a river, the property thus drainage structure. Generally measured in cubic
separated continuing in the original owner. (3) meters per second.
A sudden shift in location of channel.
Capillarity. The attraction between water and soil
Backwater. An unnaturally high stage in stream particles which cause water to move in any
caused by obstruction or confinement of flow, direction through the soil mass regardless of
as by a dam, a bridge, or a levee. Its measure is gravitational forces.
the excess of unnatural over natural stage, not
Capillary Water. Water which clings to soil
the difference in stage upstream and
particles by capillary action. It is normally
downstream from its cause.
associated with fine sand, silt, or clay, but not
Bank. The lateral boundary of a stream confining normally with coarse sand and gravel.
water flow. The bank on the left side of a Catch Basin. A drainage structure which collects
channel looking downstream is called the left water. May be either a structure where water
bank, etc. enters from the side or through a grating.
Bank Protection. Revetment, or other armor Check Dam. A small dam generally placed in
protecting a bank of a stream from erosion, steep ditches for the purpose of reducing the
includes devices used to deflect the forces of velocity in the ditch.
erosion away from the bank.
Cienega. A swamp formed by water rising to the
Base Flood. The flood or tide having a 1 percent surface at a fault.
chance of being exceeded in any given year Cleanout. An access opening to a roadway
(100-year flood). The "base flood" is commonly drainage system. Usually consists of a manhole
used as the "standard flood" in Federal flood shaft, a special chamber or opening into a
insurance studies. (see Regulatory Flood). shallow culvert or drain.
Base Floodplain. The area subject to flooding by Coefficient of Runoff. Percentage of gross rainfall
the base flood. which appears as runoff.
Bedding. The foundation under a drainage Composite Hydrograph. A plot of mean daily
structure. discharges for a number of years of record on a
single year time base for the purpose of showing
Bed Load. Sediment that moves by rolling,
the occurrence of high and low flows.
sliding, or skipping along the bed and is
essentially in contact with the stream bed. Concentrated Flow. Flowing water that has been
accumulated into a single fairly narrow stream.
Braided Stream. A stream in which flow is
divided at normal stage by small islands. This Concentration. In addition to its general sense,
type of stream has the aspect of a single large means the unnatural collection or convergence
channel with which there are subordinate of waters so as to discharge in a narrower width,
channels. and at greater depth or velocity.
Conduit. Any pipe, arch, box or drain tile through
Bulking. The increase in volume of flow due to
which water is conveyed.
air entrainment, debris, bedload, or sediment in
suspension. Confluence. A junction of streams.
Contraction. The reduction in cross sectional area
of flow.
May 1, 2001
Control. A section or reach of an open conduit or 3. Multi-Barrels - total of the individual

stream channel which maintains a stable spans measured along centerline of road is
relationship between stage and discharge. 6.1 m or greater, but the distance between
Conveyance. A measure of the water carrying individual culverts is more than one-half
capacity of a stream or channel. the culvert diameter.
Cradle. A concrete base generally constructed to Current Meter. An instrument for measuring the
fit the shape of a structure which is to be forced velocity of a current. It is usually operated by a
through earthen material by a jacking operation. wheel equipped with vanes or cups which is
The cradle is constructed to line and grade. rotated by the action of the impinging current.
Then the pipe rides on the cradle as it is worked An indicating or recording device is provided to
through the given material by jacking and indicate the speed of rotation which is correlated
tunneling methods. Also serves as bedding for with the velocity of the current.
pipes in trenches in special conditions. Cutoff Wall. A wall at the end of a drainage
Critical Depth. (Depth at which specific energy is structure, the top of which is an integral part of
a minimum) - The depth of water in a conduit at the drainage structure. This wall is usually
which under certain other conditions the buried and its function is to prevent
maximum flow will occur. These other undermining of the drainage structure if the
conditions are the conduit is on the critical slope natural material at the outlet of the structure is
with the water flowing at its critical velocity and dug out by the water discharging from the end
there is an adequate supply of water. The depth of the structure. Cutoff walls are sometimes
of water flowing in an open channel or a conduit used at the upstream end of a structure when
partially filled, for which the velocity head there is a possibility of erosion at this point.
equals one-half the hydraulic mean depth.
Debris. Any material including floating woody
Critical Flow. That flow in open channels at materials and other trash, suspended sediment,
which the energy content of the fluid is at a or bed load moved by a flowing stream.
minimum. Also, that flow which has a Froude
number of one. Debris Barrier. A deflector placed at the entrance
of a culvert upstream, which tends to deflect
Critical Slope. That slope at which the maximum heavy floating debris or boulders away from the
flow will occur at the minimum velocity. The culvert entrance during high-velocity flow.
slope or grade that is exactly equal to the loss of
head per meter resulting from flow at a depth Debris Basin. Any area upstream from a drainage
that will give uniform flow at critical depth; the structure utilized for the purpose of retaining
slope of a conduit which will produce critical debris in order to prevent clogging of drainage
flow. structures downstream.
Critical Velocity. Mean velocity of flow when Debris Rack. A straight barrier placed across the
flow is at critical depth. stream channel which tends to separate light and
Culvert. A closed conduit which allows water to medium floating debris from stream flow and
pass under a highway. The following three prevent the debris from reaching the culvert
conditions constitute a culvert; entrance.
1. Single Barrel - span measured along Degradation. General and progressive lowering
centerline of road 6.1 m or less. of the longitudinal profile of a channel by
erosion.
2. Multi-Barrels - total of the individual
spans measured along centerline of road is Design Discharge. The quantity of flow that is
6.1 m or less. expected at a certain point as a result of a design
storm. Usually expressed as a rate of flow in
cubic meters per second.
May 1, 2001
Design Flood. The peak discharge (when Dike, Training. Embankments constructed to
appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave crest provide a transition from the natural stream
elevation) of the flood associated with the channel or floodplain, both to and from a
probability of exceedance selected for the constricting bridge crossing.
design of a highway encroachment. By
Discharge. A volume of water flowing out of a
definition, the highway will not be inundated by
drainage structure or facility. Measured in cubic
the design flood.
meters per second.
Design Frequency. The recurrence interval for
Diversion. The change in character, location,
hydrologic events used for design purposes. As
direction, or quantity of flow of a natural
an example, a design frequency of 50 years
drainage course. A deflection of flood water is
means a storm of a magnitude that would be
not diversion.
expected to recur on the average of every 50
years. (See Probability of Exceedance.) D-Load (Cracking D-Load). A term used in
expressing the strength of concrete pipe. The
Design Storm. That particular storm which
cracking D-load represents the test load required
contributes runoff which the drainage facilities
to produce a 0.3 mm crack for a length of 300
were designed to handle. This storm is selected
mm.
for design on the basis of its probability of
exceedance or average recurrence interval (See Downdrain. A prefabricated drainage facility
Probability of Exceedance.) assembled and installed in the field for the
purpose of transporting water down steep
Detention Storage. Surface water moving over
slopes.
the land is in detention storage. Surface water
allowed to temporarily accumulate in ponds, Drainage. (1) The process of removing surplus
basins, reservoirs or other types of holding ground or surface water by artificial means. (2)
facility and which is ultimately returned to a The system by which the waters of an area are
watercourse or other drainage system as runoff removed. (3) The area from which waters are
is in detention storage. (See Retention Storage) drained; a drainage basin.
Detritus. Loose material such as; rock, sand, silt, Drainage Area (Drainage Basin) (Basin). That
and organic particles. portion of the earth's surface upon which falling
precipitation flows to a given location. With
Dike. Usually an earthen bank alongside and
respect to a highway, this location may be either
parallel with a river or open channel or an AC
a culvert, the farthest point of a channel, or an
dike along the edge of a shoulder. (See Levee)
inlet to a roadway drainage system.
Dike, Finger. Relatively short embankments
Drainage Course. Any path along which water
constructed normal to a larger embankment,
flows when acted upon by gravitational forces.
such as an approach fill to a bridge. Their
purpose is to impede flow and direct it away Drainage Divide. The rim of a drainage basin. A
from the major embankment. series of high points from which water flows in
two directions, to the basin and away from the
Dike, Spur. Relatively short embankments
basin.
constructed at the upstream side of a bridge end
for the purpose of aligning flow with the Drainage Easement (See Easement).
waterway opening and to move scour away from Drainage System. Usually a system of
the bridge abutment. underground conduits and collector structures
Dike, Toe. Embankment constructed to prevent which flow to a single point of discharge.
lateral flow from scouring the corner of the Drawdown. The difference in elevation between
downstream side of an abutment embankment. the water surface elevation at a constriction in a
Sometimes referred to as training dikes. stream or conduit and the elevation that would
May 1, 2001
exist if the constriction were absent. Drawdown Entrance Loss. The head lost in eddies and
also occurs at changes from mild to steep friction at the inlet to a conduit or structure.
channel slopes and weirs or vertical spillways.
Equalizer. A drainage structure similar to a
Dry Weather Flows. A small amount of water culvert but different in that it is not intended to
which flows almost continually due to lawn pass a design flow in a given direction. Instead
watering, irrigation or springs. it is often placed level so as to permit passage of
water in either direction. It is used where there
Dune. A sand wave of approximately triangular
is no place for the water to go. Its purpose is to
cross section (in a vertical plane in the direction
maintain the same water surface elevation on
of flow) formed by moving water or wind, with
both sides of the highway embankment.
gentle upstream slope and steep downstream
slope and deposition on the downstream slope. Erosion. The wearing away of a surface by some
external force. In the case of drainage
Easement. Right to use the land of others.
terminology, this term generally refers to the
Eddy Loss. The energy lost (converted into heat) wearing away of the earth's surface by flowing
by swirls, eddies, and impact, as distinguished water. It can also refer to the wear on a
from friction loss. structural surface by flowing water and the
Encroachment. Extending beyond the original, or material carried therein.
customary limits, such as by occupancy of the Erosion and Scour. The cutting or wearing away
river and/or flood plain by earth fill by the forces of water of the banks and bed of a
embankment. channel in horizontal and vertical directions,
Endwall. A wall placed at the end of a culvert. It respectively.
may serve three purposes; one, to hold the Erosion and Accretion. Loss and gain of land,
embankment away from the pipe and prevent respectively, by the gradual action of a stream in
sloughing into the pipe outlet channel; two, to shifting its channel by cutting one bank while it
provide a wall which will prevent erosion of the builds on the opposite bank. Property is lost by
roadway fill; and three, to prevent flotation of erosion and gained by accretion but not by
the pipe. avulsion when the shift from one channel to
Energy Dissipator. A structure for the purpose of another is sudden. Property is gained by
slowing the flow of water and reducing the reliction when a lake recedes.
erosive forces present in any rapidly flowing Estuary. That portion of a river channel occupied
body of water. at times or in part by both sea and river flow in
Energy Grade Line. The line which represents the appreciable quantities. The water usually has
total energy gradient along the channel. It is brackish characteristics.
established by adding together the potential Evaporation. A process whereby water as a liquid
energy expressed as the water surface elevation is changed into water vapor, typically through
referenced to a datum and the kinetic energy heat supplied from the sun.
(usually expressed as velocity head) at points
Fan. A portion of a cone, but sometimes used to
along the stream bed or channel floor.
emphasize definition of radial channels. Also
Energy Head. The elevation of the hydraulic reference to spreading out of water or soils
grade line at any section plus the velocity head associated with waters leaving a confined
of the mean velocity of the water in that section. channel.
Entrance Head. The head required to cause flow Fetch. The distance across open water through
into a conduit or other structure; it includes both which wind acts to generate waves.
entrance loss and velocity head.
Flap Gate. This is a form of valve that is
designed so that a minimum force is required to
May 1, 2001
push it open but when a greater water pressure Flow Line. A term used to describe the line
is present on the outside of the valve, it remains connecting the low points in a watercourse.
shut so as to prevent water from flowing in the
Flow Regime. The system or order characteristic
wrong direction. Construction is simple with a
of streamflow with respect to velocity, depth,
metal cover hanging from an overhead rod or
and specific energy.
pinion at the end of a culvert or drain.
Freeboard. (1) The vertical distance between the
Flood Frequency. Also referred to as exceedance
level of the water surface usually corresponding
interval, recurrence interval or return period; the
to the design flow and a point of interest such as
average time interval between actual
a bridge beam, levee top or specific location on
occurrences of a hydrological event of a given
the roadway grade. (2) The distance between
or greater magnitude; the percent chance of
the normal operating level and the top of the
occurrence is the reciprocal of flood frequency,
sides of an open conduit; the crest of a dam,
e.g., a 2 percent chance of occurrence is the
etc., designed to allow for wave action, floating
reciprocal statement of a 50-year flood. (See
debris, or any other condition or emergency,
Probability of Exceedance.)
without overtopping the structure.
Floodplain. Normally dry land areas subject to
Free Outlet. A condition under which water
periodic temporary inundation by stream flow or
discharges with no interference such as a pipe
tidal overflow. Land formed by deposition of
discharging into open air.
sediment by water; alluvial land.
Free Water. Water which can move through the
Floodplain Encroachment. An action within the
soil by force of gravity.
limits of the base flood plain.
French Drain. A trench loosely backfilled with
Flood Plane. The position occupied by the water
stones, the largest stones being placed in the
surface of a stream during a particular flood.
bottom with the size of stones decreasing
Also, loosely, the elevation of the water surface
towards the top. The interstices between the
at various points along the stream during a
stones serve as a passageway for water.
particular flood.
Froude Number. A dimensionless expression of
Floodproof. To design and construct individual
the ratio of inertia forces to gravity forces, used
buildings, facilities, and their sites to protect
as an index to characterize the type of flow in a
against structural failure, to keep water out or
hydraulic structure in which gravity is the force
reduce the effects of water entry.
producing motion and inertia is the resisting
Flood Stage. The elevation at which overflow of force. It is equal to a characteristic flow
the natural banks of a stream begins to cause velocity (mean, surface, or maximum) of the
damage in the reach in which the elevation is system divided by the square root of the product
measured. of a characteristic dimension (as diameter of
depth) and the gravity constant (acceleration due
Flood Waters. Former stream waters which have
to gravity) all expressed in consistent units.
escaped from a watercourse (and its overflow
channel) and flow or stand over adjoining lands. Fr = V/(gy)1/2
They remain as such until they disappear from Gaging Station. A location on a stream where
the surface by infiltration, evaporation, or return measurements of stage or discharge are
to a natural watercourse. They do not become customarily made. The location includes a
surface waters by mingling with such waters, reach of channel through which the flow is
nor stream waters by eroding a temporary uniform, a control downstream from this reach
channel. and usually a small building to house the
Flow. A term used to define the movement of recording instruments.
water, silt, sand, etc.; discharge; total quantity
carried by a stream.
May 1, 2001
Grade to Drain. A construction note often Hydraulic Jump (or Jump). Transition of flow
inserted on a plan for the purpose of directing from the rapid to the tranquil state. A varied
the Contractor to slope a certain area in a flow phenomenon producing a rise in elevation
specific direction, so that the surface waters will of water surface. A sudden transition from
flow to a designated location. supercritical flow to the complementary
subcritical flow, conserving momentum and
Gradient (Slope). The rate of ascent or descent
dissipating energy.
expressed as a percent or as a decimal as
determined by the ratio of the change in Hydraulic Mean Depth. The area of the flow
elevation to the length. cross section divided by the water surface width.
Gradually Varied Flow. In this type of flow, Hydraulic Radius. The cross sectional area of a
changes in depth and velocity take place slowly stream of water divided by the length of that
over large distances, resistance to flow part of its periphery in contact with its
dominates and acceleration forces are neglected. containing conduit; the ratio of area to wetted
perimeter.
Ground Water. That water which is present under
the earth's surface. Ground water is that situated Hydrograph. A graph showing stage, flow,
below the surface of the land, irrespective of its velocity, or other property of water with respect
source and transient status. Subterranean to time.
streams are flows of ground waters parallel to
Hydrography. Water Surveys. The art of
and adjoining stream waters, and usually
measuring, recording, and analyzing the flow of
determined to be integral parts of the visible
water; and of measuring and mapping
streams.
watercourses, shore lines, and navigable waters.
Head. Represents an available force equivalent
Hydrology. The science dealing with the
to a certain depth of water. This is the
occurrence and movement of water upon and
motivating force in effecting the movement of
beneath the land areas of the earth. Overlaps
water. The height of water above any point or
and includes portions of other sciences such as
plane of reference. Used also in various
meteorology and geology. The particular
compound expressions, such as energy head,
branch of Hydrology that a design engineer is
entrance head, friction head, static head,
generally interested in is surface runoff which is
pressure head, lost head, etc.
the result of excessive precipitation.
Headcutting. Progressive scouring and degrading
Hyetograph. Graphical representation of rainfall
of a streambed at a relatively rapid rate in the
intensity against time.
upstream direction, usually characterized by one
or a series of vertical falls. Incised Channel. Those channels which have
been cut relatively deep into underlying
Hydraulic Gradient. A line which represents the
formations by natural processes. Characteristics
relative force available due to the potential
include relatively straight alignment and high,
energy available. This is a combination of
steep banks such that overflow rarely occurs, if
energy due to the height of the water and the
ever.
internal pressure. In any open channel, this line
corresponds to the water surface. In a closed Infiltration. The passage of water through the soil
conduit, if several openings were placed along surface into the ground.
the top of the pipe and open tubes inserted, a Inlet Time. The time required for storm runoff to
line connecting the water surface in each of flow from the most remote point, in flow time,
these tubes would represent the hydraulic grade of a drainage area to the point where it enters a
line. drain or culvert.
Inlet Transition. A specially shaped entrance to a
box or pipe culvert. It is shaped in such a
May 1, 2001
manner that in passing from one flow condition Laminar Flow. That type of flow in which each
to another, the minimum turbulence or particle moves in a direction parallel to every
interference with flow is permitted. other particle and in which the head loss is
approximately proportional to the velocity (as
Inundate. To cover with a flood.
opposed to turbulent flow).
Invert. The bottom of a drainage facility along
Lateral. In a roadway drainage system, a drainage
which the lowest flows would pass.
conduit transporting water from inlet points to
Invert Paving. Generally applies to metal pipes the main drain trunk line.
where it is desirable to improve flow
Levee. An embankment to prevent inundation.
characteristics or prevent corrosion at low
(See Dike)
flows. The bottom portion of the pipe is paved
with an asphaltic material, concrete, or air- Local Depression. A low area in the pavement or
blown mortar. in the gutter established for the special purpose
of collecting surface waters on a street and
Inverted Siphon. A pipe for conducting water
directing these waters into a drainage inlet.
beneath a depressed place. A true inverted
siphon is a culvert which has the middle portion Maximum Historical Flood. The maximum flood
at a lower elevation than either the inlet or the that has been recorded or experienced at any
outlet and in which a vacuum is created at some particular highway location.
point in the pipe. A sag culvert is similar, but
Mean Annual Flood. The flood discharge with a
the vacuum is not essential to its operation.
recurrence interval of 2.33 years.
Isohyetal Line. A line drawn on a map or chart
Meander. In connection with streams, a winding
joining points that receive the same amount of
channel usually in an erodible, alluvial valley.
precipitation.
A reverse or S-shaped curve or series of curves
Isohyetal Map. A map containing isohyetal lines formed by erosion of the concave bank,
and showing rainfall intensities. especially at the downstream end, characterized
by curved flow and alternating shoals and bank
Isovel. Line on a diagram of a channel connecting
erosions. Meandering is a stage in the migratory
points of equal velocity.
movement of the channel, as a whole, down the
Jack (or Jack Straw). Bank protection element valley.
consisting of wire or cable strung on three
Meander Plug (Clay Plug). Deposits of cohesive
mutually perpendicular struts connected at their
materials in old channel bendways. These plugs
centers.
are sufficiently resistant to erosion to serve as
Jacking Operations. A means of constructing a essentially semi-permanent geological controls
pipeline under a highway without open to advancing channel migrations.
excavation. A cutting edge is placed on the first
Meander Scroll. Evidence of historical meander
section of pipe and the pipe is forced ahead by
patterns in the form of lines visible on the inside
hydraulic jacks. As the leading edge pushes
of meander bends (particularly on aerial
ahead, the material inside the pipe is dug out
photographs) which resemble a spiral or
and transported outside the pipe for disposal.
convoluted form in ornamental design. These
Jetty. An elongated, artificial obstruction lines are concentric and regular forms in high
projecting into a stream or the sea from bank or sinuosity channels and are largely absent in
shore to control shoaling and scour by poorly developed braided channels.
deflection of strength of currents and waves.
Mud Flow. A well-mixed mass of water and
Lag. Variously defined as time from beginning alluvium which, because of its high viscosity,
(or center of mass) of rainfall to peak (or center and low fluidity as compared with water, moves
of mass) of runoff. at a much slower rate, usually piling up and
May 1, 2001
spreading out like a sheet of wet mortar or Open Channel. Any conveyance in which water
concrete. flows with a free surface.
Natural and Beneficial Floodplain Values. Ordinary High Water Mark. The line on the shore
Includes but are not limited to fish, wildlife, established by the fluctuation of water and
plants, open space, natural beauty, scientific physically indicated on the bank (1.5 + years
study, outdoor recreation, agriculture, return period)
aquaculture, forestry, natural moderation of
Outfall. Discharge or point of discharge of a
floods, water quality maintenance, and
culvert or other closed conduit.
groundwater recharge.
Outwash. Debris transported from a restricted
Navigable Waters. Those stream waters lawfully
channel to an unrestricted area where it is
declared or actually used as such. Navigable
deposited to form an alluvial or debris cone or
Waters of the State of California are those
fan.
declared by Statute. Navigable Waters of the
United States are those determined by the Corps Overtopping Flood. The flood described by the
of Engineers or the U.S. Coast Guard to be so probability of exceedance and water surface
used in interstate or international commerce. elevation at which flow occurs over the
Other streams have been held navigable by highway, over the watershed divide, or through
courts under the common law that navigability structure(s) provided for emergency relief.
in fact is navigability in law. Peak Flow. Maximum momentary stage or
Negative Projecting Conduits. A structure discharge of a stream in flood. Design
installed in a trench with the top below the top Discharge.
of trench, then covered with backfill and Perched Water. Ground water located above the
embankment. See Positive Projecting Conduit level of the water table and separated from it by
Nonuniform Flow. A flow in which the velocities a zone of impermeable material.
vary from point to point along the stream or Percolating Waters. Waters which have
conduit, due to variations in cross section, slope, infiltrated the surface of the land and move
etc. slowly downward and outward through devious
Normal Depth. The depth at which flow is steady channels (aquifers) unrelated to stream waters,
and hydraulic characteristics are uniform. until they reach an underground lake or regain
and spring from the land surface at a lower
Normal Water Surface (Natural Water Surface).
point.
The free surface associated with flow in natural
streams. Permeability. The property of soils which permits
the passage of any fluid. Permeability depends
"n" Value. The roughness coefficient in the
on grain size, void ratio, shape and arrangement
Manning formula for determination of the
of pores.
discharge coefficient in the Chezy formula,
Physiographic Region. A geographic area whose
1/2 1 1/6
V = C(RS) , where C = ( n )R pattern of landforms differ significantly from
that of adjacent regions.
Off-Site Drainage. The handling of that water Piping. The action of water passing through or
which originates outside the highway right of under an embankment and carrying some of the
way. finer material with it to the surface at the
On-Site Drainage. The handling of that water downstream face.
which originates inside the highway right of Point of Concentration. That point at which the
way. water flowing from a given drainage area
concentrates. With reference to a highway, this
May 1, 2001
would generally be either a culvert entrance or Rainfall. Point Precipitation: That which registers
some point in a roadway drainage system. at a single gauge. Area Precipitation: Adjusted
point rainfall for area size.
Poised Stream. A term used by river engineers
applying to a stream that over a period of time is Rainwash. The creep of soil lubricated by rain.
neither degrading or aggrading its channel, and
Rapidly Varied Flow. In this type of flow,
is nearly in equilibrium as to sediment transport
changes in depth and velocity take place over
and supply.
short distances, acceleration forces dominate,
Positive Projecting Conduit. A structure installed and energy loss due to friction is minor.
in shallow trench with the top of the conduit
Reach. The length of a channel uniform with
projecting above the top of the trench and then
respect to discharge, depth, area, and slope.
covered with embankment. See Negative
More generally, any length of a river or drainage
Projecting Conduit.
course.
Potamology. The hydrology of streams.
Regime. The system or order characteristic of a
Practicable. Capable of being done within stream; its behavior with respect to velocity and
reasonable natural, social, and economic volume, form of and changes in channel,
constraints. capacity to transport sediment, amount of
material supplied for transportation, etc.
Precipitation. Rainfall, snow, sleet, fog, hail, dew
and frost. Regimen. The characteristic behavior of a stream
during ordinary cycles of flow.
Prescriptive Rights. The operation of the law
whereby rights may be established by long Regulatory Floodway. The open floodplain area
exercise of their corresponding powers or that is reserved in by Federal, State, or local
extinguished by prolonged failure to exercise requirements, i.e., unconfined or unobstructed
such powers. either horizontally or vertically, to provide for
the discharge of the base flood so that the
Preserve. To avoid modification to the functions
cumulative increase in water surface elevation is
of the natural floodplain environment or to
no more than a designated amount (not to
maintain it, as closely as practicable, in its
exceed 0.3048 m as established by the Federal
natural state.
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for
Probability of Exceedance. The statistical administering the National Flood Insurance
probability, expressed as a percentage, of a Program (NFIP)).
hydrologic event occurring or being exceeded in
Reliction. Pertaining to being left behind. For
any given year. The probability (p) of a storm
example: that area of land is left behind by
or flood is the reciprocal of the average
reliction when the water surface of a lake is
recurrence interval (N).
lowered.
Probable Maximum Flood. The flood discharge
Restore. To reestablish a setting or environment
that may be expected from the most severe
in which the functions of the natural and
combination of critical meteorological and
beneficial floodplain values adversely impacted
hydrological conditions that are reasonably
by the highway agency can continue to operate.
possible in the region.
Retarding Basin. Either a natural or man made
Pumping Plant. A complete pumping installation
basin with the specific function of delaying the
including a storage box, pump or pumps,
flow of water from one point to another. This
standby pumps, connecting pipes, electrical
tends to increase the time that it takes all the
equipment, pumphouse and outlet chamber.
water falling on the extremities of the drainage
basin to reach a common point, resulting in a
reduced peak flow at that point.
May 1, 2001
Retention Storage. Water which accumulates and pipeline flow, having reached a channel or
ponds in natural or excavated depressions in the pipeline by either surface or subsurface routes.
soil surface with no possibility for escape as
Sag Culvert (or Sag Pipe). A pipeline with a dip
runoff. (See Detention Storage)
in its grade line crossing over a depression or
Retrogression. Reversal of stream grading; i.e., under a highway, railroad, canal, etc. The term
aggradation after degradation, or vice versa. inverted siphon is common but inappropriate as
no siphonic action is involved. The term "sag
Revetment. Bank protection to prevent erosion.
pipe" is suggested as a substitute.
Riparian. Pertaining to the banks of a stream.
Scour. The result of erosive action of running
Riprap. Protection against erosion consisting of water, primarily in streams, excavating and
broken concrete, sacked concrete, rock, etc. carrying away material from the bed and banks.
Ripple. (1) The light fretting or ruffling of a water Wearing away by abrasive action.
caused by a breeze. (2) Undulating ridges and Scour, General. The removal of material from
furrows, or crests and troughs formed by action the bed and banks across all or most of the
of the flow. width of a channel, as a result of a flow
Risk. The consequences associated with the contraction which causes increased velocities
probability of flooding attributable to an and bed shear stress.
encroachment. It includes the potential for Scour, Local. Removal of material from the
property loss and hazard to life during the channel bed or banks which is restricted to a
service life of the highway. minor part of the width of a channel. This scour
Risk Analysis. An economic comparison of design occurs around piers and embankments and is
alternatives using expected total costs caused by the actions of vortex systems induced
(construction costs plus risk costs) to determine by the obstruction to the flow.
the alternative with the least expected cost to the Scour, Natural. Removal of material from the
public. It must include probable flood-related channel bed or banks which occurs in streams
costs during the service life of the facility for with the migration of bed forms, shifting of the
highway operation, maintenance, and repair, for thalweg and at bends and natural contractions.
highway aggravated flood damage to other
Sediment. Fragmentary material that originates
property, and for additional or interrupted
from weathering of rocks and is transported by,
highway travel.
suspended in, or deposited by water.
Riser. In mountainous terrain where much debris
Sedimentation. Gravitational deposit of
is encountered, the entrance to a culvert
transported material in flowing or standing
sometimes becomes easily clogged. Therefore,
water.
a corrugated metal pipe or a structure made of
timber or concrete with small perforations, Seismic Wave. A gravity wave caused by an
called a riser, is installed vertically to permit earthquake.
entry of water and prohibit the entry of mud and
Sheet Flow. Any flow spread out and not
debris. The riser may be increased in height as
confined; i.e., flow across a flat open field.
the need occurs.
Shoaling. Deposition of alluvial material resulting
Rounded Inlet. The edges of a culvert entrance
in areas with relatively shallow depth.
that are rounded for smooth transition which
reduces turbulence and increases capacity. Significant Encroachment. A highway
encroachment and any direct support of likely
Runoff. The portion of precipitation that appears
base floodplain development that would involve
as flow in streams. Drainage or flood discharge
one or more of the following construction or
which leaves an area as surface flow or a
flood related impacts:
May 1, 2001
• A significant potential for interruption or Soffit. The bottom of the top -- (1) With reference
termination of a transportation facility to a bridge, the low point on the underside of the
which is needed for emergency vehicles or suspended portion of the structure. (2) In a
provides a community's only evacuation culvert, the uppermost point on the inside of the
route. structure.
• A significant risk, or Specific Energy. The energy contained in a
stream of water, expressed in terms of head,
• A significant adverse impact on natural and referred to the bed of a stream. It is equal to the
beneficial floodplain values. mean depth of water plus the velocity head of
Silt. (1) Water-Borne Sediment. Detritus carried the mean velocity.
in suspension or deposited by flowing water, Stage. The elevation of a water surface above its
ranging in diameter from 0.005 to 0.05 mm. minimum; also above or below an established
The term is generally confined to fine earth, "low water" plane; hence above or below any
sand, or mud, but is sometimes both suspended datum of reference; gage height.
and bedload. (2) Deposits of Water-Borne
Material. As in a reservoir, on a delta, or on Standing Wave. A term which when used to
floodplains. describe the upper flow regime in alluvial
channels, means a vertical oscillation of the
Sinuosity. The ratio of the length of the river water surface between fixed nodes without
thalweg to the length of the valley proper. appreciable progression in either an upstream or
Skew. When a drainage structure is not normal downstream direction. To maintain the fixed
(perpendicular) to the longitudinal axis of the position, the wave must have a celerity
highway, it is said to be on a skew. The skew (velocity) equal to the approach velocity in the
angle is the smallest angle between the channel, but in the opposite direction.
perpendicular and the axis of the structure. Steady Flow. A flow in which the flow rate or
Slide. Gravitational movement of an unstable quantity of fluid passing a given point per unit
mass of earth from its natural position. of time remains constant.
Slipout. Gravitational movement of an unstable Storage. Detention, or retention of water for
mass of earth from its constructed position. future flow, naturally in channel and marginal
Applied to embankments and other man-made soils or artificially in reservoirs.
earthworks. Storage Basin. Space for detention or retention of
Slope. (1) Gradient of a stream. (2) Inclination of water for future flow, naturally in channel and
the face of an embankment, expressed as the marginal soils, or artificially in reservoirs.
ratio of horizontal to vertical projection; or (3) Storm. A disturbance of the ordinary, average
The face of an inclined embankment or cut conditions of the atmosphere which, unless
slope. In hydraulics it is expressed as percent or specifically qualified, may include any or all
in decimal form. meteorological disturbances, such as wind, rain,
Slough. (1) Pronounced SLU. A side or overflow snow, hail, or thunder.
channel in which water is continually present. It Storm Drain. That portion of a drainage system
is stagnant or slack; also a waterway in a tidal expressly for collecting and conveying former
marsh. (2) Pronounced SLUFF. Slide or slipout surface water in an enclosed conduit. Often
of a thin mantle of earth, especially in a series of referred to as a "storm sewer", storm drains
small movements. include inlet structures, conduit, junctions,
Slugflow. Flow in culvert or drainage structure manholes, outfalls and other appurtenances.
which alternates between full and partly full.
Pulsating flow -- mixed water and air.
May 1, 2001
Storm Water Management. The recognition of Supercritical Flow. In this state, inertia forces are
adverse drainage resulting from altered runoff dominant, so that flow has a high velocity and is
and the solutions resulting from the cooperative usually described as rapid, shooting and
efforts of public agencies and the private sector torrential. Also, that flow which has a Froude
to mitigate, abate, or reverse those adverse number greater than one.
results.
Support Base Floodplain Development. To
Stream Power. An expression used in predicting encourage, allow, serve, or otherwise facilitate
bed forms and hence bed load transport in additional base floodplain development. Direct
alluvial channels. It is the product of the mean support results from an encroachment, while
velocity, the specific weight of the water- indirect support results from an action out of the
sediment mixture, the normal depth of flow and base floodplain.
the slope.
Surface Runoff. The movement of water on earth's
Stream Response. Changes in the dynamic surface, whether flow is over surface of ground
equilibrium of a stream by any one, or or in channels.
combination of various causes.
Surface Waters. Surface waters are those which
Stream Waters. Former surface waters which have been precipitated on the land from the sky
have entered and now flow in a well defined or forced to the surface in springs, and which
natural watercourse, together with other waters have then spread over the surface of the ground
reaching the stream by direct precipitation or without being collected into a definite body or
rising from springs in bed or banks of the channel. They appear as puddles, sheet or
watercourse. They continue as stream waters as overland flow, and rills, and continue to be
long as they flow in the watercourse, including surface waters until they disappear from the
overflow and multiple channels as well as the surface by infiltration or evaporation, or until by
ordinary or low-water channel. overland or vagrant flow they reach well-
defined watercourses or standing bodies of
Strutting. Elongation of the vertical axis of pipe
water like lakes or seas.
prior to installing in a trench. After the backfill
has been placed around the pipe and compacted, Suspended Load. Sediment that is supported by
the wires or rods holding the pipe in its distorted the upward components of turbulent currents in
shape are removed. Greater side support from a stream and that stay in suspension for
the earth is developed when the pipe tends to appreciable amount of time.
return to its original shape. Generally used on
Swale. A shallow, gentle depression in the earth's
pipes which because of size or thinness of the
surface. This tends to collect the waters to some
metal would tend to deform during construction
extent and is considered in a sense as a drainage
operations. Arches are strutted diagonally per
course, although waters in a swale are not
standard or special plan.
considered stream waters.
Subcritical Flow. In this state, gravity forces are
Tapered Inlet. A transition to direct the flow of
dominant, so that the flow has a low velocity
water into a channel or culvert. A smooth
and is often described as tranquil and streaming.
transition to increase hydraulic efficiency of an
Also, that flow which has a Froude number less
inlet structure.
than one.
Thalweg. The line following the lowest part of a
Subdrain. A conduit for collecting and disposing
valley, whether under water or not. Usually the
of underground water. It generally consists of a
line following the deepest part of the bed or
pipe, with perforations in the bottom through
channel of a river.
which water can enter.
Time of Concentration. The time required for
Sump. In drainage, any low area which does not
storm runoff to flow from the most remote
permit the escape of water by gravity flow.
point, in flow time, of a drainage area to the
May 1, 2001
point under consideration. It is usually continuous in the direction of flow and may
associated with the design storm. extend laterally beyond the definite banks to
include overflow channels contiguous to the
Trash Rack. A grid or screen across a stream
ordinary channel. The term does not include
designed to catch floating debris.
artificial channels such as canals and drains,
Trunk (or Trunk Line). In a roadway drainage except natural channels trained or restrained by
system, the main conduit for transporting the the works of man. Neither does it include
storm waters. This main line is generally quite depressions or swales through which surface or
deep in the ground so that laterals coming from errant waters pass.
fairly long distances can drain by gravity into
Watershed. The area drained by a stream or
the trunk line.
stream system.
Tsunami. A gravity wave caused by an
Water Table. The surface of the groundwater
underwater seismic disturbance (such as sudden
below which the void spaces are completely
faulting, landsliding or volcanic activity).
saturated.
Turbulence. A state of flow wherein the water is
Waterway. That portion of a watercourse which is
agitated by cross-currents and eddies, as
actually occupied by water.
opposed to a condition of flow that is quiet and
laminar. Weephole. A hole in a wall, invert, apron, lining,
or other solid structure to relieve the pressure of
Turbulent Flow. That type of flow in which any
groundwater.
particle may move in any direction with respect
to any other particle, and in which the head loss Weir. A low overflow dam or sill for measuring,
is approximately proportional to the square of diverting, or checking flow.
the velocity.
Undercut. Erosion of the low part of a steep bank Topic 807 - Selected Drainage
so as to compromise stability of the upper part. References
Underflow. The downstream flow of water
through the permeable deposits that underlie a 807.1 Introduction
stream. (1) Movement of water through a
Hydraulic and drainage related reference
pervious subsurface stratum, the flow of
publications listed are grouped as to source.
percolating water; or water under ice, or under a
structure. (2) The rate of flow or discharge of
807.2 Federal Highway Administration
subsurface water.
Hydraulic Publications
Unsteady Flow. A flow in which the velocity
changes with respect to space and time. Copies of publications identified with an NTIS or
GPO number may be ordered as follows:
Velocity Head. A term used in hydraulics to
represent the kinetic energy of flowing water. NTIS - Send a check to:
This "head" is represented by a column of National Technical Information Service
standing water equivalent in potential energy to 5285 Port Royal Road
the kinetic energy of the moving water Springfield, VA 22161
calculated as (V2/2g) where the "V" represents (703) 487-4650
the velocity in meters per second and "g" GPO - Send a check to:
represents the potential acceleration due to
gravity, in meters per second per second. Superintendent of Documents
Government Printing Office
Watercourse. A definite channel with bed and Washington, D.C. 20402
banks within which water flows, either (202) 783-3238
continuously or in season. A watercourse is
May 1, 2001
(1) Hydraulic Engineering Circulars (HEC). (3) Implementation Publications.

Title Date FHWA #
HEC Title Date FHWA #
NTIS #
No. NTIS #
Highways in the River 1990 FHWA-Hi-90-
9 Debris-Control 1971 EPD-86-106 Environment 016
Structures PB86-179801/AS Underground Disposal of 1980 TS-80-218
Storm Water Runoff, Design PB83-180257
11 Design of Riprap 1989 IP-89-016
Guidelines Manual
Revetment PB89-218424
Structural Design Manual for 1983 IP-83-6
14 Hydraulic Design of 1983 EPD-86-110 Improved Inlets and Culverts PB84-153485
Energy Dissipators for PB86-180205/AS Guide for Selecting Manning's 1984 TS-84-204
Culverts and Channels Roughness Coefficient for PB84-242585
Natural Channels and Flood
15 Design of Roadside 1988 IP-87-7
Plains
Channels with Flexible PB89-122584/AS
Culvert Inspection Manual 1986 IP-86-2
Linings
PB87-151809
16 Addendum to 1980 EPD-86-116
Highways in the River PB86-178852/AS
Environment (4) Publications on CD-ROM.
17 The Design of 1981 EPD-86-112 Title Date FHWA #
Encroachments on PB86-182110/AS NTIS #
Flood Plains Using HDS-5 Hydraulic (CDROM) SA-96-080
Risk Analysis Design of Highway v 1.00
Culverts 1996
18 Evaluating Scour at 1995 HI-96-031 Installation and User's 1996 SA-96-081
Bridges PB96-163498 Guide
20 Stream Stability at 1995 HI-96-032
Highway Structures PB96-163480
21 Bridge Deck Drainage 1993 SA-92-010 (5) HYDRAIN - Integrated Drainage Design
Systems PB94-109584 Computer System
22 Urban Drainage Design 1996 SA-96-078 All six volumes listed below are contained in
Manual PB97-134308 report No. FHWA-SA-96-064.
23 Bridge Scour and Stream1997 SA-97-030
Instability PB97-199491
Countermeasures Volume Title
No.
(2) Hydraulic Design Series (HDS). I HYDRAIN - System Shell
II HYDRO - Hydrology
HDS Title Date FHWA # III HYDRA Storm Drains
No. NTIS # IV WSPRO - Step Backwater & Bridge
1 Hydraulics of 1978 EPD-86-101 Hydraulics
Bridge Waterways PB86-181708/AS
V HY8 - Culvert Analysis
2 Highway 1996 SA-96-067
Hydrology PB97-134290
VI HYCHL - Roadside Channels
3 Design Charts for 1961 EPD-86-102
Open-Channel Flow PB86-179249/AS
4 Introduction to 1997 HI-97-028
Highway PB97-186761
Hydraulics
5 Hydraulic Design 1985 IP-85-15
of Highway PB86-196961/AS
Culverts (GPO 050-
001-00298-1)
May 1, 2001
807.3 American Association of State 807.4 California Department of

Highway and Transportation Officials Transportation
(AASHTO) The following publications are available from the
(1) Highway Drainage Guidelines Caltrans Publications Unit, 1900 Royal Oaks Dr.,
Sacramento, CA 95815. Information on ordering
The Drainage Guidelines is a collection of the
and price can be checked by calling (916) 445-
guides previously published as individual
3520.
volumes. These are:
• Bridge Design Practice Manual
I - Hydraulic Considerations in Highway
Planning and Location • Manual of Test - Volumes 1, 2, and 3
II - Hydrology • Standard Plans
III - Erosion and Sediment Control in
Highway Construction • Standard Specifications
IV - Hydraulic Design of Culverts The following computer program may be obtained
V - The Legal Aspects of Highway from the District Materials Engineer.
Drainage • CULVERT4.EXE, computer program to
VI - Hydraulic Analysis and Design of Open calculate maintenance-free service life using
Channels California Culvert Criteria.
VII - Hydraulic Analysis for the Location and Readers outside of Caltrans can get CULVERT 4
Design of Bridges from McTrans at the University of Florida at
VIII - Hydraulic Aspects in Restoration and (352) 392-0378, http://mctrans.ce.ufl.edu .
Upgrading of Highways
IX - Storm Drain Systems 807.5 U.S. Department of Interior -
Geological Survey (USGS)
X - Evaluating Highway Effects on Surface
Water Environments • Magnitude and Frequency of Floods in
XI - Highways along Coastal Zones and California - Water Resources Investigation 77-
Lakeshores 21.
XII - Stormwater Management • Methods for Estimating Magnitude and
XIII- Hydraulics Engineer Training and Frequency of Floods in the Southwestern
Career Development United States - Open - File Report 93-419
The current edition may be purchased through • Guide For Determining Flood Flow Frequency
AASHTO, 444 North Capitol St., N.W., Suite - Bulletin #17B
225, Washington D.C. 20001.
• Water Resources Data for California, Part 1,
(2) AASHTO Model Drainage Manual Volumes 1 and 2.
The Model Drainage Manual (MDM) is a • Rock Riprap Design for Protection of Stream
comprehensive document covering a wide Channels Near Highway Structures (1987)
variety of transportation related hydraulic Volumes 1 and 2 (1987).
design issues. Developed for use by Federal,
State, and local agencies, the MDM is a
practice oriented document that allows the
user agency to adopt the recommended values
shown in the manual, or insert their own
specific design policies and procedures.
May 1, 2001
program not listed in Table 808.1 is used, it

807.6 U.S. Department of Agriculture - should be demonstrated that the computations are
Natural Resources Conservation Service based on the same principles that are used in the
(NRCS) programs listed in Table 808.1. For information
• Engineering Design Standards. on Local Agency hydraulic computer program
requirements, the District Hydraulics Branch
• Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds - should be contacted. It is the responsibility of the
Technical Release 55 user to ensure that the version of the program
being used from Table 808.1 is current.
807.7 California Department of Water
Resources and Caltrans
• Rainfall Intensity - Duration - Frequency
Computer Program (Available through
Caltrans).
807.8 University of California - Institute of

Transportation and Traffic Engineering
(ITTE)
• Street and Highway Drainage - Course Notes,
Volumes 1 and 2.
807.9 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Publications and computer programs, too
numerous to list, are available from the Water
Resources Support Center. A publication catalog
may be obtained by contacting the Hydrologic
Engineering Center of the Corp, 609 Second St.,
Davis, CA 95616. The U. S. Army Corps of
Engineers publications website address is:
http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/.
Topic 808 – Selected Computer

Programs
Table 808.1 below presents a software vs.
capabilities matrix for hydrologic/hydraulic
software packages that are approved for use by the
Department. Where Caltrans drainage facilities
connect or impact facilities that are owned by
others, the affected Local Agency may require the
Department to use a specific program that is not
listed below. When the use of other computer
programs is requested, a comparison with the
results using the appropriate program from Table
808.1 should be made. However, when work is
performed on projects under Caltrans’
jurisdiction, either internally, or by others, if a
May 1, 2001
Table 808.1 Summary of Related Computer Programs

Energy Storm Drains Hydrology Water Culverts Roadside Pavement Pond
Dissipation Surface /Median Drainage Routing
Profiles Channels
HYDRAIN x x x x x x x x
TR-55 x
HEC-HMS x x
CAiCE x x x x x x x
HEC-RAS x
FESWMS x
HDS No 5: x
CD
WMS x x x
Caltrans IDF x
The program that was used by FEMA to establish water surface elevations (usually HEC-2) must be used for
comparison for FEMA floodplain analysis. For more information contact FEMA or the Local Agency.
HEC-1 has been superseded by HEC-HMS by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Special circumstances may dictate the use of alternative methods/programs. Any such use should be
performed under direction and with approval of the District Hydraulics Engineer.
May 1, 2001
on spread footings with the streambed serving as

