Regenerative Braking In Traction System

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Out of all modes of transportation system, only Indian Railways (IR) has been matching
with the burgeoning growth of the economy of India by maintaining the unit price in spite of
steep rise in fuel prices .To stay competitive, we have to develop creative solutions to cut
down the expenditure on fuel. Worldwide, there is a trend to make railroad more energy-
efficient. Understanding the significance of Rail Industry in Indian Economy, India has laid
down stress on energy efficiency in transportation. As a result, the railroads, their
manufacturers and the federal government have embarked on a cooperative effort to
further improve railroad fuel efficiency, i.e. 25% by 2010 and 50% by 2050. Some of the Fuel
efficiency measures have already taken by Indian Rail road since 2005 and 16% of energy
efficiency has been achieved so far. Among various other measures taken by Indian
Railroad, energy recovery during braking is the most significant one.

Trains have, among other benefits, the advantage of being able to regenerate energy to
the feeding power lines (known as catenaries) when braking. This saves energy and reduces
wear on the mechanical brakes.

The electric regenerative brakes used by the trains have a great potential in this area.
However, in most trains today it cannot be used to the extent that might be desirable. They
do not have the capability to brake fast enough to be used as the main service brake,
especially not at higher speeds and in urgent braking cases, with short braking distance. The
deceleration will be too low and the train will risk running late. There is simply a conflict
where a more ecological and economic driving will result in longer travel times which will
risk making the railway system less attractive for passengers. Also, the braking distance may
be too long to suit the pre-warning distance in the signalling system. To solve this it would
be necessary to make the electric regenerative brakes more efficient and practical both at
higher speeds and for cases involving harder braking.

This thesis work aims to immerse on the benefits of this technology, especially when
running at higher speeds. Would it, for instance, be more economical to have a more

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powerful drive system which allows for more regeneration and less wear on mechanical
brakes compared to most trains today

1.2 Necessity

The energy efficiency of conventional brake is about 20% and remaining 80% of its
energy is wasted in terms of heat and friction. The miraculous thing about regenerative
breaking is that it recaptures about 50 to 60% of wasted energy put it back to work for
utilization purpose

The regenerative braking system delivers a number of significant advantages over a car
that only has friction brakes. In low-speed, stop- and-go traffic where little deceleration is
required; the regenerative braking system can provide the majority of the total braking
force. This vastly improves fuel economy with a vehicle, and further enhances the
attractiveness of vehicles using regenerative braking for urban area. At higher speeds, too,
regenerative braking has been shown to contribute to improved fuel economy – by as much
as 20%.

Now consider a train, which is operated in the main city where instant stops are there
and s speed of train maintain constant is a major problem here one has to apply brake
frequently. For such trains the wastage of energy by application of brake is about 60% to
65%. Hence such problems are takes place in sub urban area also hence regenerative
breaking plays an important role in recovering that wasted energy with fuel conservation
and improvement of system efficiency.

1.3 Objectives
 Make an inventory of existing methods that describe the wear of brake pads (as
function of braking characteristics) and select the most suitable for the present
work.
 Perform a survey and a review among train drivers to learn more about different
driving techniques and the cause of these techniques.
 Make a comparison of the energy consumption and wear between different driving
and braking styles.

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 Perform analysis about most efficient method that was found and implementation of
that one.
1.4 Theme

There are three main principles of braking a running train. Using the adhesion between
wheels and rails is the most common; these brakes are called adhesion brakes. There are
also brakes which use the friction between the track and brake shoes on the train known as
track brakes. Track brakes are in principle only used as emergency brakes. The third
principle is the eddy current brake that instead of friction uses electromagnetic current to
create resistance between the track and the brake shoes.

The adhesion brakes can in turn be divided into three sub-principles

 the tread brakes are used to clean the wheel treads and improve the adhesion;
 disc brakes as the main mechanical brake and
 Electrical brakes to perform as much of the braking as possible to save energy and
mechanical brake wear.

The electrical brake can be either rheostatic or regenerative and produces brake force
by using the traction motors as generators. In both cases a braking torque on the wheel axle
is produced, which in turn produces a braking force between the wheels and rails. If it’s
rheostatic the kinetic energy is transformed into heat in resistors. If it’s regenerative the
electrical energy can be returned to the centenary and used by other trains or sometimes it
is even possible to feed it back to the public grid. A big advantage of regenerative brakes is
thus the possibility to re-use the electrical energy that otherwise would have been
transformed into heat when using either rheostatic electrical brakes or mechanical brakes.
This benefits both the environment and the economy for the operator. There is also a big
advantage as the wear of the mechanical brakes becomes lower which prolongs the
maintenance intervals.

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Chapter 2

LITERATURE SURVEY

 In 1886 the Sprague Electric Railway & Motor Company, founded by Frank J.
Sprague, introduced two important inventions: a constant-speed, non-sparking
motor with fixed brushes, and regenerative braking.

During braking, the traction motor connections are altered to turn them into
electrical generators. The motor fields are connected across the main traction
generator (MG) and the motor armatures are connected across the load. The MG

Now excites the motor fields. The rolling locomotive or multiple unit wheels turn the
motor armatures, and the motors act as generators, either sending the generated
current through onboard resistors (dynamic braking) or back into the supply
(regenerative braking). Compared to electro-pneumatic friction brakes, braking with
the traction motors can be regulated faster improving the performance of wheel
slide protection.

For a given direction of travel, current flow through the motor armatures during
braking will be opposite to that during motoring. Therefore, the motor exerts

Torque in a direction that is opposite from the rolling direction.

Braking effort is proportional to the product of the magnetic strength of the field
windings, multiplied by that of the armature windings.

Savings of 17%, and less wear on friction braking components, are claimed for Virgin
Trains Pendolinos.

 Dave (16 March 2009). "Horseless Carriage: 1906" Shorpy. Retrieved 14 August
2010.

Early examples of this system were the front-wheel drive conversions of horsedrawn
cabs by Louis Antoine Krieger in Paris in the 1890s. The Krieger electric landaulet had
a drive motor in each front wheel with a second set of parallel windings (bifilar coil)
for regenerative braking

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 In England, "automatic regenerative control" was introduced to tramway operators

by John S. Raworth’s Traction Patents 1903–1908, offering them economic and
operational benefits as explained in some detail by his son Alfred Raworth.

These included tramway systems at Devonport (1903), Rawtenstall, Birmingham,

Crystal Palace-Croydon

(1906), and many others. Slowing the speed of the cars or keeping it in control on
descending gradients, the motors worked as generators and braked the vehicles. The
tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram
should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the tram car motors were
shunt wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the Crystal Palace line
utilized series parallel controllers. Following a serious accident at Rawtenstall, an
embargo was placed on this form of traction in 1911; the regenerative braking
system was reintroduced twenty years later.

 Regenerative braking has been in extensive use on railways for many decades. The
Baku-Tbilisi-Batumi railway (Trans Caucasus Railway or Georgian railway) started
utilizing regenerative braking in the early 1930s. This was especially effective on the
steep and dangerous Surami Pass.

 In Scandinavia the Kiruna to Narvik electrified railway carries iron ore on the steeply-
graded route from the mines in Kiruna, in the north of Sweden, down to the port of
Narvik in Norway to this day. The rail cars are full of thousands of tons of iron ore on
the way down to Narvik, and these trains generate large amounts of electricity by

 Regenerative braking, with a maximum recuperative braking force of 750 kN. From
Riksgransen on the national border to the Port of Narvik, the trains use only a fifth of
the power they regenerate. The regenerated energy is sufficient to power the empty
trains back up to the national border. Any excess energy from the railway is pumped
into the power grid to supply homes and businesses in the region, and the railway is
a net generator of electricity.

 Electric cars used regenerative braking since the earliest experiments, but this was
often a complex affair where the

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 Driver had to flip switches between various operational modes in order to use it. The
Baker Electric Runabout and the Owen Magnetic were early examples, which used
many switches and modes controlled by an expensive "black box" or "drum switch"
as part of their electrical system. These, like the Krieger design, could only practically
be used on downhill portions of a trip, and had to be manually engaged.

 Improvements in electronics allowed this process to be fully automated, starting

with 1967's AMC Amitron experimental electric car. Designed by Gulton Industries
the motor controller

 Automatically began battery charging when the brake pedal was applied. Many
modern hybrid and electric vehicles use this technique to extend the range of the
battery pack, especially those using an AC drive train (mostearlier designs used DC
power).