CHAPTER 820 the bottom of the culvert.
CROSS DRAINAGE Bridges are not designed to take advantage of
submergence to increase hydraulic capacity even
Topic 821 - General though some are designed to be inundated under
flood conditions. For economic and hydraulic
Index 821.1 - Introduction efficiency, culverts should be designed to operate
with the inlets submerged during flood flows, if
Cross drainage involves the conveyance of surface conditions permit. At many locations, either a
water and stream flow across or from the highway bridge or a culvert will fulfill both the structural
right of way. This is accomplished by providing and hydraulic requirements of the stream crossing.
either a culvert or a bridge to convey the flow from Structure choice at these locations should be based
one side of the roadway to the other side or past on con0struction and maintenance costs, risk of
some other type of flow obstruction. failure, risk of property damage, traffic safety, and
In addition to the hydraulic function, a culvert must environmental and aesthetic considerations.
carry construction and highway traffic and earth Culverts are usually considered minor structures,
loads. Culvert design, therefore, involves both but they are of great importance to adequate
hydraulic and structural design. This section of the drainage and the integrity of the highway facility.
manual is basically concerned with the hydraulic Although the cost of individual culverts is
design of culverts. Both the hydraulic and relatively small, the cumulative cost of culvert
structural designs must be consistent with good construction constitutes a substantial share of the
engineering practice and economics. An itemized total cost of highway construction. Similarly, the
listing of good drainage design objectives and cost of maintaining highway drainage features is
economic factors to be considered are listed in substantial, and culvert maintenance is a large
Index 801.4. Information on strength require- share of these costs. Improved service to the
ments, height of fill tables, and other physical public and a reduction in the total cost of highway
characteristics of alternate culvert shapes and construction and maintenance can be achieved by
materials may be found in Chapter 850, Physical judicious choice of design criteria and careful
Standards. attention to the hydraulic design of each culvert.
More complete information on hydraulic principles
and engineering techniques of culvert design may 821.2 Hydrologic Considerations
be found in the FHWA Hydraulic Design Series Before the hydraulic design of a culvert or bridge
No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts". can begin, the design discharge, the quantity (Q) of
Key aspects of culvert design and a good overview water in cubic meters per second, that the facility
of the subject are more fully discussed in the may reasonably be expected to convey must be
AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines. estimated. The most important step is to establish
Structures measuring more than 6.1 m along the the appropriate design storm or flood frequency for
roadway centerline are conventionally classified as the specific site and prevailing conditions. Refer to
bridges, assigned a bridge number, and maintained Chapter 810, Hydrology and specifically Topics
and inspected by the Division of Structures. 818 and 819 for useful information on hydrological
However, some structures classified as bridges are analysis methods and considerations.
designed hydraulically and structurally as culverts. When empirical methods are used to estimate the
Some examples are certain multi-barreled box peak rate of runoff, design Q, for important
culverts and arch culverts. Culverts, as distin- culverts, it is recommended that at least two
guished from bridges, are usually covered with methods be tried. By comparing results a more
embankment and have structural material around reliable discharge estimate for the drainage basin
the entire perimeter, although some are supported may be obtained. This is more important for large
May 1, 2001
basins having areas in excess of 1.3 km2 (130 ha) suggested by these criteria need to be balanced
than for small basins. against potential damage to the highway and
adjacent properties upstream and downstream of
821.3 Selection of Design Flood the site. The selection of a design flood with a
lesser or greater peak discharge may be
As discussed in Index 818.2, there are two
warranted and justified by economic analysis. A
recognized alternatives to selecting the design
more frequent design flood than a 4% probability
flood frequency (probability of exceedance) in the
of exceedance (25-year) should not be used for the
hydraulic design of bridges and culverts. They are:
hydraulic design of culverts under freeways and
• By policy - using a preselected recurrence other highways of major importance.
interval. Alternatively, where predictive data is limited, or
• By analysis - using the recurrence interval where the risks associated with drainage facility
that is most cost effective and best satisfies failure are high, the greatest flood of record or
the specific site conditions and associated other suitably large event should be evaluated by
risks. the designer.
Although either of these alternatives may be used When channels or drainage facilities under the
exclusive of the other, in actual practice both jurisdiction of local flood control agencies or
alternatives are often considered and used jointly Corps of Engineers are involved, the design flood
to select the flood frequency for hydraulic design. must be determined through negotiations with the
For culverts and small bridges, apply the following agencies involved.
general rules for first consideration in the process
for ultimate selection of the design flood. 821.4 Headwater and Tailwater
(1) Bridges. The basic rule for the hydraulic (1) Headwater. The term, headwater, refers to the
design of bridges is that they should pass a 2% depth of the upstream water surface measured
probability flood (50-year). Freeboard, vertical from the invert of the culvert entrance. Any
clearance between the lowest structural culvert which constricts the natural stream
member and the water surface elevation of the flow will cause a rise in the upstream water
design flood, sufficient to pass the 1% surface.
probability flood should be provided. Six-
It is not always economical or practical to
tenths meter of freeboard is often assumed for
utilize all the available head. This applies
preliminary bridge designs. The effects of
particularly to situations where debris must
bedload and debris should be considered in the
pass through the culvert, where a headwater
design of the bridge waterway.
pool cannot be tolerated, or where the natural
(2) Culverts. There are two primary design gradient is steep and high outlet velocities are
frequencies that should be considered: objectionable.
• A 10% probability flood (10-year) without The available head may be limited by the fill
causing the headwater elevation to rise height, damage to the highway facility, or the
above the inlet top of the culvert and, effects of ponding on upstream property. The
• A 1% probability flood (100-year) with-out extent of ponding should be brought to the
headwaters rising above an elevation that attention of all interested functions, including
would cause objectionable backwater Project Development, Maintenance, and Right
depths or outlet velocities. of Way.
The designer must use discretion in applying the Full use of available head may develop some
above criteria. Design floods selected on this basis vortex related problems and also develop
may not be the most appropriate for specific objectionable velocities resulting in abrasion of
project site locations or conditions. The cost of the culvert itself or in downstream erosion. In
providing facilities to pass peak discharges most cases, provided the culvert is not flowing
May 1, 2001
under pressure, an increase in the culvert size (1) Passing Through Culvert. If economically
does not appreciably change the outlet feasible, culverts should be designed to pass
velocities. debris. Culverts which pass debris often have
a higher construction cost. On the other hand,
(2) Tailwater. The term, tailwater, refers to the
retaining solids upstream from the entrance by
water located just downstream from a
means of a debris control structure often
structure. Its depth or height is dependent
involves substantial maintenance cost and
upon the downstream topography and other
could negatively affect fish passage. An
influences. High tailwater could submerge the
economic comparison which includes
culvert outlet.
evaluation of long term maintenance costs
should be made to determine the most
821.5 Effects of Tide and Wind
reasonable and cost effective method of
Where the tailwater elevation is controlled by handling.
tides, special studies will normally be required to
(2) Interception. If it is not economical to pass
determine the tailwater stage consistent with the
debris, it should be retained upstream from the
design storm frequency of the facility. The effects
entrance by means of a debris control structure
of wind and flood discharges must be considered in
or the use of a debris basin when the facility is
conjunction with predicted tide stages. Where
located in the vicinity of alluvial fans.
necessary, backflow protection should be provided
in the form of flap gates. Refer to Indexes 838.3 If drift and debris are retained upstream, a riser
and 838.5(2) for further discussion of this subject. or chimney may be required. This is a vertical
extension to the culvert which provides relief
Topic 822 - Debris Control when the main entrance is plugged. The
increased head should not be allowed to
develop excessive velocities or cause pressure
822.1 Introduction which might induce leakage in the culvert.
Debris, if allowed to accumulate either within a If debris control structures are used, access
culvert or at its inlet, can adversely affect the must be provided for maintenance equipment
hydraulic performance of the facility. Damage to to reach the site. This can best be handled by
the roadway and to upstream property may result coordination and field review with district
from debris obstructing the flow into the culvert. maintenance staff. Details of a pipe riser with
Coordination with district maintenance forces can debris rack cage are shown on Standard Plan
help in identifying areas with high debris potential D93C. See FHWA Hydraulic Engineering
and in setting requirements for debris removal Circular No. 9, "Debris-Control Structures" for
where necessary. further information.
The use of any device that can trap debris must be The use of an upstream debris basin and
thoroughly examined prior to its use. In addition to downstream concrete lined channels, has often
the more common problem of debris accumulation been used by Local Agencies for managing
at the culvert entrance, the use of safety end grates flood flows on alluvial fans in urbanized areas.
or other appurtenances can also lead to debris Experience has shown that this approach is
accumulation within the culvert at the outlet end. effective, however, the costs of building and
Evaluation of this possibility, and appropriate maintaining such facilities is high with a
preventive action, must be made if such end potential for sediment inflows greater than
treatment is proposed. anticipated.
822.2 Debris Control Methods The District Hydraulics Engineer should be
There are two methods of handling debris: consulted if a debris basin is being considered
for interception in the vicinity of an alluvial
fan.
May 1, 2001
822.3 Economics As a general rule, flood waters should be

conducted under the highway at first opportunity
Debris problems do not occur at all suspected
minimizing scour of embankment and entrapment
locations. It is often more economical to construct
of debris. Therefore, culverts should be placed at
debris control structures after problems develop.
each defined swale to limit carryover of drainage
An assessment of potential damage due to debris
from one watershed to another.
clogging if protection is not provided should be the
basis of design.
823.2 Alignment and Slope
822.4 Classification of Debris The ideal culvert placement is on straight
alignment and constant slope. Variations from a
In order to properly determine methods for debris
straight alignment should be only to accommodate
control, an evaluation of the characteristics of
unusual conditions. Where conditions require
debris within flood flows must be made. Debris
deviations from the tangent alignment, abrupt
can be either floating, suspended in the flood flow,
changes in direction or slope should be avoided in
or dragged/rolled along the channel bottom.
order to maintain the hydraulic efficiency, and
Typically, a flood event will deposit debris from all
avoid excessive maintenance. Angle points may be
of these types.
permissible in the absence of abrasives in the flow;
The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9 otherwise, curves should be used. When angle
contains a debris classification system to aid the points are unavoidable, maintenance access may be
designer in selecting the appropriate type of debris necessary. See Index 838.5 for manhole location
control structure. criteria.
Curvature in pipe culverts is obtained by a series of
822.5 Types of Debris Control Structures angle points. Whenever conditions require these
The FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 9, angle points in culvert barrels, the number of angle
"Debris-Control Structures", shows types of debris points must be specified either in the plans or in
control structures and provides a guide for the special provisions. The angle can vary
selecting the type of structure suitable for various depending upon conditions at the site, hydraulic
debris classifications. requirements, and purpose of the culvert. The
angle point requirement is particularly pertinent if
there is a likelihood that structural steel plate pipe
Topic 823 - Culvert Location
will be used. The structural steel plate pipe
fabricator must know what the required miters are
823.1 Introduction in order for the plates to be fabricated
The culvert usually should be located so that the satisfactorily. Manufacturers' literature should be
thalweg of the stream to be accommodated, consulted to be sure that what is being specified
approaches and exits at the approximate centerline can be fabricated without excessive cost.
of the culvert. However, for economic reasons, as a Ordinarily the grade line should coincide with the
general rule, small skews should be eliminated, existing streambed. Deviations from this practice
moderate skews retained and large skews reduced. are permissible under the following conditions:
Since the culvert typically acts as a constriction, (a) On flat grades where sedimentation may
local velocities will increase through the barrel and occur, place the culvert inlet and outlet
in the vicinity of the outlet. The location and above the streambed but on the same slope.
design must be also sensitive to the environment The distance above the streambed depends
(fish passage etc). on the size length and amount of sediment
anticipated.
May 1, 2001
If possible, a slope should be used that is See Standard Plan D89 for multiple pipe
sufficient to develop self-cleaning headwall details.
velocities.
Additional clearance between pipes is required
(b) Under high fills, anticipate greater to accommodate flared end sections. See
settlement under the center than the sides of Standard Plans, D94A & B for width of flared
the fill. Where settlement is anticipated, end sections.
provisions should be made for camber.
(c) In steep sloping areas such as on hillsides, Topic 825 - Hydraulic Design of
the overfill heights can be reduced by Culverts
designing the culvert on a slope flatter than
natural slope. However, a slope should be
825.1 Introduction
used to maintain a velocity sufficient to carry
the bedload. A spillway or downdrain can be After the design discharge, (Q), has been estimated,
provided at the outlet. Outlet protection the conveyance of this water must be investigated.
should be provided to prevent undermining. This aspect is referred to as hydraulic design.
For the downdrain type of installation, The highway culvert is a special type of hydraulic
consideration must be given to anchorage. structure. An exact theoretical analysis of culvert
This design is appropriate only where flow is extremely complex because the flow is
substantial savings will be realized. usually non-uniform with regions of both gradually
varying and rapidly varying flow. Hydraulic jumps
Topic 824 - Culvert Type Selection often form inside or downstream of the culvert
barrel. As the flow rate and tailwater elevations
824.1 Introduction change, the flow type within the barrel changes.
An exact hydraulic analysis therefore involves
A culvert is a hydraulically short conduit which backwater and drawdown calculations, energy and
conveys stream flow through a roadway momentum balance, and application of the results
embankment or past some other type of flow of hydraulic studies.
obstruction. Culverts are constructed from a
variety of materials and are available in many An extensive hydraulic analysis is usually
different shapes and configurations. Culvert impractical and not warranted for the design of
selection factors include roadway profiles, channel most highway culverts. The culvert design
characteristics, flood damage evaluations, procedures presented herein and in the referenced
construction and maintenance costs, and estimates publications are accurate, in terms of head, to
of service life. within plus or minus 10 percent.
824.2 Shape and Cross Section 825.2 Culvert Flow

(1) Numerous cross-sectional shapes are available. The types of flow and control used in the design of
The most commonly used shapes include highway culverts are:
circular, box (rectangular), elliptical, pipe-arch, • Inlet Control - Most culverts operate under
and arch. The shape selection is based on the inlet control which occurs when the culvert
cost of construction, the limitation on upstream barrel is capable of carrying more flow
water surface elevation, roadway embankment than the inlet will accept. Supercritical
height, and hydraulic performance. flow is usually encountered within the
(2) Multiple Barrels. In general, the spacing of culvert barrel. When the outlet is
pipes in a multiple installation, measured submerged under inlet control, a hydraulic
between outside surfaces, should be at least half jump will occur within the barrel.
the nominal diameter with a minimum of 0.6 m.
May 1, 2001
• Outlet Control - Outlet control occurs The culvert hydraulics program within HYDRAIN
when the culvert barrel is not capable of is HY8, an interactive culvert analysis program.
conveying as much flow as the inlet will Given all of the appropriate data, the program will
accept. Culverts under outlet control compute the culvert hydraulics for circular,
generally function with submerged outlets rectangular, elliptical, arch, and user-defined
and subcritical flow within the culvert culverts.
barrel. However, it is possible for the The logic of HY8 involves calculating the inlet and
culvert to function with an unsubmerged outlet control headwater elevations for the given
outlet under outlet control where flow flow. The elevations are then compared and the
passes through critical depth in the vicinity larger of the two is used as the controlling
of the outlet. elevation. In cases where the headwater elevation
For each type of control, different factors and is greater then the top elevation of the roadway
formulas are used to compute the hydraulic embankment, an overtopping analysis is done in
capacity of a culvert. Under inlet control, the cross which flow is balanced between the culvert
sectional area of the culvert, inlet geometry, and discharge and the surcharge over the roadway. In
elevation of headwater at entrance are of primary the cases where the culvert is not full for any part
importance. Outlet control involves the additional of its length, open channel computations are
consideration of the tailwater elevation of the performed.
outlet channel and the slope, roughness and length
of the culvert barrel. A discussion of these two 825.4 Coefficient of Roughness
types of control with charts for selecting a culvert
Suggested Manning's n values for culvert design
size for a given set of conditions is included in the
are given in Table 851.2.
FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5, "Hydraulic
Design of Highway Culverts."
Topic 826 - Entrance Design
825.3 Computer Programs
Numerous calculator and computer programs are 826.1 Introduction
available to aid in the design and analysis of
The size and shape of the entrance are among the
highway culverts. The major advantages of these
factors that control the level of ponding at the
programs over the traditional hand calculation
entrance. Devices such as rounded or beveled lips
method are:
and expanded entrances help maintain the velocity
• Increased accuracy over charts and of approach, increase the culvert capacity, and may
nomographs. lower costs by permitting a smaller sized culvert to
be used.
• Rapid comparison of alternative sizes and
inlet configurations. The inherent characteristics of common entrance
treatments are discussed in Index 826.4. End
Familiarity with culvert hydraulics and traditional
treatment on large culverts is an important
methods of solution is necessary to provide a solid
consideration. Selecting an appropriate end
basis for designers to take advantage of the speed,
treatment for a specific type of culvert and location
accuracy, and increased capabilities of hydraulic
requires the application of sound engineering
design computer programs.
judgment.
The hydraulic design calculator and computer
The FHWA Hydraulic Design Series No. 5,
programs available from the FHWA are more fully
"Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts" combines
described in HDS No. 5, "Hydraulic Design of
culvert design information previously contained in
Highway Culverts."
HEC No. 5, No. 10, and No. 13. The hydraulic
performance of various entrance types is described
in HDS No. 5.
May 1, 2001
826.2 End Treatment Policy the aesthetics, and for safety reasons. Because
prefabricated flared end sections provide better
The recommended end treatment for small culverts
traffic safety features and are considered more
is the prefabricated flared end section. For safety,
attractive than headwalls they are to be used
aesthetic, and economic reasons, flared end
instead of headwalls whenever feasible.
sections should be used at both entrance and outlet
whenever feasible instead of headwalls. Details of prefabricated flared end sections for
circular pipe in sizes 300 mm through 2100
End treatment, either flared end section or
mm in diameter and pipe arches of equivalent
headwall, is required for circular culverts 1500
size are shown on Standard Plans D94A & B.
mm or more in diameter and for pipe arches of
equivalent size. (3) Headwalls and Wingwalls. This end treatment
may be required at the culvert entrance for the
826.3 Conventional Entrance Designs following reasons:
The inlet edge configuration is one of the prime • To improve hydraulic efficiency.
factors influencing the hydraulic performance of a
• To retain the embankment and reduce
culvert operating in inlet control. The following
erosion of slopes.
entrance types are frequently used.
• To provide structural stability to the
(1) Projecting Barrel. A thin edge projecting inlet
culvert ends and serve as a counterweight
can cause a severe contraction of the flow.
to offset buoyant or uplift forces.
The effective cross sectional area of the barrel
may be reduced to about one half the actual (4) Rounded Lip. This treatment costs little,
available barrel area. smooths flow contraction, increases culvert
capacity, and reduces the level of ponding at
The projecting barrel has no end treatment and
the entrance. The box culvert and pipe
is the least desirable hydraulically. It is
headwall standard plans include a rounded lip.
economical but its appearance is not pleasing
The rounded lip is omitted for culverts less
and use should be limited to culverts with low
than 1200 mm in diameter; however, the
velocity flows where head conservation, traffic
beveled groove end of concrete pipe at the
safety, and appearance are not important
entrance produces an effect similar to that of a
considerations.
rounded lip.
Typical installations include an equalizer
(5) Mitered End. A mitered culvert end is formed
culvert where ponding beyond the control of
when the culvert barrel is cut to conform with
the highway facility occurs on both sides of the
the plane of the embankment slope. Mitered
highway or where the flow is too small to fill
entrances are not to be used. They are
the minimum culvert opening.
hydraulically less efficient than either flared
The projecting entrance inhibits culvert end sections or headwalls, and they are
efficiency. In some situations, the outlet end structurally unstable.
may project beyond the fill, thus providing
(6) Entrance Risers. At a location where the
security against erosion at less expense than
culvert would be subject to plugging, a vertical
bank protection work.
pipe riser should be considered. Refer to Index
Projecting ends may prove a maintenance 822.2 for discussion on debris-control
nuisance, particularly when clearance to right structures.
of way fence is limited.
(2) Flared End Sections. This end treatment does 826.4 Improved Inlet Designs
not appreciably improve the hydraulic Entrance geometry refinements can be used to
performance of the culvert and is used reduce the flow contraction at the inlet and
primarily to retain the embankment, improve increase the capacity of culverts operating under
May 1, 2001
inlet control without increasing the headwater entrance is unnecessary if the shape of the
depth. The following entrance types improve culvert fits the approach channel. In wide flat
culvert inlet performance and can be provided at channels where ponding at entrance must be
reasonable cost. restricted, a wide shallow structure or multiple
conduit should be used if drift and debris are
(1) Expanded Entrances. Headwalls with straight
not a problem.
flared wingwalls or warped wingwalls offer a
more highly developed entrance appropriate Throated or tapered barrels at entrance are
for large culverts, regardless of type or shape more vulnerable to clogging by debris. They
of barrel. The effect of such entrances can be are not economical unless they are used for
approximated more economically by a shaped corrective measures; for example, where there
entrance using air blown mortar, concreted is a severe restriction in right of way width and
riprap, sacked concrete or slope paving. it is necessary to increase the capacity of an
existing culvert structure.
Straight flared wingwalls and warped
wingwalls aid in maintaining the approach For further information refer to HEC-9,
velocity, align and guide drift, and funnel the "Debris-Control Structures" and HDS 5,
flow into the culvert entrance. To insure "Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts"
enough velocity to carry drift and debris
through the culvert or increase the velocity and Topic 827 - Outlet Design
thereby increase the entrance capacity, a
sloping drop down apron at the entrance may
be used. To minimize snagging drift, the 827.1 General
standard plans require wingwalls to be flush The outlet velocity of highway culverts is usually
with the culvert barrel. The flare angle may higher than the maximum natural stream velocity.
range from 30 to 75 degrees; the exact angle is This higher velocity can cause streambed scour and
based on the alignment of the approach bank erosion for a limited distance downstream
channel banks and not the axis of the culvert. from the culvert outlet.
Greater efficiency is obtained when the top of
the wingwall is the same elevation as the The slope and roughness of the culvert barrel are
headwall. the principle factors affecting outlet velocity. The
shape and size of a culvert seldom have a
Whether warped or straight flared wingwalls significant effect on the outlet velocity. When the
are used depends on the shape of the approach outlet velocity is believed to be excessive and it
channel. Straight flared wingwalls are cannot be satisfactorily reduced by adjusting the
appropriate for well defined channels with slope or barrel roughness, it may be necessary to
steep banks. Warped wingwalls are more use some type of outlet protection or energy
suited to shallow trapezoidal approach dissipator. A method of predicting and analyzing
channels. scour conditions is given in the FHWA publication
Usually it is more economical to transition "Scour at Culvert Outlets in Mixed Bed Materials",
between the stream section and the culvert by FHWA/RD - 82/011.
means of straight flared wingwalls or warped When dealing with erosive velocities at the outlet,
wingwalls than to expand the culvert barrel at the effect on downstream property should be
entrance. For a very wide channel, this evaluated.
transition may be combined with riprap, dikes,
or channel lining extending upstream to 827.2 Embankment Protection
complete the transition.
Improved culvert outlets are designed to restore
(2) Transitions. Elaborate transitions and throated natural flow conditions downstream. Where
openings for culverts may be warranted in erosion is to be expected, corrective measures such
special cases. Generally a highly developed as bank protection, vertical flared wingwalls,
May 1, 2001
warped wingwalls, transitions, and energy For extreme velocity (exceeding 5.5 m/s) the
dissipators may be considered. See Chapter 870, transition can be shortened by using an energy-
"Channel and Shore Protection-Erosion Control", dissipating structure.
FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars No. 11,
"Design of Riprap Revetment", No. 14, "Hydraulic Topic 828 - Diameter and Length
Design of Energy Dissipators for Culverts and
Channels", and No. 15, "Design of Roadway
Channels with Flexible Linings", and "Hydraulic 828.1 Introduction
Design of Stilling Basins and Energy Dissipators", From a maintenance point of view the minimum
Engineering Monograph No. 25 by the U. S. diameter of pipe and the distance between
Department of Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, convenient cleanout access points are important
1964 (revised 1978). HY-8, within the Hydrain considerations.
Integrated Computer Program System, provides
The following instructions apply to minimum pipe
designs for energy dissipators and follows the
diameter and the length of pipe culvert.
HEC-14 method for design.
Culvert outlet design should provide a transition 828.2 Minimum Diameter
for the 100-year flood or design event from the
The minimum diameter for cross culverts under the
culvert outlet to a section in the natural channel
roadway is 450 mm. For other than cross pipes,
where natural stage, width, and velocity will be
the minimum diameter is 300 mm. For
restored, or nearly so, with consideration of
maintenance purposes, where the slope of
stability and security of the natural channel bed
longitudinal side drains is not sufficient to produce
and banks against scour.
self-cleaning velocities, pipe sizes of 450 mm or
If an outfall structure is required for transition, more in diameter should be considered.
typically it will not have the same design as the The minimum diameter of pipe to be used is further
entrance. determined by the length of pipe between
Wingwalls, if intended for an outlet transition convenient cleanout access points. If pipe runs
(expansion), generally should not flare at an angle exceed 30 m between inlet and outlet, or
(in degrees) greater than 46 divided by the outlet intermediate cleanout access, the minimum
velocity in meters per second. However, transition diameter of pipe to be used is 600 mm. When
designs fall into two general categories: those practicable, intermediate cleanout points should be
applicable to culverts in outlet control (subcritical provided for runs of pipe 600 mm in diameter that
flow) or those applicable to culverts in inlet control exceed 100 m in length.
(supercritical). The procedure outlined in HEC-14 If a choice is to be made between using 450 mm
for subcritical flow expansion design should also diameter pipe with an intermediate cleanout in the
be used for supercritical flow expansion design if highway median or using 600 mm diameter pipe
the culvert exit Froude number (Fr) is less than 3, without the median access, the larger diameter pipe
if the location where the flow conditions desired is without the median access is preferred.
within 3 culvert diameters of the outlet, and if the
slope is less than 10 percent. For supercritical flow 828.3 Length
expansions outside these limits, the energy
equation can be used to determine flow conditions The length of pipe culvert to be installed is
leaving the transition. determined as follows:
Warped endwalls can be designed to fit trapezoidal (a) Establish a theoretical length based on
or U-shaped channels, as transitions for moderate- slope stake requirements making allowance
to-high velocity (3-5.5 m/s). for end treatment.
(b) Adjust the theoretical length for height of
fill by applying these rules:
May 1, 2001
• For fills 4 m or less, no adjustment is Unyielding foundation conditions can produce

required. high stresses in the culverts. Such stresses may
be counteracted by subexcavation and backfill.
• For fills higher than 4 m, add 0.3 m of
length at each end for each 3 m The Standard Plans show details for shaped,
increment of fill height or portion sand, and soil cement bedding treatments.
thereof. The additional length should Foundation materials capable of supporting
not exceed 2 m on each end. pressures between 100 and 800 kN/m2 are
• In cases of high fills with benches, the required for culverts with cast-in-place footing
additional length is based on the height or inverts, such as reinforced concrete boxes,
of the lowest bench. arches, and structural plate arches. When
culvert footing pressures exceed 150 kN/m2 or
(c) Use the nearest combination of commercial the diameter or span exceeds 3 m, a geology
lengths which equal or exceed the length report providing a log of test boring is
obtained in (b) above. required.
Adverse foundation and backfill conditions
Topic 829 - Special may require a specially designed structure.
Considerations The allowable overfill heights for concrete
arches, structural plate arches, and structural
829.1 Introduction plate vehicular undercrossings are based on
existing soil withstanding the soil pressures
In addition to the hydraulic design, other factors indicated on the Standard Plans. A foundation
must be considered to assure the integrity of investigation should be made to insure that the
culvert installations and the highway. supporting soils withstand the design soil
pressures for those types of structures.
829.2 Bedding and Backfill
(2) Method of Installation. Under ordinary
The height of overfill a culvert will safely sustain conditions, the methods of installation
depends upon foundation conditions, method of described in the Standard Specifications and
installation, and its structural strength and rigidity. shown on the Standard Plans should be used.
Uniform settlement under both the culvert and the For any predictable settlement, provisions for
adjoining fill will not overstress flexible and camber should be made.
segmental rigid culverts. Unequal settlement, Excavation and backfill details for circular
however, can result in distortion and shearing concrete pipe, reinforced box and arch
action in the culvert. For rigid pipes this could culverts, and corrugated metal pipe and arch
result in distress and disjointing of the pipe. A culverts are shown on Standard Plans A62-D,
flexible culvert accommodates itself to moderate A62DA, A62-E, and A62-F respectively.
unequal settlements but is also subject to shearing
action. Monolithic culverts can tolerate only a (3) Height of Cover. There are several alternative
minimal amount of unequal settlement, and require materials from which acceptable culverts may
favorable foundation conditions. Any unequal be made. Tables of maximum height of cover
settlement would subject a monolithic culvert to recommended for the more frequently used
severe shear stresses. culvert shapes, sizes, corrugation
configurations, and types of materials are given
(1) Foundation Conditions. A slightly yielding in Chapter 850. Not included, but covered in
foundation under both the culvert and the Standard Plans, are maximum earth cover
adjoining fill is the foundation condition for reinforced concrete box culverts, reinforced
generally encountered. The maximum height concrete arches, and structural plate vehicular
of cover tables given in Chapter 850 are based undercrossing.
on this foundation condition.
May 1, 2001
For culverts where overfill requirements Piping may be anticipated along the entire length
exceed the limits shown on the tables a special of the culvert when ponding above the culvert is
design must be prepared. Special designs are expected for an extended length of time, such as
to be submitted to the Division of Structures when the highway fill is used as a detention dam or
for review, or the Division of Structures may to form a reservoir. Headwalls, impervious
be directly requested to prepare the design. materials at the upstream end of the culvert, and
anti-seep or cutoff collars increase the length of the
Under any of the following conditions, the
flow path, decrease the hydraulic gradient and the
Division of Structures is to prepare the special
velocity of flow and thus decreases the probability
design:
of piping developing. Anti-seep collars usually
• Where foundation material will not support consist of bulkhead type plate or blocks around the
footing pressure shown on the Standard entire perimeter of the culvert. They may be of
Plans for concrete arch and structural plate metal or concrete, and, if practical, should be
vehicular undercrossings. keyed into impervious material.
• Where foundation material will not support Piping could occur where a culvert must be placed
footing pressures shown in the Highway in a live stream, and the flow cannot be diverted.
Design Manual for structural plate pipe Under these conditions watertight joints should be
arches or corrugated metal pipe arches. specified.
• Where a culvert will be subjected to
829.4 Joints
unequal lateral pressures, such as at the toe
of a fill or adjacent to a retaining wall. The possibility of piping being caused by open
joints in the culvert barrel may be reduced through
Special designs usually require that a detailed
special attention to the type of pipe joint specified.
foundation investigation be made.
For a more complete discussion of pipe joint
(4) Minimum Cover. When feasible, culverts requirements see Index 853.1.
should be buried at least 0.3 m. For
The two pipe joint types specified for culvert
construction purposes, a minimum cover of
installations are identified as "standard" and
150 mm greater than the thickness of the
"positive". The "standard" joint is adequate for
structural cross section is desirable for all types
ordinary installations and "positive" joints should
of pipe. The minimum thickness of cover for
be specified where there is a need to withstand soil
various type culverts under rigid or flexible
movements or resist disjointing forces. Corrugated
pavements is given in Table 854.9.
metal pipe coupling band details are shown on
Standard Plan sheets D97A through D97G and
829.3 Piping concrete pipe joint details on sheet D97H.
Piping is a phenomenon caused by seepage along a
If it is necessary for "standard" or "positive" joints
culvert barrel which removes fill material, forming
to be watertight they must be specifically specified
a hollow similar to a pipe. Fine soil particles are
as such. Rubber "O" rings or other resilient joint
washed out freely along the hollow and the erosion
material provides the watertight seal. Corrugated
inside the fill may ultimately cause failure of the
metal pipe joints identified as "downdrain" are
culvert or the embankment.
watertight joint systems with a tensile strength
The possibility of piping can be reduced by specification for the coupler.
decreasing the velocity of the seepage flow. This
can be reduced by providing for watertight joints. 829.5 Anchorage
Therefore, if piping through joints could become a
Refer to Index 834.4(5) for discussion on
problem, consideration should be given to
anchorage for overside drains.
providing for watertight joints.
May 1, 2001
Reinforced concrete pipe should be anchored and (2) Sag Culverts. This type is most often used to
have positive joints specified if either of the carry an irrigation canal under a highway when
following conditions are present: the available headroom is insufficient for a
normal culvert. The top of a sag culvert should
(a) Where the pipe diameter is 1500 mm or less,
be at least 1.4 m below the finished grade
the pipe slope is 33 percent or greater, and the
where possible, to ensure against damage from
fill over the top of the pipe less than 1.5 times
heavy construction equipment. The culvert
the outside diameter of the pipe measured
should be on a straight grade and sumps
perpendicular to the slope.
provided at each end to facilitate maintenance.
(b) Where the pipe diameter is greater than 1500 Sag culverts should not be used:
mm and the pipe slope is 33 percent or greater,
(a) When the flow carries trash and debris in
regardless of the fill over the top of the pipe.
sufficient quantity to cause heavy deposits,
Where the slopes have been determined by the
(b) For intermittent flows where the effects of
geotechnical engineer to be potentially unstable,
standing water are objectionable, or
regardless of the slope of the pipe, as a minimum,
the pipes shall have positive joints. Alternative (c) When any other alternative is possible at
pipes/anchorage systems shall be investigated reasonable cost.
when there is a potential for substantial movement
(3) Types of Conduit. Following are two kinds of
of the soil.
pipes used for siphons and sag culverts to
Where anchorage is required, there should be a prevent leakage:
minimum of 450 mm cover measured
(a) Reinforced Concrete Pipe - Reinforced
perpendicular to the slope.
concrete pipe with joint seals is generally
Typically buried flexible pipe with corrugations on satisfactory. For heads over 6 m, special
the exterior surface will not require anchorage, consideration should be given to
however, a special detail will be required for hydrostatic pressure.
plastic pipe without corrugations on the exterior
(b) Corrugated Metal Pipe - corrugated metal
surface.
pipe must be of the thickness and have the
protective coatings required to provide the
829.6 Irregular Treatment design service life. Field joints must be
(1) Junctions. (Text Later) watertight. The following additional
treatment is recommended.
(2) Bends. (Text Later)
• When the head is more than 3 m and
829.7 Siphons and Sag Culverts the flow is continuous or is
intermittent and of long duration, pipe
(1) General Notes. There are two kinds of
fabricated by riveting, spot welding or
conduits called siphons: the true siphon and the
continuous helical lockseam should be
inverted siphon or sag culvert. The true siphon
soldered.
is a closed conduit, a portion of which lies
above the hydraulic grade line. This results in Pipe fabricated by a continuous helical
less than atmospheric pressure in that portion. welded seam need not be soldered.
The sag culvert lies entirely below the
• If the head is 3 m or less and the flow
hydraulic grade line; it operates under pressure
is intermittent and lasts only a few
without siphonic action.
days, as in storm flows, unsoldered
Under the proper conditions, there are seams are permissible.
hydraulic and economic advantages to be
obtained by using the siphon principle in
culvert design.
May 1, 2001
concentration of 0.25 percent by

829.8 Jacking and Tunneling volume (5% of LEL = lower explosive
Tunnel safety order Section 8422 requires the limit of a flammable gas or vapor) or
Department of Transportation to request the more of flammable gas has been
detected not less than 12 inches from
Division of Industrial Safety to review and classify
the roof, face, floor and walls in any
tunnel projects relative to flammable gas and open workings with normal
vapors prior to bidding. Tunnel projects are held ventilation.
to include pipe jacking operations where the pipe is
750 mm or greater in diameter. In addition, it is 4) Extrahazardous, which classification
shall be applied to tunnels when the
recommended that smaller diameter pipes be
Division finds that there is a serious
classified by Cal-OSHA if it is expected that danger to the safety of employees and:
persons might enter them.
Flammable gas or petroleum vapors
Prior to PS&E submittal on a project that includes emanating from the strata has been
any such tunnel or pipe jacking operations, the ignited in the tunnel; or
District must submit a written request for a
A concentration of 20 percent of LEL
classification to: petroleum vapors has been detected
Cal-OSHA not less than three inches from the
Mining and Tunneling Unit roof, face floor and walls in any open
workings with normal ventilation.
2211 Park Towne Circle, Suite 2
Sacramento, CA 95825 b) The Division may classify any tunnel as
gassy or extrahazardous if the history or
(District 1-6, 9 & 10) past experience indicates that flammable
or gas or petroleum vapors in hazardous
Cal-OSHA concentrations are likely to be encountered
Mining and Tunneling Unit in such tunnel or if the tunnel is connected
6150 Van Nuys Blvd., Rm. 310 to a gassy or extrahazardous excavation
Van Nuys, CA 91401-3379 and subjects the men to reasonable
likelihood of danger.
(District 7, 8, 11 & 12)
c) A notice of the classification shall be
The request should include the data specified under prominently posted at the tunnel job site.
paragraph (d) of Section 8422, Tunnel
d) When the preliminary investigation of a
Classifications. The following text is taken tunnel project is conducted, the owner or
directly from Section 8422: agency proposing the construction of the
tunnel shall submit the geological
8422 Tunnel Classifications. information to the Division for review and
a) The Division shall classify all tunnels or classification relative to flammable gas and
portions of tunnels into one of the vapors. The preliminary classification
following classifications: shall be obtained from the Division prior to
bidding and in all cases prior to actual
1) Nongassy, which classification shall be underground construction. In order to
applied to tunnels where there is little make the evaluation, the following will be
likelihood of encountering gas during required:
the construction of the tunnel.
1) Plans and specifications;
2) Potentially gassy, which classification
shall be applied to tunnels where there 2) Geological report;
is a possibility flammable gas or 3) Test bore hole and soil analysis log
hydrocarbons will be encountered. along tunnel alignment;
3) Gassy, which classification shall be 4) Recommendation from owner, agency,
applied to tunnels where it is likely gas lessee, or their agent relative to the
will be encountered or if a
May 1, 2001
possibility of encountering flammable (2) Additional Loading. When significant

gas or vapors; additional loading is proposed to be added to
5) The Division may require additional an existing reinforced concrete box culvert the
drill hole or other geological data prior Division of Structures must be contacted prior
to making gas classifications. to proceeding with the design. Overlays of less
than 150 mm in depth, or widenings that do not
829.9 Dams increase the per unit loading on the box are not
Typically, proposed construction which is capable considered to be significant. Designers should
of impounding water to the extent that it meets the also check the extent that previous projects
legal definition of a dam must be approved by the might have increased loading on box culverts,
Department of Water Resource (DWR), Division even if the current project is not adding a
of Safety of Dams. The legal definition is significant amount of loading.
described in Sections 6002 and 6003 of the State
Water Code. Generally, any facility 7.6 m or more
in height or capable of impounding 61 700 m3 or
more would be considered a dam. However, any
facility 1.8 m or less in height, regardless of
capacity, or with a storage capacity of not more
than 18 500 m3, regardless of height, shall not be
considered a dam. Additionally, Section 6004 of
the State Water Code states "... and no road or
highway fill or structure ... shall be considered a
dam." Therefore, except for large retention or
detention facilities there will rarely be the need for
involvement by the DWR in approval of Caltrans
designs.
Although most highway designs will be exempt
from DWR approval, caution should always be
exercised in the design of high fills that could
impound large volumes of water. Even partial
plugging of the cross drain could lead to high
pressures on the upstream side of the fill, creating
seepage through the fill and/or increased potential
for piping.
The requirements for submitting information to the
FHWA Division Office in Sacramento as described
in Index 805.6 are not affected by the regulations
mentioned above.
829.10 Reinforced Concrete Box

Modifications
(1) Extensions. Where an existing box culvert is
to be lengthened, it is essential to perform an
on-site investigation to verify the structural
integrity of the box. If signs of distress are
present, the Division of Structures must be
contacted prior to proceeding with the design.
May 1, 2001
This section involves the hydraulic design

CHAPTER 830 fundamentals necessary for properly sizing and
locating standard highway drainage features such
ROADWAY DRAINAGE as:
• Asphalt dikes and gutters.
Topic 831 - General • Concrete curbs and gutters.
• Median drains.
Index 831.1 - Basic Concepts
• Roadside ditches
Roadway drainage involves the collection,
conveyance, removal, and disposal of surface • Overside drains.
water runoff from the traveled way, shoulders, and • Drop inlets.
adjoining roadside areas. Roadway drainage is
• Storm drains.
also concerned with the handling of water from the
following additional sources: Removal of storm water from highway pavement
surfaces and median areas is more fully discussed
• Surface water from outside the right of
in the 1996 FHWA Hydraulic Engineering
way and not confined to channels that
Circular No. 22, "Urban Drainage Design
would reach the traveled way if not
Manual". HEC 22 includes discussion of the
intercepted.
effects of roadway geometry on pavement
• Crossroads or streets. drainage; the philosophy of design storm
frequency and design spread selection; storm
• Irrigation of landscaped areas.
runoff estimating methods; pavement and bridge
The design of roadway drainage systems often deck inlets; and flow in gutters. Charts and
involves consideration of the problems associated procedures are provided for the hydraulic analysis
with inadequate drainage of the adjacent or and design of roadway drainage features.
surrounding area. Cooperative drainage
improvement projects with the responsible local 831.2 Highway Grade Line
agency may offer the best overall solution.
In flat terrain, roadway drainage considerations
Cooperative agreements are more fully discussed
often control the longitudinal grade line of the
under Index 803.2
highway. A grade line that assures the desirable
Some of the major considerations of good goal of keeping the traveled way free of flooding
roadway drainage design are: can usually be established for new freeway
projects and rural conventional highways.
• Motorist safety.
For multilane urban highways with nearly
• Convenience to vehicular and pedestrian
continuous dike or curb along the shoulder or
traffic.
parking area, it is seldom practical to design the
• Aesthetics. highway with a gutter section which will contain
all of the runoff even from frequent rains. For this
• Flooding of the traveled way and adjacent
reason the gutter and shoulder combination, and
property.
often partial or full width of the traveled way, are
• Subgrade infiltration. used to convey the runoff to inlets.
• Potential erosion, pollution and other
831.3 Design Storm and Water Spread
environmental concerns.
Before the hydraulic adequacy of roadway
• Economy of construction. drainage facilities can be analyzed, the quantity of
• Economy of maintenance. water (design Q) that the facility may reasonably
be expected to convey must be estimated. The
May 1, 2001
most important, and often the most difficult phase The following geometric and design features of
of this task is the selection of an appropriate the highway directly affect establishment of the
design storm frequency for the specific project, project design water spread:
location or site under consideration. In order for a
• Cross slope
design frequency to be meaningful criteria for
roadway drainage design, it must be tied to an • Longitudinal slope
acceptable tolerance of flooding. Design water
• Number of lanes
spread, encroachment upon the roadbed or
adjacent property, is the tolerance of flooding • Width of shoulders
directly related to roadway drainage design.
• Height of curb and dike
Allowing too little spread is uneconomical in
design and too much spread may result in unsafe • Parking lanes
driving conditions.
Desirable limits for water spread with respect to
To optimize economy in roadway drainage, the design storm probability of exceedance are given
allowable water spread should vary, depending on in Table 831.3. The parameters shown are
the type of highway project being designed. considered minimum roadway drainage design
Because of the effect of splash and spray on standards for new freeway construction and for all
motorist visibility and vehicle control, high state highways with depressed sections which
volume roads with high speed traffic cannot require pumping. Local conditions may justify
tolerate as much water spread as urban streets. less stringent criteria than the table parameters for
Likewise, the allowable water spread should be conventional highways. Exceptions should be
minimized on urban streets where a large number documented by memo to the project file.
of pedestrians use adjacent sidewalks and
It is often advantageous, to both the State and the
pedestrian crosswalks. Consideration should be
local agency, for highway drainage and street
given to the element of motorist surprise when
drainage to be compatible. This is particularly
encountering intermittent puddles rather than a
true in urban areas and rapidly developing
continuous encroachment of water on the driving
suburban areas where a conventional highway is,
lane. Eccentric forces are exerted on a vehicle
or will become, part of the street network. Street
when one side encounters water in the lane and the
drainage criteria adopted by a local agency are
other side does not.
generally based on the hydrologic events peculiar
The probability of exceedance of the design storm to a geographical area. Local drainage standards
and the acceptable tolerance to flooding depends that satisfy the needs of the community, usually
on the importance of the highway and risks provide reasonable traffic safety and flood risk
involved. Selection of the design storm and water considerations commensurate with those normally
spread parameters on rehabilitation and expected for conventional highways in urban
reconstruction are generally controlled by existing areas.
constraints.
831.4 Other Considerations
In addition to the major roadway drainage
considerations previously listed, the following (1) Sheet Flow. Concentrations of sheet flow
more specific factors are to be considered in across roadways are to be avoided. As a
3
establishing the project design storm: general rule, no more than 0.003 m /s should
be allowed to concentrate and flow across a
• Highway type
roadway. Particular attention should be given
• Traffic volume to reversal points of superelevation where
shoulder and gutter slopes may direct flows
• Design speed
across the roadway and gore areas.
• Local standards
May 1, 2001
Table 831.3
Desirable Roadway Drainage Guidelines
DESIGN STORM DESIGN WATER SPREAD
HIGHWAY 4% 10% Shldr or 1/2 Outer Local

Type/Category/Feature (25 yrs) (10 yrs) Parking Lane Lane Standard
FREEWAYS
Through traffic lanes, branch
X -- X -- --
connections, and other major ramp
connections.
Minor ramps.
-- X X -- --
Frontage roads.
-- X -- -- X
CONVENTIONAL HIGHWAYS
High volume, multilane
X -- X -- --
Speeds over 75 kph.
High volume, multilane
-- X -- X --
Speeds 75 kph and under.
Low volume, rural
X -- X -- --
Speeds over 75 kph.
Urban
-- X -- -- X
Speeds 75 kph and under.
ALL STATE HIGHWAYS
Depressed Sections That Require Pumping:
Use a 2% (50 yrs) design storm for freeways and conventional state highways. Design water spread at
depressed sections should not exceed that of adjacent roadway sections. A 4% (25 yr) design storm may be
used on local streets or road undercrossings that require pumping.
May 1, 2001
(2) Stage Construction. All permanent features of the wet weather accident rates should be made
roadway drainage systems should be designed using information obtained from the District
and constructed for the ultimate highway Traffic Branch. Typical situations that should
facility. be evaluated for hydroplaning potential are:
(3) Landscaping. Runoff from existing or • Where three (3) lanes or more are
proposed landscaping, including excess sloped in the same direction (see Topic
irrigation water runoff, must be considered. 833).
(4) Groundwater. Groundwater is subsurface • Where the longitudinal grade and or
water within a permeable strata. Depending cross slope are less than minimum
upon recharge and withdrawal rates the level of (Refer to Index 204.3 for minimum
the groundwater table can fluctuate greatly, grade and Indexes 301.2 and 302.2 for
over a period of a few months or over periods cross slope).
of many years. Consideration should be given
• Where there are poor pavement
to recent history (several years of abnormally
conditions (rutting, depressions,
wet or dry conditions) as well as the possibility
inadequate roughness).
of revised practices by local water districts
(either increased pumping or increased • Where water is allowed to concentrate
recharge). prior to being directed across the travel
Pipes located in areas where contact with lanes (see Index 831.4(1)).
groundwater within their design life is likely • Where re-striping projects will reduce
should have watertight joints. If groundwater shoulder widths where dike, curb or
contact is likely and the surrounding soils are concrete barrier are present.
highly erodible (fine grained sand, silty sand
These situations may also be present on median
and sandy silt/silt of limited cohesion)
widening projects or projects involving
consideration should be given to wrapping the
pavement rehabilitation and or lane addition on
pipe joint with filter fabric. The fabric should
multi-lane highways or freeways.
cover a length of 1.2 m along the pipe, centered
on the joint. Groundwater at or above the Speed and tire pressure appear to be a
drainage system elevation will lead to significant factors in the occurrence of
infiltration. Where this is undesireable, either hydroplaning, therefore, it is considered to be
joint systems capable of resisting the the driver’s responsibility to exercise prudence
hydrostatic pressure, or dewatering measures, and caution when driving during wet
should be incorporated into the design. The conditions (California Basic Speed Law).
design of groundwater control measures must
Designers do not have control over all of the
be coordinated with the Roadway Geotechnical
factors involved in hydroplaning. However,
Branch of the Engineering Service Center.
remedial measures may be included in
(5) Hydroplaning. Hydroplaning is the separation development of a project to reduce
of the tire from the road surface by a thin layer hydroplaning potential. The following is
of liquid (usually water) on the pavement. The provided as guidance for the designer as
liquid separates the tire from the pavement practical measures to consider:
because of viscosity (viscous hydroplaning),
(1) Pavement Sheet Flow
dynamic lift (dynamic hydroplaning), or a
combination of the two. Since water offers • Maximize transverse slope (see Topic
little shear resistance, the tire loses its tractive 833)
ability and the driver has a loss of control of
• Maximize pavement roughness
the vehicle. At locations where there is a
potential for hydroplaning, a careful review of • Use of graded course (porous
pavements)
May 1, 2001
(2) Gutter Flow Commands are placed in a logical sequence,

usually from upper to lower elevation. The
• Limit water spread to Table 831.3
engineer establishes an input file for the collection
• Maximize interception of gutter flow system and then the program is executed. The
above superelevation transitions (see input file for HYDRA consists of design criteria for
Index 837.3) the pipes. This data includes, but is not limited to:
(3) Sag Areas friction factor (Manning's "n"), minimum diameter,
ideal depth, minimum ground cover, minimum
• Limit pond duration and depth (see velocity (with full flow), minimum slope, and
Topic 833) maximum diameter. Only the friction factor is
(4) Overtopping needed for analysis and design, while all of the
remaining data is needed for design.
• Avoid overtopping at cross culverts
using appropriate freeboard and/or The second recommended program in the
headwater elevation (see Topic 821) hydrologic and hydraulic analysis of storm drain
systems is CAiCE Visual Hydro. For roadway
Where suitable measures cannot be drainage and Stormwater Management CAiCE
implemented to address conditions such as Visual Hydro is a complete software package that
those identified above, or an identified existing combines an advanced digital terrain manager
problem area, coordination should be made (Visual DTM) with a comprehensive
with the Safety Review Committee per Index hydrology/hydraulics package (Visual SWMM).
110.7. Using this integrated package the 2 dimensional
and 3 dimensional data representing the watershed
831.5 Computer Programs is intimately connected to the hydrology and
There are many computer programs available to aid hydraulics analysis. The drainage network is
highway design engineers with estimating runoff generated from either survey or geometry chains in
and ensuing hydraulic design and analysis of Visual Hydro with the generated data consisting of
roadway drainage facilities. invert elevations, ground elevations, and conduit
lengths. Visual Hydro can then show the simulation
One of the two recommended personal computer results as 2 and 3 dimensional profiles embedded in
systems is the HYDRAIN-Integrated Drainage the DTM. Some of the major tools that are included
Design Computer System. The HYDRA-Storm within CAiCE and Visual Hydro for hydrologic
Drains program within the HYDRAIN system is a and hydraulic analysis of storm drain systems are
hydraulic program which focuses on analysis and outlined below:
design of a network of gravity flow pipes. It
isuseful in the hydrologic and hydraulic analysis of • View - DTM -Drainage (Runoff Arrows, Water
an existing or proposed storm drain system, as well Flow Path, Water Flow Model)
as storm drain system design. • Hydro - Water Catchment Area/Watershed
Several methods of generating design storm Areas
discharges are provided by HYDRA, including: • Hydro - Hydro Manager:
• Rational Method. Create drainage networks from CAiCE
• HYDRO program hydrologic techniques. survey chains, points or alignments.
• Other hydrologic simulation techniques. Access to hydrologic parameters and

methodology input.
Input to the HYDRA program is limited to 1000
drainage areas and 2000 pipes. Access to inlet spread analysis spreadsheet.
The HYDRA input format requires a file of Access to Visual SWMM.