 The Delhi Metro reduced the amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2) released into the
atmosphere by around 90,000 tons by regenerating 112,500 megawatt hours of
electricity through the use of regenerative

Braking systems between 2004 and 2007. It was expected that the Delhi Metro
would reduce its emissions by over 100,000 tons of CO 2 per year once its phase II
was complete, through the use of regenerative braking.

Electricity generated by regenerative braking may be fed back into the traction
power supply; either offset against other electrical demand on the network at that
instant, used for head end power loads, or stored in lineside storage systems for
later use.

 After most of methods of this Regenerative Breaking was introduced

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Chapter 3

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT

3.1 System Block Diagram

Figure No1: System Block Diagram

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Currently, the basis of the fleet of domestic ac locomotives is made up of electric
locomotives with regenerative braking. Operation of these devices is provided by the
thyristor reversible converter (RC), which also allows carrying out steady zonal and phase
voltage control on traction motors in the traction and regenerative braking modes. A
simplified diagram of power circuits in the ac locomotive is shown in Figure.
The similar construction of the diagram allows us to realize the regulation of traction
motors (EMs) in four zones depending on the connection to the engines of different sections
of the transformer secondary winding. Voltage regulation within each zone is carried out by
changing moments of unblanking of RC legs in the electric locomotive within the supply
voltage according to a control algorithm.
When a train descends a slope with regenerative braking, the mechanical energy of
the train is converted into the electric and, when passing through an RC operating in the
inverter mode, is returned to the traction network. Current inversion is carried out under two
conditions: the traction motors must be transferred into the generator mode with reverse
polarity, and the inverter must operate in the mode of the four zone inverter conducted by the
network. It is necessary to set up operation of his thyristor arms so that they are carry current
out against the direction of voltage of the traction transformer so as to transfer the converter
into the inverter mode. And fed that regenerated energy to traction grid or to locomotive load
for utilization.
Power flow given below
1. When operate in converter mode –Grid --traction transformer –reversible convertor –
traction motor

2. When operate in inverter mode: traction motor --reversible convertor – traction transformer
– Grid.

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3.2 Schematic Circuit of System

Figure No2: Simplified Diagram of The Power Circuits In The Ac Locomotive.

The algorithm of giving the control impulses on the thyristors of a RC operating in the
inverter mode is presented in Table 1.

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Table no.1 typical control algorithm of the inverter thyristors

However, RCs are far from perfect despite the successful experience in operating the
electric locomotives, as the operation effectiveness of regenerative braking is limited to the
low power factor of the inverter (Fp within 0.65–0.7). This problem sets a task of the energy
efficiency improvement of electric locomotives with the thyristor converters. The energy
efficient control method of inverter thyristors, which allows increasing the power factor of
the electric locomotive in the regenerative braking mode, as well as the energy recovery rate
into the traction network, is developed to solve this problem. The switching process of
thyristors in the existing inverter is carried out as follows using the example of the fourth
control zone. The thyristors of inverter arms VS1 and VS8, through which the current of the
generator flows and overcomes the voltage of sections of the transformer secondary winding;
i.e., there is energy recovery from the generator through the transformer into the traction
network, are open on the fourth control zone at the beginning of the half period of supply
voltage traction network UTN, which is indicated in Fig. 1 by a dotted arrow. The control system
supplies control pulses with phase βr on the thyristors of arm VS3 at a certain point, as a
result of which the thyristors of arm VS1 are locked and the thyristors of arm VS3 are
unlocked (there is a phase switching).
Further, the pulses are supplied by the control system to the thyristors of arms VS2
and VS7 in this half period of the supply voltage at the time, which is corresponding to angle
β (the unblanking advance angle). As a result, there is a main switching of currents and the
thyristors of arms VS3 and VS8 are locked through switching time γ, and arms VS2 and VS7
are unlocked.