commands which describe the pipe system.
May 1, 2001
Visual SWMM is a comprehensive urban runoff Refer to Index 816.6 for more information on time
model. It can handle almost all aspects of of concentration.
hydrology, runoff water quality, and hydraulics of
an urban drainage system. Although Visual Topic 833 - Roadway Cross
SWMM is applicable for large and complex storm
drain systems with extremely detailed hydrology, Sections
smaller drainage networks can also be modeled. 833.1 Introduction
Familiarity with the fundamentals of hydraulics and The geometric cross section of the roadway affects
traditional methods of solution are necessary to drainage features and hydraulic considerations.
assure that the results obtained are reasonable. Cross slope and width of pavement and shoulders
There is a tendency for inexperienced engineers to as well as other roadway geometry affect the rate of
accept computer output as valid without verifying runoff, width of tolerable spread, and hydraulic
the reasonableness of input and output data. design considerations. The cross section of
drainage features such as, depressed medians, curbs
Topic 832 - Hydrology and gutters, dikes, and side ditches is often
controlled by an existing roadway geometric cross
832.1 Introduction section or the one selected for new highway
construction.
The philosophy and principles of hydrology are
discussed in Chapter 810. Additional information 833.2 Grade, Cross Slope and Superelevation
on methods of estimating storm runoff may be
found in FHWA's HEC 22. The longitudinal slope or grade is governed by the
highway grade line as discussed under Index 831.2.
832.2 Rational Method Refer to Index 204.3 for minimum grade and
Indexes 301.2 and 302.2 for cross slope. Where
With few exceptions, runoff estimates for roadway three (3) lanes or more are sloped in the same
drainage design are made by using Rational direction, it is desirable to counter the resulting
Methods described under Index 819.2(1). In order increase in flow depth by increasing the cross slope
to make use of these methods, information on the of the outermost lanes. The two (2) lanes adjacent
intensity, duration, and frequency of rainfall for the to the crown line should be pitched at the normal
locality of the project must be established. Refer to slope, and successive lane pairs, or portions thereof
Index 815.3(3) for further information on outward, should be increased by about 0.5 to 1
precipitation intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) percent. The maximum pavement cross slope
curves that have been developed for many locations should be limited to 4 percent. However,
in California. exceptions to the design criteria for cross slope in
Index 302.2 must be formally approved in
832.3 Time of Concentration accordance with the requirements Index 82.2,
It is recommended that a minimum time of "Approvals for Nonstandard Design." For projects
concentration of 10 minutes be used to estimate where lanes will be added on the inside of divided
rainfall intensity for moderate slopes and paved highways, or when widening an existing “crowned”
areas and a minimum of 5 minutes be used for 2-lane highway to a 4-lane divided highway,
areas which do not afford surface storage and are consideration should be given to the use of a “tent
steeper than 1:10. Highway design engineers section” in order to minimize the number of lanes
should be aware that maximum runoff estimates are sloping in the same direction. Refer to Index
not always obtained using rainfall intensities 301.2. Consideration should be given to increasing
determined by the time of concentration for the cross slopes in sag vertical curves, crest vertical
total area. Higher rainfall intensities from storms curves, and in sections of flat longitudinal grades.
of shorter duration upon only a portion of the Superelevation is discussed in Topic 202. Refer to
drainage area may produce peak runoff estimates. Index 831.4 for Hydroplaning considerations.
May 1, 2001
Topic 834 - Roadside Drainage of cement or lime to be used should be based

on laboratory tests of the in-place material to
be tested, and normally varies from 6 percent to
834.1 General
10 percent. If a clear or translucent curing
Median drainage, ditches and gutters, and overside compound is used, the completed area is
drains are some of the major roadside drainage unobtrusive and aesthetically pleasing.
facilities.
Asphalt concrete ditch paving and soil cement
treatments cured with an application of liquid
834.2 Median Drainage asphalt are highly visible and tend to become
(1) Drainage Across the Median. When it is unsightly from streaks of eroded material.
necessary for sheet flow to cross flush medians, Cobbles, though effective for erosion control,
it should be intercepted by the use of slotted are not satisfactory in a recovery area for out of
drains or other suitable alternative facilities. control vehicles. See Topic 872 for further
See Standard Plan D98-B for slotted drain discussion on erosion protection and additional
details. types of ditch linings. Erosion control
(2) Grade and Cross Slope. The longitudinal slope references are given under Index 871.3.
or grade for median drainage is governed by (4) Economy in Design. Economy in median
the highway grade line as discussed under drainage can be achieved by locating inlets to
Index 831.2. Refer to Index 204.3 for utilize available nearby culverts or the collector
minimum grade and Indexes 305.2 and system of a roadway drainage installation. The
405.5(4) for standards governing allowable inlet capacity can be increased by placing it in
cross slope of medians. a local depression. Use of slotted pipe at sag
Existing conditions control median grades and points where a local depression might be
attainable cross slope on rehabilitation projects. necessary may be an alternative solution to a
The flattest desirable grade for earth medians is grate catch basin.
0.25 percent and 0.12 percent for paved gutters
in the median. 834.3 Ditches and Gutters
(3) Erosion. When velocities are excessive for soil (1) Grade. The flattest grade recommended for
conditions, provisions for erosion control design is 0.25 percent for earth ditches and
should be provided. See Table 862.2 for 0.12 percent for paved ditches.
recommended permissible velocities for (2) Slope Ditches. Slope ditches, sometimes called
unlined channels. surface, brow, interception, or slope protection
Economics and aesthetics are to be taken into ditches, should be provided at the tops of cuts
consideration in the selection of median where it is necessary to intercept drainage from
erosion control measures. Under the less natural slopes inclined toward the highway.
severe conditions, ground covers of natural or When the grade of a slope ditch is steep enough
synthetic materials which render the soil that erosion would occur, the ditch should be
surface stable against accelerated erosion are paved. Refer to Table 862.2 for permissible
adequate. Under the more severe conditions, velocities for unlined channels in various types
asphalt or concrete ditch paving may be of soil. When the ditch grade exceeds a 1:4
required. slope, a downdrain is advisable. Slope ditches
Whenever median ditch paving is necessary, may not be necessary where side slopes in
consideration should be given to the use of favorable soils are flatter than 1:2 or where
cement or lime treatment of the soil. The positive erosion control measures are to be
width treated will depend on the capacity instituted during construction.
needed to handle the drainage. A depth of
150 mm is generally satisfactory. The amount
July 1, 2004
(3) Side Gutters. These are triangular gutters Overside drains which would be conspicuous
adjoining the shoulder as shown in Figures or placed in landscaped areas should be
307.2 and 307.5. The main purpose of the one concealed by burial or other means.
meter wide side gutter is to prevent runoff from
(2) Type and Requirement. Following are details
the cut slopes on the high side of
of various types of overside drains and
superelevation from flowing across the
requirements for their use:
roadbeds. The use of side gutters in tangent
alignment should be avoided where possible. (a) Pipe Downdrains. Metal and plastic pipes
Local drainage conditions, such as in snow are adaptable to any slope. They should be
areas, may require their use on either tangent or used where side slopes are 1:4 or steeper.
curved alignment in cut sections. In snow Long pipe downdrains should be anchored.
areas it may be necessary to increase the width The minimum pipe diameter is 200 mm but
of side gutters from 1 m to 2 m. The slope large flows, debris, or long pipe
from the edge of the shoulder to the bottom of installations may dictate a larger diameter.
the gutter should be no steeper than 1:6. The
structural section for paved side gutters should Watertight joints are necessary to prevent
be adequate to support maintenance equipment leakage which causes slope erosion.
loads. Economy in long, high capacity
downdrains is achieved by using a pipe
(4) Dikes. Dikes placed adjoining the shoulder, as
taper in the initial reach. Pipe tapers
shown in Figures 307.2, 307.4, and 307.5,
should insure improved flow characteristics
provide a paved triangular gutter within the
and permit use of a smaller diameter pipe
shoulder area. For conditions governing their
below the taper. See Standard Plan D87-A
use, see Index 303.3.
for details.
(5) Chart Solutions. Charts for solutions to
(b) Flume Downdrains. These are rectangular
triangular channel flow problems are contained
corrugated metal flumes with a tapered
in FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
entrance. See the Standard Plan D87-D for
22, "Urban Drainage Design Manual".
details. They are best adapted to slopes
that are 1:2 or flatter but if used on 1:1.5
834.4 Overside Drains
slopes, lengths over 20 m are not recom-
The purpose of overside drains, sometimes called mended. Abrupt changes in alignment or
slope drains, is to protect slopes against erosion. grade should be avoided. Flume
They convey down the slope drainage which is downdrains should be depressed so that the
collected from the roadbed, the tops of cuts, or top of the flume is flush with the fill slope.
from benches in cut or fill slopes. They may be
(c) Paved Spillways. Permanent paved
pipes, flumes or paved spillways.
spillways should only be used when the
(1) Spacing and Location. The spacing and side slopes are flatter than 1:4. On steeper
location of overside drains depend on the slopes a more positive type of overside
configuration of the ground, the highway drain such as a pipe downdrain should be
profile, the quantity of flow and the limitations used.
on flooding stated in Table 831.3. When
Temporary paved spillways are effective in
possible, overside drains should be positioned
preserving raw fill slopes that are 1:6 or
at the lower end of cut sections. Diversion
flatter in friable soils during the period
from one watershed to another should be
when protective growth is being
avoided. If diversion becomes necessary, care
established. Paved spillways should be
should be used in the manner in which this
spaced so that a dike 50 mm high placed at
diverted water is disposed.
the outer edge of the paved shoulder will
effectively confine drainage between
July 1, 2004
spillways. When it is necessary to place a When cable anchorage is used as shown on the
spillway on curved alignment, attention Standard Plans, the maximum allowable
must be given to possible overtopping at downdrain lengths shall be 60 m for a slope of
the bends. See Index 866.2(3) for 1:1.5 and 80 m for a slope of 1:2. For pipe
discussion of superelevation of the water diameters greater than 600 mm, or downdrains
surface. to be placed on slopes steeper than 1:1.5,
special designs are required. Where there is an
(3) Entrance Standards. Entrance tapers for pipes
abrupt change in direction of flow, such as at
and flume downdrains are detailed on the
the elbow or a tee section downstream of the
Standard Plans. Pipe entrance tapers should be
end of the cable anchorage system, specially
depressed at least 150 mm.
designed thrust blocks should be considered.
The local depressions called "paved gutter
(6) Drainage on Benches. Drainage from benches
flares" on the Standard Plans are to be used at
in cut and fill slopes should be removed at
all entrance tapers. See Standard Plans D87-A
intervals ranging from 100 to 150 m.
and D87-D for details and Index 837.5 for
further discussion on local depressions. (7) Selection of Types. Pipe and flume downdrains
may consist of either corrugated steel,
In areas where local depressions would
corrugated aluminum, or any other approved
decrease safety the use of flush grate inlets or
material that meets the minimum design service
short sections of slotted drain for entrance
life required under Chapter 850. Refer to Index
structures may be necessary.
854.4 for additional discussion on limitations
(4) Outlet Treatment. Where excessive erosion at of abrasive resistance of aluminum pipe
an overside drain outlet is anticipated, a simple culverts.
energy dissipator should be employed.
Preference should be given to inexpensive
expedients such as an apron of broken concrete
Topic 835 - Dikes and Berms
or rock, a short section of pipe placed with its
835.1 General
axis vertical with the lowermost 150 mm filled
with coarse gravel or rock, or a horizontal tee Dikes and berms are to be used only as necessary to
section which is usually adequate for confine drainage and protect side slopes susceptible
downdrain discharges. to erosion.
(5) Anchorage. For slopes flatter than 1:3 overside
835.2 Earth Berms
drains do not need to be anchored. For slopes
1:3 or steeper overside drains should be (Text Later)
anchored with 1.8 m pipe stakes as shown on
the Standard Plans to prevent undue strain on 835.3 Dikes
the entrance taper or pipe ends. For drains over Details of dikes are shown on Standard Plan A87.
50 m long, and where the slope is steeper than See Topic 303 for a detailed discussion on the
1:2, cable anchorage should be considered as types and placement considerations for dikes.
shown on the Standard Plans. Where the cable
would be buried and in contact with soil, a
solid galvanized rod should be used the buried
portion and a cable, attached to the rod, used
for the exposed portion. Beyond the buried
portion, a slip joint must be provided when the
installation exceeds 20 m in length. Regard-
less of pipe length or steepness of slope, where
there is a potential for hillside movement cable
anchorage should be considered.
July 1, 2004
slopes flatter than 8.33 percent should be

Topic 836 - Curbs and Gutters avoided, except where gutters are adjacent to
curb ramps where ADA requirements limit the
836.1 General slope to a maximum of 5 percent.
The primary reason for constructing curbs and (3) Curbed Intersections. If pedestrian traffic is a
gutters may be for delineation or pedestrian traffic ruling factor, intersection drainage presents the
rather than for drainage considerations. Refer to following alternatives to be weighed as to
Topic 303 for further discussion and Standard Plan effectiveness and economy.
A87 for details on concrete curbs and gutters. (a) Intercept the whole flow upstream of the
Whatever the justification for constructing curbs crosswalk.
and gutters, they will usually have an effect on (b) Intercept a part of the water and allow the
surface water runoff and result in becoming a overflow to cross the intersection. The
roadway drainage design consideration. width of flow should be controlled so that
pedestrian traffic is not unduly hampered.
836.2 Gutter Design
(c) If flow is small, pass the entire flow across
(1) Capacity. Gutters and drainage facilities are to the intersecting street in a valley gutter.
be designed to keep flooding within the limits
given in Table 831.3. Easy solutions to gutter (4) Valley Gutters. Valley gutters across the
flow problems can be obtained by using the traveled way of the highway should not be
charts contained in FHWA Hydraulic used. Valley gutters may be used across
Engineering Circular No. 22, "Urban Drainage intersecting streets and driveways, however, at
Design Manual" which applies to triangular intersections with high traffic volumes on all
channels and other shapes illustrated in the approaches, it is desirable to intercept all gutter
charts. Parked cars reduce gutter capacity and flow upstream of the intersection and avoid the
also can cause water to shoot over the curb. use of valley gutters. Valley gutters are also
The downstream ends of driveway ramps can undesirable along streets where speeds are
also cause water to flow over the curb. As a relatively high. In locations of frequent
rule of thumb, gutter capacity should be intermittent low flows, the use of valley gutters
determined on a depth equal to 0.5 the curb with slotted drains should be considered. In
height for grades up to 10 percent and 0.4 the general, the total width of gutters should not
curb height for grades over 10 percent in exceed 2 m and cross slopes should not exceed
locations where parking is allowed or where 3 percent. Two percent is suggested where
driveways are constructed. more than nominal speeds are involved.
(2) Grade and Cross Slope. The longitudinal

grade of curbs and gutters is controlled by the Topic 837 - Inlet Design
highway grade line as discussed under Index
831.2. 837.1 General
The cross slope of standard gutters is typically The basic features of standard storm drain inlets are
8.33 percent toward the curb. Pavement slopes shown in Figure 837.1. Full details appear on
on superelevated roadways extend the full Standard Plan D72 through D75, D98-A and D98-
width of the gutter, except that gutter slopes on B. The variety of standard designs available is
the low side should be not less than 8.33 considered sufficient to any drainage situation;
percent. Because they cut down gutter capacity hence, the use of nonstandard inlets should be rare.
and severely reduce inlet efficiency, cross
July 1, 2004
Locating grate inlets within pedestrian paths of

837.2 Inlet Types
travel or areas subject to bicycle traffic should
From an operating standpoint, there are five main be avoided when practicable. If grate inlets
groups of inlets; these are: must be located in roadway areas where
cyclists may be expected to travel, bicycle
(1) Curb-Opening. Curb opening inlets have an
proof grates are to be specified. Bicycle proof
opening parallel to the direction of flow in the
grates are shown on Standard Plan D77B. The
gutter. This inlet group is adapted to curb and
table of final pay masses indicates the
gutter installations. The curb opening is most
acceptable grate types to be used with each
effective with flows carrying floating trash. As
inlet type. If grate inlets must be placed within
the gutter grade steepens, their interception
a pedestrian path of travel, the grate must be
capacity decreases. Hence, they are commonly
made compliant with Americans with
used on grades flatter than 3 percent.
Disabilities Act (ADA) regulations which limit
When curb opening inlets are used on urban the maximum opening in the direction of
highways other than fenced freeways, a 20 mm pedestrian travel to no more than 13 mm.
plain round protection bar is placed Presently, the only standard grating which
horizontally across any curb or wall opening meets such restrictive spacing criterion is the
whose height is 180 mm or more. The slotted corrugated steel pipe with heel guard, as
unsupported length of bar should not exceed shown on Standard Plan D98B. Because such
2.1 m. Use of the protection bar on streets or small openings have an increased potential for
roads under other jurisdiction is to be governed clogging, a minimum clogging factor of 50%
by the desires of the responsible authorities. should be assumed, and that factor should be
The Type OS and OL inlets are only used with increased in areas prone to significant debris.
Type A or B curbs. A checkered steel plate Other options which may be considered are
cover is provided for maintenance access. grated line drains with specialty grates (See
The Type OS inlet has a curb opening 1.07 m Standard Plan D98C for grated line drain
long. Since a fast flow tends to overshoot such details, and refer to manufacturers catalogs for
a short opening, it should be used with caution special application grates) or specially designed
on grades above 3 percent. grates for standard inlets. The use of specially
designed grates is a nonstandard design that
The Type OL inlet is a high capacity unit in must be approved by the Office of State
which the length of curb opening ranges from Highway Drainage Design prior to submittal of
2.1 m to 6.4 m. PS&E.
(2) Grate. Grate inlets provide a grate opening in
(3) Combination. Combination inlets provide both
the gutter or waterway. As a class, grate inlets
a curb opening and a grate. These are high
perform satisfactorily over a wide range of
capacity inlets which make use of the
gutter grades. Their main disadvantage is that
advantages offered by both kinds of openings.
they are easily clogged by floating trash and
should not be used without a curb opening (a) Type GO and GDO. These types of inlets
where total interception of flow is required. have a curb opening directly opposite the
They merit preference over the curb opening grate. The GDO inlet has two grates
type on grades of 3 percent or more. Gutter placed side by side and is designed for
depressions, discussed under Index 837.5, intercepting a wide flow. A typical use of
increase the capacity of grate inlets. Grate these inlets would be in a sag location
inlets may also be used at locations where a either in a curb and gutter installation or
gutter depression is not desirable. within a shoulder fringed by a dike. When
used as the surface inlet for a pumping
installation, the trash rack shown on the
Standard Plan D74B is provided.
July 1, 2004
(b) Type GOL. This is called a sweeper inlet (5) Slotted Drains. This type of inlet is made of
because the curb opening precedes the corrugated metal pipe with a continuous slot on
grate. It is particularly useful as a trash top. The slot is formed by a pair of angle irons
interceptor during the initial phases of a or grating which serves as a paving bulkhead.
storm. When used in a grade sag, the See Standard Plans D98-A and D98-B. This
sweeper inlet can be modified by providing type of inlet can be used in flush, all paved
a curb opening on both sides of the grate. medians with superelevated sections to prevent
sheet flow from crossing the centerline of the
(4) Pipe. Pipe drop inlets are made of a
highway. Short sections of slotted drain may
commercial pipe section of concrete or
be used as an alternate solution to a grate catch
corrugated metal. As a class, they develop a
basin in the median or edge of shoulder.
high capacity and are generally the most
economical type. This type of inlet is intended Drop inlets or other type of cleanout should be
for uses outside the roadbed at locations that provided at intervals of about 30 m.
will not be subjected to normal highway wheel
(6) Grated Line Drains. This type of inlet is made
loads.
of monolithic polymer concrete with a ductile
Two kinds of inlets are provided; a wall iron frame and grate on top. See Standard Plan
opening and a grate top. The wall opening D98-C. This type of inlet can be used as an
inlet should only be used at protected locations alternative at the locations described under
where it is unlikely to be hit by an out of slotted drains, preferably in shoulder areas
control vehicle. away from traffic loading. However,
additional locations may include localized flat
(a) Wall Opening Intake. This opening is
areas of pavement at private and public
placed normal to the direction of surface
intersections, superelevation transitions, along
flow. It develops a high capacity
shoulders where widening causes a decrease to
unaffected by the grade of the approach
allowable water spread, tollbooth approaches,
waterway. The inlet capacity is increased
ramp termini, parking lots and on the high side
by depressing the opening; also by
of superelevation in snow and ice country to
providing additional openings oriented to
minimize black ice and sheet flow from snow
intercept flows from different directions.
melt. Removable grates should not be placed
When used as the surface intake to a
where subject to traffic.
pumping installation, a trash rack across
the opening is required. See Standard Plan Short sections of grated line drain may be used
Numbers D75A, D75B and D75C. in conjunction with an existing drainage inlet
Because this type of inlet projects above as a supplement in sag locations. However,
grade, its use should be avoided in areas based on the depth of the water, the flow
subject to traffic leaving the roadway. condition will be either weir or orifice. The
transition between weir and orifice occurs at
(b) Grate Intake. The grate intake intercepts
approximately 180 mm depth of flow. The
water from any direction. For maximum
HEC-22 method of design for slotted pipe is
efficiency, however, the grate bars must be
recommended as the basis for grated line drain
in the direction of greatest surface flow.
design. It should be noted that this is inlet
Being round, it is most effective for flows
that are deepest at the center, as in a valley
median.
May 1, 2001
May 1, 2001
May 1, 2001
interception/capacity design, not the carrying (2) Location. There are no ready rules by which
capacity of the product as a conduit. the spacing of inlets can be fixed; the most
effective and economical installation should be
Furthermore, as shown on Standard Plan D98-
the aim.
C, the grated line drain has a smaller cross
sectional area than the slotted pipe, and The following are locations where an inlet is
therefore typically less carrying capacity. nearly always required:
Grated line drains are recommended as an • Sag points
alternative to slotted pipe at locations • Points of superelevation reversal
susceptible to pipe clogging from sediments
and debris. Self-cleaning velocities can usually • Upstream of ramp gores
be generated from their smooth interior surface, • Upstream and downstream of bridges –
or if necessary by specifying the optional pre- bridge drainage design procedure assumes
sloped sections. no flow onto bridge from approach
Grated line drains may also be useful where roadway, and flow off bridge to be handled
there is a potential for utility conflicts with by the district.
slotted drains, which are generally installed at a • Street intersections
greater depth. • Upstream of pedestrian crosswalks
At locations where clean out access is needed, • Upstream of curbed median openings
removable grates can be specified. In areas
with pedestrian traffic, special grates which In urban areas, the volume and movements of
meet the Americans with Disabilities Act vehicles and pedestrians constitute an
(ADA) requirements are mandatory. This type important control. For street or road crossings,
of grate is susceptible to clogging, therefore the usual inlet location is at the intersection at
removable grates are recommended at these the upstream end of the curb or pavement
locations, and they should only be specified for return and clear of the pedestrian crosswalk.
placement directly within the pedestrian path of Where the gutter flow is small and both
travel. vehicular and pedestrian traffic are not
important considerations, the flow may be
837.3 Location and Spacing carried across the intersection in a valley gutter
and intercepted by an inlet placed downstream.
(1) Governing Factors. The location and spacing See Index 836.2(4).
of inlets depend mainly on these factors:
Safety of location for maintenance purposes is
(a) The amount of runoff, an important consideration. Wall opening
(b) The longitudinal grade and cross slope , inlets should not be placed where they present
an obstacle to maintenance equipment and to
(c) The location and geometrics of vehicles that leave the traveled way. Grate top
interchanges and at-grade intersections, inlets should be installed in such locations.
(d) Tolerable water spread, see Table 831.3, At depressed grade lines under structures, care
(e) The inlet capacity, must be taken to avoid bridge pier footings.
See Index 204.6.
(f) Accessibility for maintenance and
inspection, (3) Spacing. Arbitrary spacing of inlets should be
avoided. The distance between inlets should be
(g) Volume and movements of vehicles and determined by a rational analysis of the factors
pedestrians, and mentioned above. Detailed procedures for
(h) Amount of debris. determining inlet spacing are given in
FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circular No. 22,
May 1, 2001
"Urban Drainage Design Manual". In a valley Short sections of slotted or grated line
median, the designer should consider the effect drains on either side of the low point
of inlet spacing on flow velocities where the may be used to supplement drop inlets.
soil is susceptible to erosion. To economize on
(b) Cross Slope for Curbed Gutters. Make the
disposal facilities, inlets are often located at
cross slope as steep as possible within
culverts or near roadway drainage conduits.
limits stated under Index 836.2(2). This
(4) Inlets in Series. Where conditions dictate the concentrates the flow against the curb and
need for a series of inlets, the recommended greatly increases inlet capacity.
minimum spacing should be approximately 6
(c) Local Depressions. Use the maximum
m to allow the bypass flow to return to the curb
depression consistent with site conditions;
face.
for further details see Index 837.5.
837.4 Hydraulic Design (d) Trash. The curb-opening type inlet, when
the first in a series of grate inlets, may
(1) Factors Governing Inlet Capacity. Inlet
intercept trash and improve grate
capacity is a variable which depends on:
efficiency. In a grade sag, one trash
(a) The size and geometry of the intake interceptor should be used on each side of
opening, the sump.
(b) The velocity and depth of flow and the (e) Design Water Surface Within the Inlet.
gutter cross slope just upstream from the The crown of the outlet pipe should be low
intake, and enough to allow for pipe entrance losses
plus a freeboard of 0.25 m between the
(c) The amount of depression of the intake
design water surface and the opening at the
opening below the flow line of the
gutter intake. This allows sufficient
waterway.
margin for turbulence losses, and the
(2) General Notes. effects of floating trash.
(a) Effect of Grade Profile. The grade profile (f) Inlet Floor. The inlet floor should
affects both the inlet location and its generally have a substantial slope toward
capacity. The gutter grade line exerts such the outlet. In a shallow drain system where
an influence that it often dictates the choice conservation of head is essential, or any
of inlet types as well as the gutter treatment system where the preservation of a
opposite the opening. See Index 831.2. nonsilting velocity is necessary, the half
Sag vertical curves produce a flattening round floor shown on the Standard Plan
grade line which increases the width of D74C should be used when a pipe
flow at the bottom. To reduce ponding and continues through the inlet.
possible sedimentation problems, the (g) Partial Interception. Economies may be
following measures should be considered: achieved by designing inlets for partial
interception with the last one or two inlets
• Reduce the length of vertical curve.
in series intercepting the remaining flow.
• Use a multiple installation consisting See Hydraulic Engineering Circular No.
of one inlet at the low point and one or 22.
more inlets upstream on each side.
(3) Curb-Opening Inlets. Gutter depressions
Refer to HEC 22 for further discussion
should be used with curb-opening inlets. The
and design procedures for locating
standard gutter depressions for curb-opening
multiple inlets.
inlets, shown on Standard Plan D78 are 30 mm
and 80 mm deep.
May 1, 2001
Curb-opening inlets are most economical and act as a relief opening should the grate
effective if designed and spaced to intercept become clogged. Since the grates of Type
only 85 to 90 percent of the flow. This GDO are side by side, the inlet capacity is
provides for an increased flow depth at the curb the combined capacity of the two grates.
face.
(b) Type GOL Inlet. The interception capacity
Figure 4-11, "Comparison of Inlet Interception of this inlet, a curb-opening upstream of a
Capacity, Slope Variable", and Figure 4-12, grate, is equal to the sum of the capacities
"Comparison of Inlet Interception Capacity, for the two inlets except that the frontal
Flow Rate Variable" of Hydraulic Engineering flow and thus inter-ception capacity of the
Circular No. 22 can be used to obtain grate is reduced by interception at the curb
interception capacities for various longitudinal opening.
grades, cross slopes, and gutter depressions.
(6) Pipe Drop Inlets.
Charts for determining interception capacities
under sump conditions are also available in (a) Wall Opening Intake. The standard intake
HEC No. 22. opening 0.6 m wide and 200 to 300 mm
deep provides a capacity of approximately
(4) Grate Inlets. The grate inlet interception 3
0.17 m /s when the water surface is 0.3 m
capacity is equal to the sum of the frontal flow
higher than the lip of the opening. Where
(flow over the grate) interception and the side
the flow is from more than one direction,
flow interception. The frontal flow
two or more standard openings may be
interception will constitute the major portion of
provided. Higher capacity openings larger
the grate interception. In general, grate inlets
than standard may be provided but are of a
will intercept all of the frontal flow until a
special design.
velocity is reached at which water begins to
splash over the grate. Charts provided in HEC (b) Grate Intake. The choice between inlets
22 can be used to compute grate interception with a round grate (Types GCP and GMP)
capacities for the various grates contained and those with a rectangular grate (Type
therein. Grate depressions will greatly increase G1) hinges largely on hydraulic efficiency.
inlet capacity. In a waterway where the greatest depth of
flow is at the center, both grates are equally
The HEC 22 charts neglect the effects of debris
effective. In a waterway where the cross
and clogging on inlet capacity. In some
slope concentrates the flow on one side of
localities inlet clogging from debris is
the grate, the rectangular shape is
extensive, while in other locations clogging is
preferred. For rectangular grates, the
negligible. Local experience should dictate the
charts contained in HEC 22 can be used to
magnitude of the clogging factor, if any, to be
compute flow intercept. Round grates
applied. In the absence of local experience,
(Type 900R) with 0.15 m of depression
design clogging factors of 33 percent for 3
develop a capacity of 0.34 to 0.42 m /s.
freeways and 50 percent for city streets may be
assumed. 837.5 Local Depressions
Grate type inlets are most economical and (1) Purpose. A local depression is a paved hollow
effective if designed and spaced to intercept in the waterway shaped to concentrate and
only 75 to 80 percent of the gutter flow. direct the flow into the intake opening and
increases the capacity of the inlet. In a gutter
(5) Combination Inlets.
bordered by a curb, it is called a gutter
(a) Type GO and GDO Inlet. For design depression.
purposes, only the capacity of the grates
(2) Requirements. Local depressions generally
need be considered. The auxiliary curb
consist of a paved apron or transition of a
opening, under normal conditions, offers
shape which serves the purpose. Local
little or no increase in capacity; but does
May 1, 2001
depressions should meet the following normally is of concrete. Further

requirements: requirements for curb and gutter
depressions are:
(a) Valley Medians. In medians on a grade,
the depression should extend a minimum of • Length - As shown on Standard Plan
3 m upstream, 1.8 m downstream and 1.8 D78.
m laterally, measured from the edge of the
• Width - Normally 1.2 m, but for wide
opening. In a grade sag, the depression
flows or a series of closely spaced
should extend a minimum of 3 m on all
inlets, 1.8 m is authorized.
sides. No median local depression,
however should be allowed to encroach on • Depth - Where traffic considerations
the shoulder area. govern, the depth commonly used is 30
mm. Use the maximum of 80 mm
The normal depth of depression is
wherever feasible at locations where
100 mm.
the resulting curb height would not be
(b) Paved Gutter Flares. The local depression objectionable.
which adjoins the outer edge of shoulder at
(e) Type of Pavement. Local depressions
the entrance to overside downdrains and
outside the roadbed are usually surfaced
spillways is labeled "paved gutter flare" on
with asphalt concrete 45 mm thick.
Standard Plans D87-A and D87-D. The
flow line approaching the inlet is depressed (3) General Notes on Design. Except for traffic
to increase capacity and minimize water safety reasons, a local depression is to be
spread on the roadbed. Within a flare provided at every inlet even though the
length of 3 m the gutter flow line is waterway is unpaved. Where the size of intake
depressed a minimum of 150 mm at the opening is a question, a depression of
inlet. Recommended flare lengths for maximum depth should be considered before
various gutter flow line depression depths deciding on a larger opening. For traffic
are given on the Standard Plans. When reasons, the gutter depression should be
conditions warrant, these flare lengths may omitted in driveways and median curb and
be exceeded. gutter installations.
Traffic safety should not be compromised It is permissible to omit gutter depressions at
for hydraulic efficiency. Any change in the sump inlets where the width of flow does not
shape of the paved gutter flare that will exceed design water spread.
result in a depression within the shoulder
area should not be made. The Type 2
entrance taper and paved gutter flare is
Topic 838 - Storm Drains
intended for use on divided highways
where gutter grades exceed 2% and flow is 838.1 General
in the opposite direction of traffic. The total drainage system which conveys runoff
(c) Roadside Gutter and Ditch Locations. from roadway areas to a positive outlet including
Regardless of type of intake, the opening of gutters, ditches, inlet structures, and pipe is
a drop inlet in a roadside gutter or ditch generally referred to as a storm drain system. In
should be depressed from 100 to 150 mm urban areas a highway storm drain often augments
below the flow line of the waterway with an existing or proposed local drainage plan and
3 m of paved transition upstream. should be compatible with the local storm drain
system.
(d) Curb and Gutter Depressions. This type of
depression is carefully proportioned in This section covers the hydraulic design of the pipe
length, width, depth, and shape. To best or enclosed conduit portion of a storm drain
preserve the design shape, construction system.
May 1, 2001
838.2 Design Criteria cleaning velocity of one meter per second is

attained.
To adequately estimate design storm discharges for
a storm drain system in urban areas involving street (4) Physical Properties. In general, the
flooding it may be necessary to route flows by considerations which govern the selection of
using hydrograph methods. Hydrographs are culvert type apply to storm drain conduits.
discussed under Index 816.5 and further Alternative types of materials, overfill tables
information on hydrograph methods may be found and other physical factors to be considered in
in Chapters 6 and 7 of HDS No.2, Highway selecting storm drain conduit are discussed
Hydrology. under Chapter 850.
838.3 Hydraulic Design Table 838.4

Closed conduits should be designed for the full
flow condition. They may be allowed to operate
Minimum Pipe Diameter for
under pressure, provided the hydraulic gradient is Storm Drain Systems
0.25 m or more below the intake lip of any inlet
which may be affected. The energy gradient Type of Drain Minimum
should not rise above the lip of the intake. Diameter (mm)
Allowances should be made for energy losses at
bends, junctions and transitions. Trunk Drain 450
To determine the lowest outlet elevation for (1)
Trunk Laterals 375
drainage systems which discharge into leveed
channels or bodies of water affected by tides, (1)
Inlet Laterals 375
consideration should be given to the possibilities of
backwater. The effect of storm surges (e.g., winds (1) 450 minimum if wholly or partly under the roadbed.
and floods) should be considered in addition to the
predicted tide elevation.
Specific subjects for special consideration are:
Normally, special studies will be required to
determine the minimum discharge elevation • Bedding and Backfill. Bedding and
consistent with the design discharge of the facility. backfill consideration are discussed under
Index 829.2. Maximum height of cover
838.4 Standards tables are included in Chapter 850 and
minimum thickness of cover is given in
(1) Location and Alignment. Longitudinal storm Table 854.9.
drains are not to be placed under the traveled
way of highways. Depending upon local • Roughness Factor. The roughness factor,
agency criteria, storm drains under the traveled Manning's n value, generally assumes
way of other streets and roads may be greater importance for storm drain design
acceptable. A manhole or specially designed than it does for culverts. Suggested
junction structure is usually provided at Manning's n values for various types of
changes in direction or grade and at locations pipe materials are given in Table 851.2.
where two or more storm drains are joined. (5) Storage. In developing the most economical
Refer to Index 838.5 for further discussion on installation, the designer should not overlook
manholes and junction structures. economies obtainable through the use of
(2) Pipe Diameter. The minimum pipe diameter to pipeline storage and, within allowable limits,
be used is given in Table 838.4. the ponding of water in gutters, medians and
interchange areas. Inlet capacity and spacing
(3) Slope. The minimum longitudinal slope should largely control surface storage in gutters and
be such that when flowing half full, a self medians; inlet capacity governs in sump areas.
May 1, 2001
(6) Floating Trash. Except at pumping • Where the drain changes in size,
installations, every effort should be made to
• At sharp curves or angle points in
carry all floating trash through the storm drain
excess of 10 degrees,
system. Curb and wall opening inlets are well
suited for this purpose. In special cases where • Points where an abrupt flattening of the
it is necessary to exclude trash, as in pumping grade occurs, and
installations, a standard trash rack must be
• On the smaller drains, at the
provided across all curb and wall openings of
downstream end of a sharp curve.
tributary inlets. See the Standard Plans for
details. Manholes are not required if the conduit is
large enough to accommodate a man,
(7) Median Flow. In estimating the quantity of
unless spacing criteria govern. Manholes
flow in the median, consideration should be
should not be placed within the traveled
given to the effects of trash, weeds, and
way. Exceptions are frontage roads and
plantings.
city streets, but intersection locations
should be avoided.
838.5 Appurtenant Structures
(c) Spacing. In general, the larger the storm
(1) Manholes.
drain, the greater the manhole spacing. For
(a) General Notes. The purpose of a manhole pipe diameter of 1200 mm or more, or
is to provide access to a storm drain for other shapes of equal cross sectional area,
inspection and maintenance. Manholes are the manhole spacing ranges from 200 m to
usually constructed out of cast in place 350 m. For diameters of less than 1200
concrete, pre-cast concrete, or corrugated mm, the spacing may vary from 100 m to
metal pipe. They are usually circular and 200 m. In the case of small drains where
approximately three or four feet in self-cleaning velocities are unobtainable,
diameter to facilitate the movement of the 100 m spacing should be used. With
maintenance personnel. self-cleaning velocities and alignments
There is no Caltrans Standard Plan for without sharp curves, the distance between
manholes. Relocation and reconstruction manholes should be in the upper range of
of existing storm drain facilities, owned by the above limits.
a city or county agency, is often necessary. (d) Access Shaft. For drains less than 1200
Generally the local agency has adopted mm in diameter, the access shaft is to be
manhole design standard for use on their centered over the drain. When the drain
facilities. Use of the manhole design diameter exceeds the shaft diameter, the
preferred by the responsible authority or shaft should be offset and made tangent to
owner is appropriate. one side of the pipe for better location of
Commercial precast manhole shafts are the manhole steps. For drains 1200 mm or
effective and usually more economical than more in diameter, where laterals enter from
cast in place shafts. Brick or block may both sides of the manhole, the offset should
also be used, but only upon request and be toward the side of the smaller lateral.
justification from the local agency or See Standard Plan D93A for riser
owner. connection details.
(b) Location. Following are common locations (e) Arrangement of Laterals. To avoid
for manholes: unnecessary head losses, the flow from
laterals which discharge opposite each
• Where two or more drains join, other should converge at an angle in the
• At locations and spacing which direction of flow. If conservation of head
facilitate maintenance,
May 1, 2001
is critical, a training wall should be in the design of pumping stations, tributary storm
provided. drains, and outfall facilities. This is particularly
true of submerged outlets, outlets operating under
(2) Junction Structures. A junction structure is
pressure, and outlets of unusual length.
an underground chamber used to join two or
more conduits, but does not provide direct 839.2 Pump Type
access from the surface. It is designed to
Horizontal pumps in a dry location are generally
prevent turbulence in the flow by providing a
specified for ease of access, safety, and
smooth transition. This type of structure is
standardization of replacement parts.
usually needed only where the trunk drain is
1050 mm or more in diameter. A standard Only in special cases is stand-by power for
detail sheet of a junction structure is available pumping plants a viable consideration. All
for pipes ranging from 1050 mm to proposals for stand-by power are to be reviewed by
2100 mm in diameter at the following and coordinated with the Division of Structures.
Office Engineer web site address:
http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/structures_cadd/ 839.3 Design Responsibilities
XS_sheets/Metric/dgn/. The XS sheet
When a pumping station is required, responsibility
reference is XS 4-26. Where required by
for design between the District and the Division of
spacing criteria, a manhole should be used.
Structures is as follows:
(3) Flap Gates. When necessary, backflow
(1) Districts. The District designs the collector
protection should be provided in the form of
and the outfall facilities leading from the
flap gates. These gates offer negligible
chamber into which the pumps discharge. This
resistance to the release of water from the
applies to outfalls operating under gravity and
system and their effect upon the hydraulics of
with a free outlet. Refer to Topic 838.
the system may be neglected.
Details of pumping stations supportive
If the outlet is subject to floating debris, a
information to be submitted by the District to
shelter should be provided to prevent the debris
the Division of Structures is covered under
from clogging the flap gate. Where the failure
Index 805.8 and Chapter 3-3.1(4) of the
of a flap gate to close would cause serious
Drafting and Plans Manual.
damage, a manually controlled gate in series
should be considered for emergencies. (2) Division of Structures. The Division of
Structures will prepare the design and contract
plans for the pumping station, the storage box
Topic 839 - Pumping Stations and appurtenant equipment, considering the
data and recommendations submitted by the
839.1 General District.
Drainage disposal by pumping should be avoided The Division of Structures will furnish the
where gravity drainage is reasonable. Because District a preliminary plan based on data
pumping installations have high initial cost, previously submitted by the District. It will
maintenance expense, power costs, and the show the work to be covered by the Division of
possibility of failure during a storm, large Structures plans, including a specific location
expenditures can be justified for gravity drainage. for the pumping plant and storage box, the
In some cases, this can be accomplished with long average and maximum pumping rates and the
runs of pipe or continuing the depressed grade to a power required.
natural low area.
Whenever possible, drainage originating outside 839.4 Trash and Debris Considerations
the depressed areas should be excluded. District Storm drain systems leading to pumping plants are
and Division Of Structures cooperation is essential to be designed to limit the inflow of trash and
May 1, 2001
debris, as these may cause damage to the pump importance, or known plans by local or regional
impellers and create a maintenance removal water districts to modify recharge patterns in a
nuisance. Standard grate designs are effective at manner that could impact the design.
ensuring that trash and debris are screened out of
the inflow, but where side opening or curb opening
inlets are constructed, trash racks must be added to
the inlet design. The only Standard Plan detail for
curb opening designs is shown on Standard Plan
D74B and is used in conjunction with Type GDO
inlets. On those occasions where pipe risers with
side opening inlets are part of the system, refer to
Standard Plan D93C for appropriate trash rack
design details.
839.5 Maintenance Consideration

Access to the pumping plant location for both
maintenance personnel and maintenance vehicles is
generally provided by way of paved access road or
city street. One parking space minimum is to be
provided in the vicinity of the pumping plant. An
area light is generally provided when it is
determined that neither the highway lighting or the
street lighting is adequate. Access to the pumping
plant for maintenance from the top of the cut slope
generally consists of a stairway located adjacent to
the pumping plant. The stairway generally extends
from the top of cut slope to the toe of cut slope.
Access to the pump control room should be
through a vertical doorway with the bottom above
flood level, and never through a hatch.
839.6 Groundwater Considerations

As the lowest point in the storm drain system,
pumping plants are particularly susceptible to
problems associated with rises in groundwater
tables. Where the foundation of pump houses or
associated storage boxes are at an elevation where
they would be subjected to existing or future
groundwater tables, sealing around the base of the
foundation is necessary. The use of bentonite or
other impervious material is typically sufficient in
keeping groundwater from welling up through the
relatively pervious structure backfill.
Sealing requirements will typically be specified
by the Division of Structures during the pump
plant design. However, the district should provide
any information relative to historical groundwater
levels or fluctuations which would be of
May 1, 2001
frequently uncovered during construction.

CHAPTER 840 Extensive exploration and literature review may be
SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE required to obtain the design variables with
reasonable accuracy.
Topic 841 - General 841.2 Subsurface (Groundwater) Discharge

Groundwater, as distinguished from capillary
Index 841.1 - Introduction water, is free water occurring in a zone of
saturation below the ground surface. Subsurface
Saturation of the structural section or underlying
discharge, the rate at which groundwater and
foundation materials is a major cause of premature
infiltration water can be removed depends on the
pavement failures. In addition, saturation can lead
effective hydraulic head and on the permeability,
to undesireable infiltration into storm drain systems
depth, slope, thickness and extent of the water-
and, where certain soil types are below
bearing formation (the aquifer). The discharge can
groundwater, liquefaction can occur due to seismic
be obtained by analytical methods. Such methods,
forces. Subsurface drainage systems designed to
however, are usually cumbersome and
rapidly remove and prevent water from reaching or
unsatisfactory; field explorations will yield better
affecting the roadbed are discussed in this chapter.
results.
The solution for subsurface drainage problems
often calls for a knowledge of geology and the 841.3 Preliminary Investigations
application of soil mechanics. The Project
Field investigations may include:
Engineer should request assistance from the
Roadway Geotechnical Unit in the Engineering • Soils, geological, and geophysical studies.
Service Center for projects involving cuts, sections
• Borings, pits, or trenches to find the
depressed below the original ground surface, or
elevation, depth, and extent of the aquifer.
whenever the presence of groundwater is likely.
The Roadway Geotechnical Unit can also provide • Inspection of cut slopes in the immediate
assistance related to the design of features to vicinity.
relieve hydrostatic pressure at bridge abutments.
• Measurement of groundwater discharge.
The designer should consider the potential for large
fluctuations in groundwater levels. Wet periods Preliminary investigations should be as thorough as
after several years of drought, or changes to possible, recognizing that further information is
recharge practices can lead to considerable rises in sometimes uncovered during construction. Where
groundwater levels. an existing road is part of new construction, the
presence and origin of groundwater is often known
For tunnel, structure abutments, or other structure
or easily detected. Personnel responsible for
projects which might require relief of hydrostatic
maintenance of the existing road are an excellent
pressures, contact the Structure Foundations
source of such information and should be
Branch of the Engineering Service Center.
consulted. Explorations, therefore, are likely to be
The basis for design will generally be the lesser in scope and cost than explorations for a
Geotechnical Design Report. This report will project on new alignment. In slope stability
include findings on subsurface conditions and questions, and other problems of equal importance,
recommendations for design. Refer to Topic 113 an extensive knowledge of subsurface conditions is
for more information on Geotechnical Design required. The District should ask for the assistance
Reports. of the Office of Structural Foundations in the
There are many variables and uncertainties as to the Engineering Service Center in such cases.
actual subsurface conditions. In general, the more
obvious subsurface drainage problems can be
anticipated in design; the less obvious are
July 1, 2004
841.4 Exploration Notes • Structural Section and Edge Drains.

Subsurface drainage systems that are
In general, explorations should be made during the
primarily designed for the rapid removal of
rainy season or after the melting of snow in regions
surface water infiltration from treated or
where snow cover is common. An exception
untreated pavement structural section
would be where seepage occurs from irrigation
materials are called structural section
sources.
drains or more typically edge drains. An
Groundwater difficulties frequently stem from 80 mm slotted plastic pipe with 3 rows of
water perched on an impermeable layer some slots is the standard for structural section
distance above the actual water table. Perched drains. Structural section drainage is
water problems can often be solved with horizontal discussed under Topic 606.
drains. See Index 841.5.
• Horizontal Drains. Horizontal drains are
Pumped water supply wells often give unreliable 40 mm perforated or slotted pipes placed in
indications of the water table and such data should drilled holes bored into the aquifer or water
be used with caution. bearing formations. They are installed in
cut slopes and under fills more to guard
841.5 Category of System against slides by relieving hydrostatic
Depending upon the scope and complexity of the pressure than to prevent saturation of the
problem, an appropriate solution may require the roadbed. They may be used in varying
installation of one or a combination of different lengths up to 300 m on grades that range
types of subsurface drainage systems. The type of from 0 to 25 percent. A collection system
subsurface drainage system initially considered is to remove the intercepted water from the
usually an underdrain. area is generally also required.
The standard underdrain is the pipe underdrain. A An example of a horizontal drain system is
pipe underdrain consists of a perforated pipe near illustrated in Chapter C5 of the
the bottom of a narrow trench lined with filter Maintenance Manual.
fabric and backfilled with permeable material. • Prefabricated Geocomposite Drains.
Pipe underdrains are discussed in more detail under Available in sheets or rolls, geocomposite
Topic 842. drains provide a cost effective solution to
subsurface drainage behind bridge
"French Drains" have proven to be unreliable abutments, wingwalls and retaining walls.
underdrains. A "French drain" consists of a trench Prefabricated subsurface drainage systems
backfilled with rock. They are not to be used consist of a plastic drain core covered on
where a permanent solution is needed. Exceptions one or both sides with a filter fabric.
may be made for special cases such as where depth
of the underdrain and soil conditions would conflict • Stabilization Trenches. This category of
with industrial safety regulations. Under such subsurface drainage system is constructed
circumstances a design that includes a filter fabric in swales, ravines, and under sidehill fills
liner and permeable material backfill, without the to stabilize water logged fill foundations.
perforated pipe may be used. The Geotechnical Design Report should
contain depth and width of trench
In addition to pipe underdrains, the following recommendations. Stabilization trenches
special purpose categories of subsurface drains are may be only a few feet in width requiring a
used to intercept, collect, and discharge backhoe or similar type of excavation
groundwater. equipment, or they may be large enough
for earth moving equipment such as dozers
May 1, 2001
and scrapers to operate. Trenches wide The bottom of the bored wells should be
enough to permit the use of earth moving interconnected and a suitable collector and
equipment should be considered wherever outlet system must be provided. The wells
feasible. A 1:1 side slope is commonly may be interconnected by belling out at the
used. bottoms, tunneling between wells, drilled-
in-place outlets, or horizontal drains.
The excavated trench, including the side
slopes, is covered with a thick blanket of The wells are backfilled with permeable
permeable material. One or more perfo- material. The Geotechnical Design Report
rated drain pipes, usually 200 to 300 mm in should contain well spacing and depth
diameter, are placed at the bottom of the recommendations. Assistance in selecting
trench depending on the quantity of permeable material and other specifications
groundwater, type of material, and area to pertinent to drainage galleries should be
be stabilized. requested from the Office of Structural
Foundations in the Engineering Service
The alignment of the trench and collector
Center.
pipe are often made parallel to the highway
centerline. Conditions may be such that
trench alignment on a skew or with tee, Topic 842 - Pipe Underdrains
wye, or herringbone configurations are a
better design. 842.1 General
Lining the trench with filter fabric is As stated under Index 841.5, the standard
recommended. The usual one meter or underdrain treatment is the perforated pipe
more thickness of permeable material may underdrain. Pipe underdrain systems consist of a
be reduced and a less expensive gradation 150 or 200 mm diameter perforated pipe placed
may be specified if a filter fabric is used. near the bottom of a narrow trench. The trench is
Assistance in selecting filter fabric and usually lined with filter fabric prior to placement of
permeable material specifications should the perforated pipe and permeable material backfill.
be requested from the Geotechnical Branch
or Geotextile Unit of the Engineering Two standard cross sections for pipe underdrains
Service Center. are shown on Standard Plan D102. The one with
the permeable material carried to the top of the
• Drainage Galleries. Drainage galleries grading plane is used under paved areas. The
consist of a row or rows of closely spaced other, with a topping of earth backfill over the
wells 900 to 1200 mm in diameter bored permeable material, is used under unpaved areas.
with power augers to the depth required to
intercept the aquifer. They are a variation 842.2 Single Installations
of the stabilization trench principle and
may afford a more cost effective solution A single pipe underdrain is commonly used in these
under certain conditions. cases:
Drainage galleries are a viable option • Along the toe of a cut slope to intercept
where the depth of the aquifer exceeds the seepage when slope stability is not a
economical or practical limits for open problem.
trench excavation. Because of potential • Along the toe of a fill on the side from
cave-ins or slides, open trench excavation which groundwater originates.
may not be practical.
• Across the roadway at the downhill end of
a cut.
May 1, 2001
842.3 Multiple Installations percent. Minimum grades of 0.2 percent

for laterals and 0.25 percent for mains are
Multiple underdrain installations may be used in a
acceptable.
herringbone or other effective pattern in situations
such as the following: • Depth and Spacing. The depth of the
underdrain depends on the permeability of
• Under the roadway structural section when
the soil, the elevation of the water table,
a permeable blanket is required.
and the amount of drawdown needed to
• To stabilize fill foundation areas. ensure stability. Whenever practicable, an
underdrain pipe should be set in the
Refer to Table 842.4 for a guide to selecting depth
impervious zone below the aquifer.
and spacing of multiple pipe underdrain
Additionally, consideration should be
installations.
given to the depth and proximity of storm
842.4 Design Criteria drains. Typically, the underdrain should be
placed at a depth sufficient to keep the
• Size and Length. For pipe underdrains of
storm drain above the groundwater table.
150 m or less in length, the standard
perforated pipe size is 150 mm in diameter. Table 842.4 gives suggested depths and
As a rule, the 150 mm diameter is adequate spacing of underdrains according to soil
for collectors and laterals in most soils. types. It is only a guide and should not be
For lengths exceeding 150 m, the minimum considered a substitute for field
diameter of pipe is 200 mm. observations or local experience.
• Surface Runoff. Surface drainage should 842.5 Types of Underdrain Pipe
be prevented from discharging into
underdrain systems. The aim of any underdrain installation is long term
effectiveness. This aim is associated with filtering
• Outlets. Underdrain outlets should be ability, durability, strength, and cost of conduit,
provided at intervals of not more than 300 mainly in that order. In choosing between pipes of
m. different types, the key considerations are filtering
Underdrain systems may be designed to ability and durability. Pipe cost assumes secondary
discharge directly into a storm drain or importance because it is a minor part of the
culvert as long as the underdrain outlet is underdrain investment.
not subjected to hydrostatic pressures that Pipes for underdrains are perforated and may be
could cause backflow damage. made of steel, aluminum, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• Cleanouts. Terminal and intermediate or polyethylene, all with corrugated profiles, or
risers may be placed for the convenience of smooth wall PVC. All of the listed types are
the maintenance forces cleaning the acceptable for either shallow or deep burial
system. When practical, a terminal riser situations. Where plastic pipe underdrains are
should be placed at the upper end of an proposed and burial depths would exceed 10 m, the
underdrain. Intermediate cleanout risers Underground Structures Unit in the Engineering
may be placed at intervals of 150 m and at Service Center should be contacted for approval.
sharp angle points greater than 10 degrees.
842.6 Design Service Life
The diameter of risers should be the same
as the pipe underdrain. Details of Refer to Chapter 850 for further discussion and
underdrain risers are shown on Standard criteria relative to design service life of pipe
Plan D87-B. materials used in underdrain installations.
• Grade. If possible, pipe underdrains Experience with underdrains has shown that they
should be placed on grades steeper than 0.5 are not subject to corrosion in an environment that
May 1, 2001
lacks an adequate supply of air and oxygen pH and resistivity tests covered in California Test
entrained in the water. Subsurface waters that may 643. This information is shown in the Materials
be inclined to be corrosive chemically do not tend Report. The design service life of steel pipe may
to become so as long as they are not exposed to be increased by a bituminous coating as indicated
oxygen. However, subsurface water may become in Table 854.3A.
corrosive after it has surfaced and been exposed to
oxygen. Furthermore, there is evidence that The guide values contained in the tables mentioned
indicates there is little oxygen available in long above may be modified where field observation of
lengths of the small diameter pipe normally used in existing installations dictates.
a subsurface drainage system. 842.7 Pipe Selection
Although tests may indicate that corrosive salts are In cases where more than one material meets the
present in the soil solution, corrosion will not take foregoing requirements, alternatives should be
place without the presence of oxygen. Therefore, specified on the basis of optional selection by the
when it is anticipated that the underdrain will be contractor. The selection of a single type of
placed to intercept groundwater under the above underdrain may be appropriate due to other related
conditions, it will not be necessary to allow for factors. This selection should be supported by
metal pipe corrosion. complete analysis of factors and documentation
placed on file in the District.
When the above conditions do not prevail, the
design service life of metal pipe is determined from
Table 842.4
Suggested Depth and Spacing of Pipe

Underdrains for Various Soil Types
Soil Composition Drain Spacing (m)
Percent Percent Percent 1.00 m 1.25 m 1.50 m 1.75 m

Soil Class
Sand Silt Clay Deep Deep Deep Deep
Clean Sand 80-100 0-20 0-20 35 - 45 45 - 60 -- --
Sandy Loam 50-80 0-50 0-20 15 - 30 30 - 45 -- --
Loam 30-50 30-50 0-20 9 - 18 12 - 24 15 - 30 18 - 36
Clay Loam 20-50 20-50 20-30 6 - 12 8 - 15 9 - 18 12 - 24
Sandy Clay 50-70 0-20 30-50 4-9 6 - 12 8 - 15 9 - 18

*
Silty Clay 0-20 50-70 30-50 3-8 4-9 6 - 12 8 - 15
*
Clay 0-50 0-50 30-100 4(max) 6(max) 8(max) 12(max)
* Drainage blankets or stabilization trenches should be considered.