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Thus, the ratio of parameters in the sections of the transformer secondary winding is
such that the main switching proceeds in two stages: at first, there is a switching with
duration γ1 in the loop, which is formed by transformer sections al–1, 1–2, and 2–x1 and by
the thyristors of arms VS2 and VS8, and after its completion—switching with duration γ2 in
the loop, which is formed by transformer sections 1–2, and 2–x1 and by the thyristors of arms
VS3 and VS7. Unblanking advance angle β is chosen to ensure the inversion process, so that
switching will be complete until the curve passage of the supply voltage through zero.
Otherwise, “inverter triggering” occurs after the change of voltage polarity.
System Analysis

Table No.2 New Control Algorithm Of The Inverter Thyristors

A new RC control algorithm in the electric locomotive is proposed in the recovery

mode to increase the power factor of the inverter and, correspondingly, to increase the energy
that returned to the network. The order of application of the control pulses to the thyristors in
the proposed control algorithm is shown in Table 2.
For the organization of a new control method by converter pulsing by the control
system into the thyristors of arms that form this control zone should be carried out with some
delay in relation to the pulses supplied to the thyristors of arms that do not participate in
switching at the formation of a zone in the standard algorithm.
The current of the inverter proceeds through the thyristors of arms VS3 and VS8 after
the end of phase switching current in the half period of the supply voltage, which is

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designated in Fig. 1 by the dotted arrow. At the time corresponding to angle β (Fig. 3), the
control pulses are supplied to the thyristors of arm VS6. The short-circuited loop is thereby
formed through the transformer section 2–x1 and the thyristors of arms VS6 and VS8. At the
same time, RC continues to operate in the inversion mode due to the section of the
transformer secondary winding 1–2. The switching duration in the loop is determined based
on the value of angle γ3.
The pulses are supplied by the control system to the thyristors of arms VS2 and VS7
after the end of switching in the loop VS6–VS8 (after thyristor locking VS8). As a result, two
short-circuited loops are formed, one of which is formed by sections of the transformer al–1
and 1–2 and by the thyristors of arms VS2 and VS6, while the second is formed by sections 1–
2 and 2–x1 and by the thyristors of arms VS3 and VS7.
All sections are shorted out when supplying pulses to arms VS2 and VS7, while the EMF of
the inverter becomes almost equal to zero. Switching in the loop VS2–VS6 ended earlier
under the influence of EMF of two sections of the secondary winding and transfers section of
the transformer al–1 into the inversion mode.
In the curve of the rectified voltage, there is an additional area corresponding to the
voltage that is u1–2. The switching duration in loop VS2–VS6 is estimated by the value of
angle γ1. The switching in loop VS3–VS7 lasts a slightly longer and ends after time γ2 after
the transition of section a1–1 in the conductivity mode. The main switching ends after
locking arm VS3. The rectified voltage is equal to the total voltage of all transformer
secondary winding sections that participated in the switching at the end of the main
switching.
The feature of the proposed algorithm is that the inverter continues to conduct current
through arms VS3 and VS6 when creating loop VS6–VS8; i.e., there is no full shorting of the
transformer secondary winding sections at the beginning of switching. As a result, an
additional positive corresponding to time γ3 is added to the voltage curve of the inverter. In
addition, the switching in the loops that are formed by arms VS1, VS5, VS4, and VS8 ends
practically at the same time, which, in turn, reduces the negative area in the curve of the
rectified voltage, which is equal to the voltage of transformer section a1–1. There is an
increase in the average value of rectified inverter voltage Ud thanks to these two features.

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3.3 Efficiently Use Of Regenerated Energy

Till recently the regenerative power generated during the braking was utilized by the
powering trains in the same route. This is known as receptivity and is affected by a number of
variables, including location, traffic density and line voltage if there are no powering trains
the generated power is dissipated as heat. So if the service frequency is less then, the
utilization of regenerated power can drop to even 5% In general the regenerated energy in a
metro is 45‐47% of motoring power and about 20% of this is consumed in traction system. In
general the regenerated energy in a metro is 45-47% of the other 20-27% increases the DC
line bus voltage. Studies have shown that regeneration technologies could potentially reduce
the energy consumption of urban rail between 10% and 45%, depending on the track
gradients and the service characteristic. Motoring power and about 20% of this is consumed
in traction system

Figure no3: how regenerated energy Utilized

3.4 Methods To Recover Regenerated Energy

Two systems have developed over the years to utilize the regenerated energy from the
Rolling Stock
1. Energy conversion system by converting the DC power to AC power through inverters
2. Energy Storage system.

3.4.1 Energy conversion system by converting the DC power to AC power through

inverters
Figure 3 summarizes the braking current flow and distribution in a DC traction power
supply with inverters in Traction Power Supply system (without rheostatic brake). Primarily
the load on DC side will be supplied; In case of excess energy the energy will be converted
and regenerated to the 3‐phase AC grid. During regeneration, the inverter system pumps the

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surplus energy back into the AC source, this surplus energy can be utilized for the station
loads (Figure 3) and can even be fed back to the grid and the inverter works as an active
power filter in normal traction.
During regeneration, the inverter system pumps the surplus energy back into the AC
source, this surplus energy can be utilized for the station loads (Figure 3) and can even be fed
back to the grid and the inverter works as an active power filter in normal traction.
Advantages:
1. Can be installed on new and old substations
2. Low maintenance costs and easy control
3. Improves quality of power
4. Can be used by all vehicles on the line
5. Energy efficient due to fewer transformation losses than in storage applications
6. Potential downsizing of the line side braking resistors
7. Lower safety constraints in comparison with onboard systems
8. Implementation, maintenance and repair do not affect operations
Disadvantages
Fine tuned analysis for choosing the right locations
1. Place availability in the substations or along the line
2. No reduction in number of traction sub stations

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3.4.2 Energy Storage Systems (ESS)

There are presently three types of ESS that are in use
1. Flywheels (FESS)
Fly wheel has the simplest design of all the three ESS. Energy is stored as kinetic energy
using a rotor that rotates at high angular speed.
E =1/ 2Jω2
Where j is the moment of inertia and w is the angular velocity. The rotor is a hollow cylinder
and has magnetic bearings to minimize the friction. The rotor is located in a vacuum pipe to
decrease the friction even more. The rotor is integrated into a capacity depends on the mass
and shape of the rotor and on the maximum available angular velocity.
FESS also has limitations. FESS has a higher cost per kWH than commodity batteries.
The FESS design must resolve safety concerns about energy containment in case of flywheel
or bearing failure. Since FESS is a mechanical device, it is more susceptible to moving part
failures than super capacitors or batteries. Finally, some FESS designs present a greater
challenge to achieve effective cooling at reasonable cost.

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2. Super-Capacitors (SESS)
Super capacitors (Figure 5) store charge in similar way to conventional capacitors, but
the charge does not accumulate in two conductors, but in the interface between the surface of
a conductor and an electrolyte solution. It consists of two electrodes consist of two electrodes
which allow a potential to be applied across the cell; therefore they present two double layers,
on each at electrode/ electrolyte interface. The principle of super capacitors characteristic that
makes it suitable for EES, is the possibility of charge and discharge without lost of efficiency
for thousands of cycles. This is because they store electrical energy directly. Super capacitors
can recharge in a very short time having a great facility to supply high and frequent power
demand peaks. However, SESS has higher cost per kWH than battery ESS (BESS) or
flywheel ESS (FESS). SESS contains dielectric fluids which are typically both toxic and
flammable .This presents a considerable burden for Transit Operators, who strongly prefer to
minimize materials and equipment risks. Hazardous failure modes occur if the capacitors are
subject to an overvoltage.

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3. Batteries (BESS)
These systems could be located in any place (Figure 6). Batteries store energy in a
reversible chemical reaction. Batteries have stored and delivered energy since the first
electrical devices were discovered, and have shown continued if slow advances in
characteristics and performance in each decade and generation. A DC to DC converter
regulates the flow of energy into and out of the BESS. The outstanding advances in both
power electronics and energy storage technologies have permitted ESSs to become a very
promising option to manage regenerated braking energy in urban rail. ESSs can be installed
either on board vehicles or at specific points along the track. The former option enables rail
vehicles to temporarily store their own braking energy and reuse it for subsequent
acceleration. In turn, stationary ESSs accumulate energy from any braking train nearby and
release it when a power demand is detected.