May 1, 2001
(3) Maintenance and Construction Factors.

CHAPTER 850 (a) Local experience.
PHYSICAL STANDARDS (b) Accessibility of site.
(c) Construction conditions.
Topic 851 - General (4) Economy. Comparative cost should be weighed
on a long-term basis considering the factors
Index 851.1 - Introduction given under Index 801.5.
This section deals with the selection of drainage
facility material size and type(s). Topic 852 - Design Service Life
851.2 Selection of Material and Type
852.1 Basic Concepts
The choice of drainage facility material size and
The prediction of design service life of drainage
type is based on the following factors:
facilities is difficult because of the large number of
(1) Physical and Structural Factors. Of the many variables, continuing changes in materials, wide
physical and structural considerations, some of range of environments, and use of various protective
the most important are: coatings. The design service life of a drainage
(a) Durability. facility is defined as the expected maintenance free
service life of each installation.
(b) Headroom.
(c) Earth Loads. For all metal pipes and arches that are listed in
Table 853.1A, maintenance free service life, with
(d) Bedding Conditions. respect to corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is
(e) Conduit Rigidity. the number of years from installation until the
(f) Impact. deterioration reaches the point of perforation at any
(g) Watertightness. location on the culvert (See Figure 854.3B).
(2) Hydraulic Factors. Hydraulic considerations For reinforced concrete pipe (RCP), box (RCB) and
involve: arch (RCA) culverts, maintenance free service life,
with respect to corrosion, abrasion and/or durability,
(a) Design Discharge. is the number of years from installation until the
(b) Shape, slope and cross sectional area of deterioration reaches the point of exposed
channel. reinforcement at any point on the culvert.
(c) Velocity of approach. For non-reinforced concrete pipe culverts (NRCP),
(d) Outlet velocity. maintenance free service life, with respect to
(e) Total available head. corrosion, abrasion and/or durability, is the number
of years from installation until the deterioration
(f) Bedload.
reaches the point of perforation or major cracking
(g) Inlet and outlet conditions. with soil loss at any point on the culvert.
(h) Slope.
For plastic pipe, maintenance free service life, with
(i) Smoothness of conduit. respect to corrosion, abrasion, and long term
(j) Length. structural performance, is the number of years from
Suggested values for Manning's Roughness installation until the deterioration reaches the point
coefficient (n) for design purposes are given in of perforation at any location on the culvert or until
Table 851.2 for each type of conduit. See Index the pipe material has lost structural load carrying
864.3 for use of Manning's formula. capacity.
May 1, 2001
Table 851.2
Manning N-Value for Alternative

Pipe Materials(1)
Type of Recommended N-Value

Conduit Design Value Range
Corrugated Metal Pipe (2)
(3)
(Annular and Helical)
68 mm x 13 mm corrugation 0.025 0.022 - 0.027
76 mm x 25 mm " 0.028 0.027 - 0.028
125 mm x 25 mm " 0.026 0.025 - 0.026
152 mm x 51 mm " 0.035 0.033 - 0.035
229 mm x 64 mm " 0.035 0.033 - 0.037
Concrete Pipe
Pre-cast 0.012 0.011 - 0.017
Cast-in-place 0.013 0.012 - 0.017
Concrete Box 0.013 0.012 - 0.018
Plastic Pipe
Smooth Interior 0.012 0.010 - 0.013
Corrugated Interior 0.022 0.020 - 0.025
Spiral Rib Metal Pipe
19 mm (W) x 25 mm (D) @ 292 mm o/c 0.013 0.011 - 0.015
19 mm (W) x 19 mm (D) @ 191 mm o/c 0.013 0.012 - 0.015
19 mm (W) x 25 mm (D) @ 213 mm o/c 0.013 0.012 - 0.015
Composite Steel Spiral Rib Pipe 0.012 0.011 - 0.015
Steel Pipe, Ungalvanized 0.015 --
Cast Iron Pipe 0.015 --
Clay Sewer Pipe 0.013 --
(1) Tabulated n-values apply to circular pipes flowing full. For noncircular or partially full conduits the tabulated values may be
modified as shown in Appendix B of HDS No. 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts.
(2) For lined corrugated metal pipe, a composite roughness coefficient may be computed using the procedures outlined in the HDS
No. 5, Hydraulic Design of Highway Culverts.
(3) Lower n-values may be possible for helical pipe under specific flow conditions (refer to FHWA's publication Hydraulic Flow
Resistance Factors for Corrugated Metal Conduits), but in general, it is recommended that the tabulated n-value be used for
both annular and helical corrugated pipes.
May 1, 2001
All types of culverts are subject to deterioration In case of conflict in the design service life
from corrosion, or abrasion, or material degradation. requirements between the above controls, the
Corrosion may result from active elements in the highest design service life is required except for
soil, water and/or atmosphere. Abrasion is a result those cases of interim alignment with more than 3 m
of mechanical wear and depends upon the of cover. For temporary construction, a lesser
frequency, duration and velocity of flow, and the design service life than that shown above is
amount and character of bedload. Material acceptable.
degradation may result from material quality, UV
Where the above indicates a minimum design
exposure, or long term material structural
service life of 25 years, 50 years may be used. For
performance.
example an anticipated change in traffic conditions
To assure that the maintenance free service life is or when the highway is considered to be on
achieved, alternative metal pipe may require added permanent alignment may warrant the higher design
thickness and/or protective coatings. Concrete pipe service life.
may require extra thickness of concrete cover over
the steel reinforcement, high density concrete, using
mineral admixtures, epoxy coated reinforcing steel,
Topic 853 - Alternate Materials
and/or protective coatings. Means for estimating the
maintenance free service life of pipe, and techniques 853.1 Basic Policy
for extending the useful life of pipe materials are When two or more materials meet the design service
discussed in more detail in Topic 854. life, and structural and hydraulic requirements, the
The design service life for drainage facilities for all plans and specifications must provide for alternative
projects should be as follows: pipes, pipe arches, overside drains, and underdrains
to allow for optional selection by the contractor.
(1) Culverts, Drainage Systems, and Side Drains.
(1) Allowable Alternatives. A table of allowable
(a) Roadbed widths greater than 8.4 m - 50 alternative materials for culverts, drainage
years. systems, overside drains, and subsurface drains
(b) Greater than 3 m of cover - 50 years. is included as Table 853.1A. This table also
identifies the various joint types described in
(c) Roadbed widths 8.4 m or less and with less Index 853.1(2) that should be used for the
than 3 m of cover - 25 years. different types of installations.
(d) Installations under interim alignment - 25 (2) Joint Requirements. The Standard
years. Specifications set forth general performance
(2) Overside Drains. requirements for transverse field joints in all
types of culvert and drainage pipe used for
(a) Buried more than one meter - 50 years.
highway construction, such as corrugated metal
(b) All other conditions, such as on the surface pipe, and reinforced and plain concrete pipe.
of fill slopes - 25 years.
Table 853.1A indicates the alternative types of
(3) Subsurface Drains. joints that are available for different arch and pipe
installations. The two joint types specified for
(a) Underdrains within roadbed - 50 years.
culvert and drainage systems are identified as
(b) Underdrains outside of roadbed - 25 years. "standard" and "positive".
(c) Stabilization trench drains - 50 years.
May 1, 2001
Table 853.1A
Allowable Alternative Materials
Type of Service Joint Type

Installation Life Allowable Alternatives
Standard Positive Downdrain
(yrs)1
Culverts & Drainage 50 ASSRP, ASRP, CAP, CASP, CSSRP, X X --
Systems CIPCP, CSP, NRCP, SAPP, SSPP, SSRP,
RCP, RCB, PPC
Overside Drains 50 CAP, CASP, CSP, PPC -- -- X

Underdrains 50 PAP, PSP, PPET, PPVCP X -- --
Arches (Culverts & 50 ACSPA, CAPA, CSPA, RCA, SAPPA, X X --

Drainage Systems) SSPPA, SSPA
LEGEND
ACSP - Aluminized Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch PPVCP - Perforated Polyvinyl Chloride Pipe
A
ASSRP - Aluminized Steel Spiral Rib Pipe PSP - Perforated Steel Pipe
ASRP - Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe RCA - Reinforced Concrete Arch
CAP - Corrugated Aluminum Pipe RCB - Reinforced Concrete Box
CAPA - Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arch RCP - Reinforced Concrete Pipe
CSSRP - Composite Steel Spiral Rib Pipe SAPP - Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe
CASP - Corrugated Aluminized Steel Pipe, Type 2 SAPPA - Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arch
CIPCP - Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe SSPA - Structural Steel Plate Arch
CSP - Corrugated Steel Pipe SSPP - Structural Steel Plate Pipe
CSPA - Corrugated Steel Pipe Arch SSPPA - Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arch
NRCP - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pipe SSRP - Steel Spiral Rib Pipe
PAP - Perforated Aluminum Pipe X - Permissible Joint Type for the Type
PPC - Plastic Pipe Culvert of installation Indicated
PPET - Perforated Polyethylene Tubing
NOTE:
1. The design service life indicated for the various types of installations listed in the table may be reduced to 25
years in certain situations. Refer to Index 852.1 for a discussion of service life requirements.
May 1, 2001
The type of joint required for a particular • Joint Overlap.

installation is to be designated on the culvert list.
Integral Preformed Joint. The Joint
(a) Standard Joints. The "standard" joint is overlap is the amount of protection of one
usually for pipes or arches not subject to culvert barrel into the adjacent culvert
large soil movement or disjointing forces. barrel by the amount specified for the size
These "standard" joints are satisfactory for of pipe designated.
ordinarily installations, where tongue and
Any part of an installed joint that has less
groove or simple slip type joints are
than 6 mm overlap will be considered
typically used. The "standard" joint type is
disjointed. Whenever the plans require
generally adequate for underdrains.
that the culvert be constructed on a curve,
(b) Positive Joints. "Positive" joints are for specially manufactured sections of culvert
more adverse conditions such as the need to will be required if the design joint cannot
withstand soil movements or resist meet the minimum 6 mm overlap
disjointing forces. Examples of these requirement after the culvert section is
conditions are steep slopes, sharp curves, placed on the specified curve.
and poor foundation conditions. (See Index
Sleeve Joints. The joint overlap is the
829.2 for additional discussion.) "Positive"
minimum sleeve width required to engage
joints should always be designated on the
both the culvert barrels which are abutted
culvert list for siphon installations.
to each other.
(c) Downdrain Joints. Pipe "downdrain" joints
(3) Joint Performance. The ability of a pipe joint to
are designed to withstand high velocity
prevent the passage of either soil particles or
flows, and to prevent leaking and
water defines its soiltightness or watertightness.
disjointing that could cause failure.
These terms are relative and do not mean that a
(d) Joint Properties. A description of the joint will be able to completely stop the
specified joint properties tabulated on page movement of soil or water under all conditions.
453 in Section 61 “Culvert and Drain Pipe Any pipe joint that allows significant soil
Joints” of the Standard Specifications is as migration (piping) will ultimately cause damage
follows: to the embankment, the roadway, or the pipe
itself. Therefore, site conditions, such as soil
• Shear Strength. The shear strength
particle size, presence of groundwater, potential
required of the joint is expressed as a
for pressure flow, etc., must be evaluated to
percentage of the calculated shear
determine the appropriate joint requirement.
strength of the pipe at a transverse
Other than solvent or fusion welded joints,
section remote from the joint. All
almost all joints can exhibit some amount of
joints, including any conections must be
leakage. Joint performance is typically defined
capable of transferring the required
by maximum allowable opening size in the joint
shear across the joint.
itself or by the ability to pass a standardized
• Moment Strength. The moment pressure test. The following criteria should be
strength required of the joint is used, with the allowable joint type(s) indicated
expressed as a percent of the calculated on the project plans:
moment capacity of the pipe on a
• Normal Joint. Many pipe joint systems
transverse section remote from the joint.
are not defined as either soiltight or
• Tensile Strength. The tensile strength is watertight. However, for the majority of
that which resist the longitudinal force applications, such as culverts or storm
which tends to separate (disjoint) drains placed in well graded backfill and
adjacent pipe sections. surrounding soils containing a minimum
of fines; no potential for groundwater
May 1, 2001
contact; limited internal pressure,

CMP and SSRP -Annular w/gasket
hydraulic grade line below the pavement
-Hat w/gasket
grade, etc., this type of joint is acceptable.
-Helical w/gasket
All currently accepted joint types will
-Hugger w/gasket
meet or exceed “Normal Joint”
-2-piece Int. Fl. w/gasket
requirements. The following non-
-Universal w/gasket
gasketed joint types should not be used
beyond the “Normal Joint” criteria range: CSSRP -Cuffed end w/gasket
CMP -Annular PLASTIC -Split Coupler w/gasket
-Hat (premium)
-Helical -Bell/Spigot w/gasket
-Hugger * Where substantial differential settlement is
-2-piece Integral Flange anticipated, would only meet Normal Joint
-Universal criteria.
PLASTIC -Split Coupler Where soil migration is of concern, but
-Bell/Spigot leakage rate is not, a soiltight joint can
be achieved in most situations by
• Soiltight Joint. This category includes external wrapping of the joint area with
those joints which would provide an filter fabric (see Index 831.4). Joints
enhanced level of security against listed under both the normal joint and
leakage and soil migration over the soiltight joint categories, with a filter
normal joint. One definition of a soiltight fabric wrap, would be suitable in these
joint is contained in Section 26.4.2.4(e) of conditions and would not require a
the AASHTO Standard Specifications for gasket or sealant. In many cases, fabric
Highway Bridges. In part, this wrapping can be less expensive than a
specification requires that if the size of the rubber gasket or other joint sealant.
opening through which soil might migrate Coordination with the District Materials
exceeds 3 mm, the length of the channel Unit is advised to verify that standard
(length of path along which the soil filter fabric described in Standard
particle must travel, i.e., the coupling Specification Section 88-1.03 is of
length) must exceed 4 times the size of sufficient strength to withstand forces
the opening. Alternatively, AASHTO applied during construction (heavier
allows the joint to pass a hydrostatic test fabric may be specified) and that fabric
(subjected to approx. 1.4 m of head) will effectively screen fine soil particles
without leaking to be considered soiltight. from passage.
Typical pipe joints that can meet this
criteria are: • Watertight Joint. Watertight joints are
specified when the potential for soil
erosion or infiltration/exfiltration must
be restricted, such as for downdrains,
RCP and NRCP -Flared Bell culverts in groundwater zones, etc.
-Flush Bell Watertight joint requirements are
-Steel Joint-Flush Bell typically met by the use of rubber gasket
-Flared Bell (Type R-3) materials as indicated in the Standard
-Double Gasket Specifications. The watertight
-Tounge and Groove* certification test described in Standard
-Self Centering T & G* Specification Section 61 requires that no
leakage occur when a joint is tested for a
May 1, 2001
period of 10 minutes while subjected to a RCP and NRCP − Flared Bell

head of 3 m over the crown of the pipe. − Flush Bell
This is a test that is typically performed − Steel Joint-Flush Bell
in a laboratory under optimal conditions − Flared Bell (Type R-3)
not typical of those found in the field. − Double Gasket
Where an assurance of watertightness is
needed, a field test should be specified. CMP and SSRP − Hugger Bands (H-267,
Designers should be aware that field 305) w/gasket and double
tests can be relatively expensive, and bolt bar
should only be required if such assurance − Annular Band w/gasket
is critical. A field leakage rate in the − Two Piece Integral
range of 70-100 1/ mm of nominal Flange w/sleeve-type
diameter / km of pipe length / day, with a gasket*
hydrostatic head of 2 m above the crown
of the pipe, is not unusual for joints that PLASTIC − Bell/Spigot w/gasket
pass the watertight certification test, and
is sufficiently watertight for well graded,
quality backfill conditions. Where *Acceptable as a watertight pipe only in downdrain
conditions are more sensitive, a lower applications and in 150, 200 and 250 mm diameters.
rate should be specified. Rates below 5 - Factory applied sleeve-type gaskets are to be used
10 1/mm / km / day are difficult to instead of O-ring or other sealants.
achieve and would rarely be necessary.
For example, sanitary sewers are rarely
required to have leakage rates below 20
1 / mm / km / day, even though they Table 853.1C provides information to
have stringent health and environmental help the designer select the proper joint
restrictions. Field hydrostatic tests are under most conditions.
typically conducted over a period of 24
hours or more to establish a valid (4) Design Service Life. Each pipe type selected as
leakage rate. Designers should also be an alternative must have the appropriate
aware that non-circular pipe shapes protection as outlined in Topic 854 to assure
(CMP pipe arches, RCP oval shapes, that it will meet the design service life
etc.) should not be considered watertight requirements specified in Topic 852. The
even with the use of rubber gaskets or maximum height of cover must be in
other sealants due to the lack of uniform accordance with the tables included in Topic
compression around the periphery of the 854.
joint. Additionally, watertight joints (5) Selection of a Specific Material Type. In the
specified for pressure pipe or siphon cases listed below, the selection of a specific
applications must meet the requirements culvert material must be supported by a
indicated in Standard Specification complete analysis based on the foregoing
Sections 65 and 66. Pipe joints that meet factors. All pertinent documentation should be
Standard Specification Section 61 water- placed on file in the District.
tightness performance criteria are:
May 1, 2001
• Where satisfactory performance for a life further identified by different types, for example,
expectancy of 25 or 50 years, as defined 450 mm alternative pipe culvert (Type A), 450 mm
under design service life, cannot be alternative pipe culvert (Type B), etc. No attempt to
obtained with certain materials by reason of correlate type designation between projects is
highly corrosive conditions, severe abrasive necessary. The first alternative combination for
conditions, or critical structural and each culvert size on each project should be
construction requirements. designated as Type A, second as Type B, etc.
Since the available nominal sizes for pipe arches
• For individual drainage systems such as vary slightly between pipe arch materials, it is
roadway drainage systems or culverts which recommended that the listed alternative pipe arch
operate under hydrostatic pressure or sizes conform to those sizes shown for corrugated
culverts governed by hydraulic steel pipe arches shown on Table 854.3E. The
considerations and which would require designer should verify the availability of reinforced
separate design for each culvert type. concrete pipe arches. If reinforced concrete pipe
arches are not available, oval shaped reinforced
• When alterations or extensions of existing concrete pipe of a size necessary to meet the
systems are required, the culvert type may hydraulic requirements may be used as an
be selected to match the type used in the alternative.
existing system.
853.2 Alternative Selection Topic 854 - Kinds of Pipe Culverts

Each alternative material selected for a drainage 854.1 Reinforced Concrete Pipe
facility must provide the required design service life
based on physical and structural factors, be of (1) Durability. RCP is generally precast prior to
adequate size to satisfy the hydraulic design, and delivery to the project site. The durability of
require the minimum of maintenance and reinforced concrete pipe can be affected by
construction cost for each site condition. acids, chlorides and sulfate in the soil and water.
Table 854.1A indicates the limitation on the use
853.3 Alternative Pipe Culvert and Pipe of concrete by acidity of soil and water. Table
Arch Culvert List 854.1A is also a guide for designating
cementitious material restrictions and water
Table 853.3 shows a method of designating the type content restrictions for various ranges of sulfate
of material, size, class, thickness, protection, etc., concentrations in soil and water. Unfortunately,
for each type of allowable material. A similar table the CULVERT 4 computer program should not
should be included in the plans adjacent to the be used to estimate service life for concrete
drainage list when alternative materials are allowed. culverts because the current version has not
Because of the difference in roughness coefficients been updated to include the most recent
between various materials, it may be necessary to recommendations of the corrosion unit.
specify a different size for each allowable material However, as discussed in Topic 854.3,
at any one location. In this event, it is CULVERT 4 can still be used to estimate
recommended that the material with the smallest service life of corrugated metal pipe. In
dimension be listed as the alternative size. Refer to addition to the protective measures noted above,
Drafting and Plans Manual for standard format to be the following measures increase the durability
used. of reinforced concrete culverts.
There may be situations where there is a different
set of alternatives for the same nominal size of
alternative drainage facilities. In this case the
different sets of the same nominal size should be
May 1, 2001
Table 853.1C
Joint Selection Criteria
JOINT TYPE ⇒ “NORMAL” “SOILTIGHT” “WATERTIGHT”

JOINT JOINT JOINT
⇓ SITE CONDITIONS
SOIL FACTORS
Limited potential for soil migration (e.g., X X X

gravel, medium to coarse sands, cohesive soil)
Moderate potential for soil migration (e.g., X

(1)
X X
fine sands, silts)
High potential for soil migration (e.g., very (1) (1)

fine sands, silts of limited cohesion) X X
INFILTRATION / EXFILTRATION
No concern over either infiltration or

exfiltration. X X X
Infiltration or exfiltration not permitted (e.g.,
potential to contaminate groundwater, (2)
X
contaminated plume could infiltrate)
HYDROSTATIC POTENTIAL
Installation will rarely flow full. No contact X X X

with groundwater.
Installation will occasionally flow full.

X X
Internal head no more than 3 m over crown.
No potential groundwater contact.
Installation may or may not flow full. Internal

head no more than 3 m over crown. May X
contact groundwater.
Possible hydrostatic head (internal or

(2)
external) greater than 3 m, but less than 7.5 X
(3)
m .
“X” indicates that joint type is acceptable in this application. The designer should specify the most cost-effective option.
1
Designer should specify filter fabric wrap at joint. See Index 831.4.
2
Designer should consider specifying field watertightness test.
3
Pipe subjected to hydrostatic heads greater than 7.5 m should have joints designed specifically for pressure applications.
May 1, 2001
Table 853.3
Example Listing of Alternative Pipe
Culverts and Pipe Arch Culverts
ALLOWABLE PIPE MATERIAL AND PROTECTION
RCP(1) CSP CAP CSSRP RCB PLASTIC
Designation Size Size Thick. Bitum. Bitum. Size Thick. Bitum. Bitum. Size Thick. Span x Max. Corrug. Smooth
3 3,4
(mm) (mm) (mm) Coating Coat (mm) (mm) Coating Coat (mm) (mm) Ht. Cover Inter. Inter.
Pav'd Pav'd (m) (m) (mm) (mm)
Inv. In.
450 mm Alt. Pipe 450 450 1.63 No No 450 1.52 No No -- -- -- -- 450 450
(Type A)
450 mm Alt. Pipe 450 600 1.63 Yes No 600 1.52 No No -- -- -- -- 600 450
(Type B)
600 mm Alt. Pipe 600 600 1.63 Yes Yes 600 1.52 No No -- -- -- -- 600 600
(Type A)
600 mm Alt. Pipe 600 750 2.01 No No -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 600

(Type B)
600 mm Alt. Pipe -- 600 2.01 No No 600 3.43 No No -- -- -- -- -- --

(Type C)
900 mm Alt. Pipe 900 1050 1.63 Yes Yes 1050 3.43 No No 900 1.63 -- -- -- --
(Type A)
900 mm Alt. Pipe 900 900 2.01 Yes No 900 2.67 No No 900 1.63 -- -- -- 900
(Type B)
1200 mm Alt. Pipe 1200 1200 1.63 Yes Yes 1200 2.67 No No 1200 1.63 -- -- -- 1200
(Type A)
1200 mm Alt. Pipe 1200 1350 2.01 No No 1350 3.43 No No 1200 1.63 -- -- -- --
(Type B)
1225 mm x 825 mm -- 1225 2.01 Yes No 1225 x 2.67 No No 1225x 2.01 -- -- -- --

Alt. Pipe Arch x 825 825 825
1500 mm Alt. Pipe 1500 1650 2.01 No No 1650 2.67 No No 1500 2.01 -- -- -- --
1950 mm Alt. Pipe 1950 125 x 25 2.77 No No 1950 3.43 No No 1950 2.77 -- -- -- --
(Type A) 1950
1950 mm Alt. Pipe 1950 75 x 25 2.01 Yes Yes -- -- -- -- 1950 2.77 1.8 x 6 -- --
(Type B) 1950 1.8
NOTES:
(1) See Standard Plan A62D for RCP strength classification and method of backfill.
(2) Coupler Type must be shown on Culvert List. (S=Standard, P=Positive, D=Downdrain)
(3) See Standard Specifications Section 64-1.03 for available and allowable plastic pipe sizes.
(4) Smooth interior plastic pipe may be either Type S or Type D HDPE; Ribbed HDPE; or Ribbed PVC pipe at the contractors option. See
Section 64 of the Standard Specifications.
May 1, 2001
(a) Cover Over Reinforcing Steel. Additional • Subexcavation and backfill as required
cover over the reinforcing steel should be by the Standard Specifications where
specified where abrasion is likely to be so unyielding foundation material is
severe as to appreciably shorten the design encountered.
service life of a concrete culvert. This extra
(c) Special Designs.
cover is also warranted under exposure to
corrosive environments (see Table 854.1B). • If the height of overfill exceeds the
Extra cover over the reinforcing steel does tabular values on Standard Plan A62D
not necessarily require extra wall thickness, and A62DA a special design is
as it may be possible to provide the required; see Index 829.2.
additional cover and still obtain the
• Where severe abrasion or wear from
specified D-load with standard wall
high velocity is anticipated, at least 50
thicknesses.
mm of cover over the reinforcing steel
(2) Strength Requirements. must be specified by special provision.
(a) Design Standards. The strength of Specifying thick wall pipe will not
reinforced concrete pipe is determined by assure 50 mm of cover over reinforcing
the load to produce a 0.3 mm crack under steel. Concrete is generally more
the 3-edge bearing test called for in resistant to abrasion from sand bedloads
AASHTO Designations M 170M, M 207M, and more susceptible to abrasion from
and M 206M for circular reinforced pipe, rock bedloads. For additional
oval shaped reinforced pipe, and reinforced assistance, contact District Hydraulics
concrete pipe arches, respectively. or the Office of State Highway
Drainage Design.
(b) Height of Fill. See Standard Plan A62D
and A62DA for the maximum height of • In corrosive environments, considera-
overfill for reinforced concrete pipe, up to tion must be given to the requirements
and including 2700 mm diameters (or of Index 854.1(1).
reinforced oval pipe and reinforced concrete (3) Shapes. Reinforced concrete culverts are
pipe arch with equivalent cross-sectional available in circular and oval shapes.
area), using the backfill method specified in Reinforced concrete pipe arch (RCPA) shapes
Standard Specification Section 19-3.06, have been discontinued by West Coast
Structure Backfill. manufacturers.
The designer should be aware of the In general, the circular shaped is the most
premises on which the tables on Standard economical for the same cross-sectional area.
Plan A62D and A62DA are computed as Oval shapes are appropriate for areas with
well as their limitations. The fill heights limited head or overfill or where these shapes
presupposes: are more appropriate for site conditions. A
• That the bedding and backfill satisfy the convenient reference to commercially available
terms of the Standard Specifications, products and shapes is the AASHTO
the conditions of cover and pipe size publication, "A Guide to Standardized Highway
required by the plans, and take into Drainage Products".
account the essentials of Index 829.2. (4) Invert Protection. Invert protection should be
• That a small amount of settlement will considered for culverts exposed to excessive
occur under the culvert equal in wear from abrasive flows or corrosive water.
magnitude to that of the adjoining Continued maintenance can be expected if the
material outside the trench. culvert is not adequately designed for severe
abrasion or corrosion. When severe abrasion or
corrosion is anticipated, special designs should
May 1, 2001
be investigated and considered. Higher initial (b) Cover between top of pipe and ground
costs can probably be justified on the basis it surface should be at least 0.75 m, or 0.6 m
would be more economical than later repair or below the grading plane. In expansive soils,
replacement costs. Typical invert protection cover should be a minimum of one meter.
includes increased wall thickness, invert paving Some special treatment may be needed in
with portland cement concrete with wire mesh expansive soil, depending on moisture
reinforcement, and invert lining with metal content.
plate, channel iron, or rails. Invert linings
(c) Cast-in-place concrete pipe may be used
should cover the lower fourth of the periphery
only if static head is intermittent and less
of circular pipes, and the lower third of pipe
than 3.5 m above center of pipe, and some
arches.
leakage is acceptable.
(5) Non-Reinforced Concrete Pipe Option. Non-
(d) Installation under any State Highway
reinforced concrete pipe may be substituted at
Roadbed is only permissible with FHWA
the contractors option for reinforced concrete
and/or headquarters and the Division of
pipe for all sizes 900 mm in diameter and
Structures approval. Installations outside
smaller as long as it conforms to Section 65 of
the roadbed are permissible, but the
the Standard Specifications. Non-Reinforced
possibility of future widenings should be
concrete pipe is not affected by chlorides or
considered prior to finalizing the culvert
stray currents and may be used in lieu of RCP in
location.
these environments without coating or the need
to provide extra cover over reinforcement. (e) A guide to cementitious material restrictions
and water content restrictions to be used
(6) Direct Design Method - RCP. (Contact
with various ranges of sulfated
Division of Structures)
concentrations in the soil and water are
shown in Table 854.1A. See Table 854.1A
854.2 Cast-in-Place Non-reinforced Concrete for limitations of use due to soil and water
Pipe acidity. Also, Topic 854.1(4) provides
additional guidance for abrasion and invert
(1) Design Criteria. protection.
(a) Use of cast-in-place concrete pipe should (2) Height of Fill. The maximum allowable height
not be considered when an unstable trench of cover for cast-in-place concrete pipe is given
condition occurs; for example, it should not in Table 854.2. The designer should review
be installed under the following conditions. Standard Plan A62-D for additional installation
criteria.
• Sandy and cohesionless soil.
• Shallow location in expansive soil 854.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe, Steel Spiral Rib
where the volume change would crack Pipe and Pipe Arches
pipe. (1) Hydraulics. Corrugated steel pipe comes in
• Areas where ground is subject to various corrugated profiles. Annular and helical
freezing to considerable depths for corrugated steel pipe configurations are
lengthy periods. applicable in the situations where velocity
• Marshy, tidal areas and other areas of reduction is important or if a culvert is being
subsidence or differential settlement. designed with an inlet control condition. Spiral
rib pipe, on the other hand, may be more
• Locations near geologic faults or where
appropriate for use in stormdrain situations or if
potential for liquefaction exists.
a culvert is being designed with an outlet
control condition.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.1A
Guide for the Protection of Reinforced and Unreinforced
(a,b)
Concrete Against Acid and Sulfate Exposure Conditions
Soil or Sulfate Concentration Cementitious Material Water Content Restrictions

Water pH of Soil or Water (ppm) Restrictions
7.1 to 14 0 to 1,500 No Restrictions No Restrictions
5.6 to 7.0 Greater Than 1,500 No Restrictions Maximum water-to-

to 2,000 cementitious material ratio
of 0.45
(d)
3 to 5.5 Greater Than 2,000 400 kg/m3 minimum: Maximum water-to-
(d)
to 15,000 75% Type II Mod. or Type V cementitious material ratio
(c) of 0.40
25% mineral admixture
NOTE:
(a) Recommendations shown in the table for the cementitious material restrictions and water content restrictions
should be used if the pH and/or the sulfate conditions in Column 1 and/or Column 2 exists. Sulfate testing is not
required if the minimum resistivity is greater than 1,000 ohm-cm.
(b) The table lists soil/water pH and sulfate concentration in increasing level of severity starting from the top of the
table. If the soil/water pH and the sulfate concentration are at different levels of severity, the recommendation
for the more severe level will apply. For example, a soil with a pH of 4.0, but with a sulfate concentration of
only 1,600 ppm would require a minimum of 400 kg/m3 of cementitious material. The cementitious material
would consist of 75% by mass Type II Modified or Type V cement plus 25% by mass mineral admixture. The
maximum water-to-cementitious material ratio would be 0.40.
(c) Mineral admixtures shall conform to ASTM Designation: C618 and Section 90-4.02 of Caltrans Standard
Specifications.
(d) Additional mitigation measures will be needed for conditions where the pH is less than 3 and/or the sulfate
concentration exceeds 15,000 ppm. Mitigation measures may include additional concrete cover and/or
protective coatings. For additional assistance, contact the Corrosion Technology Branch or the Office of Rigid
Pavement Materials and Structural Concrete of the Division of Materials Engineering and Testing Services
(METS) at 5900 Folsom Boulevard Sacramento, CA. 95819.
May 1, 2001
The following measures are commonly used to

Table 854.2 prolong the maintenance free service life of
Cast-in-Place Concrete Pipe steel culverts:
Fill Height Table (a) Galvanizing. Under most conditions plain
galvanizing of steel pipe is all that is
needed; however, the presence of corrosive
Concrete Strength or abrasive elements may require additional
(MPa) protection.
• Protective Coatings - The necessity for
24.0 27.5 31.0 34.5 any coating should be determined
considering hydraulic conditions, local
Diameter. Maximum Fill Height
experience, possible environmental
(mm) (m)
impacts, and long-term economy.
Approved protective coatings are
750 4.0 4.0 4.3 4.6
bituminous asphalt, which is hot-dipped
900 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.6 to cover the entire inside and outside of
1050 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 the pipe; asphalt mastic and polymeric
sheet, which can be applied to the inside
1200 4.0 4.3 4.6 4.9 and/or outside of the pipe; and
1350 4.0 4.3 4.6 4.9 polymerized asphalt, which is hot-
dipped to cover the bottom 90° of the
1500 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.6 inside and outside of the pipe. All of
1650 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.6 these protective coatings are typically
shop-applied prior to delivery to the
1800 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 construction site. A polymeric sheet
1950 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 coating provides much improved
corrosion resistance over bituminous
2100 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 coatings and can be considered to
typically allow achievement of a 50-
year maintenance free service life
(2) Durability. The anticipated maintenance free without need to increase thickness of
service life of corrugated steel pipe, steel spiral the steel pipe. To ensure that a
rib pipe and pipe arch installations is primarily a damaged coating does not lead to
function of the corrosivity and abrasiveness of premature catastrophic failure, the base
the environment into which the pipe is placed. steel thickness for pipes that are to be
Corrosion potential must be determined from coated with a polymeric sheet must be
the pH and minimum resistivity tests covered in able to provide a minimum 10-year
California Test 643. Abrasive potential must be service life prior to application of the
estimated from bed material that is present and polymeric material. In addition, a
anticipated flow velocities. Refer to Topic bituminous lining or bituminous paving
852.1 for a discussion of maintenance free can be applied over a bituminous
service life. coating primer on the inside of the pipe
Consideration should be given to specifying for extra corrosion or abrasion
alternative designs when it is possible to achieve protection (see Standard Specification
the required design service life by first 66-1.03, paragraphs 4 and 5).
considering protective coatings and if the design Citing Section 5650 of the Fish and
service life has not been achieved, increasing Game Code, the Department of Fish and
the metal thickness. Game (DFG) may restrict the use of
May 1, 2001
bituminous coatings on the interior of • Extra Metal Thickness. Added service

pipes if they are to be placed in streams life can be achieved by adding metal
which flow continuously or for an thickness. However, this should only
extended period (more than 1 to 2 days) be considered after protective coatings
after a rainfall event. Their concern is and pavings have been considered.
that abraded particles of asphalt could Since 1.3 mm thick steel culverts is the
enter the stream and degrade the fish minimum steel pipe Caltrans allows, it
habitat. Where abrasion is unlikely, must be limited to locations that are
DFG concerns should be minimal. nonabrasive.
DFG has indicated that they have no
Table 854.3A constitutes a guide for
concerns regarding interior application
estimating the added service life that can be
of polymerized asphalt or polymeric
achieved by coatings and invert paving of
sheet coatings, even under abrasive
steel pipes based upon abrasion resistance
conditions.
characteristics. However, the table does not
Where the materials report indicates that quantify added service life of coatings and
soil side corrosion is expected, a paving of steel pipe based upon corrosion
bituminous asphalt coating (i.e., hot- protection. Recently developed coating
dipped) or an exterior application of products, like polymerized asphalt and
polymeric sheet, as provided in the polymeric sheet, can provide superior
Standard Specifications, combined with abrasive resistant qualities (as much as 10
galvanizing of steel, is usually effective in or more times that of bituminous coatings of
forestalling accelerated corrosion on the similar thickness). In heavily abrasive
backfill side of the pipe. Where soil side situations, concrete inverts should be
corrosion is the only concern, exterior considered. The guide values for years of
bituminous asphalt protection (i.e., hot- added service life should be modified where
dipped) may provide up to 25 years and a field observations of existing installations
polymeric sheet coating may provide up to show that other values are more accurate.
50 years of additional service life. For The designer should be aware of the
locations where water side corrosion following limitations when using Table
and/or abrasion is of concern, protective 854.3A:
coatings, or protective coatings with
• Channel Materials: If there is no
pavings, or protective coatings with
existing culvert, it may be assumed that
linings, in combination with galvanizing
the channel is potentially abrasive to
will add to the culvert service life to a
culvert if sand and/or rocks are present.
variable degree, depending upon site
Presence of silt, clay or heavy
conditions and type of coating selected. In
vegetation may indicate a non-abrasive
addition, composite steel spiral ribbed pipe
flow.
which is a steel spiral ribbed pipe
externally precoated with a polymeric • Flow velocities: For continuous and
sheet, and internally polyethylene lined, substantial flow, the years of invert
may also provide additional service life. If protection can be expected to be one-
hydraulic conditions at the culvert site half of that shown. For the more typical
require a lining on the inside of the pipe or intermittent flow, the velocities
a coating different than that indicated in indicated in the table should be
the Standard Specifications, then the compared to those generated by the 2-5
different requirements must be described in year return frequency flood.
the Special Provisions.
May 1, 2001
(b) Aluminized Steel (Type 2). Evaluations of Figure 854.3C, "Chart for Estimating Years to
aluminized steel (type 2) pipe in place for Perforation of Steel Culverts," is part of a
over 40 years have provided data that Standard California Department of
substantiate a design service life with Transportation Test Method derived from
respect to corrosion resistance equivalent to highway culvert investigations. This chart
aluminum pipe. Therefore, for pH values alone is not used for determining service life
between 5.5 and 8.5, and minimum because it does not consider the effects of
resistivity values in excess of 1500 ohm-cm, abrasion or overfill; it is for estimating the years
1.6 mm aluminized steel (type 2) is to the first corrosion perforation of the wall or
considered to provide a 50 year design invert of the CSP.
service life. Where abrasion is of concern,
(3) Strength Requirements. The strength
aluminized steel (type 2) is considered to be
requirements for corrugated steel pipes and pipe
roughly equivalent to galvanized steel.
arches, fabricated under acceptable methods
Bituminous coatings are not recommended
contained in the Standard Specifications, are
for corrosion protection, but may be used in
given in Tables 854.3B, C, D, & E. For steel
accordance with Table 854.3A for abrasion
spiral rib pipe see Tables 854.3F, G & H.
resistance. For pH ranges outside the 5.5
and 8.5 limits or minimum resistivity values (a) Design Standards.
below 1500 ohm-cm, aluminized steel (type • Corrugation Profiles - Corrugated steel
2) should not be used. In no case should the pipe and pipe arches are available in
thickness of aluminized steel (type 2) be 68 mm x 13 mm, 76 mm x 25 mm, and
less than the minimum structural 125 mm x 25 mm profiles with helical
requirements for a given diameter of corrugations, and 68 mm x 13 mm
galvanized steel. profiles with annular corrugations.
Figure 854.3B should be used to determine the Corrugated steel spiral rib pipe is avail-
minimum thickness and limitation on the use of able in 19 mm x 19 mm and 19 mm x
corrugated steel and spiral rib pipe for various 25 mm profiles. Corrugated steel spiral
levels of pH and minimum resistivity. For rib pipe is available in a 19 mm x 19 mm
example, given a soil environment with pH and x 190 mm or 19 mm x 25 mm by 292
minimum resistivity levels of 6.5 and 15,000 helical corrugation pattern. For systems
ohm-cm, respectively, the minimum thicknesses requiring large diameter and/or deeper fill
for the various metal pipes are: 1) 2.8 mm capacity a 19 mm x 25 mm by 213 mm
galvanized steel, 2) 1.6 mm aluminized steel helical corrugation pattern is available.
(type 2) and 3) 1.5 mm aluminum. The Composite steel spiral rib pipe is available
minimum thickness of metal pipe obtained from in a 19 mm x 19 mm x 190 mm helical
the figure only satisfies corrosion requirements. ribbed profile.
Overfill requirements for minimum metal • Metal Thickness - Corrugated steel pipe
thickness must also be satisfied. The metal and pipe arches are available in the
thickness of corrugated pipe and steel spiral rib thickness as indicated on Tables 854.3B,
pipe that satisfies both requirements should be C, D & E. Corrugated steel spiral rib pipe
used. is available in the thickness as indicated
on Tables 854.3F, G & H. Where a
The CULVERT4 Computer Program, or
maximum overfill is not listed on these
subsequent upgrades, is also available to help
tables, the pipe or arch size is not
designers estimate service life for various
normally available in that thickness.
corrosive/abrasive conditions. This program
Corrugated steel spiral rib pipe is
can be obtained from the District Materials
available in the thickness as indicated on
Engineer or for purchase from Mctrans (refer to
Tables 854.3F, G & H. Composite steel
Topic 807.4).
May 1, 2001
spiral rib pipe is available in the • Table 854.3E shows the limit of heights
thickness as indicated on Table 854.3H. of cover for corrugated steel pipe
• Height of Fill - The allowable overfill arches based on the supporting soil
heights for corrugated steel and sustaining a bearing pressure varying
corrugated steel spiral rib pipe and pipe between 240 and 405 kN/m2. Table
arches for the various diameters or arch 854.4C shows similar values for
sizes and metal thickness are shown on corrugated aluminum pipe arches.
Tables 854.3B, C, D, & E. For
(d) Special Designs.
corrugated steel spiral rib pipe, overfill
heights are shown on Tables 854.3F, G • If the height of overfill exceeds the
& H. Table 854.3H gives the allowable tabular values, or if the foundation
overfill height for composite steel spiral investigation reveals that the supporting
rib pipe. soil will not develop the bearing
(b) Basic Premise. To properly use the above pressure on which the overfill heights
mentioned tables, the designer should be for pipe arches are based, a special
aware of the premises on which the tables design prepared by the Division of
are based as well as their limitations. The Structures is required.
design tables presuppose: • Non-standard pipe diameters and arch
• That bedding and backfill satisfy the sizes are available. Loading capacity of
terms of the Standard Specifications, special designs needs to be verified with
the conditions of cover, and pipe size the Underground Structures Branch of
required by the plans and the essentials the Division of Structures.
of Index 829.2. (4) Shapes. Corrugated steel pipe, steel spiral rib
• That a small amount of settlement will pipe and pipe arches are available in the
occur under the culvert, equal in diameters and arch shapes as indicated on the
magnitude to that of the adjoining maximum height of cover tables. For larger
material outside the trench. diameters, arch spans or special shapes, see
Index 854.6.
(c) Limitations. In using the tables, the
following restrictions must be kept in mind. (5) Invert Protection. Invert protection should be
• The values given for each size of pipe considered for corrugated steel culverts exposed
constitute the maximum height of to excessive wear from abrasive flows or
overfill or cover over the pipe for the corrosive water. Severe abrasion usually occurs
thickness of metal and kind of when the flow velocity exceeds 4.5 m/s and
corrugation. contains a bedload. When severe abrasion or
corrosion is anticipated, special designs should
• The thickness shown is the structural
be investigated and considered. Typical invert
minimum. Where abrasive conditions
protection includes invert paving with asphalt
are anticipated, additional metal thick-
concrete or portland cement concrete with wire
ness or invert treatments as stated under
mesh reinforcement, and invert lining with
Index 854.3(5) should be provided
metal plate, channel iron, or rails. Invert linings
when required to fulfill the design
should cover the lower fourth of the periphery
service life requirements of Topic 852.
of circular pipes, and the lower third of pipe
• Where needed, adequate provisions for arches. Additional metal thickness will increase
corrosion resistance must be made to service life. Reducing the velocity within the
achieve the required design service life culvert is an effective method of preventing
called for in the references mentioned severe abrasion. Topic 854.3(2) provides
herein. additional guidance on invert protection.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3A
Guide for Anticipated Service

Life Added to Steel Pipe by
Abrasive Resistant Protective Coating
Flow Vel. Channel Bituminous Bituminous Polymerized Polymeric Composite

(m/s) Materials Coating (yrs.) Coating & Asph. (yrs.) Sheet Coating. SSRP
(hot-dipped) Paved Invert (hot-dipped) (yrs.)
(yrs.)
Non- 8 15 * * *
Abrasive
<1.5 Abrasive 6 15 * * *
1.5-4.5 Abrasive 0-6 2-12 10-40 10-40 20-50
>4.5 Abrasive ** ** ** ** **
* Polymeric sheet coating or polymerized asphalt invert coating provides adequate abrasion resistance to
meet or exceed a 50 year design service life.
** None of the listed abrasive resistant protective coatings recommended, contact District Hydraulics
Branch.
May 1, 2001
Figure 854.3B
Minimum Thickness of Metal Pipe
for 50 Year Maintenance Free Service Life (2)
May 1, 2001
Figure 854.3C
Chart for Estimating Years
to Perforation of Steel Culverts
May 1, 2001
(6) Spiral Rib Steel. Galvanized steel spiral rib pipe (b) The minimum resistivity of the soil,
is fabricated using sheet steel and lock seam backfill, and effluent is 1500 ohm-
fabrication as used for helical corrugated metal centimeters or greater.
pipe. The thickness of metal and zinc coating is
(c) Under similar conditions, aluminum
identical to that for corrugated pipe. Spiral rib
culverts will abrade approximately three
pipe has a lower roughness coefficient
times faster than steel culverts. Therefore,
(Manning's "n") than corrugated metal pipe.
aluminum culverts are not recommended
Aluminized steel spiral rib pipe, type 2 where abrasive materials are present, and
(ASSRP) is available in the same sizes as where flow velocities would encourage
galvanized steel spiral rib and will support the abrasion to occur. Culvert flow velocities
same fill heights (the aluminizing is simply a that frequently exceed 1.5 m/s should be
replacement coating for zinc galvanizing that carefully evaluated prior to selecting
allows thinner steel to be placed in certain aluminum as an allowable alternate.
corrosive environments - See Figure 854.3B for
the acceptable pH and resistivity ranges for (d) Aluminum culverts should not be installed
placement of aluminized steel pipes). Tables in an environment where other aluminum
854.3F, G & H give the maximum height of culverts have exhibited significant distress,
overfill for steel spiral rib pipe constructed such as extensive perforation or loss of
under the acceptable methods contained in the invert, for whatever reason, apparent or not.
Standard Specifications and essentials discussed (e) Aluminum may be considered for side
in Index 829.2. drains in environments having the following
parameters:
854.4 Corrugated Aluminum Pipe,
• When pH is between 5.5 and 8.5 and the
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe and Pipe Arches
minimum resistivity is between 500 and
(1) Hydraulics. Corrugated aluminum pipe comes 1500 ohm-cm.
in various corrugated profiles. Annular and
• When pH is between 5.0 and 5.5 or
helical corrugated aluminum pipe configura-
between 8.5 and 9.0 and the minimum
tions are applicable in the situations where
resistivity is greater than 1500 ohm-cm.
velocity reduction is important or if a culvert is
being designed with an inlet control condition. For these conditions, the METS should be
Spiral rib pipe, on the other hand, may be more contacted to confirm the advisability of
appropriate for use in stormdrain situations or if using aluminum on specific projects.
a culvert is being designed with an outlet
(f) Aluminum must not be used as a section or
control condition.
extension of a culvert containing steel
(2) Durability. Aluminum culverts or stormdrains sections.
may be specified as an alternate culvert Figure 854.3B should be used to determine the
material. When a 50-year maintenance free limitations on the use of corrugated aluminum
service life of aluminum pipe is required the pH pipe for various levels of pH and minimum
and minimum resistivity, as determined by resistivity. The minimum thickness (1.5 mm) of
California Test Method 643, must be known and aluminum pipe obtained from the chart only
the following conditions met: satisfies corrosion requirements. Overfill
requirements for minimum metal thickness must
(a) The pH of the soil, backfill, and effluent is
also be satisfied. The metal thickness of
within the range of 5.5 and 8.5, inclusive.
corrugated aluminum pipe should satisfy both
Bituminous coatings are not recommended
requirements.
for corrosion protection or abrasion
resistance.
July 1, 2004
(3) Strength Requirements. The strength For larger diameters, arch spans or special
requirements for corrugated aluminum pipe and shapes, see Index 854.6. Non-standard pipe
pipe arches fabricated under the acceptable diameters and arch sizes are also available.
methods contained in the Standard Specifica-
(5) Invert Protection. Invert protection of
tions, are given in Tables 854.4A, B & C. For
corrugated aluminum is not recommended.
aluminum spiral rib pipe, see Tables 854.4D &
E. (6) Spiral Rib Aluminum. Aluminum spiral rib pipe
is similar to spiral rib steel. Figure 854.3B
(a) Design Standards.
should be used to determine the limitations on
• Corrugation Profiles - Corrugated the use of spiral rib aluminum pipe for the
aluminum pipe and pipe arches are various levels of pH and minimum resistivity.
available in 68 mm x 13 mm and 75 mm Tables 854.4D & E give the maximum overfill
x 25 mm profiles with helical or annular for aluminum spiral rib pipe constructed under
corrugations. Aluminum spiral rib pipe the acceptable methods contained in the
is available in a 19 mm x 19 mm x Standard Specifications and the essentials
190 mm or a 19 mm x 25 mm x 292 mm discussed in Index 829.2.
helical corrugation profile.
854.5 Special Purpose Types
• Metal thickness - Corrugated aluminum
pipe and pipe arches are available in the (1) Smooth Steel. Smooth steel (welded) pipe can
thickness as indicated on Tables 854.4A, be utilized for drainage facilities under
B & C. Where a maximum overfill is not conditions where corrugated metal or concrete
listed on these tables, the pipe or pipe pipe will not meet the structural or design
arch is not normally available in that service life requirements.
thickness. Aluminum spiral rib pipe are (2) Composite Steel Spiral Rib Pipe. Composite
available in the thickness as indicated on steel spiral rib pipe is a smooth interior pipe
Tables 854.4D & E. with efficient hydraulic characteristics. See
• Height of Fill - The allowable overfill Table 851.2.
heights for corrugated aluminum pipe Composite steel spiral rib pipe with its interior
and pipe arches for various diameters polyethylene liner exhibits good abrasion
and metal thickness are shown on Tables resistance and also resists corrosion from
854.4A, B & C. For aluminum spiral rib chemicals found in a typical stormdrain or
pipe, overfill heights are shown on sanitary sewer environment. The exterior of the
Tables 854.4D, & E. pipe is protected with a polyethylene film which
To properly use the above mentioned tables, the offers resistance to corrosive backfills. The
designer should be aware of the basic premises pipe will meet a 50 year maintenance free
on which the tables are based as well as their service life under most conditions.
limitations. (See Index 854.3(2)). (3) Proprietary Pipe. See Indexes 110.10 and
(4) Shapes. Corrugated aluminum pipe, aluminum 601.5(3) for further discussion and guidelines
spiral rib pipe and pipe arches are available in on the use of proprietary items.
the diameters and arch shapes as indicated on 854.6 Structural Metal Plate
the maximum height of cover tables. Helical
corrugated pipe must be specified if anticipated (1) Pipe and Arches. Structural plate pipes and
heights of cover exceed the tabulated values for arches are available in steel and aluminum for
annular corrugated pipe. the diameters and thickness as shown on Tables
854.6A, B, C & D.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3B
Corrugated Steel Pipe
Helical Corrugations
MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF COVER (m)
Diameter Metal Thickness (mm)
(mm)
1.32 1.63 2.01 2.77 3.51 4.27
68 mm x 13 mm Corrugations
300-375 30.0 30.0 -- -- -- --
450 27.0 30.0 -- -- -- --
525 23.5 29.5 30.0 -- -- --
600 20.5 25.5 30.0 -- -- --
750 16.0 20.5 25.5 30.0 -- --
900 13.5 17.0 21.5 30.0 30.0 --

1050 11.5 14.5 18.5 25.5 30.0 --
1200 -- 13.0 16.0 22.5 28.5 30.0
1350 -- -- 14.0 20.0 25.5 30.0
1500 -- -- -- 18.0 23.0 28.0
1650 -- -- -- -- 21.0 25.5

1800 -- -- -- -- 19.0 23.5
1950 -- -- -- -- -- 20.5
2100 -- -- -- -- -- 18.0
1200 -- 14.5 18.5 25.5 33.0 40.5
1350 -- 13.0 16.0 23.0 29.5 36.0
1500 -- 11.5 14.5 20.5 26.5 32.0
1650 -- 10.5 13.5 18.5 24.0 29.5
1800 -- 10.0 12.0 17.0 22.0 27.0
1950 -- 9.0 11.5 16.0 20.5 25.0

2100 -- 8.5 10.5 14.5 19.0 23.0
2250 -- 7.5 10.0 13.5 17.5 21.5
2400 -- -- 9.0 13.0 16.5 20.0
2550 -- -- 8.5 12.0 15.5 19.0

2700 -- -- -- 11.5 14.5 18.0
2850 -- -- -- 10.5 14.0 17.0
3000 -- -- -- 10.0 13.0 16.0
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may be required.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3C

Metal Thickness (mm)
Diameter (mm)
1.63 2.010 2.77 3.51
1200 13.0 16.0 23.0 --
1350 11.5 14.0 20.5 26.0
1500 10.5 13.5 18.5 23.5
1650 9.5 12.5 17.0 21.5
1800 8.5 11.5 15.0 19.5
1950 8.0 10.0 14.0 18.0

2100 7.5 9.0 13.0 17.0
2250 7.0 8.5 12.0 15.5
2400 -- 8.0 11.5 14.5
2550 -- 7.5 10.5 13.5

2700 -- -- 10.0 13.0
2850 -- -- 9.5 12.0
3000 -- -- 9.0 11.5
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocity exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions, thicker metal may be
required.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3D
68 mm x 13 mm Annular Corrugations

Diameter (mm) Metal Thickness (mm)
1.63 2.01 2.77 3.51 4.27
450 16.5 -- -- -- --
525 14.5 -- -- -- --
600 12.5 13.5 -- -- --
750 10.0 10.5 -- -- --
900 8.0 9.0 11.5 -- --
1050 9.0 12.5 19.0 20.5 --

1200 8.0 11.0 16.5 18.5 19.0
1350 -- 10.0 14.5 16.0 17.0
1500 -- -- 13.0 14.5 15.0
1650 -- -- -- 13.0 13.5

1800 -- -- -- 12.0 13.0
1950 -- -- -- -- 11.5
2100 -- -- -- -- 11.0
NOTE:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3E
Corrugated Steel Pipe Arches
Helical or Annular Corrugations

Minimum
Design Corner
Span-Rise Bearing Radius 2.01 2.77 3.51 4.27
(mm) (kN/m2) (mm)
530 x 380 240 75 3.0 -- -- --

610 x 460 265 75 3.0 -- -- --
710 x 510 310 75 3.0 -- -- --
885 x 610 405 75 3.0 -- -- --
1060 x 740 405 90 3.0 -- -- --

1240 x 840 405 100 3.0 -- -- --
1440 x 970 385 125 -- 3.0 -- --
1620 x 1100 360 150 -- 3.0 -- --
1800 x 1200 335 175 -- -- 3.0 --

1950 x 1320 335 200 -- -- -- 3.0
2100 x 1450 310 225 -- -- -- 3.0
NOTES:
(2) Cover limited by corner soil bearing pressure as shown.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3F
Steel Spiral Rib Pipe
19 mm x 25 mm Ribs at 292 mm Pitch

1.63 2.01 2.77
600 12.0 17.0 29.0
750 9.5 13.5 23.0
900 8.0 11.5 19.5
1050 7.0 9.5 16.5
1200 6.0 8.5 14.5
1350 5.5 7.5 12.5
1500 4.5 6.5 11.5
1650 -- 6.0 10.0
1800 -- 5.5 9.5
1950 -- -- 9.0
2100 -- -- 8.0
2250 -- -- 7.5
2400 -- -- 7.0
NOTES:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3G

1.63 2.01 2.77
600 16.5 22.5 38.0
750 13.0 18.0 30.5
900 11.0 15.0 25.0
1050 9.5 13.0 21.5
1200 8.0 11.0 19.0
1350 7.0 10.0 16.5
1500 6.5 9.0 15.0
1650 5.5 8.0 13.5
1800 5.5 7.5 12.5
1950 -- 7.0 11.5
2100 -- 6.5 10.5
2250 -- -- 10.0
2400 -- -- 9.5
2550 -- -- 8.5
2700 -- -- 8.0
2850 -- -- 8.0
NOTES:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.3H

1.63 2.01 2.77
600 16.5 23.5 39.0
750 13.5 19.0 31.5
900 11.0 15.5 26.0
1050 9.5 13.5 22.0
1200 8.0 11.5 19.5
1350 7.0 10.0 17.0
1500 -- 9.5 15.5
1650 -- 8.5 14.0
1800 -- -- 12.5
1950 -- -- 11.5
2100 -- -- 11.0
NOTES:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.4A
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe
Annular Corrugations
Diameter
(mm)
1.52 1.91 2.67 3.43 4.17
300 13.5 13.5 -- -- --
375 10.5 10.5 18.5 -- --
450 9.0 9.0 15.5 -- --
525 7.5 7.5 13.0 -- --
600 6.5 6.5 11.5 12.0 --
750 -- 5.0 9.0 9.5 --

900 -- 4.5 7.5 8.0 --
1050 -- -- 13.5 14.0 --
1200 -- -- 11.5 12.0 12.5
1350 -- -- -- 11.0 11.5
1500 -- -- -- 10.0 10.0
1650 -- -- -- -- 9.0
1800 -- -- -- -- 8.0
750 10.0 12.0 17.0 25.0 --
900 8.0 10.0 13.5 20.5 27.0
1050 7.0 8.5 12.0 18.0 23.0
1200 6.0 7.5 10.5 15.5 20.0
1350 5.5 6.5 9.0 13.5 18.0
1500 5.0 6.0 8.0 12.5 16.0
1650 4.5 5.5 7.5 11.5 14.5
1800 4.0 5.0 6.5 10.5 13.5
1950 -- 4.5 6.5 9.5 12.5

2100 -- -- 6.0 9.0 11.5
2250 -- -- 5.5 8.0 10.5
2400 -- -- 5.0 7.5 10.0
2550 -- -- -- 7.5 9.5

2700 -- -- -- 6.5 9.0
2850 -- -- -- -- 8.0
3000 -- -- -- -- 7.0
NOTE:
(1) Not recommended under abrasive conditions.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.4B
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe
1.52 1.91 2.67 3.43 4.17
300 30.0 30.0 -- -- --
375 30.0 30.0 30.0 -- --
450 24.5 30.0 30.0 -- --
525 21.5 26.5 30.0 -- --
600 18.5 23.0 30.0 30.0 --
750 -- 18.5 26.0 30.0 --

900 -- 15.5 21.5 28.0 --
1050 -- -- 18.5 24.0 --
1200 -- -- 16.0 20.5 25.5
1350 -- -- -- 17.0 21.0

1500 -- -- -- 13.5 17.0
1650 -- -- -- -- 13.5
1800 -- -- -- -- 11.0
750 17.0 21.5 30.0 30.0 --
900 14.0 18.0 25.0 30.0 30.0
1050 12.0 15.0 21.5 28.5 30.0
1200 10.5 13.5 18.5 25.0 29.5
1350 9.5 12.0 16.5 22.5 26.0

1500 8.5 10.5 15.0 20.0 23.5
1650 7.5 10.0 13.5 18.5 21.5
1800 7.0 9.0 12.5 17.0 19.5
1950 -- 8.0 11.5 15.0 18.0

2100 -- -- 10.5 14.5 17.0
2250 -- -- 10.0 13.5 15.5
2400 -- -- 9.0 12.0 14.5
2550 -- -- -- 11.0 13.0

2700 -- -- -- 10.0 12.0
2850 -- -- -- -- 10.5
3000 -- -- -- -- 9.5
NOTE:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.4C
Corrugated Aluminum Pipe Arches
Helical or Annular Corrugations

Minimum
Req'd Corner
Span-Rise Bearing Radius 1.52 1.91 2.67 3.43 4.17
(mm) (kN/m2) (mm)
430 x 330 190 75 3.0 -- -- -- --
530 x 380 240 75 3.0 -- -- -- --
610 x 460 265 75 3.0 -- -- -- --
710 x 510 310 75 3.0 -- -- -- --

885 x 610 385 75 3.0 -- -- --
1060 x 740 405 90 -- 3.0 -- -- --
1240 x 840 405 100 -- -- 3.0 -- --

1440 x 970 385 125 -- -- -- 3.0 --
1620 x 1100 360 150 -- -- -- 3.0 --
1800 x 1200 335 175 -- -- -- -- 3.0
NOTES:
(1) Cover is limited by corner soil bearing pressure as shown.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.4D
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe

1.52 1.91 2.67
600 7.0 10.0 16.5
750 5.5 8.0 13.5
900 5.0 6.5 11.0
1050 -- 5.5 9.5
1200 -- -- 8.0
1350 -- -- 7.0
1500 -- -- 6.5
1650 -- -- --
1800 -- -- --
NOTES:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.4E
Aluminum Spiral Rib Pipe
Diameter (mm) MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF COVER (m)

1.52 1.91 2.67
600 9.5 13.5 22.0
750 8.0 11.0 17.0
900 6.5 9.0 14.5
1050 -- 7.5 12.5
1200 -- -- 11.0
1350 -- -- 9.5
1500 -- -- 8.5
1650 -- -- --
1800 -- -- --
NOTES:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.6A
Structural Steel Plate Pipe
(mm)
2.82 3.56 4.32 5.54 6.32 7.11
1500 17.0 24.5 32.0 42.0 48.5 54.5
1655 15.0 22.5 29.5 38.5 44.0 49.0
1810 14.0 20.5 27.0 35.0 40.0 45.5
1965 13.0 19.0 24.5 32.5 37.0 41.5
2120 12.0 17.5 23.0 30.0 34.5 39.0
2275 11.0 16.5 21.5 28.0 32.0 36.0

2430 10.5 15.5 20.0 26.5 30.0 34.0
2585 10.0 14.5 19.0 25.0 28.5 32.0
2740 9.0 13.5 18.0 23.5 27.0 30.0
2895 9.0 13.0 17.0 22.5 25.5 28.5
3050 8.0 12.0 16.0 21.0 24.0 27.0
3205 8.0 11.5 15.0 20.0 23.0 26.0
3360 7.5 11.5 14.5 19.0 22.0 24.5
3515 7.5 10.5 14.0 18.5 21.0 23.5
3670 7.0 10.5 13.5 17.5 20.0 22.5
3825 6.5 10.0 13.0 17.0 19.0 21.5
3980 6.5 9.5 12.0 16.0 18.5 20.5
4135 6.0 9.0 12.0 15.5 17.5 20.0
4290 6.0 9.0 11.5 15.0 17.0 19.5
4445 6.0 8.5 11.0 14.5 16.5 18.5
4600 5.5 8.0 10.5 14.0 16.0 18.0
4755 5.0 8.0 10.5 13.5 15.5 17.5
4910 -- 7.5 10.0 13.0 15.0 17.0
5065 -- 7.5 10.0 13.0 14.5 16.5
5220 -- 7.5 9.5 12.0 14.0 16.0
5375 -- 7.0 9.0 12.0 13.5 15.5
5530 -- -- 9.0 11.5 13.5 15.0
5685 -- -- 8.5 11.5 13.0 14.5
5840 -- -- 8.5 11.0 12.5 14.5
5995 -- -- 8.0 10.5 12.0 13.5
6150 -- -- -- 10.5 12.0 13.5
6305 -- -- -- 10.0 11.5 13.0
6460 -- -- -- 10.0 11.5 13.0
NOTE:
(1) When flow velocities exceeds 1.5 m/s under abrasive conditions thicker metal may be required.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.6B
Structural Steel Plate Pipe Arches

Corner Soil
Bearing - 285 kN/m2
Span Rise Metal Thickness (mm)
(mm) (mm) 2.82 3.56
457 mm Corner Radius
1850 1400 6.5 --
2130 1550 5.5 --
2410 1700 5.0 --
2690 1850 4.5 --
2970 2010 4.0 --
3330 2160 3.5 --
787 mm Corner Radius
4040 2840 5.0 --
4320 3000 4.5 --
4670 3150 4.5 --
4950 3300 4.0 --
5230 3450 3.5 --
5510 3610 3.5 --
5870 3760 3.5 --
6070 3910 -- 3.0
6270 4010 -- 3.0
NOTES:
(1) For intermediate sizes, the depth of cover may be interpolated.
(2) The 787 mm corner radius arch should be specified when conditions will permit it use.
May 1, 2001
Table 854.6C
Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe

(mm)
2.54 3.18 3.81 4.44 5.08 5.72 6.35
1500 11.0 16.5 20.0 23.5 27.0 30.0 30.0
1655 10.0 15.0 18.5 21.5 24.5 27.5 30.0
1810 9.0 13.5 17.0 19.5 22.5 25.5 28.0
1965 8.5 12.5 15.5 18.0 20.5 23.0 26.0
2120 8.0 11.5 14.5 17.0 19.0 21.5 24.0
2275 7.5 11.0 13.5 15.5 18.0 20.0 22.5
2430 7.0 10.0 12.5 14.5 17.0 19.0 21.0
2585 6.5 9.5 12.0 13.5 16.0 17.5 20.0
2740 6.0 9.0 11.5 13.0 15.0 17.0 18.5
2895 6.0 8.5 10.5 12.0 14.0 16.0 17.5
3050 5.5 8.0 10.0 11.5 13.5 15.0 17.0
3205 5.0 7.5 9.5 11.0 13.0 14.5 16.0
3360 5.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 15.0
3515 5.0 7.0 8.5 10.0 11.5 13.0 14.5
3670 4.5 6.5 8.0 10.0 11.0 12.5 14.0
3825 -- 6.5 8.0 9.5 10.5 12.0 13.5
3980 -- 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 11.5 13.0
4135 -- -- 7.5 8.5 10.0 11.0 12.5
4290 -- -- 7.0 8.0 9.5 10.5 12.0
4445 -- -- 6.5 8.0 9.0 10.5 11.5
4600 -- -- -- 7.5 9.0 10.0 11.5
4755 -- -- -- 7.5 8.5 10.0 10.5
4910 -- -- -- -- 8.0 9.5 10.5
5065 -- -- -- -- 8.0 9.0 10.0
5220 -- -- -- -- 8.0 9.0 10.0
5375 -- -- -- -- -- 8.5 9.5
5530 -- -- -- -- -- 8.0 9.0
5685 -- -- -- -- -- -- 9.0
5840 -- -- -- -- -- -- 9.0
NOTE:
May 1, 2001
Table 854.6D
Structural Aluminum Plate Pipe Arches

Corner Soil
Bearing - 285 kN/m2
Span Rise 2.54 3.18 3.81 4.44 5.08 5.72
2010 1730 8.5 -- -- -- -- --
2360 1830 7.0 -- -- -- -- --
2690 1930 6.0 -- -- -- -- --
3020 2030 5.5 -- -- -- -- --
3120 2060 5.5 6.5 -- -- -- --
3380 2130 5.0 6.0 6.0 -- -- --
3730 2210 4.5 5.5 5.5 -- -- --
3940 2290 4.5 5.0 5.0 -- -- --
3990 2490 4.5 5.0 5.0 -- -- --
4240 2570 3.5 5.0 5.0 -- -- --
4270 2620 3.5 4.5 5.0 -- -- --
4470 2950 -- 4.5 4.5 -- -- --
4750 3100 -- 4.5 4.5 -- -- --
4900 3150 -- 4.0 4.0 -- -- --
5110 3250 -- -- 4.0 -- -- --
5410 3400 -- -- -- 3.5 -- --
5690 3560 -- -- -- 3.5 -- --
6050 3680 -- -- -- -- 3.0 --
6350 3840 -- -- -- -- -- 3.0
6550 3940 -- -- -- -- -- 3.0
NOTE:
(2) 787 mm Corner Raduis
May 1, 2001
(2) Strength Requirements. to fulfill the design service life

(a) Design Standards. requirements. Table 854.3A may be
used.
• Corrugation Profiles - Structural plate
pipe and arches are available in a 152 mm • Where needed, adequate provisions for
x 51 mm corrugation for steel and a 230 corrosion resistance must be made to
mm x 64 mm corrugation profile for achieve the required design service life
aluminum. called for in the references mentioned
herein.
• Metal Thickness - structural plate pipe
and pipe arches are available in thickness • Tables 854.6B & D show the limit of
as indicated on Tables 854.6A, B, C & D. heights of cover for structural plate arches
based on the supporting soil sustaining
• Height of Fill - The allowable height of a bearing pressure of 285 kN/m2 at the
cover over structural plate pipe and pipe corners.
arches for the available diameters and
thickness are shown on Tables 854.6A, B, (d) Special Designs. If the height of overfill
C & D. exceeds the tabular values, or if the foundation
investigation reveals that the supporting soil
Where a maximum overfill is not listed on will not develop the bearing pressure on
these tables, the pipe or arch size is not which the overfill heights for structural plate
normally available in that thickness. pipe or pipe arches are based, a special design
(b) Basic Premise. To properly use the above prepared by the Division of Structures is
mentioned tables, the designer should be required.
aware of the premises on which the tables are
Asphalt mastic (if there are no environmental
based as well as their limitations. The design
concerns) is an acceptable field applied
tables presuppose:
alternative for bituminous coating for non-
• That bedding and backfill satisfy the abrasive flow conditions on the inside of the
terms of the Standard Specifications, the culvert. Under these circumstances, a special
conditions of cover, and pipe or arch size provision will be required to specify this
required by the plans and the essentials of alternative.
Index 829.2.
(3) Arches. Design details with maximum allowable
• That a small amount of settlement will
overfills for structural plate arches, with cast in
occur under the culvert, equal in
place concrete footings may be obtained from the
magnitude to that of the adjoining
Division of Structures.
material outside the trench.
(c) Limitations. In using the tables, the following (4) Vehicular Underpasses. Design details with
restrictions should be kept in mind. maximum allowable overfills for structural plate
vehicular underpasses with spans from 3708 mm
• The values given for each size of
to 6198 mm, inclusive, are given in the Standard
structural plate pipe or arch constitute the
Plans. These designs are based on bearing soil
maximum height of overfill or cover over
pressures from 135 to 555 kN/m2.
the pipe or arch for the thickness of metal
and kind of corrugation. (5) Special Shapes.
• The thickness shown is the structural (a) Long Span. (Text Later)
minimum. For steel pipe or pipe arches,
where abrasive conditions are anticipated, • Arch
additional metal thickness or a paved • Low Profile Arch
invert should be provided when required
• High Profile Arch
May 1, 2001
(b) Ellipse. (Text Later) (2) Concrete Arch Culverts. Design details for
concrete arch culverts in 0.3 m span increments
• Vertical
from 1.8 m to 6.7 m, inclusive, allowing a
• Horizontal maximum overfill height up to 18 m, are given in
the Standard Plans. These designs are based on
(c) Inverted Box. (Text Later)
footing soil pressures ranging from 230 to 720
(d) Box. (Text Later) kN/m2.
(6) Tunnel Liner Plate. (3) Corrosion, Abrasion, and Invert Protection. Refer
The Division of Structures will prepare designs to Topics 854.1(1), (2), and (4) for corrosion,
upon request. abrasion and invert protection of concrete box and
arch culverts.
854.7 Concrete Box and Arch Culverts
854.8 Plastic Pipe
(1) Box Culverts. Single and multiple span reinforced
concrete box culverts are completely detailed in (1) Durability. The durability of plastic pipe is
the Standard Plans. For cast-in-place determined by the long term performance of its
construction, strength classifications are shown for material properties. Plastic pipe culverts exhibit
3 m and 6 m overfills. good abrasion resistance and are virtually
corrosion free, permitting a 50 year maintenance
Standard Detail Sheets are available for precast free service life under most conditions. Long term
reinforced concrete box culverts. They may be exposure to direct sunlight can lead to brittleness
obtained electronically, from the District in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes, and such
Hydraulics Engineer or by contacting the Division situations should be avoided. Plastic pipe culverts
of Structures. Precast reinforced concrete box are chemically inert under typical soil conditions.
culverts require a minimum of 0.3 m of overfill
and are not to exceed 3.6 m in span length. In areas with high fire potential, use limitations or
Special details are necessary if precast boxes are modifications of plastic pipe should be considered.
proposed as extensions for existing box culverts. Application limitations may include down drains
Where the use of precast box culverts is and projecting ends of cross drains in densely
applicable, the project plans should include them vegetated or grassy locations. The projecting ends
as an alternative to cast-in-place construction. of plastic pipe cross drains can be replaced with
Because the standard measurement and payment corrugated metal pipe, concrete pipe, concrete
clauses for precast RCB’s differ from cast-in- headwalls or wingwalls, or other modifications,
place construction, precast units must be identified thereby reducing the potential of fire damage. The
as an alternative on the standard detail sheets and connection between the plastic pipe and the
the special provision must be appropriately modified end piece would be nonstandard.
modified. (2) Strength Requirements.
The standard detail sheets for precast boxes show (a) Design Standards
details which require them to be layed out with
joints perpendicular to the centerline of the box. • Materials - Plastic pipe shall be either
This is a consideration for the design engineer in Type C (corrugated exterior and interior)
situations which require stage construction and corrugated polyethylene pipe, Type S
when the culvert is to be aligned on a high skew. (corrugated exterior and smooth interior)
This situation will require either a longer culvert corrugated polyethylene pipe, profile wall
than otherwise may have been needed, or a special polyethylene pipe, profile wall polyvinyl
design allowing for skewed joints. Prior to chloride pipe, or ribbed polyvinyl chloride
selecting the latter option the Division of pipe.
Structures should be consulted.
May 1, 2001
• Height of Fill - The allowable overfill Table 854.8

heights for plastic pipe for various
diameters are shown in Table 854.8. Thermoplastic Pipe Fill Height
(b) Basic Premise. To properly use the plastic Tables
pipe height of fill table, the designer should be
aware of the basic premises on which the table High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
are based as well as their limitations. The Corrugated Pipe
design table presupposes:
• That bedding and backfill satisfy the Size Maximum Height of Cover
terms of the Standard Specifications, the (mm) (m)
conditions of cover, and pipe size required 300 9.0
by the plans and the essentials of Index 375 9.0
829.2. 450 9.0
• That a small amount of settlement will 600 9.0
occur under the culvert, equal in 750 9.0
magnitude to that of the adjoining
900 9.0
material outside the trench.
1050 6.0
854.9 Minimum Height of Cover 1200 6.0
Table 854.9 gives the minimum thickness of cover
High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)
required for design purposes over pipes and pipe
arches. For construction purposes, a minimum
Ribbed Pipe
cover of 150 mm greater than the roadway structural Size Maximum Height of Cover
section is desirable for all types of pipe. (mm) (m)
Class 4 concrete backfill may be used for culverts 450 7.3
when it is necessary to have less than 0.6 m of cover 525 7.3
below the top of a flexible pavement, except that
600 7.3
minor concrete backfill must not be placed against
aluminum or aluminized culverts. A minimum of 150
mm of concrete backfill should be used at the sides of Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Ribbed Pipe
a culvert.
Size Maximum Height of Cover
(mm) (m)
450 8.2
525 7.9
600 7.6
675 7.3
750 7.0
900 6.7
1050 6.4
1200 6.1
May 1, 2001
Table 854.9
Minimum Thickness of Cover

for Culverts
Minimum Thickness
of Cover Measured
Traveled Way at Ultimate ETW
C
L
Shoulder
Hinge Point
Min. Thickness
0.15 m at H.P.
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF COVER AT ETW
SURFACE Corrugated Structural Reinforced Plastic Cast-In-Place

TYPE metal pipes plate pipes concrete pipes concrete pipes
and pipe-arches and pipe-arches pipes
Flexible 1/5 (dia. or span) 1/8 (dia. or span) Structural Section
Pavements or or or 0.6 m minimum 0.6 m minimum plus 0.6 m.
Unpaved 0.6 m minimum. 0.6 m minimum
Rigid 1/5 (dia. or span) 1/8 (dia. or span) Structural Section
Pavements or or 0.3 m minimum 0.6 m minimum plus 0.6 m.
0.4 m minimum. 0.4 m minimum
Note: See Index 854.2(1)(d) for necessary approvals prior to placing cast-in-place concrete pipes under the roadway.
May 1, 2001
channel by reducing the channel roughness. Both

CHAPTER 860 aspects of channel linings are discussed in Chapter
OPEN CHANNELS 870.
The hydraulic capacity of a drainage channel is
dependent on the size, shape, slope and roughness
Topic 861 - General of the channel section. For a given channel, the
hydraulic capacity becomes greater as the grade or
Index 861.1 - Introduction depth of flow increases. The channel capacity
An open channel is a conveyance in which water decreases as the channel surface becomes rougher.
flows with a free surface. Although closed A rough channel can sometimes be an advantage
conduits such as culverts and storm drains are open on steep slopes where it is desirable to keep flow
channels when flowing partially full, the term is velocities from becoming excessively high.
generally applied to natural and improved A good open channel design minimizes the effect
watercourses, gutters, ditches, and channels. on existing water surface profiles. Open channel
While the hydraulic principles discussed in this designs which lower the water surface elevation
section are valid for all drainage structures, the can result in excessive flow velocities and cause
primary consideration is given to channels along, erosion problems. A planned rise in water surface
across, approaching and leaving the highway. elevation can cause:
In addition to performing its hydraulic function, the • Objectional flooding of the roadbed and
drainage channel should be economical to adjacent properties;
construct and maintain. Open channels should be
reasonably safe for vehicles accidentally leaving • An environmental and maintenance problem
the traveled way, pleasing in appearance, convey with sedimentation due to reduced flow
collected water without damage to the highway or velocities.
adjacent property and minimize the environmental Additional hydraulic considerations include those
impacts. These considerations are usually so of channel and flood water characteristics such as:
interrelated that optimum conditions cannot be met movable beds, heavy bedloads and bulking during
for one without compromising one or more of the flood discharges. A detailed discussion of
others. The objective is to achieve a reasonable sediment transport and channel morphology is
balance, but the importance of traffic safety must contained in the FHWA publication entitled
not be underrated. Highways in the River Environment-Hydraulic and
Environmental Design Considerations.
861.2 Hydraulic Considerations
Reference is made to Volume VI of the AASHTO
An evaluation of hydraulic considerations for the Highway Drainage Guidelines for a general
channel design alternatives should be made early in discussion on channel hydraulic considerations.
the project development process. The extent of the
hydrologic and hydraulic analysis should be 861.3 Selection of "Design Flood"
commensurate with the type of highway,
complexity of the drainage facility, and associated As with other drainage facilities, the first step in
costs, risks, and impacts. the hydraulic design of an open channels is to
establish the range of peak flows which the channel
The hydraulic design of an open channel consists section must carry. The recommended design
of developing a channel section to carry the design criteria for cross drainage type installations is
discharge under the controlling conditions, adding discussed in Index 821.3. The desirable design
freeboard as needed and determining the type of storm and water spread criteria for roadway
channel protection required to prevent erosion. In drainage type installations are presented in Table
addition to erosion protection, channel linings can 831.3. Empirical and statistical methods for
be used to increase the hydraulic capacity of the
May 1, 2001
estimating design discharges are discussed in During this interim period, the contractor must
Chapter 810, "Hydrology". provide interim protection measures and possibly
advance the planned erosion control program to
861.4 Safety Considerations assure that minor erosion will not develop into
major damage.
An important aspect of highway drainage design is
that of traffic safety.
861.6 Economics
The shape of a roadside channel section should
Economical drainage design is achieved by
minimize vehicular impact and provide a
selecting the design alternative which best satisfies
traversable section for errant vehicles leaving the
the established design criteria at the lowest cost.
traveled way. The ideal channel section, from a
safety standpoint, will have flattened side slopes The economic evaluation of design alternatives
and a curved transition to the channel bottom. should be commensurate with the complexity and
importance of the facility. Analysis of the channel
861.5 Maintenance Consideration location, shape, size, and materials involved may
reveal possibilities for reducing construction costs,
Design of open channels and roadside ditches
flood damage potential, maintenance problems and
should recognize that periodic maintenance
environmental impacts.
inspection and repair is required. Provisions
should be incorporated into the design for access to
861.7 Coordination with Other Agencies
a channel by maintenance personnel and
equipment. When assessing the need for There are many Federal, State and local agencies
permanent or temporary access easements, and private entities engaged in water related
entrance ramps and gates through the right of way planning, construction and regulation activities
fences, consideration should be given to the size whose interests can affect the design of highway
and type of maintenance equipment required. drainage channels. Such agencies may request the
channel design satisfy additional and perhaps
Damaged channels can be expensive to repair and
governing design criteria. Early coordination with
interfere with the safe and orderly movement of
these agencies may help avoid delays in the project
traffic. Minor erosion damage within the right of
development process. Early coordination may also
way should be repaired immediately after it occurs
reveal opportunities for cooperative projects which
and action taken to prevent the recurrence.
may benefit both Caltrans and the water resources
Conditions which require extensive repair or
agency. For information on cooperative
frequently recurring maintenance may require a
agreements refer to Index 803.2.
complete redesign rather than repetitive or
extensive reconstruction. The advice of the
District Hydraulics Engineer should be sought
861.8 Environment
when evaluating the need for major restoration. Many of the same principles involved in sound
highway construction and maintenance of open
The growth of weeds, brush, and trees in a
channels parallel environmental considerations.
drainage channel can effectively reduce its
Erosion, sedimentation, water quality, and
hydraulic efficiency. The result being that a
aesthetics should be of prime concern to the
portion of the design flow may overflow the
highway design engineer. Refer to Index 110.2 for
channel banks causing flooding and possible
discussion on control of water pollution.
erosion.
Proposed channel improvements may involve
Accumulation of sediment and debris may destroy
wildlife habitat and refuge areas. Where fish
vegetative linings leading to additional erosion
resources are a concern, the necessity to protect
damage.
and preserve the ecosystem may affect decisions
Channel work on some projects may be completed regarding low flow channel design, flow velocities,
several months before total project completion. channel grades, channel stabilization techniques,
May 1, 2001
and construction methods. Conservation and fish in alignment and grade should be avoided. A sharp
and wildlife agencies may be able to provide change in alignment presents a point of attack for
valuable information relating to channel planning flowing water, and abrupt changes in grade can
and design. Early coordination with these agencies result in possible scour when the grade is
is also recommended. steepened or deposition of transported material
when the grade is flattened.
861.9 References Ideally, a drainage channel should have flow
Information on design of highway drainage velocities that neither erode nor cause deposition in
channels is included in FHWA's Hydraulic Design the channel. This optimum velocity is dependent
Series No. 4, "Introduction to Highway on the size and slope of channel, the quantity of
Hydraulics" and Hydraulic Design Series No. 3, flowing water, the material used to line the
"Design Charts for Open Channel Flow". channel, the nature of the bedding soil and the
sediment being transported by the flow. Refer to
For a general textbook discussion of open channel
Table 862.2 for recommended permissible flow
hydraulics, reference is made to "Open-Channel
velocities in unlined channels.
Hydraulics" by Ven Te Chow. In addition, many
helpful design aids are included in "Handbook of The point of discharge into a natural watercourse
Hydraulics", by Brater and King. requires special attention. Water entering a natural
watercourse from a highway drainage channel
Topic 862 - Channel Location should not cause eddies with attendant scour of the
natural watercourse. In erodible embankment
soils, if the flow line of the drainage channel is
862.1 General appreciably higher than that of the watercourse at
Assuming adequate functional design, the next the point of discharge, then the use of a spillway
most important design consideration is channel may be advisable to prevent erosion of the channel.
location. Locations that avoid poorly drained
areas, unstable soil conditions, and frequently Topic 863 - Channel Section
flooded areas can greatly reduce drainage related
problems. Refer to Index 110.4 for discussion on
863.1 Natural Channels
wetlands protection.
Natural channels are water conveying sections such
Often drainage and open channel considerations
as streams, rivers, creeks and swales which have
are not considered the primary decision factors in
been formed by natural forces. Good drainage
the roadway location; however they are factors
design involving natural channels will maintain the
which will often directly or indirectly affect many
existing flow characteristics such as size and shape
other considerations. Often minor alignment
of channel, flow velocities, and flow distributions.
adjustments can avoid serious drainage problems.
It should be recognized by the design engineer that
If a channel can be located far enough away from
streams have inherent dynamic qualities by which
the highway, the concerns of traffic safety and
changes continually occur in stream position and
aesthetics can be somewhat mitigated. The cost of
shape. These changes may be slow or rapid, but all
additional right of way may be offset somewhat by
streams are subjected to the forces that cause these
the reduced cost of erosion control, traffic
changes to occur. For example, in alluvial streams,
protection, and landscaping.
i.e., streams whose beds and banks are composed
of materials deposited in water, it is the rule rather
862.2 Alignment and Grade
than the exception that banks erode, sediments are
Ordinarily, the highway drainage channel must be deposited, and islands and side channels form and
located where it will best serve its intended disappear with time. A general understanding of
purpose, using the grade and alignment obtainable fluvial geomorphology and river mechanics can
at the site. Insofar as practicable, abrupt changes help evaluate and resolve problems associated with
May 1, 2001
Table 862.2
Recommended Permissible Velocities

for Unlined Channels
Type of Material in Excavation Section Permissible Velocity (m/s)

Intermittent Flow Sustained Flow
Fine Sand (Noncolloidal) 0.8 0.8
Sandy Loam (Noncolloidal) 0.8 0.8
Silt Loam (Noncolloidal) 0.9 0.9
Fine Loam 1.1 1.1
Volcanic Ash 1.2 1.1
Fine Gravel 1.2 1.1
Stiff Clay (Colloidal) 1.5 1.2
Graded Material (Noncolloidal)
Loam to Gravel 2.0 1.5
Silt to Gravel 2.1 1.7
Gravel 2.3 1.8
Coarse Gravel 2.4 2.0
Gravel to Cobbles (Under 150 mm) 2.7 2.1
Gravel and Cobbles (Over 200 mm) 3.0 2.4
May 1, 2001
alluvial streams. Reference is made to the FHWA traffic barrier may be necessary between the
publication entitled Highways in the River traveled way and the channel.
Environment - Hydraulic and Environmental
Though rectangular channels are relatively
Design Considerations.
expensive to construct, since the walls must be
designed as earth retaining structures, the
863.2 Triangular V-Ditch construction costs can be somewhat offset by the
The shape of a channel section is generally reduced costs associated with right of way,
determined by considering the intended purpose, materials, and channel excavation.
terrain, flow velocity and quantity of flow to be
conveyed. Topic 864 - Hydraulic Design of
The triangular channel or V-ditch is intended Channels
primarily for low flow conditions such as in
median and roadside ditches. V-shaped ditches are 864.1 General
susceptible to erosion and will require lining when
Open channel hydraulic design is of particular
flow velocities exceed the permissible flow
importance to highway design because of the
velocities in Table 862.2.
interrelationship of channels to most highway
drainage facilities.
863.3 Trapezoidal
The hydraulic principles of open channel flow are
The most common channel shape for large flows is
based on steady state uniform flow conditions, as
the trapezoidal section.
defined in Index 864.2. Though these conditions
Trapezoidal channels are easily constructed by are rarely achieved in the field, generally the
machinery and are often the most economical. variation in channel properties is sufficiently small
that the use of uniform flow theory will yield
When a wide trapezoidal section is proposed, both
sufficiently accurate results.
traffic safety and aesthetics can be improved by
rounding all angles of the channel cross section
with vertical curves. The approximate length of
864.2 Flow Classifications
these vertical curves can be determined by the (1) Steady vs. Unsteady Flow. The flow in an
formula: open channel can be classified as steady or
unsteady. The flow is said to be steady if the
L = 12/X depth of flow at a section, for a given
where L = length of vertical curve in meters discharge, is constant with respect to time.
X = horizontal component of side The flow is considered unsteady if the depth of
slopes expressed as x,y flow varies with respect to time.
coordinates with y = 1 (2) Uniform Flow. Steady flow can further be
For narrow channels, L, is limited to the bottom classified as uniform or nonuniform. The flow
width. is said to be uniform if the depth of flow and
quantity of water are constant at every section
For large flows, consideration should be given to of the channel under consideration. Uniform
using a minimum bottom width of 4 m for flow can be maintained only when the shape,
construction and maintenance purposes, but depths size, roughness and slope of the channel are
of flow less than 0.3 m are not recommended. constant. Under uniform flow conditions, the
863.4 Rectangular depth and mean velocity of flow is said to be
normal. Under these conditions the water
Rectangular channels are often used to convey surface and flowlines will be parallel to the
large flows in areas with limited right of way. At stream bed and a hydrostatic pressure
some locations, guardrail or other types of positive condition will exist, the pressure at a given
section will vary linearly with depth.
May 1, 2001
As previously mentioned, uniform flow Q = A V = A V = ... = A V

1 1 2 2 n n
conditions are rarely attained in the field, but
the error in assuming uniform flow in a Where Q is the discharge, A is the cross-
channel of fairly constant slope, roughness and sectional flow area, and V is the mean flow
cross section is relatively small when velocity. This equation is not valid for
compared to the uncertainties of estimating the spatially varied flow, i.e., where flow is
design discharge. entering or leaving along the length of channel
under consideration.
(3) Non-uniform Flow. There are two types of
steady state non-uniform flow: (2) Bernoulli Equation. Water flowing in an open
channel possesses two kinds of energy: (1)
• Gradually varied flow. potential energy and (2) kinetic energy.
Gradually varied flow is described as a Potential energy is due to the position of the
steady state flow condition where the depth water surface above some datum. Kinetic
of water varies gradually over the length of energy is due to the energy of the moving
the channel. Under this condition, the water. The total energy at a given section as
streamlines of flow are practically parallel expressed by the Bernoulli equation is equal
and therefore, the assumption of to:
hydrostatic pressure distribution is valid
2
and uniform flow principles can be used to V
analyze the flow conditions. H=z+d+
2g
• Rapidly varied flow. Where:
With the rapidly varied flow condition, H = Total head, in meters of water
there is a pronounced curvature of the flow
z = Distance above some datum, in meters
streamlines and the assumption of
hydrostatic pressure distribution is no d = Depth of flow, in meters
longer valid, even for the continuous flow
profile. A number of empirical procedures V2
= Velocity head, in meters
have been developed to address the various 2g
phenomena of rapidly varied flow. For g = Acceleration of gravity
additional discussion on the topic of
rapidly varied flow, refer to "Open- = 9.81 m/s2
Channel Hydraulics" by Chow.
3) Energy Equation. The basic principle used
864.3 Open Channel Flow Equations most often in hydraulic analysis is
The equations of open channel flow are based on conservation of energy or the energy equation.
uniform flow conditions. Some of these equations For uniform flow conditions, the energy
have been derived using basic conservation laws equation states that the energy at one section of
(e.g. conservation of energy) whereas others have a channel is equal to the energy at any
been derived using an empirical approach. downstream section plus the intervening
energy losses. The energy equation, expressed
(1) Continuity Equation. One of the fundamental in terms of the Bernoulli equation, is:
concepts which must be satisfied in all flow
2
problems is the continuity of flow. The V1 V22
continuity equation states that the mass of fluid z 1+ d1 + =z +d + + hL
per unit time passing every section in a stream
2g 2 2 2g
of fluid is constant. The continuity equation
may be expressed as follows: Where:
hL = Intervening head losses, in meters
May 1, 2001
(4) Manning's Equation. Several equations have For the non-pressure, full flow condition, the
been empirically derived for computing the geometric properties and conveyance of a
average flow velocity within an open channel. channel section can be computed. Then for a
One such equation is the Manning Equation. given channel slope the discharge capacity can
Assuming uniform and turbulent flow be easily determined.
conditions, the mean flow velocity in an open
channel can be computed as: Table 864.3A
2/3 1/2 Average Values for Manning's
R S
V= Roughness Coefficient (n)
n
Where V = Mean velocity, in meters
per second Type of Channel n value
n = Manning coefficient of Unlined Channels:
roughness Clay Loam 0.023
S = Channel slope, in meters per Sand 0.020
meter Gravel 0.030
R = Hydraulic Radius, in meters Rock 0.040
= A/WP
Lined Channels:
Where A = Cross sectional flow area, in
square meters Portland Cement Concrete 0.014
Air Blown Mortar (troweled) 0.012
WP = Wetted perimeter, in meters
Air Blown Mortar (untroweled) 0.016
Commonly accepted values for Manning's Air Blown Mortar (roughened) 0.025
roughness coefficient, n, based on materials Asphalt Concrete 0.018
and workmanship required in the Standard Sacked Concrete 0.025
Specifications, are provided in Table 864.3A.
The tabulated values take into account Pavement and Gutters:
deterioration of the channel lining surface, Portland Cement Concrete 0.015
distortion of the grade line due to unequal Asphalt Concrete 0.016
settlement, construction joints and normal
surface irregularities. These average values Depressed Medians:
should be modified to satisfy any foreseeable Earth (without growth) 0.040
abnormal conditions. Earth (with growth) 0.050
Direct solutions for Manning's equation for Gravel 0.055
many channels of trapezoidal, rectangular, and NOTES:
circular cross sections can be found in FHWA's For additional values of n, see "Introduction to
Hydraulic Design Series No. 3, "Design Charts Highway Hydraulics", Hydraulic Design Series
for Open Channel Flow". No. 4, FHWA Table 14.
(5) Conveyance Equation. Often it is convenient
to group the properties peculiar to the cross
section into one term called the conveyance
factor, K. The conveyance factor, as expressed
by the Manning's equation, is equal to:
AR 2/3
K=
n
May 1, 2001
When the depth of flow is greater than critical

(6) Critical Flow. A useful concept in hydraulic
depth, the velocity of flow is less than critical
analysis is that of "specific energy". The
velocity for a given discharge and hence, the
specific energy at a given section is defined as
flow is subcritical. Conversely, when the
the total energy, or total head, of the flowing
depth of flow is less than critical depth, the
water with respect to the channel bottom. For
flow is supercritical.
a channel of small slope;
When velocities are supercritical, air
2 entrainment may occur. This produces a
E=d+ V
2g bulking effect which increases the depth of
flow. For concrete lined channels, the normal
Where E = Specific energy, in meters
depth of flow with bulking can be computed by
d = Depth of flow, in meters using a Manning's "n" value of 0.018 instead of
the 0.014 value given in Table 864.3A. Air
V2 entrainment also causes a reduction in channel
= Velocity head, in meters
2g friction with a resulting increase in flow
velocity. A Manning's "n" value of about
When the depth of flow is plotted against the 0.008 is recommended for computing the
specific energy, for a given discharge and velocity and specific energy of flow in
channel section, the resulting plot is called a concrete-lined channels carrying supercritical
specific energy diagram (see Figure 864.3C). flow
The curve shows that for a given specific
energy there are two possible depths, a high
stage and a low stage. These flow depths are Figure 864.3C
called alternate depths. Starting at the upper
right of the curve with a large depth and small
velocity, the specific energy decreases with a Specific Energy Diagram
decrease in depth, reaching a minimum energy
content at a depth of flow known as critical
depth. A further decrease in flow depth results
in a rapid increase in specific energy.
Flow at critical depth is called critical flow.
The flow velocity at critical depth is called
critical velocity. The channel slope which
produces critical depth and critical velocity for
a given discharge is the critical slope.
Uniform flow within approximately 10 percent
of critical depth is unstable and should be
avoided in design, if possible. The reason for
this can be seen by referring to the specific
energy diagram. As the flow approaches
critical depth from either limb of the curve, a
very small change in energy is required for the
depth to abruptly change to the alternate depth
on the opposite limb of the specific energy
curve. If the unstable flow region cannot be
avoided in design, the least favorable type of
flow should be assumed for the design.
May 1, 2001
Critical depth is an important hydraulic • Trapezoidal sections. The tables in King's

parameter because it is always a hydraulic "Handbook of Hydraulics" provide easy
control. Hydraulic controls are points along solutions for critical depth for channels of
the channel where the water level or depth of varying side slopes and bottom widths.
flow is limited to a predetermined level or can
be computed directly from the quantity of flow. • Circular sections. The tables in King's
Flow must pass through critical depth in going "Handbook of Hydraulics" can be used for
from subcritical flow to supercritical flow. obtaining easy solutions for critical depth.
Typical locations of critical depth are at: (7) Froude Number. The Froude number is a
(a) Abrupt changes in channel slope when a useful parameter which uniquely describes
flat (subcritical) slope is sharply increased open flow. The Froude number is a
to a steep (supercritical) slope, dimensionless value:
(b) A channel constriction such as a culvert 1/2

Fr = V/(gD)
entrance under some conditions,
Where D = A/T = Hydraulic depth, in
(c) The unsubmerged outlet of a culvert on meters
subcritical slope, discharging into a wide
Fr < 1.0 ==> Subcritical flow
channel or with a free fall at the outlet, and
Fr = 1.0 ==> Critical flow
(d) The crest of an overflow dam or weir.
Fr > 1.0 ==> Supercritical flow
Critical depth for a given channel is dependent
on the channel geometry and discharge only,
864.4 Water Surface Profiles
and is independent of channel slope and
roughness. (1) General. For the gradually varied flow
condition, the depth of flow must be
When flow occurs at critical depth the
established through a water surface profile
following relationship must be satisfied
analysis. The basic principles in water surface
3 2 profile analysis are where:
A /T = Q /g
Where A = Cross sectional area, in square (a) Water surface approaches the uniform
meters depth line asymptotically,
T = Top width of water surface, in (b) Water surface approaches the critical depth
meters line at a finite angle,
3
Q = Discharge, in m /s
(c) Subcritical flow is controlled from a
g = Acceleration of gravity, downstream location, and
9.81 m/s2
(d) Supercritical flow is controlled from an
Critical depth formulas, based on the above upstream location.
equation, for various channel cross-sections
include: There are 13 possible water surface profiles
depending on the particular flow conditions. A
• Rectangular sections, complete discussion of water surface profile
2 1/3 analysis is contained in most open channel
d = (q /g) hydraulics textbooks.
c
3
Where q = Flow per unit width, in m /s
May 1, 2001
(2) Methods of Analysis. Two methods of Special features of the steady flow component
performing a water surface profile analysis are: include: multiple plan analyses; multiple
profile computations; scour computations; and
• The Direct Step method
multiple bridge and/or culvert opening
• The Standard Step method analysis.
Both methods make use of the energy equation Where one-dimensional models fail, such as at
to compute the water surface profile. The significantly skewed bridge crossings,
direct step method can be used to analyze confluences, tidal environments, guide bank
straight prismatic channel sections only. The design, superelevated flow, complex floodplain
standard step method is applicable to non- analysis, sediment transport, and dynamic flow
prismatic and non-straight channel alignments. analysis, the FESWMS-2DH/SMS two-
For a complete discussion of both refer to dimensional model that was developed by
Open-Channel Hydraulics, by Chow. FHWA may be used.
(3) Computer Programs. The analysis of water FESWMS-2DH is an acronym for Finite
surface profile problems is best performed by Element Surface Water Modeling System Two
computer. The recommended personal Dimensional Flow in a Horizontal Plane. SMS
computer program is the US Army Corps of is an acronym for Surface-water Modeling
Engineers HEC-RAS River Analysis System. System. SMS is a pre- and post- processor for
The Program was specifically developed for use with hydraulic models. It does not perform
analysis of highway bridge and culvert modeling, but an interface has been
backwater. HEC-RAS is designed to perform specifically developed for FESWMS-2DH.
one-dimensional hydraulic calculations for a FESWMS-2DH is a two-dimensional depth
full network of natural and constructed averaged model that employs the finite element
channels. HEC-RAS is capable of importing
method to solve two-dimensional (in a
HEC-2 and GIS/CADD data. The basic horizontal plane) momentum and continuity
computational procedure is based on the equations.
solution of the energy equation. Energy losses
are evaluated by friction (Manning’s equation) FESWMS-2DH has also been specifically
and contraction/expansion (coefficient designed to model highway crossings and
multiplied by the change in velocity head). The structures such as bridges, culverts, drop
momentum equation is utilized in situations structures and weirs.
where the water surface profile is rapidly Both steady state and dynamic (time varying)
varied. These situations include mixed flow modeling may be performed.
regime calculations (i.e. hydraulic jumps),
hydraulics of bridges, and evaluating profiles One other water surface profile computer
at river confluences (stream junctions). program available is FHWA's Water Surface
Computational Program (WSPRO) within the
The effects of various obstructions such as HYDRAIN.
bridges, culverts, weirs, and structures in the
flood plain may be considered in the 864.5 Stage-Discharge Relationships
computations. The steady flow system is
designed for application in flood plain The stage-discharge relationship is an important
management and flood insurance studies to consideration in the analysis and design of an open
evaluate floodway encroachments. Also, channel. The depth of flow for various discharges
capabilities are available for assessing the can be plotted to create a "rating curve" which
change in water surface profiles due to channel provides a visual display of the relationship.
improvements, and levees. Depending on the site conditions, accuracy
required, and risks involved, a single section
analysis may be sufficient to adequately describe
May 1, 2001
the channel stage discharge relationship. The basic • Higher velocities which result in damage due
assumptions to a single section analysis are to scour
uniform cross section, slope, and Manning's "n" • Sedimentation and meandering at
values. downstream end of channel change
Where uniform flow conditions do not adequately • A flattened downstream gradient which
describe the actual flow conditions or where progresses upstream undercutting the
additional accuracy is desired, the computation of channel banks or highway fill
complete water surface profiles for each discharge • Flattened downstream gradient or channel
value may be necessary. restrictions may create undesirable
backwater conditions.
Topic 865 - Channel Changes Modification to a natural channel may reduce the
available cover for fish and other wildlife in and
865.1 General around the water and eliminate the natural food
A channel change is any realignment or change in supplies available in the old channel. The design
the hydraulic characteristics of an existing channel. of new channels involving rivers or streams
supporting fish or wildlife must be coordinated
The main reasons for channel changes are to: with the Department of Fish and Game in
• Permit better drainage accordance with current practices.
• Permit better culvert alignment On intermittent streams the problems are generally
• Eliminate the need for bridges and culverts erosion or silting. For a discussion of temporary
where a stream recrosses a highway measures to be made a part of the contract, see
Index 110.2.
• Improve flow conditions
• Protect the highway from flood damage A channel change perched above the bottom of an
old flood stage stream bed may cause the stream to
• Reduce right of way requirements
return to its old channel during a subsequent flood.
The effects of a channel change can vary greatly This is most likely to occur in arid or semi-arid
depending on the site conditions. For example locations.
certain streams may have a great tolerance to
changes, whereas with others, small changes may
Topic 866 - Freeboard
have significant impacts. When potentially
detrimental effects can be foreseen, plans should Considerations
be developed to mitigate the effects to within
tolerable limits. 866.1 General
Freeboard is the extra height of lining above the
865.2 Design Considerations design depth where overflow is predicted to cause
Channel changes should be designed with extreme damage. Freeboard allowances will vary with each
caution. Careful study of the stream characteristics situation.
upstream and downstream as well as within the When the possibility of damage is slight or non-
channel change area is required to achieve a safe existent, or where the type of facility is minor,
and effective design. freeboard need not be provided.
Channel changes usually decrease the surface
roughness and increase the channel slope. As a 866.2 Height of Freeboard
result the following may occur: (1) Straight Alignment. In channels where
overflow may cause substantial damage, a
guide for freeboard height, for channels on a
straight alignment, is provided in Table 866.2
May 1, 2001
The heights required by this superelevation of

Table 866.2 the water surface can be computed by the
following Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
Guide to Freeboard Height formulas:
• Rectangular Channels.
Shape of Subcritical Supercritical
Channel Flow Flow 3V2 b
Subcritical flow E = 4gr
Rectangular 0.1 He 0.20 d
Trapezoidal 0.2 He 0.25 d 2b
Supercritical flow E = 1.2V
gr
Where He = Energy head, in meters
d = Depth of flow, in meters for a
r-b
2
straight alignment Ø = cos-1 ( cos B ) - B
r+b
2
(2) Critical Flow. An unstable zone of flow • Trapezoidal Channels.

occurs where the flow is near critical state.
This is characterized by random waves. An V 2 (b + 2K d)
S ubcritical flow E=
allowance for waves should be added to the 2(gr - 2K V 2 )
normal depth when the slope of the channel is
between 0.7 S and 1.3 S .
c c V 2(b + 2K d)
2 S upercritical flow E=
H = 0.25 d (1 - 11.1 (S/S - 1) )
w c c gr - 2K V 2
where H = height of wave, in meters

w Where E = Maximum height of water surface
d = critical depth, in meters in meters above depth "d".
c
S = slope of channel, in meter per V = Average velocity for the flow cross
meters section in m/s at entrance to curve.
S = critical slope, in meter per meters b = Width of rectangular channel or
c bottom width of trapezoidal
(3) Superelevation. The height of freeboard channel in meters.
discussed above does not provide for g = Acceleration of gravity
superelevation of the water surface on curved = 9.81 m/s2.
alignments. r = Radius of channel centerline in
Flow around a curve will result in a rise of the meters.
water surface on the outside of the curve and K = Cotangent of bank slope.
extra lining is necessary to guard against d = Depth of flow in meters for
overtopping. straight alignment at entrance to
Supercritical flow around a curve will cause curve.
the water to rise alternately on the outside and Ø = Central angle of curve from B.C.
inside of the curves due to cross waves. This to point of beginning of zone of
cross wave pattern may persist for a maximum depth in degrees.
considerable distance downstream. Extra B = Wave angle in degrees, defined as:
height of lining must be provided on both sides
of the channel. (gd)1/2
sin B =
V
May 1, 2001
There are a number of ways to deal with the

CHAPTER 870 problem of wave action and stream flow.
CHANNEL AND SHORE • The simplest way and generally the surest of
PROTECTION - EROSION success and permanence, is to locate the
roadway away from the erosive forces. This is
CONTROL not always feasible or economical, but should
be the first consideration. Locating the
Topic 871 - General roadway to higher ground or solid support
should never be overlooked, even when it
requires excavation of solid rock, since
Index 871.1 - Introduction excavated rock may serve as a valuable material
Highways are often attracted to parallel locations for protection at other points of attack.
along streams, coastal zones and lake shores. These
• The most commonly used method is to armor
locations are under attack from the action of waves
the embankment with a more resistant material
and flowing water that may require protective
like rock slope protection. The type of material
measures.
to be used for the protection is discussed under
Channel and shore protection can be a major Topic 872.
element in the design, construction, and
• A third method is to reduce the force of the
maintenance of highways. This section deals with
attacking water. This is often done by means of
procedures, methods, devices, and materials
retards, permeable jetties and various plantings
commonly used to mitigate the damaging effects of
such as willows. Plantings once established not
flowing water and wave action on highway facilities
only reduce stream velocity near the bank
and adjacent properties. Potential sites for such
during heavy flows, but their roots add structure
measures should be reviewed in conjunction with
to the bank material.
other features of the project such as long and short
term protection of downstream water quality, • Another method is to direct the attacking water
aesthetic compatibility with surrounding away from the embankment. In the case of
environment, and ability of the newly created wave attack, additional beach may be created
ecological system to survive with minimal between the embankment and the water by
maintenance. See Index 110.2 for further means of groins and sills which trap littoral drift
information on water quality and environmental or hold imported sand. In the case of stream
concerns related to erosion control. attack, a new channel can be created or the
Refer to Topic 874 for definition of drainage terms. stream can be diverted away from the
embankment by the use of jetties, baffles, or
871.2 Design Philosophy deflectors.
In each district there should be a designer or Combinations of the above four methods may be
advisor, usually the District Hydraulics Engineer, used. Even protective works destroyed in floods
have proven to be effective and cost efficient in
knowledgeable in the application of bank protection
principles and the performance of existing works. minimizing damage to highways.
Information is also available from headquarters Design of protective features should be governed by
specialists in the Division of Design and the the importance of the facility and appropriate design
Division of Structures. The most effective designs principles. Some of the factors which should be
result from involvement with Design, Structures, considered are:
Construction, and Maintenance (for further
• Roughness. Revetments generally are less
discussion on functional responsibilities see Topic
resistant to flow than the natural channel bank.
802).
Channel roughness can be significantly reduced
if a rocky vegetated bank is denuded of trees
May 1, 2001
and rock outcrops. When a rough natural bank • Limits. Horizontal and vertical limits of
is replaced by a smooth revetment, the current protection should be carefully designed. The
is accelerated, increasing its power to erode, bottom limit should be secure against scour.
especially along the toe and downstream end of The top limit should not arbitrarily be at high-
the revetment. Except in narrowed channels, water mark, but above it if overtopping would
protective elements should approximate natural cause excessive damage and below it if floods
roughness. Retards, baffles and jetties can move slowly along the upper bank. The end
simulate the effect of trees and boulders along limits should reach and conform to durable
natural banks and in overflow channels. natural features or be secure with respect to
design parameters.
• Undercutting. Particular attention must be paid
to protecting the toe of revetments against
undercutting caused by the accelerated current
871.3 Selected References
along smoothed banks. Hydraulic and drainage related publications are
listed by source under Topic 807. References
• Standardization. Standardization should be a
specifically related to slope protection measures are
guide but not a restriction in designing the
repeated here for convenience.
elements and connections of protective
structures. (a) FHWA Hydraulic Engineering Circulars
(HEC) -- The following five circulars were
• Expendability. The primary objective of the
developed to assist the designer in using
design is the security of the highway, not
various types of slope protection and
security of the protective structure. Cheap
channel linings:
replaceable protection may be more economical
than expensive permanent structures. • HEC 11, Design of Riprap Revetment
(1989)
• Dependability. An expensive structure is
warranted primarily where highways carry high • HEC 14, Hydraulic Design of Energy
traffic volumes, where no detour is available, or Dissipators for Culverts and Channels
where roadway replacement is very expensive. (1983)
• Longevity. Short-lived structures or materials • HEC 15, Design of Roadside Channels
may be economical for temporary situations. with Flexible Linings (1988).
Expensive revetments should not be placed on
• HEC 18, Evaluating Scour at Bridges
banks likely to be buried in widened
(1990)
embankments, nor on banks attacked by
transient meander of mature streams. • HEC 20, Stream Stability at Highway
Structures (1990)
• Materials. Optimum use should be made of
local materials, considering the cost of special (b) FHWA Highways in the River Environment
handling. Specific gravity of stone is a major (1990) -- A comprehensive treatise of
factor in shore protection and the specified natural and man-made impacts and
minimum should not be lowered without responses on the river environment,
increasing the mass of stones. For example, sediment transport, bed and bank
10% decrease in specific gravity requires a 55% stabilization, and countermeasures.
increase in mass (say from a 9 tonne stone to a (c) FHWA Hydraulic Design Series (HDS) --
14 tonne stone) for equivalent protection. HDS 4, Design of Roadside Channels,
• Selection. Selection of class and type of contains information on erosion control
protection should be guided by the intended measures and channel lining practices.
function of the installation.
May 1, 2001
(d) AASHTO Highway Drainage Guidelines -- • The present alignment of the stream or river and
General guidelines for good erosion control potential meander changes.
practices are covered in Volume III -
• The ratio of cost of highway replacement versus
Erosion and Sediment Control in Highway
cost of protection.
Construction, and Volume XI - Guidelines
for Highways Along Coastal Zones and • Whether the protection need be permanent or
Lakeshores. temporary.
• Analysis of foundation and materials
Topic 872 - Planning and Location explorations.
Studies The second step is the selection and layout of
protective elements in relation to the highway
872.1 Planning facility.
The development of cost effective protective works
requires careful planning. Planning begins with site 872.2 Class and Type of Protection
investigation. The selection of the class of Protective devices are classified according to their
protection can be determined during or following function. They are further categorized as to the
site investigation. For some sites the choice is type of material from which they are constructed or
obvious; at other sites several alternatives or shape of the device. For additional information on
combinations may be applicable. See the FHWA specific material types and shapes see Topic 873,
publication, "Highways in the River Environment", Design Concepts.
for a complete and thorough discussion of hydraulic
and environmental design considerations associated There are two basic classes of protection, armor
with hydraulic structures in moveable boundary treatment and training works. Table 872.1 relates
waterways. different location environments to these classes of
protection.
Some specific site conditions that may dictate
selection of a class and type of protection different 872.3 Site Consideration
from those shown in Table 872.1 are:
The determination of the lengths, heights,
• Available right of way. alignment, and positioning of the protection are
affected to a large extent by the facility location
• Available materials.
environment.
• Possible damage to other properties through
An evaluation is required for any proposed highway
streamflow diversion or increased velocity.
construction or improvement that encroaches on a
• Environmental concerns. floodplain. See Topic 804, Floodplain
Encroachments for detailed procedures and
• Channel capacity or conveyance.
guidelines.
• Conformance to new or existing structures. (1) Young Valley. Typically young valleys are
• Provisions for side drainage, either surface narrow V-shaped valleys with streams on steep
waters or intersecting streams or rivers. gradients. At flood stage, the stream flow
covers all or most of the valley floor. The usual
The first step is to determine the limits of the
situation for such locations is a structure
protection with respect to length, depth and the
crossing a well-defined channel in which the
degree of security required.
design discharge will flow at a moderate to high
Considerations at this stage are: velocity.
• The severity of attack.
May 1, 2001
Table 872.1
Guide to Selection of Protection

Armor Training
Flexible Rigid Guide Dikes
Groins Baffles
Mattresses Retards & Jetties
Location
Drop Structure
Stacked Conc.
Grouted Rock
Grouted Rock
Conc. Blocks
Fabric Filled
Conc. Lined
Rock Earth
Bulk heads
Vegetation
Gabions
Fencing
Fencing
Riprap
Piling
Piling
Other
Other
Cribs
Earth
Rock
Cross Channel
Young Valley X Ø X X X
Mature Valley X Ø Ø Ø X X X X X X X X X X X X
Parallel Encroachment
Young Valley X Ø X X X
Mature Valley X X Ø Ø Ø X Ø X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Lakes and Tidals Basins X X Ø Ø Ø X Ø X
Ocean Front X Ø Ø X X X X X
Desert-wash
Top debris cone X Ø Ø Ø X X
Center debris cone X Ø Ø Ø X X X X
Bottom debris cone X Ø Ø Ø X X X X
Overflow and floodplain X X Ø X Ø X X X X
Artificial channel X X Ø Ø Ø X Ø X
Culvert
Inlet X X Ø X
Outlet X X Ø X
Bridge
Abutment X Ø Ø X Ø X
Upstream X X X X X X
Downstream X X X X X X X
Roadside ditch X X X Ø X
Ø Where large rock for riprap is not available
May 1, 2001
(a) Cross-Channel Location. A cross channel constriction of the waterway. The most
location is a highway crossing a stream on common constriction is in width, to shorten
normal or skewed alignment. The erosive the structure. Next in frequency is
forces of parallel flow associated with a obstruction by piers and bents of bridges or
normal crossing are generally less of a partitions of multiple culverts.
threat than the impinging and eddy flows
The risk of constricting the width of the
associated with a skewed crossing. The
waterway is closely related to the relative
effect of constriction by projection of the
conveyance of the natural waterway
roadway embankment into the channel
obstructed, the channel scour, and to the
should be assessed.
channel migration. Constricting the width
Characteristics to be considered include: of flow at structures has the following
effects:
• Stream velocity.
• Increase in the upstream water surface
• Scouring action of stream.
elevation (backwater profile).
• Bank stability.
• Increase in flow velocity through the
• Channel constrictions (artificial or structure opening (waterway).
natural).
• Causes eddy currents around the
• Nature of flow (tangential or upstream and downstream ends of the
curvilinear). structure.
• Areas of impingement at various stages. Unless protection is provided the eddy
currents can erode the approach roadway
• Security of terminals. embankment and the accelerated flow can
Common protection failures occur from: cause scour at bridge abutments. The
effects of erosion can be reduced by
• Undermining of the toe (inadequate providing transitions from natural to
foundation). constricted and back to natural sections,
• Local erosion due to eddy currents. either by relatively short wingwalls or by
relatively long training embankments or
• Inadequate upstream and downstream structures.
terminals or transitions to erosion-
resistant banks or outcrops. Channel changes, if properly designed, can
improve conditions of a crossing by
• Structural inadequacy at points of reducing skew and curvature and enlarging
impingement overtopping. the main channel. Unfortunately there are
Any of the more substantial armor "side effects" which actually increase
treatments can function properly in such erosion potential. Velocity is almost
exposures providing precautions are taken always increased by the channel change,
to alleviate the probable causes of failure. both by a reduction of channel roughness
If the foundation is questionable for grouted and increase of slope.
rock or other rigid types it would not be At crossing locations, lateral erosion can be
necessary to reject them from consideration controlled by positive protection, such as
but only to provide a more acceptable armor on the banks, jetties to deflect
treatment of the foundation, such as heavy currents away from the banks, retards to
rock or sheet piling. reduce riparian velocity, or vertical walls or
Whether the highway crosses a stream bulkheads. The life cycle cost of such
channel on a bridge or over a culvert, devices should be considered in the
economic considerations often lead to
May 1, 2001
economic studies to choose a bridge length rapidly by a combination of erosion and

which minimizes total cost. sloughing. This problem can occur or
be increased when curbs, dikes, or
Accurate estimates of anticipated scour
emergency sandbags maintain a
depths are a prerequisite for safe, cost
differential stage at the embankment
effective designs. Design criteria require
shoulder. It is increased by an
that bridge foundations be placed below
impervious or less pervious mass within
anticipated scour depths. For this reason
the fill. Control of flotation, insofar as
the design of protection to control scour at
bank protection is concerned, should be
such locations is seldom necessary for new
obtained by using impervious armor on
construction. However, if scour may
the upstream face of the embankment
undercut the toes of dikes or embankments
and a pervious armor on the
positive methods including self-adjusting
downstream face.
armor at the toe, jetties or retards to divert
scouring currents away from the toe, or sill- Culvert problem locations generally occur
shaped baffles interrupting transport of in and along the downstream transition.
bedloads should be considered. Sharp divergence of the high velocity flow
develops outward components of velocity
There is the potential for instability from
which attack the banks directly by
saturated or inundated embankments at
impingement and indirectly by eddies
crossings with embankments projecting into
entrained in quieter water. Downward
the channel. Failures are usually reported
components and the high velocity near the
as "washouts", but several distinct
bed cause the scour at the end of the apron.
processes should be noted:
Standard plans of warped wingwalls have
• Saturation of an embankment reduces
been developed for a smooth transition
its angle of repose. Granular fills with
from the culvert to a trapezoidal channel
high permeability may "dissolve"
section. A rough revetment extension to the
steadily or slough progressively.
concrete wingwalls is often necessary to
Cohesive fills are less permeable, but
reduce high velocity to approximate natural
failures have occurred during falling
flow. Energy dissipaters may be used to
stages.
shorten the deceleration process when such
• As eddies carve scallops in the a transition would be too long to be
embankment, saturation can be economical. Bank protection at the end of
accelerated and complete failure may wingwalls is more cost effective in most
be rapid. Partial or total losses can cases.
occur due to an upstream eddy, a
(b) Parallel Location. With parallel locations
downstream eddy, or both eddies
the risk of erosion damage along young
eroding toward a central conjunction.
streams increases where valleys narrow and
Training devices or armor can be
gradients steepen. The risk of erosion
employed to prevent damage.
damage is greatest along the outer bend of
• If the fill is pervious and the pavement natural meanders or where highway
overtopped, the buoyant pressure under embankment encroaches on the main
the slab will exceed the weight of slab channel.
and shallow overflow by the pressure The encroaching parallel location is very
head of the hydraulic drop at the common, especially for highways following
shoulder line. A flat slab of thickness, mountain streams in narrow young valleys
t, will float when the upstream stage is or canyons. Much of the roadway is
4t higher than the top of the slab. supported on top of the bank or a berm and
Thereafter the saturated fill usually fails the outer embankment encroaches on the
May 1, 2001
channel in a zone of low to moderate information previously given, the following

velocity. Channel banks are generally applies to mature valleys.
stable and protection, except at points of
(a) Cross-Channel Location. The usual
impingement, is seldom necessary.
situation is a structure crossing a braided or
The constricting parallel location is an meandering normal flow channel. The
extreme case of encroaching location, marginal area subject to overflow is usually
causing such impairment of channel that traversed by the highway on a raised
acceleration of the stream through the embankment and may have long approaches
constriction increases its attack on the extending from both banks.
highway embankment requiring extra
Characteristics to be considered include:
protection, or additional waterway must be
provided by deepening or widening along • Shifting of the main channel.
the far bank of the stream.
• Skew of the stream to the structure.
In young valleys, streams are capable of
• Foundation in deep alluvium.
high velocity flows during flood stages that
may be damaging to adjacent highway • Erodible embankment materials.
facilities. Locating the highway to higher
ground or solid support is always the • Channel constrictions, either artificial
preferred alternative when practical. or natural, which may affect or control
the future course of the stream.
Characteristics to be considered include:
• Variable flow characteristics at various
• High velocity flow. stages.
• Narrow confined channels. • Stream acceleration at the structure.
• Accentuated impingement. Armor protection has proven effective to
prevent erosion of road approach
• Swift overflow.
embankments, supplemented if necessary
• Disturbed flow due to rock outcrops on by stream training devices such as guide
the banks or within the main channel. dikes, permeable retards or jetties to direct
the stream through the structure. The
• Alterations in flow patterns due to the
abutments should not depend on the
entrance of side streams into the main
training dikes to protect them from erosion
channel.
and scour. At bridge ends one of the more
Protective methods that have proven substantial armor types may be required,
effective are: but bridge approach embankments affected
only by overflow seldom require more than
• Rock slope protection.
a light revetment, such as a thin layer of
• Grouted-rock slope protection. rocky material, vegetation, or a fencing
along the toe of slope. For channel flow
• Walls of masonry and concrete.
control upstream, the size and type of
• Reticulated revetments. training system ranges from pile wings for
high velocity, through permeable jetties for
• Sacked concrete.
moderate velocity, to the earth dike suitable
• Cribs walls of various materials. for low velocity.
(2) Mature Valley. Typically mature valleys are The more common failures in this situation
broad V-shaped valleys with associated flood occur from:
plains. The gradient and velocity of the stream
are low to moderate. In addition to the general
May 1, 2001
• Lack of upstream control of channel increased. Constant exposure to even the

alignment. rippling of tiny waves may cause severe erosion
of some soils.
• Damage of unprotected embankments
by overflow and return flow. Older lakes normally have thick beds of
precipitated silt and organic matter. Bank
• Undercut foundations. protection along or across such lakes must be
• Formation of eddies at abrupt changes designed to suit the available foundation. It is
in channel. usually more practical to use lightweight or
self-adjusting armor types supported by the soft
• Stranding of drift in the converging bed materials than to excavate the mud to stiffer
channel. underlying soils.
(b) Parallel Location. Parallel highways along In fresh waters, effective protection can often
mature rivers are often situated on or be provided by the establishment of vegetation,
behind levees built, protected and but planners should not overlook the possibility
maintained by other agencies. Along other of moderate erosion before the vegetative cover
streams, rather extensive protective becomes established. A light armor treatment
measures may be required to control the should be adequate for this transitional period.
action of these meandering streams.
(4) Ocean Front Locations. Wave action is the
Channel change is an important factor in erosive force affecting the reliability of
locations parallel to mature streams. The highway locations along the coast. The
channel change may be to close an corrosive effect of salt water is also a major
embayment, to cut off an oxbow, or to shift concern for hydraulic structures located along
the alignment of a long reach of a stream. In the coastline. Headlands and rocks that have
any case, positive means must be adopted to historically withstood the relentless pounding of
prevent the return of the stream to its tide and waves can usually be relied on to
natural course. For a straight channel, the continue to protect adjacent highway locations
upstream end is critical, usually requiring founded upon them. The need for shore
bank protection equivalent to the facing of a protection structures is, therefore, generally
dam. On a curved channel change, all of limited to highway locations along the top or
the outer bend may be critical, requiring bottom of bluffs having a history of sloughing
continuous protection. For a channel much and along beach fronts.
shorter than the natural channel,
particularly for elimination of an oxbow, Beach protection considerations include:
the corresponding increase in gradient may • Attack by waves.
require drop structures along the bed to
prevent undercutting. For unusual channel • Littoral drift of the beach sands.
changes, preliminary plans and hydraulic • Seasonal shifts of the shore.
data must be submitted to FHWA for
approval (see Index 805.5). • Foundation for protective structures.
(3) Lakes and Tidal Basins. Highways adjacent to Wave attack on a beach is less severe than on a
lakes or basins may be at risk from wave headland, due to the gradual shoaling of the bed
generated erosion. All bodies of waters which trips incoming waves into a series of
generate waves. Height of waves is a function breakers called a surf.
of fetch and depth. Erosion along embankments Littoral drift of beach sands may either be an
behind shallow coves is reduced because the asset or a liability. If sand is plentiful, a new
higher waves break upon reaching a shoal in beach will be built in front of the highway
shallow water. The threat of erosion in deep embankment, reducing the depth of water at its
water at headlands or along causeways is toe and the corresponding height of the waves
May 1, 2001
attacking it. If sand supply is less plentiful or embankment face, or (3) off shore devices like
subject to seasonal variations, the new beach groins to aggrade the beach at embankment toe.
can be induced or retained by groins.
See Index 873.3(2) for further discussion on
If sand is in scant supply, backwash from a determining the size of rocks necessary in shore
revetment tends to degrade the beach or bed protection for various wave heights.
even more than the seasonal variation, and an
(5) Desert Wash Locations. Special consideration
allowance should be made for this scour when
should be given to highway locations across the
designing the revetment, both as to weight of
natural geographical features of desert washes,
stones and depth of foundation. Groins may be
sand dunes, and other similar regions
ineffective for such locations; if they succeeded
susceptible to intrinsic erosion.
in trapping some littoral drift, downcoast
beaches would recede from undernourishment. Desert washes are a prominent feature of the
physiography of California. Many long
Seasonal shifts of the shore line result from
stretches of highway are located across a
combinations of:
succession of outwash cones. Infrequent
• Ranges of tide. discharge is typically wide and shallow,
transporting large volumes of solids, both
• Reversal of littoral currents.
mineral and organic. Rather than bridge the
• Changed direction of prevailing onshore natural channels, the generally accepted
winds. technique is to concentrate the flow by a series
of guide dikes leading like a funnel to a
• Attack by swell. relatively short crossing.
Generally the shift is a recession, increasing the The important consideration at these locations
exposure of beach locations to the hazard of is instability of the channel (see Figure 872.2).
damage by wave action. On strands or along For a location at the top of a cone (Line A),
extensive embayments, recession at one end discharge is maximum, but the single channel
may result in deposition at the other. emerging from the uplands is usually stable.
Observations made during location assessment For a location at the bottom of the cone (Line
should include investigation of this C), instability is maximum with poor definition
phenomenon. For strands, the hazard may be of the channel, but discharge is reduced by
avoided by locating the highway on the infiltration and stream dispersion. The energy
backshore facing the lagoon. of the stream is usually dissipated so that any
Foundation conditions vary widely for beach protection required is minimal. The least
locations. On a receding shore, good bearing desirable location is midway between top and
may be found on soft but substantial rock bottom (Line B), where large discharge may
underlying a thin mantle of sand. Bed stones approach the highway in any of several old
and even gravity walls have been founded channels or break out on a new line. Control
successfully on such foundations. Spits and may require dikes continuously from the top of
strands, however, are radically different, often the cone to such a mid-cone site with slope
with softer clays or organic materials protection added near the highway where the
underlying the sand. Sand is usually plentiful at converging flow is accelerated.
such locations, subsidence is a greater hazard
than scour, and location should anticipate a
"floating" foundation for flexible, self-adjusting
types of protection.
In planning ocean-front locations, the primary
decision is a choice of (1) alignment far enough
inshore to avoid wave attack, (2) armor on the
May 1, 2001
environment, and geographic area. The data that is

Figure 872.2 collected and developed including preliminary
calculations, and alternatives considered should be
documented in project development reports
Alternative Highway Locations (Environmental Document, Project Report, etc.) or
Across Debris Cone as a minimum in the project file. These records
serve to guide the detailed designs, and provide
reference background for analysis of environmental
impacts and other needs such as permit applications
and historical documentation for any litigation
which may arise.
Recommendations for data needs can be requested
from the District Hydraulics Engineer or determined
from the following references: Chapter VI of the
FHWA publication, "Highways in the River
Environment", for a more complete discussion of
data needs for highway crossings and
encroachments on rivers. Further references to data
needs are contained in Chapter 810, Hydrology and
(A) crosses at a single definite channel, FHWA's Hydrology manual, HDS No. 2.
(B) a series of unstable indefinite channels and
(C) a widely dispersed and diminished flow.
Topic 873 - Design Concepts
Characteristics to be considered include: 873.1 Introduction

• The intensity of rainfall and subsequent No attempt will be made here to describe in detail
run-off. all of the various devices that have been used to
protect embankments against scour. Methods and
• The relatively large volumes of solids that devices not described may be used when justified
are carried in such run-off. by economical analysis. Not all publicized
• The lack of definition and permanence of treatments are necessarily suited to existing
the channel. conditions for a specific project.
• The scour depths that can be anticipated. A set of plans and specifications must be prepared
to define and describe the protection that the design
• The lack of good foundation. engineer has in mind. These plans should show
Effective protective methods include armor controlling factors and an end product in such detail
along the highway and at structures and the that there will be no dispute between the
probable need for baffles to control the construction engineer and contractor. To serve the
direction and velocity of flow. Installations of dual objectives of adequacy and economy, plans
rock, fence, palisades, slope paving, and dikes and specifications should be precise in defining
have been successful. materials to be incorporated in the work, and
flexible in describing methods of construction or
872.4 Data Needs conformance of the end product to working lines
and grades.
The types and amount of data needed for planning
and analysis of bank and shore protection varies Recommendations on channel lining, slope
from project to project depending upon the class protection, and erosion control materials can be
and extent of the proposed protection, site location requested from the District Hydraulics Engineer, the
District Materials Branch and the Erosion Control
May 1, 2001
and Geosynthetics Branch of the Engineering determining the design frequency, velocity,
Service Center. The Office of Landscape backwater, and other limiting factors should include
Architecture can be of assistance in selecting the an evaluation of the consequences of failure on the
best practices for temporary and permanent erosion highway facility and adjacent property. Stream
and sediment control measures. The Caltrans Joint stability and sediment transport of a watercourse are
Bank Protection Committee is available on request critical factors in the evaluation process that should
to provide expert advise on extraordinary situations be carefully weighted and documented. Designs
or problems. See Index 802.3 for further should not be based on an arbitrary storm or flood
information on the organization and functions of the frequency. Such designs imply that limiting factors
Committee and related risks have been adequately evaluated
which is seldom, if ever, the case.
Combinations of armor-type protection can be used,
the slope revetment being of one type and the A suggested starting point of reference for the
foundation treatment of another. The use of rigid, determination of the design high water level is that
non-flexible slope revetment may require a flexible, the protection withstand high water levels caused by
self-adjusting foundation for example: grouted rock meteorological conditions having a recurrence
on the slope with heavy rock foundation below, or interval of one-half the service life of the protected
PCC slope paving with a steel sheet-pile cutoff wall facility. For example, a modern highway
for foundation. embankment can reasonably be expected to have a
service life of 100 years or more. It would therefore
Bank protection may be damaged while serving its
be appropriate to base the preliminary evaluation on
primary purpose. Cheap replaceable facilities may
a high water elevation resulting from a storm or
be more economical than expensive permanent
flood with a 2 percent probability of exceedance (50
structures. However, an expensive structure may be
year frequency of recurrence). The first evaluation
economically warranted for highways carrying large
may have to be adjusted, either up or down, to
volumes of traffic or for which no detour is
conform with a subsequent analysis which considers
available.
the importance of the encroachment and level of
Cost of stone is extremely sensitive to location. related risks.
Variables are length of haul, efficiency of the
There is always some risk associated with the
quarry in producing acceptable sizes, royalty to
design of protection features. Special attention
quarry and, necessity for stockpiling and
must be given to life threatening risks such as those
rehandling. On some projects the stone is available
associated with floodplain encroachments.
in roadway excavation.
Significant floodplain risks are classified as those
Cost of stone is not very sensitive to size. having probability of:
Quarrying produces a wide range of sizes. If only a
light riprap is specified, the large stones have to be • Catastrophic failure with loss of life.
broken by spot blasting. If heavy riprap is required, • Disruption of fire and ambulance services or
the run of the quarry may be usable without closing of the only evacuation route available to
reblasting. With Method A placement, one 8 tonne a community.
stone can be set quicker than two 4 tonne stones.
Refer to Topic 804, Floodplain Encroachments, for
further discussion on evaluation of risks and
873.2 Design High Water and Hydraulics
impacts.
The most important, and often the most perplexing
(1) Streambank Locations. The velocity along the
obligation, in the design of bank and shore
banks of watercourses with smooth or
protection features is the determination of the
uniformly rough tangent reaches may only be a
appropriate design high water elevation to be used.
small percentage of the average stream velocity.
The design flood stage elevation should be chosen
However, local irregularities of the bank and
that best satisfies site conditions and level of risk
streambed may cause turbulence that can result
associated with the encroachment. The basis for
May 1, 2001
in the bank velocity being greater than that of should be based on the owners schedule of
the central thread of the stream. The location of operation.
these irregularities is not always permanent as
Except for inland tidal basins affected by
they may be caused by local scour, deposition
wind tides, floods and seiches, the static or
of rock and sand, or stranding of drift during
still-water level used for design of shore
high water changes. It is rarely economical to
protection is the highest tide. In tide tables,
protect against all possibilities and therefore
this is the stage of the highest tide above
some damage should always be anticipated
"tide-table datum" at MLLW. To convert
during high water stages.
this to MSL datum there must be subtracted
Essential to the design of streambank protection a datum equation (0.8 to 1.2 m) factor. If
is sufficient information on the characteristics datum differs from MSL datum, a further
of the watercourse under consideration. For correction is necessary. These steps should
proper analysis, information on the following be undertaken with care and independently
types of watercourse characteristics must be checked. Common errors are:
developed or obtained:
• Ignoring the datum equation.
• Design Discharge
• Adding the factor instead of subtracting
• Design High Water Level it.
• Flow Types • Using half the diurnal range as the stage
of high water.
• Channel Geometry
To clarify the determination of design high-
• Flow Resistance
water, Fig. 873.2A shows the Highest Tide
• Sediment Transport in its relation to an extreme-tide cycle and
to a hypothetical average-tide cycle,
Refer to Chapter 810, Hydrology, for a general
together with nomenclature pertinent to
discussion on hydrologic analysis and
three definitions of tidal range. Note that
specifically to Topic 817, Flood Magnitudes;
the cycles have two highs and two lows.
Topic 818, Flood Probability and Frequency;
The average of all the higher highs for a
and Topic 819, Estimating Design Discharge.
long period (preferably in multiples of the
For a detailed discussion on the fundamentals
19-yr. metonic cycle) is MHHW, and of all
of alluvial channel flow, refer to Chapter III,
the lower lows, MLLW. The vertical
"Highways in the River Environment", and to
difference between them is the diurnal
HEC-20, Stream Stability at Highway
range.
Structures, for further information on sediment
transport. Particularly on the Pacific coast where
MLLW is datum for tide tables, the stage of
(2) Ocean & Lake Shore Locations. Information
MHHW is numerically equal to diurnal
needed to design shore protection is:
range.
• Design High Water Level The average of all highs (indicated
• Design Wave Height graphically as the mean of higher high and
lower high) is the MHW, and of all the
(a) Design High Water Level. The flood stage lows, MLW. Vertical difference between
elevation on a lake or reservoir is usually these two stages is the mean range.
the result of inflow from upland runoff. If
the water stored in a reservoir is used for See Index 814.5, Tides and Waves, for
power generation, flood control, or information on where tide and wave data
irrigation, the design high water elevation may be obtained.
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.2A once in about 20-years. Economic and

risk considerations involved in selecting
Nomenclature of Tidal Ranges the design wave for a specific project
are basically the same as those used in
the analysis of other highway drainage
structures.
(2) Wave Distribution Predictions. Wave
prediction is called hindcasting when
based on past meteorological conditions
and forecasting when based on
predicted conditions. The same
procedures are used for hindcasting and
forecasting. The only difference is the
source of the meteorological data.
Reference is made to the Army Corps
of Engineers, Shore Protection Manual,
Volume 1, Chapter 3, for more
Because of the great variation of tidal elements, Figure 873.2A
was not drawn to scale.
complete information on the theory of
wave generation and predicting
The elevation of the design high tide may be taken as mean sea
techniques.
level (MSL) plus one-half the maximum tidal range (Rm).
The prediction of wave heights from
boat generated waves must be estimated
from observations.
(b) Design Wave Heights.
The surface of any large body of water
(1) General. Even for the simplest of will contain many waves differing in
cases, the estimation of water levels height, period, and direction of
caused by meteorological conditions is propagation. A representative wave
complex. Elaborate numerical models height used in the design of bank and
requiring the use of a computer are shore protection is the significant wave
available, but simplified techniques height, Hs. The significant wave height
may be used to predict acceptable wind is the average height of the highest one-
wave heights for the design of highway third of all the waves in a wave train for
protection facilities along the shores of the time interval (return frequency)
embayments, inland lakes, and under consideration. Thus, the design
reservoirs. It is recommended that for wave height generally used is the
ocean shore protection designs the significant wave height, Hs, for a 20-
assistance of the U.S. Army Corp of year return period.
Engineers be requested.
Other design wave heights can also be
Shore protection structures are designated, such as H10 and H1. The
generally designed to withstand the
H10 design wave is the average of the
wave that induces the highest forces on
the structure over its economic service highest 10 percent of all waves, and the
life. The design wave is analogous to H1 design wave is the average of the
the design storm considerations for highest 1 percent of all waves. The
determining return frequency. A relationship of H10 and H1 to Hs can be
starting point of reference for shore approximated as follows:
protection design is the maximum H = 1.27 H and H = 1.67 H
significant wave height that can occur 10 s 1 s
May 1, 2001
Economics and risk of catastrophic durations is usually available from

failure are the primary considerations in weather stations, airports, and
designating the design wave average major dams and reservoirs.
height.
The following assumptions pertain
(3) Wave Characteristics. Wave height to these simplified methods:
estimates are based on wave
characteristics that may be derived from • The fetch is short, 120 km or
an analysis of the following data: less
• The wind is uniform and
• Wave gage records
constant over the fetch.
• Visual observations
It should be recognized that these
• Published wave hindcasts conditions are rarely met and wind
fields are not usually estimated
• Wave forecasts
accurately. The designer should
• Maximum breaking wave at the site therefore not assume that the results
are more accurate than warranted
(4) Predicting Wind Generated Waves.
by the accuracy of the input and
The height of wind generated waves is
simplicity of the method. Good,
a function of fetch length, windspeed,
unbiased estimates of all wind
wind duration, and the depth of the
generated wave parameters should
water.
be sought and the cumulative
(a) Hindcasting -- The U.S. Army Corp results conservatively interpreted.
of Engineers has historical records The individual input parameters
of onshore and offshore weather should not each be estimated
and wave observations for most of conservatively, since this may bias
the California coastline. Design the result.
wave height predictions for coastal
The applicability of a wave
shore protection facilities should be
forecasting method depends on the
made using this information and
available wind data, water depth,
hindcasting methods. Deep-water
and overland topography. Water
ocean wave characteristics derived
depth affects wave generation and
from offshore data analysis may
for a given set of wind and fetch
need to be transformed to the
conditions, wave heights will be
project site by refraction and
smaller and wave periods shorter if
diffraction techniques. As
the wave generation takes place in
mentioned previously, it is strongly
transitional or shallow water rather
advised that the Corps technical
than in deep water.
expertise be obtained so that the
data are properly interpreted and The height of wind generated
used. waves may also be fetch-limited or
duration-limited. Selection of an
(b) Forecasting -- Simplified wind
appropriate design wave may
wave prediction techniques may be
require a maximization procedure
used to establish probable wave
considering depth of water, wind
conditions for the design of
direction, wind duration, wind-
highway protection on bays, lakes
speed, and fetch length.
and other inland bodies of water.
Wind data for use in determining Procedures for predicting wind
design wind velocities and generated waves are complex and
May 1, 2001
our understanding and ability to height or the forecasted or hindcasted

describe wave phenomena, espe- wave height.
cially in the region of the coastal
The relationship of the maximum height
zone, is limited. Many aspects of
of breaker which will expend its energy
physics and fluid mechanics of
upon the protection, Hb, and the depth
wave energy have only minor
influence on the design of shore of water at the slope protection, ds,
protection for highway purposes. which the wave must pass over are
Designers interested in a more illustrated in Figure 873.2C.
complete discussion on the The following diagram, with some
rudiments of wave mechanics specific references to the SPM,
should consult the U.S.Army Corps summarizes an overly simplified
of Engineers' Shore Protection procedure that may be used for highway
Manual (SPM), Volume I, 1984. purposes to estimate wind generated
There is no single theory for the waves and establish a design wave
forecasting of wind generated height for shore protection.
waves for relatively shallow water.
Determining Design Wave
Until further research results are
available the interim SPM method
for wave forecasting in shallow- WAVE FORECASTING
water represented in Figures 3-27
through 3-36 in the SPM is DATA NEEDS
• Wind Speed
recommended. This method uses • Wind Duration
• Fetch
deepwater forecasting relationships
and is based on successive ADJUST WIND SPEED
• SPM Pgs. 3-24 thru 3-33
approximations in which wave
energy is added due to wind stress • Select Design Wind/Duration
and subtracted due to bottom • Determine Fetch
friction and percolation. USE FIGURE 873.2A
An initial estimate of wind WAVE HEIGHT WAVE HEIGHT

(Duration Limited) (Fetch Limited)
generated significant wave heights
can be made by using Figure USE
Lesser Wave Height
873.2B. If the estimated wave
if < 0.6 m Wave if > 0.6 m Wave
height from the nomogram is
greater than 0.6 m, the procedure Water Depth Water Depth
if 1.5 m - 15 m if >15 m
may need to be refined. It is SPM Figs. SPM Fig. 3-24
3-27 thru 3-36
recommended that advice from the
Army Corps of Engineers be
ADJUSTMENTS
obtained to refine significant wave • SPM Pgs. 3-66 thru 3-77
• Fetch
heights, Hs, greater than 0.6 m. • Wave Growth
• Wave Decay
WAVE FORECASTING
(5) Breaking Waves. Wave heights derived
from hindcasts or any forecasting SIGNIFICANT BREAKING WAVE
WAVE HEIGHT, Hs Height, Hb (Figure 873.2B)
method should be checked against the
maximum breaking wave that the
design stillwater level depth and Use Smaller Value
of Hs or Hb
nearshore bottom slope can support.
The design wave height will be the DESIGN WAVE, Hd
smaller of either the maximum breaker
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.2B
Significant Wave Height Prediction Nomograph

May 1, 2001
Figure 873.2C (6) Wave Run-up. An estimate of wave

run-up, in addition to design wave
Design Breaker Wave height, may also be necessary to
establish the top elevation of highway
slope protection.
Wave run-up is a function of the
design wave height, the wave period,
bank angle, and the roughness of the
embankment protection material. For
wave heights of 0.6 m or less wave
run-up can be estimated by using
Figure 873.2D and appropriate
correction factor. The wave run-up
height given on the chart is for smooth
concrete pavement. Correction factors
for reducing the height of run-up for
other armor revetment materials are
Example provided in the table. This simple
By using hindcast methods, the significant method of estimating wave runup is
wave height (Hs) has been estimated at 1.2 m adequate for most highway projects.
with a 3 second period. Find the design The application of more detailed
wave height (Hd) for the slope protection if procedures is rarely justified, but if
the depth of water (d) is only 0.6 m and the needed they are provided in the U.S.
nearshore slope (m) is 1:10. Army Corps of Engineers manual,
Design of Coastal Revetments,
Solution
ds 0.6 m Seawalls, and Bulkheads.
2 = 2 2 = 0.007 (c) Littoral Processes. Littoral processes
T (9.81 m/s ) x (3 sec)
g result from the interaction of winds,
From Graph) - Hb/ds = 1.4
waves, currents, tides, and the
availability of sediment. The rates at
Hb = 0.6 x 1.4 = 0.8 m
which sediment is supplied to and
Answer
Since the maximum breaker wave height, Hb, removed from the shore may cause
is smaller than the significant deepwater excessive accretion or erosion that can
wave height, Hs, the design wave height Hd effect the structural integrity of shore
is 0.8 m. protection structures or functional
T = Wave Period (SPM) usefulness of a beach. The aim of
good shore protection design is to
maintain a stable shoreline where the
volume of sediment supplied to the
shore balances that which is removed.
Designers interested in a more
complete discussion on littoral
processes should consult the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers' Shore
Protection Manual (SPM), Volume I,
Chapter 4.
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.2D 873.3 Armor Protection

Wave Run-up on Smooth (1) General. Armor is the artificial surfacing of
Impermeable Slope bed, banks, shore or embankment to resist
erosion or scour. Armor devices can be
flexible (self adjusting) or rigid.
(a) Flexible Types.
• Rock slope protection.
• Broken concrete slope protection.
• Broken concrete, uncoursed.
• Gabions. (Standard Plan D100A and
D100B.)
• Precast concrete articulated blocks.
• Various reticulated revetment systems.
(b) Rigid Types.
• PCC grouted rock slope protection.
• Sacked concrete slope protection
(Standard Plan D101).
• Concrete slope protection (Standard
SLOPE PLACEMENT CORRECTION Plan D101).
SURFACE METHOD FACTOR
MATERIAL • Fabric-formed slope protection.
TYPE
• Air-blown mortar.
Concerte -- 1.00
Pavement • Soil cement slope protection.
Concrete blocks fitted 0.90 • Precast concrete cells -- filled.
(Voids < 20%)
Concrete blocks fitted 0.70 (c) Other Armor types:
(20% <Voids > 40%) (1) Channel Liners and Vegetation.
Concrete blocks fitted 1.50 Temporary channel lining can be used
(40% <Voids > 60%) to promote vegetative growth in a
Gobi Blocks fitted 0.85 - 0.90 drainage way or as protection prior to
Grass -- 0.85 - 0.90 the placement of permanent armoring.
Rock riprap random 0.60 This type of lining is used where an
(angular) ordinary seeding and mulch
Rock riprap random 0.70 application would not be expected to
(round) withstand the force of the channel
Rock riprap (hand keyed 0.80 flow. In addition to the following,
placd or keyed) other suitable products of natural or
Grouted rock -- 0.90 synthetic materials are available that
Wire enclosed -- 0.80 may be used as temporary or
rocks/gabions permanent channel liners.
May 1, 2001
• Excelsior existing conditions and/or by

• Jute measuring velocities along the bank.
• Paper mats The terminal should be located to
conform to outcroppings of erosion-
• Fiberglass roving
resistant materials, trees, shrubs or
• Geosynthetic mats or cells other indications of stability.
• Pre-cast concrete blocks or cells
In general, the upstream terminal on
• Brush layering bends in the stream will be some
• Rock riprap in smaller stone distance upstream from the point of
sizes impingement or the beginning of curve
(2) Bulkheads. The bulkhead types are where the effect of erosion is no longer
steep or vertical structures, like damaging.
retaining walls, that support natural (4) When possible the downstream
slopes or constructed embankments terminal should be made downstream
which include the following: from the end of the curve and against
• Gravity or pile supported outcroppings, erosion-resistant
concrete or masonry walls. materials, or returned securely into the
bank so as to prevent erosion by eddy
• Crib walls currents and velocity changes
• Sheet piling occurring in the transition length.
• Sea Walls (5) The encroachment of embankment into
(d) General Design Criteria. In selecting the the stream channel must be considered
type of flexible or rigid armor protection to with respect to its effect on the
use the following characteristics are conveyance of the stream and possible
important design considerations. damaging effect on properties
upstream due to backwater and
(1) The lower limit of armor should be downstream due to increased stream
below anticipated scour or on bedrock. velocity or redirected stream flow.
If for any reason this is not
economically feasible, a reasonable (6) A smooth surface will accelerate
degree of security can be obtained by velocity along the bank, requiring
placement of additional quantities of additional protection at the
heavy rock at the toe which can settle downstream terminal. Rougher
vertically as scour occurs. surfaces tend to keep the thread of the
stream toward the center of the
(2) In the case of slope paving or any channel.
expensive revetment which might be
seriously damaged by overtopping and (7) Heavy-duty armor used in exposures
subsequent erosion of underlying along the ocean shore may be
embankment, extension above design influenced or dictated by economics,
high water may be warranted. The or the feasibility of handling heavy
usual limit of extension for streambank individual units.
protection above design high water is (2) Flexible Revetments.
0.3 to 0.6 m in unconstricted reaches
and 0.6 to 1.0 m in constricted reaches. (a) Streambank Rock Slope Protection.
(3) The upstream terminal can be (1) General Features. This kind of
determined best by observation of protection, commonly called riprap,
consists of rock courses placed upon
May 1, 2001
the embankment or the natural slope • Depth at which the stones are
along a stream. Rock, as a slope founded (bottom of toe trench).
protection material, has a number of
desireable features which have led to • Elevation at the top of protection.
its widespread application. • Thickness of protection.
It is usually the most economical type • Need for geotextile and backing
of revetment where stones of sufficient material.
size and quality are available, it also
has the following advantages: • Face slope.
• It is flexible and is not impaired (a) Placement -- Two different

nor weakened by slight movement methods of placement for rock
of the embankment resulting from slope protection are allowed under
settlement or other minor Section 72 of the Standard
adjustments. Specifications: Placement under
Method A requires considerable
• Local damage or loss is easily care, judgment, and precision and
repaired by the addition of rock is consequently more expensive
where required. than Method B. Method A should
be specified for heavy duty
• Construction is not complicated
installations.
and no special equipment or
construction practices are Under some circumstances the
necessary. costs of placing rock slope
protection with refinement are not
• Appearance is natural, and usually
justified and Method B placement
acceptable in recreational areas.
can be specified. To compensate
• If exposed to fresh water, for a partial loss and assure
vegetation may be induced to grow stability and a reasonably secure
through the rocks adding structural protection, the thickness is
value to the embankment material increased over the more precise
and restoring natural roughness. Method A.
• Additional thickness can be (b) Foundation Treatment -- The
provided at the toe to offset foundation excavation must afford
possible scour when it is not a stable base on bedrock or extend
feasible to found it upon bedrock below anticipated scour.
or below anticipated scour. Terminals of revetments are often
• Wave run-up is less than with destroyed by eddy currents and
smooth types (See Figure 873.2D). other turbulence because of
nonconformance with natural
• It is salvageable, may be banks. Terminals should be
stockpiled and reused if necessary. secured by transitions to stable
In designing the rock slope protection bank formations, or the end of the
for a given embankment the following revetment should be reinforced by
determinations are to be made for the returns of thickened edges.
typical section. (c) Embankment Considerations --
• Size of stone (may vary between Embankment material is not
top and bottom). normally carried out over the rock
slope protection so that the rock
May 1, 2001
becomes part of the fill. With this is generally the case with Method
type of construction fill material B placement. With Method B
can filter down through the voids placement, most of the finer
of the large stones and that portion material will naturally settle to the
of the fill above the rocks could be bottom and coarser stones will
lost. If it is necessary to carry work to the outside. Consult the
embankment material out over the District Hydraulics Engineer
rock slope protection a geotextile and/or the District Materials
is required to prevent the loses of Branch on the need for fabric or
fill material. rock backing.
The embankment fill slope is When fabric is used with rock
usually determined from other slope protection classes 1/2 T or
considerations such as the angle of larger, a layer of rock backing is
repose for embankment material, needed to anchor the fabric.
or the normal 1:2 specified for Backing material must be sized so
high-standard roads. If the that it will not work out through
necessary size of rock for the given the voids of the large stones
exposure is not locally available, overlaying it. For very large
consideration should be given to classes of protection with severe
flattening of the embankment slope exposure it may be appropriate to
to allow a smaller size stone, or use a smaller class of rock slope
substitution of other types of protection to perform the backing
protection. On high embankments, and bedding function.
alternate sections on several slopes Determining the need for fabric,
should be compared, practically rock backing, or multiple layers of
and economically; flatter slopes rock slope protection requires
require smaller stones in thinner sound engineering judgment in
sections, but at the expense of evaluating the character of the
longer slopes, a lower toe embankment or native material
elevation, increased embankment, being protected, the slope rate of
and perhaps additional right of the embankment, the relative
way. importance and risk of loss of the
protected facility as well as the
(d) Rock Slope Protection Fabric and
cost of the protective works
Rock Backing -- Rock Slope
relative to the protected facility.
protection fabric and/or rock
backing can be used directly on the Rock slope protection and rock
slope to prevent the erosion of the backing material stone sizes,
underlying embankment material gradings and quality requirements
or native material through the are contained in Section 72-2.02 of
voids of the rock slope protection. the Standard Specifications.
They may be warranted where
(2) Streambank Protection Design. In the
embankment material is not
lower reaches of larger rivers wave
cohesive, or where the slope
action resulting from navigation or
protection is subject to wave
wind blowing over long reaches may
action. They may not be necessary
be much more serious than velocity. A
if the slope protection is graded
0.6 m wave, for example, is more
from fine to coarse from
damaging than direct impingement of a
embankment to water exposure as
current flowing at 3 m/s.
May 1, 2001
Well designed streambank rock slope • Reinforce critical zones on outer

protection should: bends subject to impingement
attack, using heavier stones,
• Assure stability and compatibility
thicker section, and deeper toe.
of the protected bank as an integral
part of the channel as a whole. (a) Stone Size -- Where current
The ideal for stability is a gently velocity governs, rock size may be
curved channel with its outer bank estimated by using the nomogragh,
rougher and tougher than the inner Figure 873.3A, and Table 873.3B.
bank.
The nomograph is derived from the
• Connect to natural bank, bridge following formula:
abutments or adjoining
improvements with transitions 6 3
0.00002 V sg csc (β - α)
designed to ease differentials in r
alignment, grade, slope and W = (sg - 1)3
roughness of banks. r
Where:
• Eliminate or ease local
embayments and capes so as to sg = specific gravity of stones.
r
streamline the protected bank. α = angle of face slope from the
• Consider the effects of backwater horizontal, see Figure 873.3B.
above constrictions, β = 70o for broken rock.
superelevations on bends, as well W = Weight of minimum stone in
as tolerance of occasional lbs.; 2/3 of stones should be
overtopping. heavier.
• Not be placed on a slope steeper V = Velocity of water in ft/sec.
than 1:1.5. Flatter slopes (see
NOTE:
Figure 873.3A) use lighter stones The formula provided above, and the
in a thinner section and encourage nomograph in Figure 873.3A have not been
overgrowth of vegetation, but may converted to the Metric System.
not be permissible in narrow
channels.
Where wave action is dominant,
• Use stone of adequate mass to design of rock slope protection
resist erosion, derived from Figure should proceed as described for
873.3A or Table 873.3B. shore protection.
• Prevent loss of bank materials
(b) Design Height -- The top of rock
through interstitial spaces of the
slope protection along a stream
revetment. Rock slope protection
bank should be carried to the
fabric and multiple layers of
elevation of the design high water.
backing should be used where
The flood stage elevation adopted
appropriate.
for design may be based on an
• Rest on a good foundation on empirically derived frequency of
bedrock or extend below the depth recurrence (probability of
of probable scour. If questionable, exceedance) or historic high water
use heavy bed stones and provide a marks. This stage may be
wide base section with a reserve of exceeded during infrequent floods,
material to slough into local scour but overtopping seldom damages a
holes. well-designed pervious revetment.
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.3A
Nomograph of Stream-Bank Rock Slope Protection
May 1, 2001
Table 873.3B
Rock Slope Protection Design Guide
Mean PARALLEL FLOW ALONG TANGENT BANK IMPINGEMENT FLOW AGAINST CURVED BANK
Stream Bank Minimum Protection Placement Section Bank Minimum Protection Placement Section
Velocity Velocity Stone Class Method Thickness Velocity Stone Class Method Thickness
VM VA W WC T VB W WC T
fps fps lb A or B ft fps lb or T A or B ft
4.5 3 None 6 3 lb None
6 4 None 8 15 Facing B 1.8
7.5 5 1 None 10 57 1/4 ton B 3.3
9 6 3 None 12 170 1/4 ton B 3.3
10.5 7 7 Facing B 1.8 14 430 1/2 ton A 3.3
B 4.2
12 8 15 Facing B 1.8 16 950 1 ton A 4.2
B 5.3
13.5 9 30 Light B 2.5 18 1.0 T 2 ton A 5.3
15 10 57 1/4 ton B 3.3 20 1.8 4 ton A 6.7
18 12 170 1/4 ton B 3.3 24 5.5 8 ton A 8.3
21 14 430 1/2 ton A 3.3 28 13.7 Special
B 4.2
24 16 950 1 ton A 4.2 32 30.4 Special
B 5.3
NOTES:
1. All Values in Figure 873.3A and Table 873.3B are in U.S. Customary Units. Conversions to the S.I. System are; 1 ft. =
0.305 m
1 lb. = 0.454 kg
1 ton = 0.907 tonne
2. See Section 72 of the Standard Specifications for Gradations of the Protection Classes (WC) indicated.
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.3C
Rock Slope Protection
Notes:
(1) If necessary. See text. (4) Bed stone is 50% to 100% heavier than face stone.
(2) Thickness "T" from Table 873.3B. (5) This is not a standard design. Dimensions
(3) Face stone is determined from Figure 873.3D. and details should be modified as required.
May 1, 2001
Design high water should not be protection above. Even though

based on an arbitrary storm rock is self-adjusting, the bearing
frequency alone, but should of one rock to another may be lost.
consider the cost of carrying the It is often necessary to construct
protection to this height, the the toe or foundation to an
probable duration and damage if elevation approximating high tide
overtopped, and the importance of in advance of embankment
the facility. construction to prevent erosion of
the embankment.
The practice of using an arbitrary
height of freeboard as a factor of (2) Shore Protection Design.
safety is not logical. For example,
(a) Stone Size -- For deep-water
an arbitrary 0.6 m freeboard may
waves that are shoaling as they
decrease the probability of
approach the protection the
overtopping from one that would
required stone size may be
be caused by a 50-yr flood to one
determined by Using Chart B,
that would be caused by a 60-yr
Figure 873.3D.
flood in one case, but from one
that would be caused by a 50-yr The nomograph is derived from the
flood to one that would be caused following formula:
by a 1000-yr flood in another case.
Freeboard may be more generous
3 3
along freeways, on bottleneck 0.003 d sg csc (β - α)
s r
routes, on the outside bends of
W= 3
channels, or around critical [(sg /sg ) - 1 ]
r w
bridges. Where:
Design high water should be d = maximum depth in feet of water at
s
adjusted to the site based on sound toe of the rock slope protection,
engineering judgement. see Figure 873.3C.
sg = specific gravity of stones
(b) Rock Slope Shore Protection. r
sg = specific gravity of water (sea water
(1) General Features. Rock slope w
= 1.0265)
protection when used for shore
α = angle of face slope from the
protection, in addition to the general horizontal, see Figure 873.3C.
advantages listed previously for
β = 70o for broken rock
streambank rock slope protection,
W = minimum weight in tons of outside
reduces wave runup as compared to
stones
smooth types of protection.
NOTE:
(a) Method A placement is normally The formula provided above, and the
specified for shore protection. Nomograph in figure 873.3D have not been
(b) Foundation treatment in shore converted to the metric system.
protection may be controlled by
tidal action as well as excavation In general, ds will be the difference
difficulties and production will be between the elevation of the scour
limited to only two or three toe or line at the toe and the maximum
foundation rocks per tide cycle. If stillwater level. For ocean shore,
toe rocks are not properly bedded, ds may be taken as the distance
the subsequent vertical adjustment from the scour line to mean sea
may be detrimental to the
May 1, 2001
level plus one-half the maximum or to an elevation equal to the

tidal range. maximum depth of water plus the
deep-water wave height (ds + Hd),
If the deep-water waves reach the
protection, the stone size may be whichever is the lower. See Figure
determined by using Chart A, 873.3C.
Figure 873.3D. The nomograph is Consideration should also be given
derived from the following to protecting the bank above the
formula: rock slope protection from splash
3 3 and spray.
0.00231 H sg csc (β - α)
d r
W= 3 Thickness of the protection must
[(sg /sg ) - 1 ] be sufficient to accommodate the
r w
Where: largest stones. For typical
H = design wave in feet, (See Index conditions the thickness required
d
873.2). for the various sizes are shown on
Table 873.3B. Except for toes on
NOTE:
The formula provided above, and the questionable foundation, as
Nomograph in figure 873.3D have not been explained above, additional
converted to the metric system. thickness will not compensate for
undersized stones. When properly
constructed, the largest stones will
If in doubt whether waves
be on the outside, and if the wave
generated by fetch and wind
forces displace these, additional
velocity will be of sufficient size
thickness will only add slightly to
to be affected by shoaling, use
the time of failure. As the lower
both charts and adopt the smaller
portion of the slope protection is
value.
subjected to the greater forces, it
(b) Dimensions -- Rock should be will usually be economical to
founded in a toe trench dug to hard specify larger stones in this portion
rock or keyed into soft rock. If and somewhat smaller stones in
bedrock is not within reach, the toe the upper portion. The important
should be carried below the factor in this economy is that a
estimated depth of probable scour. thinner section may be used for the
If the scour depth is questionable, smaller stones. If the section is
additional thickness of rock may tapered from bottom to top, the
be placed at the toe which will larger stones can be selected from
adjust and provide deeper support. a single graded supply.
In determining the elevation of the
(c) Gabions. Gabion revetments
scoured beach line the designer
consist of rectangular wire mesh
should observe conditions during
baskets filled with stone. Size and
the winter season, consult records,
grade of stone shall be as
or ask persons who have a
designated by the district materials
knowledge of past conditions.
department or hydraulics depart-
Wave run-up is reduced by the ment. See Standard Plan D100A
rough surface of rock slope and D100B for Gabion Basket
protection. In order that the wash Details.
will not top the rock, it should be
carried up to an elevation of twice
the maximum depth of water (2ds)
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.3D
Nomographs For Design of Rock Slope Shore Protection
May 1, 2001
Gabions are formed by filling revetments may be economically

commercially fabricated and justified where suitable rock for
preassembled wire baskets with slope protection is not readily
rock. There are two types of available. They are generally more
gabions, wall type and mattress aesthetically pleasing than other
type. In wall type the empty cells types of revetment, particularly
are positioned and filled in place to after vegetation has become
form walls in a stepped fashion. established.
Mattress type baskets are
Individual blocks are commonly
positioned on the slope and filled.
joined together with cable or
Wall type revetment is not fully
synthetic fiber rope, to form
self adjusting but has some
articulated block mattresses. Pre-
flexibility. The mattress type is
assembled in sections to fit the
very flexible. For some locations,
site, the mattresses can be used on
gabions may be more aesthetically
slopes up to 1:1.5 when anchored
acceptable than rock riprap.
at the top of the revetment to
Where larger stone sizes are not
secure the system against slippage.
readily available and the flow does
not abrade the wire baskets, they Pre-cast block revetments that are
may also be more cost effective. formed by butting individual
The range of maximum velocities blocks end to end, with no physical
recommended for use of gabions is connection, should not be used on
3.0 m/s for sustained flows and slopes steeper than 1:3. An
4.5 m/s for intermittent flows. engineering fabric is normally used
on the slope to prevent the erosion
Refer to HEC-11, Design of
of the underlying embankment
Riprap Revetment, Section 6.1.2,
through the voids in the concrete
for further discussion on the use of
blocks.
gabions for slope protection.
Refer to HEC-11, Design of
(d) Articulated Precast Concrete. This
Riprap Revetment, Section 6.2, for
type of revetment consists of pre-
further discussion on the use of
cast concrete blocks which
articulated concrete mattresses.
interlock with each other, are
attached to each other, or butted (3) Rigid Revetments.
together to form a continuous (a) PCC Grouted Rock Slope Protection.
blanket or mat. A number of block
designs are commercially avail- (1) General Features. This type of
able. They differ in shape and revetment consists of rock slope
method of articulation, but share protection with outer voids filled with
common features of flexibility and PCC to form a monolithic armor. A
rapid installation. Most provide typical section of this type of
for establishment of vegetation installation is shown in Figure 873.3E.
within the revetment. It has application in areas where rock
of sufficient size for ordinary rock
The permeable nature of these slope protection is not economically
revetments permits free draining of available, and in other areas to reduce
the embankment and their the quantity of rock. Grouting not only
flexibility allows the mat to adjust protects the stones from the full force
to minor changes in bank of high-velocity water but integrates a
geometry. Pre-cast concrete block greater mass to resist its pressure.
May 1, 2001
must be founded on solid rock or

below the depth of possible scour.
Ends should be protected by tying into
Figure 873.3E solid rock or forming smooth
transitions with embankment subjected
to lower velocities. As a precaution,
PCC Grouted Rock Slope cutoff stubs may be provided as are
Protection used with sacked PCC slope
protection. If the embankment
material is exposed at the top,
freeboard is warranted to prevent
overtopping.
The volume of concrete required will
be that necessary to fill voids. This
usually amounts to from 0.25 to 0.33
times the volume of the stone to be
grouted.
(3) Specifications. Quality specifications
for rock used in PCC grouted rock
slope protection are usually the same
as for rock used in ordinary rock slope
Notes: protection. However, as the rocks are
(1) Only if needed (see text).
protected by the concrete which
(2) If needed to relieve hydrostatic pressure.
surrounds them, specifications for
Refer to Table 873.3B for section thickness. specific gravity and hardness may be
This is not a standard design. Dimensions and details should lowered if necessary. The concrete
be modified as required. used to fill the voids is normally 25
mm maximum size aggregate, class B
or minor concrete. Except for freeze-
(2) Design Concepts. Grouting will thaw testing of aggregates, which may
appreciably increase the cost per unit be waived in the contract special
volume of stone, but the use of smaller provisions, the concrete should
stones in PCC grouted rock slope conform to the provisions of Standard
protection than in an equivalent Specifications section 90, "Portland
protection using ungrouted stones Cement Concrete."
permits a lesser thickness of
protection, which offsets to some Size and grading of stone and PCC
extent the cost of PCC. penetration depth are provided in
Standard Specification 72-5.
As this type of protection is rigid
without high strength, support by the
embankment must be maintained.
Slopes steeper than the angle of repose
of the embankment are risky, but with
rocks grouted in place, little is to be
gained with slopes flatter than 1:1.5.
Precautions to prevent undermining of
embankment are particularly
important. The PCC grouted rock
May 1, 2001
(b) Sacked-Concrete Slope Protection. This below the flow line of the stream is
method of protection consists of facing the common practice.
embankment with sacks filled with
If the ends are not tied into rock or other
concrete. It is an expensive but much used
nonerosive material, cutoff returns are to
type of revetment. Much hand labor is
be provided and if the protection is long,
required but it is simple to construct and
cutoff stubs are built at 10 m intervals, in
adaptable to almost any embankment
order to prevent or retard a progressive
contour. Economic justification for this
failure.
type of revetment often depends upon the
use of local pit-run material for aggregate, Protection should be high enough to
which need not conform to that ordinarily preclude overtopping. If the roadway
associated with structural concrete. grade is subject to flooding and the
Details of sacked concrete slope protection shoulder material does not contain
are shown on Standard Plan D101. sufficient rock to prevent erosion from the
top, then pavement should be carried over
Tensile strength is low and as there is no
the top of the slope protection in order to
flexibility, the installation must depend
prevent water entering from this direction
almost entirely upon the stability of the
embankment for support and therefore For good appearance, it is essential that the
should not be placed on face slopes much sacks be placed in horizontal courses. If
steeper than the angle of repose of the the foundation is irregular, corrective work
embankment material. Slopes steeper than such as placement of entrenched concrete
1:1 are rare; 1:1.5 is common. The flatter or sacked concrete is necessary to level up
the slope, the less is the area of bond the foundation. Refer to "Highways in the
between sacks. From a construction River Environment", Section 5.3.4, for
standpoint it is not practical to increase the further discussion on the use of sacked
area of bond between sacks; therefore for concrete slope protection.
slopes as flat as 1:2 all sacks should be laid (c) Concrete Slope Paving.
as headers rather than stretchers.
(1) General Features. This method of
Integrity of the revetment can be increased protection consists of paving the
by embedding dowels in adjoining sacks to embankment with portland cement
reinforce intersack bond. A No. 10 concrete. Details of concrete slope
deformed bar driven through a top sack protection are shown on Standard Plan
into the underlying sack while the concrete D101. Slope paving is used only
is still fresh is effective. At cold joints, the where flow is controlled and will not
first course of sacks should be impaled on over-top the protection.
projecting bars that were driven into the
last previously placed course. The extra It is particularly adaptable to locations
strength may only be needed at the where high-velocity flow is not detri-
perimeter of the revetment. mental but desirable and the hydraulic
efficiency of smooth surfaces is
Almost all failures of sacked concrete are a important. It has been used very little
result of stream water eroding the in shore protection. On a cubic meter
embankment material from the bottom, the basis the cost is high but as the
ends, or the top. thickness is generally only 75 to 150
The bottom should be founded on bedrock mm, the cost on a basis of area covered
or below the depth of possible scour. In will usually be less than for sacked-
the case where streambed sands have concrete slope protection. This is
normal specific gravity a depth of 1.5 m especially so when sufficiently large
quantities are involved and alignment
May 1, 2001
is such as to warrant the use of mass fine aggregate concrete into the inplace
production equipment such as slip- fabric mat. Fabric mattresses are made in
form pavers. 50 to 300 mm thickness and in a variety of
block sizes and configurations.
Due to the rigidity of PCC slope
paving, its foundation must be good Hydrostatic uplift pressure is relieved
and the embankment stable. Although through filter points or plastic weep tubes
reinforcement will enable it to bridge inserted in the mats. A filter fabric is used
small settlements of the embankment under the mat when relief of hydrostatic
face, even moderate movements could pressure is necessary.
be disastrous. The toe must be on
bedrock or extend below possible Table 873.3F
scour. When this is not feasible
without costly underwater construc- Channel Linings
tion, rock or PCC grouted RSP have
been used as a foundation. A better Mean Thickness of Lining (mm) Minimum
Velocity Reinforcement
but much more expensive solution is to (m/s)
place the toe on a PCC wall or piles. Sides Bottom
Every precaution must be taken to
Portland Cement Concrete
exclude stream water from pervious
or Air Blown Mortar
zones behind the slope paving. The
light slabs will be lifted by <3 75 -90 90 - 100 152x152-
comparatively small hydrostatic MW19.4 x
pressures, opening joints or cracks at MW19.4
other points in a series of progressive welded wire
Fabric
failures leading to extensive or
complete failure. 3 - 4.5 100 -125 125 -150 #15 Bars at
300 mm and
Considering the severity of failure 450 mm
from bank erosion or hydrostatic centers
pressure after overtopping, 0.3 to 0.6 m
4.5 or 150 - 200 175 - 200 #10 Bars at
of freeboard above design high water
more 300 mm
is recommended for this type of centers
revetment. Refer to HEC-11, Design both ways
of Riprap Revetment, Section 6.4, for
further discussion on the use of
concrete slope paving. A major advantage of this type revetment
is the ease of placement. It may be placed
(d) Fabric Formed Protection. This method of in the dry or underwater. The fabric weave
protection uses sectionalized fabric is such that it will restrain cement loss
mattresses filled with a fine aggregate while permitting the release of excess
concrete as facing for embankment, river mixing water which improves the quality
bank, and lake shore. Fabric formed slope of the concrete.
paving is a relatively new and cost
effective alternative to conventional slope A secondary advantage is that sufficient
paving methods. silt and soil is often deposited in the
mattress indentations to support
A double-layered envelope of nylon, vegetation. As a result, the root systems
polypropylene or other suitable synthetic that develop help anchor the mattress.
fabric is laid on the area to be protected
then filled. Filling consists of pumping a
May 1, 2001
Three most common types of fabric formed width, w, layer thickness and embankment
mattress configurations are shown in slope is shown in Figure 873.3H.
Figure 873.3G.
Soil cement slope protection is to be
(e) Soil Cement Slope Protection. This kind founded on nonerodible material or below
of slope protection consists of constructing the depth of possible scour to ensure
the outer limit of highway embankments against undermining of the toe.
with compacted cement treated material. Consideration should be made to providing
Standard highway construction equipment cutoff stubs at the ends of the installation
may be used to place and compact soil to prevent undercutting by waves or
cement slope protection on 1:1.5 to 1:4 current.
slopes. Where rock riprap material is not
In addition to economy, the following are
readily available, soil cement slope
some of the other advantages to using soil
protection may be the most economical
cement revetments:
alternative type revetment. Soil cement is
also well suited for use in median ditches • Slight settlement or other minor
or other wide drainage areas that cannot be movement of the highway embankment
vegetated. does not impair its stability.
A wide variety of selected on site soils or • It presents a pleasing appearance,
local borrow can be used to make durable usually acceptable in recreational and
soil cement slope protection. Any good environmentally sensitive areas.
sandy soil is generally acceptable and
• No unusual design considerations are
depending on the quality of the soil, the
required.
percent cement will vary from 7% to 14%.
The actual percentage must be determined • No unusual construction practices or
by laboratory tests. If requested, the special equipment are required.
District Materials Engineer can provide
information on the quality of soil available • Properly designed and constructed it is
and recommended cement content. virtually maintenance free.
Either plant mixed or mixed in-place Refer to "Highways in the River

methods may be used. Placed and Environment", Section 5.3.10, for further
compacted in horizontal layers, each layer discussion on the use of soil cement slope
150 to 200 mm thick and wide enough to protection.
be placed with standard highway
construction equipment, will result in a
stair-step outer face.
Thickness of soil cement slope protection
is measured normal to the slope. A 0.3 m
thickness is considered adequate for flow
velocities up to 3.5 m/s and is a practical
minimum thickness where standard
methods of constructing highway embank-
ments are used. With variations in design
or construction procedures, any desired
thickness can be obtained. One such
variation is to simultaneously place and
compact the horizontal layers of soil
cement facing with the embankment. The
relationship of facing thickness, t, layer
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.3G
Grout Filled Fabric Mattresses
Filter Point Section - The 2 layers are woven together at

125 to 250 mm centers. Thickness varies from 50 to 150
mm depending on the spacing of the points of
attachment. The points of attachment serve as filter
points to relieve hydrostatic uplift. The finished
revetment has a deeply cobbled or quilted appearance.
Uniform Section - The 2 layers of fabric are joined

together by interwoven tie cords. Thickness varies from
150 to 250 mm depending on the tie cord spacing. The
finshed revetment is of relatively uniform cross section
and has a cobbled appearance.
Weep Hole Assembly
Articulated Block Section - The 2 layers of fabric are

interwoven to form a pattern of rectangular blocks that
may vary in size and thickness. With this heavy duty
type, the 2 layers of fabric are interwoven to form a
pattern of relatively large rectangular shaped blocks.
Blocks of any reasonable dimensions of length, width,
and thickness desired can be fabricated. Block thickness
is controlled by spacer cords in the middle of each block.
In smaller sizes, such as 300 mm square or 250 x 500
mm rectangular shapes, the thickness is typically 100 to
150 mm. In large sizes, such as 600 mm square or 500 x
600 mm rectangular shapes, the thickness is typically
from 150 to 300 mm. The interweaving between blocks
serves as filter locations for relief of hydrostatic uplift
and as hinges. Cable or synthetic fiber rope threaded
between the fabric layers prior to filling, tie the blocks
together and permit articulation. The finished revetment
has a quilted appearance.
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.3H • The force and direction of the stream

can best be redirected by a vertical
Soil Cement Slope Protection structure.
The foundation for bulkheads must be positive
and all terminals secure against erosive forces.
The length of the structure should be the
minimum necessary, with transitions to other
less expensive types of slope protection when
possible. Eddy currents can be extremely
damaging at the terminals and transitions. If
2 1/2
overtopping of the bulkheads is anticipated,
W = t (s + 1) + sv suitable protection should be provided.
Example: Along a stream bank, using a bulkhead
presumes a channel section so constricted as to
Find the horizontal layer width for a 1:2 embankment slope prohibit use of a cheaper device on a natural
using a compacted layer thickness of 200 mm to provide a 0.3
slope. Velocity will be unnaturally high along
m thickness normal to the slope.
the face of the bulkhead, which must have a
2 1/2
W = 0.3 x (2 + 1) + 2 x 0.2 = 1.07 m fairly smooth surface to avoid compounding
the restriction. The high velocity will increase
the threat of scour at the toe and erosion at the
(4) Bulkheads. A bulkhead is a steep or vertical
downstream end. Allowance must be made for
structure supporting a natural slope or
these threats in selecting the type of
constructed embankment. As bank and shore
foundation, grade of footing, penetration of
protection structures, bulkheads serve to secure
piling, transition, and anchorage at downstream
the bank against erosion as well as retaining it
end. Transitions at both ends may
against sliding. As a slope protection
appropriately taper the width of channel and
structure, revetment design principles are used,
slope of the bank. Transition in roughness is
the only essential difference being the
desirable if attainable. Refer to "Highways in
steepness of the face slope. As a retaining
the River Environment", Section 5.3.11, for
structure, conventional design methods for
further discussion on the use of bulkheads to
retaining walls, cribs and laterally loaded piles
prevent streambank erosion or failure.
are used.
Along a shore, use of a bulkhead presumes a
Bulkheads are usually expensive, but may be steep lake or sea bed profile, such that
economically justified in special cases where revetment on a 1:1.5 or flatter slope would
valuable riparian property or improvements are project into prohibitively deep water or permit
involved and foundation conditions are not intolerable wave runup. Such shores are
satisfactory for less expensive types of slope generally rocky, offering good foundation on
protection. They may be used for toe residual reefs, but historic destruction of the
protection in combination with other revetment overlying formation attests to the hydraulic
types of slope protection. Some other power of the sea to be resisted by an artificial
considerations that may justify the use of replacement. The face of such a bulkhead
bulkheads include: must be designed to absorb or dissipate as
• Encroachment on a channel cannot be much as practical the shock of these forces.
tolerated. Designers should consult Volume II, U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers' Shore Protection
• Retreat of highway alignment is not
Manual, Chapter 6, for more complete
viable.
information and details on the use of
• Right of Way is restricted.
May 1, 2001
bulkheads, seawalls, and revetments along a Excluding structural requirements, design

shore. of pile bulkheads is essentially as follows:
(a) Concrete or Masonry Walls. The expertise • Recognition of foundation conditions
and coordination of several engineering suitable to or demanding deep
disciplines is required to accomplish the penetration. Penetration of at least 4.5
development of PS&E for concrete walls m below scour level, or into soft rock,
serving the dual purpose of slope should be assured.
protection and support. The Division of • Choice of material. Timber is suitable
Structures is responsible for the structural for very dry or very wet climates, for
integrity of all retaining walls, including other situations economic comparison
bulkheads. of preliminary designs and alternative
(b) Crib walls. Timber and concrete cribs can materials should be made.
be used for bulkheads in locations where • Determination of line and grade.
some flexibility is desirable or permissible. Fairly smooth transitions with
Metal cribs are limited to support of protection to high-water level should
embankment and are not recommended for be provided.
use as protection because of vulnerability (5) Vegetation. Vegetation is the most natural
to corrosion and abrasion. method for stabilization of embankments and
The design of crib walls is essentially a channel bank protection. It is relatively easy to
determination of line, foundation grade, maintain, visually attractive and
and height with special attention given to environmentally more desirable. The root
potential scour and possible loss of backfill system forms a binding network that helps hold
at the base and along the toe. Design the soil. Grass and woody plants above ground
details for concrete crib walls are shown provide resistance to the near bank water flow
on Standard Plans C7A through C7G. causing it to lose much of its erosive energy.
Concrete crib walls used as bulkheads and Erosion control and revegetation mats are
exposed to salt water require special flexible three-dimensional mats or nets of
provisions specifying the use of coated natural or synthetic material that protect soil
rebars and special high density concrete. and seeds against water erosion. They permit
Recommendations from METS should be vegetation growth through the web of the mat
requested. material and are used as channel linings where
Design details for timber crib walls of ordinary seeding and mulching techniques will
dimensioned lumber are shown on not withstand erosive flow velocities. The
Standard Plans C9A and C9B. Timber designer should recognize that flow velocity
cribs of logs, notched to interlock at the estimates and a particular soils resistance to
contacts, may also be used. All erosion are parameters that must be based on
dimensioned lumber should be treated to specific site conditions. Using arbitrarily
resist decay. selected values for design of vegetative slope
protection without consultation and
(c) Sheet Piling. Timber, concrete and steel
verification from the Office of Landscape
sheet piling are used for bulkheads that
Architecture is not recommended. However, a
depend on deep penetration of foundation
suggested starting point of reference is Table
materials for all or part of their stability.
862.2 in which the resistance of various
High bulkheads are usually counterforted
unprotected soil classifications to flow
at upper levels with batter piles or tie back
velocities are given. Under near ideal
systems to deadmen. Any of the three
conditions, ordinary seeding and mulching
materials is adaptable to sheet piling or a
methods cannot reasonably be expected to
sheathed system of post or column piles.
withstand sustained flow velocities above
May 1, 2001
1.2 m/s. If velocities are in excess of 1.2 m/s, a velocity, or depth of flowing water. As shore
lining maybe needed (See Table 873.3I). protection, they control shoaling and scour by
deflecting the strength of currents and waves.
Temporary channel liners are used to establish
vegetative growth in a drainage way or as slope The degree of permeability is among the most
protection prior to the placement of a important properties of control structures. An
permanent armoring. Some typical temporary impermeable structure may deflect a current
channel liners are: entirely, whereas a permeable structure may
• Straw serve mainly to reduce the strength of water
velocity, currents or waves.
• Excelsior
Training systems of the retard and permeable
• Jute
jetty types are similar in that they are usually
• Woven paper extensive or multi-unit open structures like;
Vegetative and temporary channel liners are piling, fencing, and unit frames. They are
suitable for conditions of uniform flow and dissimilar in function and alignment, retards
moderate shear stresses. being parallel and groins oblique to the banks.
The retard is a milder remedy than jetty
Permanent soil reinforcing mats and rock construction.
riprap may serve the dual purpose of temporary
and permanent channel liner. Some typical (a) Retard Types. A retard is a bank
permanent channel liners are: protection structure designed to check
riparian velocity and induce silting and
• Gravel or cobble size riprap accretion. They are usually placed parallel
• Fiberglass roving to the highway embankment or erodible
banks of channels on stable gradients.
• Geosynthetic mats Retards typically take the following forms
• Polyethelene cells or grids of construction:
• Gabion Mattresses • Fencing - single or double lines
Composite designs are often used where there • Palisades - piles and netting
are sustained low flows of high to moderate
• Timber piling or pile bents
velocities and intermediate high water flows of
low to moderate velocities. Brush layering is a • Steel or timber jacks
permanent type of erosion control technique Retards are applicable primarily on streams
that may also have application for channel which meander to some extent within a
protection, particularly as a composite design. mature valley. Typical uses include the
Further information on brush layering and following:
fiberglass roving methods and techniques are
available from METS. • Protection at the toe of highway
embankments that encroach on a
Design procedures for determining suitable stream channel.
maximum conditions for vegetation, temporary
and permanent channel liners are given in • Training and control to inhibit
Chapter IV, HEC-15, Design of Roadside erosion upstream and downstream
Channels and Flexible Linings. from stream crossings.
• Control of erosion redeposition of
873.4 Training Systems material where progressive
(1) General. Training systems are structures, embayments are creating a
usually within a channel, that act as problem.
countermeasures to control the direction,
May 1, 2001
Table 873.3I
Permissible Velocities for Flexible Channel Linings
1 Permissible Velocity
Type of Lining
(m/s)
Intermittent Sustained
Flow Flow
Vegetation:
Bermuda Grass, uncut 1.2 0.8
Bermuda Grass, mowed or Crab Grass, uncut 1.2 0.8
Riprap:
Gravel, 25 mm 0.9 0.6
Gravel, 50 mm 1.1 0.8
Cobble, 75 mm 1.5 1.2
Cobble, 150 mm 2.3 2.0
Temporary:
Woven Paper Net 1.4 1.1
Jute Net 1.5 1.2
Fiberglass Roving 1.7 1.4
Straw with Net 2.0 1.4
Curled Wood Mat 2.0 1.4
Synthetic Mat 3.2 2.3
NOTE:
1. Ref. HEC-15 & HDS #4
May 1, 2001
(1) Fence Type. Fence-type structures are Typical design considerations include:
used as retards, permeable or
• If the stream carries heavy
impermeable jetties, and as baffles.
debris, the elevation of the top of
These structures can be constructed of
the pile should be well below the
various materials.
high-water level in order that
Fence type retards may be effective on heavy objects such as logs will
smaller streams and areas subject to pass over the top during normal
infrequent attack, such as overflow floods.
areas. Single and double rows of • Piles must have sufficient
various types of fencing have been penetration to prevent loss from
used. The principal difference scour or impact by floating
between fence retards and ordinary debris or both. This is especially
wire fences is that the posts of retards important for the piles at the
must be driven sufficiently deep to outer end of jetties. If scour is a
avoid loss by scour. problem, the pile may be
Permeability can be varied in the protected by a layer of rock
design to fit the requirements of the placed on the streambed. Piles
location for single fences, the factor should be long enough to
most readily varied is the pattern of the penetrate below probable scour,
wire mesh. For multiple fences, the with penetration of a least 4.5 m
mesh pattern can be varied or the space in streams with sandy beds and
between fences can be filled to any velocities of 3.0 to 4.5 m/s.
desired height. Making optimum use • Ends of the system should be
of local materials, this fill may be joined to the bank in order to
brush ballasted by rock, or rock alone. prevent parallel high-velocity
flow between the retard and the
(2) Piles and Palisades. Retards and bank. If the installation is long,
jetties may be of single, double, or additional bank connections may
triple rows of piles with the outside or be placed at intervals.
upstream row faced with wire mesh • Facing material should be
fencing material, boards or polymeric fastened to the upstream or
straps interwoven into a high-strength channel side of the piling in
net. The facing adds to the retarding order that the force of the water
effect and may trap light brush or and impact of debris will not be
debris to supplement its purpose. This entirely on the fasteners.
type retard is particularly adapted to
larger streams where the piles will (3) Jacks and Tetrahedrons. Jacks and
remain in the water. The number of tetrahedrons are skeletal frames that
pile rows and amount of facing may be can be used as retards or permeable
varied to control the deposition of jetties. Cables can be used to tie a
material. In leveed rivers it is often number of similar units together in
desirable to discourage accretion so as longitudinal alignment and for
to not constrict the channel but provide anchorage of key units to deadmen.
sufficient retarding effect to prevent Struts and wires are added to the basic
loss of a light bank protection such as frames to increase impedance to flow
vegetation or light rock facing. of water directly by their own
resistance and indirectly by the debris
they collect.
May 1, 2001
Both devices serve best in meandering intended to alter the channel alignment
streams which carry considerable bed the effect on adjacent property must be
load during flood stages. Impedance assessed. Where deposition of
of the stream along the string of units material is the primary function, the
will cause deposit of alluvium, service life of the installation is
especially at the crest and during the dependent on the deposition rate and
falling stage. Beds of such streams the ultimate establishment of a natural
often scour on the rising stage, retard.
undercutting the units and causing
The length of a retard system should
their subsidence, often accompanied
extend from a secure anchorage on the
by rotation when one leg or side is
upstream end to anchorage on the
undercut more than the other.
downstream end beyond the area under
Deposition of the falling stage usually
direct attack. Since erosion often
restores the former bed, partially or
progresses downstream, this possibility
completely burying the units. In that
should be considered in determining
lowered and rotated poition, they may
the planned length.
still be completely effective in future
floods. The top of a retard need not extend to
the elevation of design high water. In
Retards may be used alone or in
major rivers and streams where drift is
combination with other types of slope
large and heavy it is essential that the
protection. In combination with a
retard be low enough to pass debris
lighter type of armor they may be more
over the top during stages of high flow.
economical than a heavier type of
protection. They can be used as toe For further information on retards refer
protection for other types of slope to Section 5.4.3, "Highways in the
protection where a good foundation is River Environment".
impractical because of high water or (b) Jetty Types. A jetty is an elongated
extreme depth of poor material. artificial obstruction projecting into a
Where new embankment is placed stream or the sea from bank or shore to
behind the retard consideration should control shoaling and scour by deflection or
be given to protecting the slope to redirection of currents and waves.
inhibit erosion until the retard has had This classification may be subdivided with
an opportunity to function. The slope respect to permeability. Impermeable
protection used should promote the jetties being used to deflect the stream and
establishment of a natural cover, such permeable jetties being used not only to
as discussed under Index 873.3(5), deflect the stream but to permit some flow
Vegetation. through the structure to minimize the
Retards on tangent reaches of narrow formation of eddies immediately
channels may, by slowing the velocity downstream. Most jetty installations are
on one side, cause an increase in permeable structures.
velocity, on the other. On wider Permeable jetties typically take the
reaches of a meandering stream they following forms of construction:
may, by slowing a rebounding high
velocity thread, have a beneficial effect • Palisades -- piles and netting.
on the opposite bank. Where the prime • Single and double rows of timber-
purpose of the retard system is to braced piling.
reduce stream bank velocity to
• Steel or timber jacks.
encourage deposition of material
May 1, 2001
• Precast concrete, interlocking shapes The relation between length and spacing of
or hollow blocks. jetties should approximate unity as a
general rule to assure complete entrapment
Impermeable jetties typically take the
and retention of material. The spacing can
following forms of construction:
be increased if the resulting scalloped
• Guide and spur dikes, earth or rock. effect is not detrimental to the desired
• PCC grouted riprap dikes. result.
• Single and double lines of sheeting or (c) Guide Dikes/Banks. Guide banks are
sheet piling (steel, timber or concrete, appendages to the highway embankment at
framed and braced or on piling). bridge abutments (Figure 873.4A). They
are smooth extensions of the fill slope on
• Double fence, filled.
the upstream side. Approach
• Log or timber cribs, filled. embankments are frequently planned to
Impermeable jetties in the form of filled project into wide floodplains, to attain an
fences and cribs have been used with only economic length of bridge. At these
limited success. Characteristic locations high water flows can cause
performance of these is the development of damaging eddy currents that scour away
an eddy current immediately downstream abutment foundations and erode approach
which attacks the bank and often requires embankments. The purose of guide dikes
secondary protective measures. is twofold. The first is to align flow from a
wide floodplain toward the bridge opening.
Basic principles for permeable jetties are The second is to move the damaging eddy
much the same as for retards, the important currents from the approach roadway
difference being that they deflect the flow embankment to the upstream end of the
in addition to encouraging deposition. The dike.
preceding comment on retards should be
considered as related and applicable to Guide banks are usually earthen
jetties when qualified by this basic embankment faced with rock slope
difference. protection. Optimum shape and length of
guide dikes will be different for each site.
Permeable jetties are placed at an angle Field experience has shown that an
with the embankment and are more elliptical shape with a major to minor axis
applicable in meandering streams for the ratio of 2.5:1 is effective in reducing
purpose of directing or forcing the current turbulence. The length is dependant on the
away from the embankment. When the ratio of flow diverted from the flood plain
purpose is to deposit material and promote to flow in the first 30 m of waterway under
growth, the jetties are considered to have the bridge. If the use of another shape
fulfilled their function and are expendable dike, such as a straight dike, is required for
when this occurs. practical reasons more scour should be
They also encourage deposition of bed expected at the upstream end of the dike.
material and growth of vegetation. Retards The bridge end will generally not be
build a narrow strip in front of the immediately threatened should a failure
embankment, where as permeable jetties occur at the upstream end of a guide dike.
cover a wider area roughly limited by the
envelope of the outer ends.
May 1, 2001
sediments they may be constructed with

Figure 873.4A openings. Groins typically take the
following forms of construction:
Bridge Abutment Guide Banks • Rock mound.
• PCC grouted rock dike.
• Sand filled plastic coated nylon bags.
• Single or double lines of sheet piling.
The primary use of groins is for ocean
shore protection. When used as stream
channel protection to retard bank erosion
and to control the movement of streambed
material they are normally of lighter
construction than that required for shore
installation.
In its simplest or basic form, a groin is a
spur structure extending outward from the
shore over beach and shoal. A typical
layout of a shore protection groin
installation is shown in Figure 873.4B.
Assistance from the U.S. Army Corp of
Engineers is necessary to adequately
design a slope protection groin installation.
Toe dikes are sometimes needed Designers should consult Volume II,
downstream of the bridge end to guide Chapter 6, Section VI, of the Corps' Shore
flow away from the structure so that Protection Manual for a more complete
redistribution in the flood plain will not discussion on groins. Preliminary studies
cause erosion damage to the embankment can be made by using basic information
due to eddy currents. The shape of toe and data available from USGS quadrangle
dikes is of less importance than it is with sheets, USC & GS navigation charts,
upstream guide banks. hydrographic charts on currents for the
For further information on spur dike and Northeast Pacific Ocean and aerial photos
guide bank design procedures refer to of the area.
Section 5.4, "Highways in the River For a groin to function satisfactorily, there
Environment". General design must be littoral drift to supply and
considerations and guidance for evaluating replenish the beach between groins. The
scour and stream stability at highway groins detain rather than retain the drift
bridges is contained in HEC-18 and HEC- and soon will be ineffective unless there is
20. a steady source of replenishment. A new
(d) Groins. A groin is a relatively slender groin installation will starve the downcoast
barrier structure usually aligned to the beach, temporarily at least, and
primary motion of water designed to trap permanently if the supply of drift is
littoral drift, retard bank or shore erosion, meager. Reference is made to the Army
or control movement of bed load. Corps of Engineers' Shore Protection
Manual, Volume 1, Chapter 4, for more
These devices are usually solid; however, detailed information on the littoral process.
upon occasion to control the elevation of
May 1, 2001
Factors pertinent to design include:

(1) Alignment. Factors which influence
Figure 873.4B
alignment are effectiveness in
detaining littoral drift, and self- Typical Groin Layout With
protection of the groin against damage Resultant Beach Configuration
by wave action.
A field of groins acts as a series of
headlands, with beaches between each
pair aligned in echelon, that is,
extending from outer end of the
downdrift groin to an intermediate
point on the updrift groin (Figure
873.4C) The offset in beach line at
each groin is a function of spacing of
groins, volume of littoral drift, slope of
sea bed and strength of the sea, varying
measurably with the season. Length
and spacing must be complementary to
assure continuity of beach in front of a LONG GROINS WITHOUT REVETMENT
highway embankment.
A series of parallel spurs normal to the
beach extending seaward would be
correct for a littoral drift alternating
upcoast and downcoast in equal
measure. However, if drift is
predominantly in one direction the
median attack by waves contributes
materially to the longshore current
because of oblique approach. In that
case the groin should be more effective
if built oblique to the same degree.
SHORT GROINS WITH LIGHT STONE
Such an alignment will warrant REVETMENT
shortening of the groin in proportion to
the cosine of the obliquity (Fig. Note:
873.4C). "S", "L" and "θ" are determined by conditions at site.
Conformity of groin to direction of

approach of the median sea provides
an optimum ratio of groin length to
spacing, and the groin is least
vulnerable to storm damage. Attack on
the groin will be longitudinal during a
median sea and oblique on either side
in other seas.
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.4C of the entrapped beach. The width of

beach is the product of the slope factor
and the range in stage. The relation
Alignment of Groins to an Oblique can be formulated:
Sea Warrants Shortening
L = ab + rh, where
Proportional to Cosine of Obliquity L = Length of groin, (m)
a = obliquity of entrapped beach
in radians,
b = beach width between
groins, (m)
r = reciprocal of beach slope,
h = range in stage, (m)
For example, with groins 120 m apart,
obliquity up to 20 degrees, on a beach
sloping 1:10 with a tidal rage of 3 m,
L = .35 x 120 + 10 x 3 = 72 m
The same formula would have required
L = 118 m for 250 m spacing, reducing
the aggregate length of groins but
increasing the depth of water at the
(2) Grade. The top of groins should be outer ends and the average cost per
parallel to the existing beach grade. meter. For some combination of
Sand may pass over a low barrier. The length and spacing the total cost will
top of the groin should be established be a minimum, which should be sought
higher than the existing beach, say 0.6 for economical design.
m as a minimum for moderate If groins are too short, the attack of the
exposure combined with an abundance sea will still reach the highway
of littoral drift, to 1.5 m for severe embankment with only some reduction
exposure and deficiency of littoral of energy. Some sites may justify a
drift. combination of short groins with light
The shore end should be tapered revetment to accommodate this
upward to prevent attack of highway remaining energy.
embankment by rip currents, and the (4) Section. The typical section of a groin
seaward end should be tapered is shown in Figure 873.4D. The stone
downward to match the side slope of may be specified as a single class, or
the groin in order to diffuse the direct by designating classes to be used as
attack of the sea on the end of the bed, core, face and cap stones.
groin.
Face stone may be chosen one class
(3) Length and Spacing. The length of below the requirement for revetment
groin should equal or exceed the sum by Chart A or B (Figure 873.3D). Full
of the offset in shoreline at each groin mass stone should be specified for bed
plus the width of the beach from low stones, for the front face at the outer
water (LW) to high water (HW) line end of the groin, and for cap stones
(Figure 873.4C). The offset is exposed to overrun. Core stones in
approximately the product of the groin wide groins may be smaller.
spacing and the obliquity (in radians)
May 1, 2001
Figure 873.4D
Typical Stone Dike Groin Details
This is not a standard design.

Dimensions and details should be modified as required.
May 1, 2001
Width of groin at top should be at least Drop structures or check dams are an
1.5 times the diameter of cap stones, or effective means of gradient control. They
wider if necessary for operation of may be constructed of rock, gabions,
equipment. Side slopes should be concrete, timber, sacked concrete, filled
1:1.5 for optimum economy and fences, sheet piling or combinations of any
ordinary stability. If this slope of the above. They are most suited to
demands heavier stone than is locations where bed materials are
available, side slope can be flattened or relatively impervious otherwise underflow
the cap and face stones bound together must be prevented by cutoffs. Refer to
with grout as shown in Figure 873.3E. "Highways in the River Environment",
Section 5.4.8, for further discussion on the
(e) Baffle. A baffle is a pier, vane, sill, fence,
use of drop structures.
wall or mound built on the bed of a stream
to control, deflect, check or disturb the Floating booms are effective protection
flow or to float on the surface to dampen against the smaller wave actions common
wave action. to lakes and tidal basins. Anchorage is the
prime structural consideration.
Baffles typically take the following forms
of construction:
873.5 Design Check List
• Single or multiple lines of fence.
The designer should anticipate the more significant
• Drop Structures (gabions, rock, problems that are likely to occur during the
concrete, etc.). construction and maintenance of channel and shore
protection facilities. So far as possible, the design
• Dikes of earth or rock.
should be adjusted to eliminate or minimize those
• Floating boom. potential problems.
These devices may vary in magnitude from The logistics of the construction activity such as
a check dam on a small stream to a system access to the site, on-site storage of construction
of training dikes or permeable jetties for materials, time of year restrictions, environmental
deflecting or directing flow. When using concerns, and sequence of construction should be
fences, palisades, or dikes as deflectors carefully considered during the project design.
along the more mature valleys or The stream and shoreline morphology and their
meandering streams, the potential erosion response to construction activities are an integral
to previously unexposed areas, threat to part of the planning process. Communication
adjacent property, eddy currents and between the designer and those responsible for
possibility of scour should all be assessed. construction administration as well as maintenance
When used as a collecting system to are important.
control and direct the flow to new or Channel and shore protection facilities require
existing drainage facilities or to bridge periodic maintenance inspection and repair. Where
openings, the alignment of the installation practicable, provisions should be made in the
should be developed as a series of facility design to provide access for inspection and
curves and intervening tangents guiding maintenance.
the stream through transitions to maintain
smooth and steady flow. The surface and The following check list has been prepared for
curvature of the training device should be both the designer and reviewer. It will help assure
governed by the natural or modified that all necessary information is included in the
velocity. plans and specifications. It is a comprehensive list
for all types of protection. Items pertinent to any
particular type can be selected readily and the rest
ignored.
May 1, 2001
1. Location of the planned work with respect to: driving requirements, cut-off elevations, and
framing details.
• The highway.
18. On fence-type construction the number of lines
• The stream or shore. or rows of fence, spacing of lines, dimensions
• Right of way. of posts, details of bracing and anchorage ties,
details of ties at end.
2. Datum control of the work, and relation of that
datum to gage datum on streams, and both 19. The details of gabions and the filling material.
MSL and MLLW on the shore. 20. The size of articulated blocks, the placement of
3. A typical cross section indicating dimensions, steel, and construction details relating to
slopes, arrangement and connections. fabrication.
4. Quantity of materials (per meter, per protection 21. The corrosion considerations that may dictate
unit, or per job). specialty concretes, coated reinforcing, or
other special requirements.
5. Relation of the foundation treatment with
respect to the existing ground.
Topic 874 - Definitions
6. Relation of the top of the proposed protection
to design high water (historic, with date; or The following glossary of terms are significant
predicted, with frequency). because of the divergent use of many words and
7. The limits of excavation and backfill as they expressions pertinent to the field of highway
may affect measurement and payment. drainage, erosion control, and channel and shore
protection. The definitions given are not
8. Construction details such as weep holes, rock necessarily those established by case law but have
slope protection fabrics, geocomposite drains been adopted because of their rational or prevalent
and associated materials. usage and for consistency within the Department.
9. Location and details of construction joints, cut- Derived forms are not separately defined when the
off stubs and end returns. meaning should be clear from the basic form, such
10. Restrictions to the placement of reinforcement. as alluvial and alluviation should be implicit after
alluvium is defined.
11. Connections and bracing for framing of timber
or steel. Accretion. Outward growth of bank or shore
sedimentation. Increase or extension of
12. Splicing details for timber, pipe, rails and boundaries of land by action of natural forces.
structural shapes.
Aggradation. General and progressive raising of a
13. Anchorage details, particularly size, type, stream bed by deposition of sediment.
location, and method of connection. Modification of the earth's surface in the
14. Size, shape, and special requirements of units direction of uniformity of grade, or slope, by
such as precast concrete shapes and other deposition as in a river bed.
manufactured items. Alluvium. Stream-borne materials deposited in and
15. Number and arrangement of cables and details along a channel.
of fastening devices. Apron. A lining of the bed of the channel upstream
16. Size, mass per unit area, mesh spacing and or downstream from a lined or restricted
fastening details for wire-fabric or geosynthetic waterway. A floor or lining of concrete, rock,
materials. etc., to protect a surface from erosion such as
the pavement below chutes, spillways, at the
17. On timber pile construction the number of piles toes of dams, or along the toe of bank
per bent, number of bents, length of piling, protection.
May 1, 2001
Armor. Artificial surfacing of bed, banks, shore or Basin. (1) The surface of the area tributary to a
embankment to resist erosion or scour. stream or lake. (2) Space above or below
ground capable of retaining or detaining water
Arroyo. Waterway of an ephemeral stream deeply
or debris.
carved in rock or ancient alluvium.
Bay. An indentation of bank or shore, including
Articulated. Made flexible by hinging particularly
erosional cuts and slipouts, not necessarily
of small rigid slabs adapted to revetment.
large.
Avulsion. (1) A forcible separation; also, a part
Beach. The zone of sedimentary material that
torn off. (2) The sudden removal of land from
extends landward from the low water line to
the estate of one person to that of another, as
the place where there is marked change in
by a sudden change in a river, the property thus
material or form, or to the line of permanent
separated continuing in the original owner. A
vegetation (usually the effective limit of storm
sudden shift in location of channel.
waves). The seaward limit of a beach, unless
Backing Layer. A layer of graded rock between otherwise specified, is the mean low water line.
rock riprap and underlying engineering fabric A beach includes foreshore and backshore.
or filter layer to prevent extrusion of the soil or
Bed. The earth below any body of water, limited
filter layer material through the riprap.
laterally by bank or shore.
Backshore. The zone of the shore or beach lying
Bed Load. Sediment that moves by rolling, sliding,
between the foreshore and the coastline and
or skipping along the bed and is essentially in
acted upon by waves only during severe
contact with the stream bed.
storms, especially when combined with
exceptionally high water. Berm. (1) A bench or terrace between two slopes.
(2) A nearly horizontal part of the beach or
Backwater. An unnaturally high stage in stream
backshore formed at the high water line by
caused by obstruction or confinement of flow,
waves depositing material. Some beaches have
as by a dam, a bridge, or a levee. Its measure
no berms, other have one or several.
is the excess of unnatural over natural stage,
not the difference in stage upstream and Block. Precast prismatic unit for riprap structure.
downstream from its cause.
Bluff. A high, steep bank composed of erodible
Baffle. A pier, vane, sill, fence, wall or mound materials.
built on the bed of a stream to parry, deflect,
Boil. Turbulent break in a water surface by
check or disturb the flow or to float on the
upwelling.
surface to deflect or dampen cross currents or
waves. Boom. Floating log or similar element designed to
dampen surface waves or control the
Bank. The lateral boundary of a stream confining
movement of drift.
water flow. The bank on the left side of a
channel looking downstream is called the left Bore. A transient solitary wave in a narrow or
bank, etc. converging channel advancing with a steep
turbulent front; product of flash floods or
Bank Protection. Revetment, or other armor
incoming tides.
protecting a bank of a stream from erosion,
includes devices used to deflect the forces of Boulder. Largest rock transported by a stream or
erosion away from the bank. rolled in the surf; arbitrarily heavier than 12
kg and larger than 200 mm.
Bar. An elongated deposit of alluvium within a
channel or across its mouth. Breaker. A wave meeting a shore, reef, sandbar, or
rock and collapsing.
Barrier. A low dam or rack built to control flow of
debris.
May 1, 2001
Breakwater. A fixed or floating structure that Cobble. Rock smaller than a boulder and larger
protects a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or than gravel; arbitrarily 0.5 to 12 kg, or 75 to
basin by intercepting waves. 200 mm in diameter.
Bulkhead. A steep or vertical structure placed on a Cone. Physiographic form of sediment deposit
bank, bluff, or embankment to retain or prevent washed from a gorge channel onto an open
sliding of the land and protect the inland area plain; a debris cone, also called an alluvial fan.
against damage.
Confluence. A junction of streams.
Bulking. The increase in volume of flow due to air
Constriction. An obstruction narrowing a
entrainment, debris, bedload, or sediment in
waterway.
suspension.
Control. (1) A section or reach of an open conduit
Buoyancy. Uplift force on a submerged body equal
or stream channel which maintains a stable
to the mass of water displaced times the
relationship between stage and discharge. (2)
acceleration of gravity.
For flood, erosion, debris, etc., remedial means
Canal. An artificial open channel. or procedure restricting damage to a tolerable
level.
Canyon. A large deep valley; also the submarine
counterpart. Conveyance. A measure of the water carrying
capacity of a stream or channel.
Cap. Top layer of stone protective works.
Core. Central zone of dike, levee, rock groin, jetty,
Capillarity. The attraction between water and soil
etc.
particles which cause water to move in any
direction through the soil mass regardless of Corrasion. Erosion or scour by abrasion in
gravitational forces. flowing water.
Causeway. A raised embankment or trestle over Corrosion. Erosion by chemical action.
swamp or overflow areas.
Creek. A small stream, usually active.
Cavitation. Erosion by suction, especially in the
Crest. (1) Peak of a wave or a flood. (2) Top of a
partial vacuum of a diverging jet.
levee, dam, weir, spillway or other water
Celerity. Velocity of a moving wave, as barrier or control.
distinguished from velocity of particles
Crib. An open-frame structure loaded with earth
oscillating in the wave.
or stone ballast to act as a baffle in bank
Channel. The space above the bed and between protection.
banks occupied by a stream.
Critical Depth. (Depth at which specific energy is
Check. A sill or weir in a channel to control stage a minimum.) Depth of water in a conduit at
or velocity. which, under certain other conditions, the
maximum flow will occur. These other
Cliff. A high, steep face of rock; a precipice.
conditions are; the conduit is on the critical
Cloudburst. Rain storm of great intensity usually slope with the water flowing in an open
over a small area for a short duration. channel or a conduit partially filled, for which
Coast. (1) The strip of land, of indefinite width the velocity head equals one-half the hydraulic
(up to several kilometers), that extends from mean depth.
the shoreline inland to the first major change in Critical Flow. That flow in open channels at
terrain features. (2) As a combining form, which the energy content of the fluid is at a
upcoast is northerly and downcoast is minimum. Also, that flow which has a Froude
southerly. number of one.
May 1, 2001
Critical Slope. That slope at which the maximum Detritus Loose material such as; rock, sand, silt,
flow will occur at the minimum velocity. The and organic particles.
slope or grade that is exactly equal to the loss
Dike. (1) Usually an earthen bank alongside and
of head per meter resulting from flow at a
parallel with a river or open channel to restrict
depth that will give uniform flow at critical
overflow (See Levee). (2) An AC dike along
depth; the slope of a conduit which will
the edge of a shoulder.
produce critical flow.
Ditch. Small artificial channel, usually unlined.
Critical Velocity. Mean velocity of flow when
flow is at critical depth. Discharge. A volume of water flowing out of a
drainage structure or facility. Measured in
Current. Flow of water, both as a phenomenon and
cubic meters per second.
as a vector. Usually qualified by adjectives
like downward, littoral, tidal, etc. to show Dissipate. Expend or scatter harmlessly, as of
relation to a pattern of movement. energy of moving water.
Debris. Any material including floating woody Diversion. (1) The change in character, location,
materials and other trash, suspended sediment, direction, or quantity of flow of a natural
or bed load moved by a flowing stream. drainage course (a deflection of flood water is
not a diversion). (2) Draft of water from one
Degradation. General and progressive lowering of
channel to another. (3) Interception of runoff
the longitudinal profile of a channel by
by works which discharge it thru unnatural
erosion.
channels.
Delta. System of channels thru an alluvial plain at
Downdrift. The direction of predominant
the mouth of a stream.
movement of littoral materials.
Deposit. An earth mass of particles settled or
Drain. Conduit intercepting and discharging
stranded from moving water or wind.
surplus ground or surface water.
Depth. Vertical distance, (1) from surface to bed
Drainage. (1) The process of removing surplus
of a body of water. (2) From crest or crown to
ground or surface water by artificial means.
invert of a conduit.
(2) The system by which the waters of an area
Design Discharge. The quantity of flow that is are removed. (3) The area from which waters
expected at a certain point as a result of a are drained; a drainage basin.
design storm. Usually expressed as a rate of
Drawdown. The difference in elevation between
flow in cubic meters per second.
the water surface elevation at a constriction in
Design Flood. The peak discharge (when a stream or conduit and the elevation that
appropriate, the volume, stage, or wave crest would exist if the constriction were absent.
elevation) of the flood associated with the Drawdown also occurs at changes from mild to
probability of exceedance selected for the steep channel slopes and weirs or vertical
design of a highway encroachment in a FEMA spillways.
flood plain. By federal definition, the highway
Drift. (1) Floating or non-mineral burden of a
will not be inundated by the "design flood".
stream. (2) Deviation from a normal course in
See 23 CFR, Part 650, Subpart A, for
a cross current, as in littoral drift.
definitions of "overtopping flood" and "base
flood." Drop. Controlled fall in a stream to dissipate
energy.
Design High Water. The flood stage or tide crest
elevation adopted for design of drainage and Dune. A sand wave of approximately triangular
bank protection structures. (See Design Flood cross section (in a vertical plane in the
and High Water). direction of flow) formed by moving water or
wind, with gentle upstream slope and steep
May 1, 2001
downstream slope and deposition on the Filter Layer. A layer of even-graded rock between
downstream slope. rock riprap and underlying soil to prevent
extrusion of the soil thru the riprap.
Ebb. Falling stage or outward flow, especially of
tides. Flood Stage. The elevation at which overflow of
the natural banks of a stream begins to run
Eddy. Rotational flow around a vertical axis.
uncontrolled in the reach in which the
Embankment. Earth structure above natural elevation is measured.
ground.
Flood Waters. Former stream waters which have
Embayment. Indentation of bank or shore, escaped from a watercourse (and its overflow
particularly by progressive erosion. channel) and flow or stand over adjoining
Energy. Potential or kinetic, the latter being lands. They remain as such until they
expressed in the same unit (meters) as the disappear from the surface by infiltration,
former. evaporation, or return to a natural watercourse.
They do not become surface waters by
Entrance. The upstream approach transition to a mingling with such waters, nor stream waters
constricted waterway. by eroding a temporary channel.
Ephemeral. Of brief duration, as the flow of a Flow. A term used to define the movement of
stream in an arid region. water, silt, sand, etc.; discharge; total quantity
Erosion. The wearing away of natural (earth) and carried by a stream.
unnatural (embankment, slope protection, Flow, steady. Flow at constant discharge.
structure, etc.) surfaces by the action of natural
forces, particularly moving water and materials Flow, unsteady. Flow on rising or falling stages.
carried by it. Flow, varied. Flow in a channel with variable
Estuary. That portion of a river channel occupied section.
at times or in part by both sea and river flow in Foreshore. The part of the shore lying between the
appreciable quantities. The water usually has ordinary high water mark or upper limit of
brackish characteristics. wave wash traversed by the runup and return of
Face. The outer layer of slope revetment. waves and the water's edge at the low water.
Fan. A cone, but sometimes used to emphasize Freeboard. (1) The vertical distance between the
definition of radial channels. Also reference to level of the water surface usually
spreading out of water or soils associated with corresponding to the design flow and a point of
waters leaving a confined channel. interest such as a bridge beam, levee top or
specific location on the roadway grade. (2)
Fetch. The unobstructed distance over water in The distance between the normal operating
which waves are generated by wind of level and the top of the sides of an open
relatively constant direction and speed. conduit; the crest of a dam, etc., designed to
Filter. A porous article or mass (as of fabric or allow for wave action, floating debris, or any
even-graded mineral aggregate) through which other condition or emergency, without
water will freely pass but which will block the overtopping the structure.
passage of soil particles. Friction. Energy-dissipating conflict among
Filter Fabric (RSP fabric). An engineering fabric turbulent water particles disturbed by
(geotextile) placed between the backfill and irregularities of channel surface.
supporting or underlying soil through which Gabion. A wire basket or cage filled with stone
water will pass and soil particles are retained. and placed as, or as part of, a bank-protection
structure.
May 1, 2001
Gorge. A narrow deep valley with steep or vertical Hydrostatic. Pertaining to pressure by and within
banks. water due to gravitation acting thru depth.
Grade. Elevation of bed or invert of a channel. Impinge. To strike and attack directly, as in
curvilinear flow where the current does not
Gradient. The rate of ascent or descent expressed
follow the curve but continues on tangent into
as a percent or as a decimal as determined by
the bank on the outside of bend in the channel.
the ratio of the change in elevation to the
length. Isohyet. Line on a map connecting points of equal
precipitation.
Gravel. Rock larger than sand and smaller than
cobble, arbitrarily ranging in diameter from 5 Isovel. Line on a diagram of a channel or channel
to 50 mm. section connecting points of equal velocity.
Groin. A fingerlike barrier structure usually built Jack (or Jack Straw). Bank protection element
perpendicular to the shoreline or oblique to consisting of wire or cable strung on three
primary motion of water, to trap littoral drift, mutually perpendicular struts connected at
retard erosion of the shore, or to control their centers.
movement of bed material.
Jam. Wedged collection of drift in a constriction
Grouted. Bonded together with an inlay or overlay of a channel, such as a gorge or a bridge
of cement mortar. opening.
Guide Bank. An appendage to the highway Jet. An effluent stream from a restricted channel,
embankment at or near a bridge abutment to including a fast current thru a slower stream.
guide the stream through the bridge opening.
Jetty. An elongated, artificial obstruction
Gulch. A relatively young, well-defined and projecting into a stream or the sea from bank or
sharply cut erosional channel. shore to control shoaling and scour by
deflection of strength of currents and waves.
Gully. Diminutive of gulch.
Jump. Sudden transition from supercritical flow to
Head. Represents an available force equivalent to
the complementary subcritical flow,
a certain depth of water. This is the motivating
conserving momentum and dissipating energy;
force in effecting the movement of water. The
the hydraulic jump.
height of water above any point or plane of
reference. Used also in various compound Kolk. Rotational flow about a horizontal axis,
expressions, such as energy head, entrance induced by a reef and breaking the surface in a
head, friction head, static head, pressure head, boil.
lost head, etc.
Lake. A water filled basin with restricted or no
High Water. Maximum flood stage of stream or outlet. Includes reservoirs, tidal ponds and
lake; periodic crest stage of tide. Historic HW playas.
is stage recorded or otherwise known.
Levee. An embankment on or along the bank of a
Hydraulic. Pertaining to water in motion and the stream or lake to protect outer lowlands from
mechanics of the motion. inundation. (See Dike)
Hydrographic. Pertaining to the measurement or Lining. Protective cover of the perimeter of a
study of bodies of water and associated terrain. channel.
Hydrologic. Pertaining to the cyclic phenomena of Littoral. Pertaining to or along the shore,
waters of the earth; successively as particularly to describe currents, deposits, and
precipitation, runoff, storage and evaporation, drift.
and quantitatively as to distribution and
concentration.
May 1, 2001
Littoral Drift. The sedimentary material (sand) Peak Flow. Maximum momentary stage or
moved along the shoreline under the influence discharge of a stream in flood.
of waves and currents.
Pebble. Stone 10 to 75 mm in diameter, including
Littoral Transport. The movement of littoral drift coarse gravel and small cobble.
along the shoreline by waves and currents.
Permeable. Open to the passage of fluids, as for
Includes movement parallel (longshore
(1) pervious soils and (2) bank-protection
transport) and perpendicular (on-offshore
structures.
transport) to the shore.
Pier. Vertical support of a structure standing in a
Longshore. Parallel to and near the shoreline.
stream or other body of water. Used in a
Marginal. Within a borderland area; more general general sense to include bents and abutments.
and extensive than riparian.
Pile. A long, heavy timber or section of concrete
Marsh. An area of soft, wet, or periodically or metal that is driven or jetted into the earth or
submerged land, generally treeless and usually bottom of a water body to serve as a structural
characterized by grasses and other low support or protection.
vegetation.
Plunge. Flow with a strong downward component,
Mature. Classification for streams which have as in outfall drops, overbank falls, and surf
established flat gradients not subject to further attack on a beach.
scour.
Precipitation. Discharge of atmospheric moisture
Mean Depth. For a stream at any stage, the wetted as rain, snow or hail, measured in depth of fall
normal section divided by the surface width. or in terms of intensity of fall in unit time.
Hydraulic mean depth.
Probability. The chance of occurrence or
Meander. In connection with streams, a winding recurrence of a specified event within a unit of
channel usually in an erodible, alluvial valley. time, commonly expressed in 3 ways. Thus a
A reverse or S-shaped curve or series of curves 10-year flood has a chance of 0.1 per year and
formed by erosion of the concave bank, is also called a 10%-chance flood.
especially at the downstream end, shoals and
Rack. An open upright structure, such as a debris
bank erosions. Meandering is a stage in the
rack.
migratory movement of the channel, as a whole
down the valley. Rainwash. The creep of soil lubricated by rain.
Mesh. Woven wire or other filaments used alone Range. Difference between extremes, as for
as revetment, or as retainer or container of stream or tide stage.
masses of gravel or cobble. Rapids. Swift turbulent flow in a rough steep
Nourishment. The process of replenishing a beach. reach.
It may be brought about naturally, by accretion Ravine. A valley larger than a gulch, smaller than
due to the longshore transport, or artificially, a canyon, and less bold in relief than a gulch or
by the deposition of dredged materials. arroyo.
Outfall. Discharge or point of discharge of a Reach. The length of a channel uniform with
culvert or other closed conduit. respect to discharge, depth, area, and slope.
Outwash. Debris transported from a restricted More generally, any length of a river or
channel to an unrestricted area where it is drainage course.
deposited to form an alluvial or debris cone or Recession. Retreat of shore or bank by progressive
fan. erosion.
Overflow. Discharge of a stream outside its banks;
the parallel channels carrying such discharge.
May 1, 2001
Reef. Generally, any solid projection from the bed Sand. Granular soil coarser than silt and finer than
of a stream or other body of water. gravel, ranging in diameter from 0.05 to 5
mm.
Regime. The system or order characteristic of a
stream; its behavior with respect to velocity Scour. The result of erosive action of running
and volume, form of and changes in channel, water, primarily in streams, excavating and
capacity to transport sediment, amount of carrying away material from the bed and
material supplied for transportation, etc. banks. Wearing away by abrasive action.
Repose. The stable slope of a bank or Sea. Ocean or other body of water larger than a
embankment, expressed as an angle or the ratio lake; state of agitation of any large body of
of horizontal to vertical projection. water.
Restriction. Artificial or natural control against Seawall. A structure separating land and water
widening of a channel, with or without areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion
construction. and other damage due to wave action. (See
bulkhead).
Retard. Bank-protection structure designed to
check the riparian velocity and induce silting Sedimentation. Gravitational deposit of
or accretion. transported material in flowing or standing
water.
Retrogression. Reversal of stream grading, i.e.,
aggradation after degradation or vice versa. Seepage. Percolation of underground water thru
the banks and into a stream or other body of
Revetment. Bank protection to prevent erosion.
water.
Riparian. Pertaining to the banks of a stream.
Seiche. A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed
Riprap. A layer, facing, or protective mound of waterbody that continues, pendulum fashion,
rubble or stones randomly placed to prevent after the cessation of the originating force,
erosion, scour, or sloughing of a structure or which may have been either seismic or
embankment; also, the stone used for this atmospheric.
purpose.
Sheet Pile. A pile with a generally slender, flat
River. A large stream, usually active when any cross-section that is driven into ground or
streams are flowing in the region. bottom of a water body and meshed or
Rock. (1) Cobble, boulder or quarry stone as a interlocked with like members to form a wall
construction material. (2) Hard natural or bulkhead.
mineral, in formation as in piles of talus. Shoal. A shallow region in flowing or standing
RSP Fabric. (See Filter Fabric). water, especially if made shallow by
deposition.
Rubble. Rough, irregular fragments of rock or
concrete. Shore. The narrow strip of land in immediate
contact with the water, including the zone
Runoff. The surface waters that exceed the soil's between high and low water lines. See
infiltration rate and depression storage. backshore, foreshore, onshore, offshore,
Runup. The rush of water up a beach or structure, longshore, and nearshore.
associated with the breaking of a wave. The Silt. (1) Water-Borne Sediment. Detritus carried
amount of runup is measured according to the in suspension or deposited by flowing water,
vertical height above still water level that the ranging in diameter from 0.005 to 0.05 mm.
rush of water reaches. The term is generally confined to fine earth,
sand, or mud, but is sometimes both suspended
and bedload. (2) Deposits of Water-Borne
May 1, 2001
Material. As a reservoir, on a delta, or on Strand. (1) To lodge on bars, banks, or overflow

floodplains. plain, as for drift. (2) Bar of sediment
connecting two regions of higher ground.
Slide. Gravitational movement of an unstable mass
of earth from its natural position. Stream. Water flowing in a channel or conduit,
ranging in size from small creeks to large
Slipout. Gravitational movement of an unstable
rivers.
mass of earth from its constructed position.
Applied to embankments and other man-made Stream Waters. Former surface waters which have
earthworks. entered and now flow in a well defined natural
watercourse, together with other waters
Slope. (1) Gradient of a stream. (2) Inclination of
reaching the stream by direct precipitation or
the face of an embankment, expressed as the
rising from springs in bed or banks of the
ratio of horiontal to vertical projection. (3)
watercourse. They continue as stream waters
The face of an inclined embankment or cut
as long as they flow in the watercourse,
slope. In hydraulics it is expressed as percent
including overflow and multiple channels as
or in decimal form.
well as the ordinary or low-water channel.
Slough. (1) Pronounced SLU. A side or overflow
Subsidence. General lowering of land surface by
channel in which water is continually present.
consolidation or removal of underlying soil.
It is stagnant or slack; also a waterway in a
tidal marsh. (2) Pronounced SLUFF. Slide or Surf. The breaking of waves and swell on the
slipout of a thin mantle of earth, especially in a foreshore and offshore shoals.
series of small movements.
Surface Waters. Surface waters are those which
Spur Dike. A structure or embankment projecting have been precipitated on the land from the sky
a short distance into a stream from the bank or forced to the surface in springs, and which
and at an angle to deflect flowing water away have then spread over the surface of the ground
from critical areas. without being collected into a definite body or
channel. They appear as puddles, sheet or
Stage. The elevation of a water surface above its
overland flow, and rills, and continue to be
minimum; also above or below an established
surface waters until they disappear from the
"low water" plane; hence above or below any
surface by infiltration or evaporation, or until
datum of reference; gage height.
by overland or vagrant flow they reach well-
Standing Wave. The motion of swiftly flowing defined water courses or standing bodies of
stream water, that resembles a wave, but is water like lakes or seas.
formed by decelerating or diverging flow that
Surge. A sudden swelling of discharge in unsteady
does not quite produce a hydraulic jump.
flow.
Stone. Rock or rock-like material; a particle of
Swamp. An area of shallow pondage or saturated
such material, in any size from pebble to the
surface, the water being fresh or acidic and the
largest quarried blocks.
area usually covered with rank vegetation.
Storage. Detention or retention of water for future
Swell. Waves generated by a distant storm, usually
flow, naturally in channel and marginal soils or
regular and fully harmonic.
artificially in reservoirs.
Talus. Loose rocks and debris disintegrated from a
Storm. A disturbance of the ordinary, average
steep hill or cliff standing at repose along the
conditions of the atmosphere which, unless
toe.
specifically qualified, may include any or all
meteorological disturbances, such as wind, Terrace. Berm or bench-like earth embankment,
rain, snow, hail, or thunder. with a nearly level plain bounded by rising and
falling slopes.
May 1, 2001
Tetrahedron. Bank protection element, basically Uplift. Upward hydrostatic pressure on base of an
composed of 6 steel or concrete struts joined impervious structure.
like the edges of a triangular pyramid, together
Velocity. The rate of motion of objects or
with subdividing struts and tie wires or cables.
particles, or of a stream of particles.
Tetrapod. Bank protection element, precast of
Vernal Pools. Vernal pools are seasonally flooded
concrete, consisting of 4 legs joined at a
landscape depressions that support distinctive
central block, each leg making an angle of
(and many times rare) plant and animal species
109.5 degrees with the other three, like rays
adapted to periodic or continuous inundation
from the center of a tetrahedron to the center of
during the wet season, and the absence of
each face.
either ponded water or wet soil during the dry
Texture. Arrangement and interconnection of season.
surface and near-surface particles of terrain or
Wash. Flood plain or active channel of an
channel perimeter.
ephemeral stream, usually in recent alluvium.
Thalweg. The line following the lowest part of a
Watercourse. A definite channel with bed and
valley, whether under water or not. Usually
banks within which water flows, either
the line following the deepest part of the bed or
continuously or in season. A watercourse is
channel of a river.
continuous in the direction of flow and may
Thread. The central element of a current, extend laterally beyond the definite banks to
continuous along a stream. include overflow channels contiguous to the
ordinary channel. The term does not include
Tide. The periodic rising and falling of the ocean
artifical channels such as canals and drains,
and connecting bodies of water that results
except natural channels trained or restrained by
from gravitational attraction of the moon and
the works of man. Neither does it include
sun acting on the rotating earth.
depressions or swales through which surface or
Topping. The top layer on horizontal revetments errant waters pass.
or rock structures; also capping or cap stones.
Watershed. The area that contributes surface water
Training. Control of direction of currents. runoff into a tributary system or water course.
Transition. A relatively short reach or conduit Waterway. (1) That portion of a watercourse
leading from one waterway section to another which is actually occupied by water. (2) A
of different width, shape, or slope. navigable in land body of water.
Transport. To carry solid material in a stream in Wave. (1) An oscillatory movement of water on or
solution, suspension, saltation, or entrainment. near the surface of standing water in which a
Trough. Space between wave crests and the water succession of crests and troughs advance while
surface below it. particles of water follow cyclic paths without
advancing. (2) Motion of water in a flowing
Turbulence. A state of flow wherein the water is stream so as to develop the surficial
agitated by cross-currents and eddies; opposed appearance of a wave.
to a condition of flow that is quiet and laminar.
Wave Height. The vertical distance between a
Undercut. Erosion of the low part of a steep bank wave crest and the preceding trough.
so as to compromise stability of the upper part.
Wave Length. The horizontal distance between
Undertow. Current outward from a wave-swept similar points on two successive waves (for
shore carrying solid particles swept or scoured example, crest to crest or trough to trough),
from the beach or foreshore. measured in the direction of wave travel.
Updrift. The direction opposite that of the
predominant movement of littoral materials.
May 1, 2001
Wave Period. The time in which a wave crest

travels a distance equal to one wave length.
Can be measured as the time for two
successive wave crests to pass a fixed point.
Weephole. A hole in a wall, invert, apron, lining,
or other solid structure to relieve the pressure
of groundwater.
Weir. A low overflow dam or sill for measuring,
diverting, or checking flow.
Well. (1) Artificial excavation for withdrawal of
water from underground storage. (2) Upward
component of velocity in a stream.
Wetland. Those areas that are inundated or
saturated by surface or ground water at a
frequency and duration sufficient to support,
and that under normal circumstances do
support a prevalence of vegetation typically
adapted for life in saturated soil conditions.
Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes,
bogs, and similar areas.
Windbreak. Barrier fence or trees to break or
deflect the velocity of wind.
Windwave. A wave generated and propelled by
wind blowing along the water surface.
Young. Immature, said of a stream on a steep
gradient actively scouring its bed toward a
more stable grade.
July 1, 1995
881.4 Economics
CHAPTER 880
UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL (Text later)
881.5 References
Topic 881 - General The following publications contain design
parameters and other useful information per-
Index 881.1 - Introduction taining to the design and construction of an
infiltration drainage disposal system.
This section deals with the use of drainage basin
and drainage well infiltration systems for the • Caltrans report, "Infiltration Drainage of
disposal of storm water runoff. Exclusive Highway Surface Water", July, 1980.
reliance on conventional storm drain systems for
disposal of roadway drainage, particularly in • FHWA design guidelines manual,
rapidly growing urban areas, is often a problem. "Underground Disposal of Storm Water
In many regions, nature intended for surface Runoff".
runoff to soak back into the earth and customary
disposal practices prevent it from doing so.
Topic 882 - Infiltration Systems
Where the terrain is flat and there are few natural
channels it can be unreasonably costly to
construct and maintain a conventional storm 882.1 Basins
drain system and outfall. Drainage basins and Where no other means of disposal exist, storm
drainage wells may offer a solution to that waters may be discharged into natural or
problem. excavated depressions and stored until dis-
sipated by infiltration and evaporation. After the
881.2 Recharge Consideration ground has become saturated, there will be little
There are two major considerations entering into percolation during a storm and evaporation will
the design of drainage basin or drainage well be negligible until the rain stops. The only
infiltration systems. These are the quantity and significant computation is the capacity of the
the probable quality of the runoff to be handled. basin. Generally, stream waters should be
Obviously, the facility must be large enough to passed without storage, and only roadway
handle a specified volume associated with a drainage water be considered for temporary
frequency of runoff. The volume needed and storage.
the percolation rate of the surrounding soils will It is important, under some situations, to know
dictate the size of the underground disposal how long it will take the stored water to
system. There must also be an escapement dissipate after a storm. Percolation rate and
designed into the system allowing surface underground conditions should be determined.
overflow, or subsurface rise in the pressure The percolation rate can be improved in many
gradient. cases by ripping hardpan, loosening the soil, or
If the predicted, or measured, pollution installing drainage wells down to more pervious
population is too high, then primary, and pos- layers. In localities where long term ponding
sibly secondary treatment procedures are re- would be objectionable, extensive well systems
quired prior to turning the captured runoff into a or pumping may be required for final disposal.
recharge pond or injection well. Refer to Index
110.2 for further discussion on control of water 882.2 Trenches
pollution. (Text Later)
881.3 Maintenance Considerations
(Text later)
July 1, 1995
882.3 Wells
Drainage wells are gravel filled vertical drains
which filter and discharge storm water into
pervious substrata. A thorough investigation is
necessary to establish the existence, location,
and capacity of the pervious layers. The initial
cost of drainage wells is moderate, but their
capacity and service life may be impaired by
clogging. Silt and debris can create a
continuous maintenance expense where flows
carry excessive solids.
Where drainage wells have clogged, dry wells
have been used successfully, however frequent
cleaning is necessary. The well is lined with
cribbing or perforated casing and no gravel filler
is used. Covers must be designed for protection
of persons and vehicles, but must be removable
for easy maintenance.
Topic 883 - Environmental

Considerations
(Text Later)
Topic 884 - Legal

Considerations
884.1 General
Since the disposal of storm waters into water
bearing strata is restricted by law, the approval
of the local water pollution control authority is
required. Refer to Index 110.2 for information
on statutory regulations.
May 1, 2001
development site conditions. In addition, many

CHAPTER 890 local agencies must be responsive to their own
STORM WATER MANAGEMENT storm water permits which require that they
implement programs to control the quality of
storm water discharges within their
Topic 891 - General jurisdiction. When run-off impacts are caused
jointly by Caltrans and others, it may be
Index 891.1 - Introduction possible to develop cooperative agreements
The term “storm water management” refers to allowing joint impact mitigation. See Indexes
the cooperative efforts of public agencies and 803.2 and 803.3 for further discussion on
the private sector to mitigate, abate, or reverse cooperative agreements and up-grading of
the adverse results, both in water quantity and existing highway drainage facilities.
water quality, associated with the altered runoff
phenomena that typically accompanies Topic 892 - Storm Water
urbanization. Storm water management Management Strategies
encompasses a number of control measures,
which may be either structural or non-structural 892.1 General
(including policy and procedural measures) in Quantity / Quality Relationship. Management
nature. of storm water quality often requires the
This chapter will focus primarily on the assessment of relatively small runoff producing
management of storm water runoff quantity. events. As much as 80 percent of average
Information related to the designers annual rainfall is produced by storms with
responsibility for the management of storm return periods of less than 2 years. As a result,
water runoff quality is contained in The water quality facilities are typically sized to
Caltrans "Project Planning and Design Guide". address relatively small runoff volumes.
Conversely, storm water quantity management
891.2 Philosophy is typically directed at reducing the peak flow
When runoff impacts result from a Caltrans rate on storms with a 10-year or greater return
project, then the cost of mitigating these period, and water quantity control facilities
impacts is a legitimate part of the project cost. must be sized accordingly.
Since transportation funds are increasingly In order to achieve both water quantity and
limited, and because mitigation of runoff quality benefits, it may be necessary to use a
problems can be expensive, it is important to combination of strategies or control measures.
identify the causative factors and responsible For example, placement of a relatively small
parties. When runoff impacts are caused by detention basin or filtration immediately
others, avenues for assigning these costs to the upstream of a quantity attenuating detention
responsible party should be evaluated. The basin can provide sediment capture, while
local agencies responsible for land use in the allowing larger flows to be mitigated by the
area are a good place to begin this evaluation, major basin. Some types of water quality
as many of these local agencies have enacted control measures will need to incorporate
land use regulations in an effort to control bypass features so that the smaller, more
flooding. These regulations often require that frequent, runoff events can be treated while
developers limit changes in the volume and still allowing larger flows to be routed away
rate of discharge between the pre- and post- from the traveled way.
May 1, 2001
892.2 Types of Strategies (3) Drainage Easements. In areas where

right of way is inexpensive it may be
There are various storm water management
possible to purchase flood easements.
strategies which may be used to mitigate the
These areas are typically used for
effects of storm water runoff problems. They
agriculture and are subject to flooding
vary from very simple to very complex
at any time during specified times of
techniques depending upon specific site
the year. Cooperative agreements with
conditions and regulatory requirements which
local agencies or flood control districts
must be satisfied.
will typically be necessary.
The Caltrans Storm Water Quality Handbook,
“Planning and Design Staff Guide” provides 892.3 Design Considerations
both design guidance on specific water quality The items presented below describe some of
control measures as well as a more general the issues to be considered prior to, and during,
discussion of how and when to incorporate the design of any storm water management
water quality control measures into projects. facility. General issues common to most storm
water management strategies that need to be
In addition to the measures described in the
evaluated are:
Storm Water Quality Handbooks, the following
measures may provide relief in dealing with the • Access for maintenance must be
water quantity side of storm water provided, and the facility must be
management. maintainable. Storm water control
facilities must not become regarded as
(1) Detention & Retention Basins. The wetlands themselves, which would
detention and retention basin designs require special permits for routine
provided in the Storm Water Quality maintenance.
Handbooks are based upon water
quality control, not quantity control. • Facilities should be designed to “blend
Refer to the Caltrans training course in” with their surroundings to the
manual “Storm Water Management greatest extent possible. The district
Design” for information related to landscape architecture unit should be
design considerations for peak flood contacted for assistance.
reduction through the use of detention • The effects of the proposed facility on
and retention basins. Also, refer to channel capacities and existing floodways
HEC No.22, Chapter 8. require evaluation. Care must be taken to
evaluate the effects related to the delayed
(2) Groundwater Recharge. In some
release from detention facilities since an
locations highly permeable under-
increase in downstream peak discharges
ground strata may allow percolation of
may result (see Figure 892.3).
excess runoff into the ground. Benefits
include recharge of underground • The effects of releasing sediment free
aquifers and the possible reduction or “hungry” water into channels and the
elimination of conveyance systems potential for increased erosion rates
along with pollutant removal. Special downstream must be determined.
care must be exercised in areas of high
groundwater to avoid potential
contamination of the aquifer.
May 1, 2001
• Evaluate the effects of depriving Topic 893 - Maintenance

downstream water users (human, aquatic Requirements for Storm Water
or vegetative) of runoff due to retention,
Management Features
percolation or other diversion.
Storm water management techniques involving 893.1 - General
on-site and off-site storage may offer the
As mentioned previously, the ability and the
highway design engineer the more reasonable
commitment to maintain storm water
and responsive solution to problems relative to
management facilities is necessary for their
the handling of excess runoff. The cooperation
proper operation. The designer must consider
of other jurisdictions is generally a prerequisite
the maintenance needs, and the type of
to applying these strategies and a cooperative
maintenance that will take place, in order to
agreement is almost always necessary. See
provide for adequate access to and within the
Chapter 12 of the AASHTO Model Drainage
facility site.
Manual for additional design criteria for
storage facilities. Additionally, the designer should initiate both
verbal and written contact with District
892.4 Mixing with Other Waste Streams maintenance to verify the availability of
Storm water runoff from State highways will resources to provide proper maintenance and to
usually be carried to a receiving body of water keep them aware of potential high maintenance
without being combined with waste water. items that will be constructed. Initial estimates
Although some combined storm and sanitary of how often sediment removal should be
sewers do exist, their use should be avoided. performed should be provided by the designer
based upon estimated design loadings. Other
The most common areas of waste stream types of maintenance, such as periodic
mixing have been at maintenance stations. inspections of embankments, inlet/outlet
These facilities may have combined storm structures, debris removal, etc. should also be
water and wash rack systems. Because of wash discussed. Due to the large capital investment
water and rinse water, maintenance stations required for constructing storm water
present unique water quality problems from management facilities, proper maintenance
concentrated levels of pollutant loadings. The cannot be overlooked.
preferable design has a separate system for the
wash rack so that it is not mixed with storm By definition, detained water contributes to
water and rinse water. For additional advice on runoff and therefore detention ponds or basins
treatment of concentrated waste streams at must have an outlet and outfall system (see
maintenance stations, contact the Water/Waste Index 816.4). A gravity outfall should be used
Water Unit in the Office of Structures Design. whenever feasible. Pumping should only be
used where there is no other practical way of
handling the excess runoff. See Topic 839 for
further discussion on pumping stations.
May 1, 2001
Figure 892.3
Example of Cumulative Hydrograph
With and Without Detention

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HIGHWAY DESIGN MANUAL

CHAPTER 10 - DIVISION OF DESIGN

CHAPTER 20 - DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

62.2 Highway Structures 60-2

CHAPTER 80 - APPLICATION OF DESIGN STANDARDS

CHAPTER 100 - BASIC DESIGN POLICIES

104.3 Frontage Roads 100-4

110.7 Traffic Control Plans 100-23

CHAPTER 200 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

201.7 Decision Sight Distance 200-6

205.3 Urban Driveways 200-26

210.7 Guidelines for Plan Preparation 200-50

CHAPTER 300 - GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

307 Cross Sections for State Highways

CHAPTER 400 - INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

403 Principles of Channelization

CHAPTER 500 - TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

CHAPTER 600 - PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL SECTION

602 Pavement Service Life and Traffic Data

607 Structure Approach Pavement and Structure Abutment Embankment Design

CHAPTER 700 - MISCELLANEOUS STANDARDS

707.2 Guidelines for Slope Treatment 700-7

CHAPTER 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN

CHAPTERS 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS

804.10 National Flood Insurance Program 800-14

CHAPTER 810 – HYDROLOGY

811.4 Flood Severity 810-2

815.5 Rainfall 810-9

CHAPTER 820 - CROSS DRAINAGE

822.2 Debris Control Methods 820-3

829.4 Joints 820-11

CHAPTER 830 - ROADWAY DRAINAGE

836 Curbs and Gutters

CHAPTER 840 - SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE

842.2 Single Installations 840-3

CHAPTER 850 - PHYSICAL STANDARDS

CHAPTER 860 - OPEN CHANNELS

861.3 Selection of "Design Flood" 860-1

CHAPTER 870 - CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION - EROSION CONTROL

871.3 Selected References 870-2

CHAPTER 880 - UNDERGROUND DISPOSAL

CHAPTER 890 - STORM WATER MANAGEMENT

891.2 Philosophy 890-1

CHAPTER 900 - LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

CHAPTER 1000 - BIKEWAY PLANNING AND DESIGN

1001.2 Streets and Highways Code References – Chapter 8 – Nonmotorized 1000-1

CHAPTER 1100 - HIGHWAY TRAFFIC NOISE ABATEMENT

1102.4 Noise Barrier Length 1100-3

CHAPTER 20 - DESIGNATION OF HIGHWAY ROUTES

CHAPTER 200 - GEOMETRIC DESIGN AND STRUCTURE STANDARDS

CHAPTER 300 - GEOMETRIC CROSS SECTION

307.4 Geometric Cross Sections for Freeways and Expressways 300-18

CHAPTER 400 - INTERSECTIONS AT GRADE

CHAPTER 500 - TRAFFIC INTERCHANGES

CHAPTER 600 - PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL SECTION

607.6B Structure Approach Pavement Transition Details (Rehabilitation) 600-46

CHAPTERS 800-890 - HIGHWAY DRAINAGE DESIGN

CHAPTER 800 - GENERAL ASPECTS

CHAPTER 810 - HYDROLOGY

CHAPTER 830 - ROADWAY DRAINAGE

CHAPTER 850 - PHYSICAL STANDARDS

CHAPTER 860 - OPEN CHANNELS

CHAPTER 870 - CHANNEL AND SHORE PROTECTION -

873.3G Grout Filled Fabric Mattresses 870-34