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3.5 Motors Used In Traction Operation

Motors used for regenerative breaking in traction are Listed below:

3.4.1.DC Traction Motors

3.4.2.Induction Motors

3.5.1 DC Traction Motors

Historically, the DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and
diesel-electric rolling stock. Many examples are still in use around the world. The motor
consists of two parts, a rotating armature and a fixed field (Figure 1). The fixed field consists
of tightly wound coils of wire fitted inside the motor case. The armature is another set of
coils wound round a central shaft. It is connected to the field through "brushes" which are
spring loaded contacts pressing against an extension of the armature called the commutator.
The commutator collects all the terminations of the armature coils and distributes them in a
circular pattern to allow the correct sequence of current flow.

The DC motor works because, simply put, when a current is passed through the motor
circuit, there is a reaction between the current in the field and the current in the armature
which causes the armature to turn. The armature and the field are connected in series and the
whole motor is referred to as "series wound".

A series wound DC motor has a low resistance field and armature circuit. Because of
this, when voltage is applied to it, the current is high (Ohms Law: current =
voltage/resistance). The advantage of high current is that the magnetic fields inside the motor
are strong, producing high torque (turning force), so it is ideal for starting a heavy object like
a train. The disadvantage is that the current flowing into the motor has to be limited
somehow, otherwise the supply could be overloaded and/or the motor and its cabling could
be damaged. At best, the torque would exceed the adhesion and the driving wheels would
slip. Traditionally, resistors were used to limit the initial current.

A machine operating as motor may go into regenerative braking mode if its speed
becomes sufficiently high so as to make back emf greater than the supply voltage i.e., Eb >
V. Obviously under this condition the direction of Ia will reverse imposing torque which is
opposite to the direction of rotation. The situation is explained in figures 7 and 8. The normal
motor operation is shown in figure 7 where armature motoring current Ia is drawn from the

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supply and as usual Eb < V. Since Eb = kφ n1. The question is how speed on its own become
large enough to make Eb < V causing regenerative braking. Such a situation may occur in
practice when the mechanical load itself becomes active. Imagine the d.c motor is coupled to
the wheel of locomotive which is moving along a plain track without any gradient as shown
in figure 7. Machine is running as a motor at a speed of n1 rpm. However, when the track has
a downward gradient (shown in figure 8), component of gravitational force along the track
also appears which will try to accelerate the motor and may increase its speed to n2 such that
Eb = kφ n2 > V. In such a scenario, direction of Ia reverses, feeding power back to supply.
Regenerative braking here will not stop the motor but will help to arrest rise of dangerously
high speed

Figure No.7.Machine Operates As Motor

Figure No.8 Machine Operates As Generator

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3.5.1 Specification Of DC Motor

Table no 3:

TITLE OF SPECIFICATION GENERAL ELECTRIC, 763, DC TRACTION MOTOR

FRAME / MODEL 763

MANUFACTURER GENERAL ELECTRIC

VOLTAGE 230

SHAFT EXTENSION SESS

ARMATURE ONLY NO

BACK AXLE NO

AXLE CAP NO

WINDING SERIES

BEARINGS A/F

MEGGER ARMATURE 0.2

MEGGER FIELDS 0.5

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3.5.2. Induction Motors

Normally in regenerative braking speed o locomotive is not constant or above synchronous

speed hence it create problem for regenerative braking operation. Hence induction motors
used in traction are having interpoles construction because when it operating as a generator
then from equation below

As the number of poles increases the synchronous speed is decreases as that type motor
speed maintained above synchronous speed and motor act as generator and feedback power
to grid.

There are two types of AC motor, synchronous and asynchronous. The synchronous
motor has its field coils mounted on the drive shaft and the armature coils in the housing, the
inverse of normal practice. The synchronous motor has been used in electric traction - the
most well-known application being by the French in their TGV Atlantique train. This used a
25 kV AC supply, rectified to DC and then inverted back to AC for supply to the motor. It
was designed before the GTO thyristor had been sufficiently developed for railway use and it
used simple thyristors. The advantage for the synchronous motor in this application is that
the motor produces the reverse voltages needed to turn off the thyristors. It was a good
solution is its day but it was quickly overtaken by the second type of AC motor - the
asynchronous motor - when GTO thyristors became available.
The asynchronous motor, also called the induction motor, is an AC motor which
comprises a rotor and a stator like the DC motor, but the AC motor does not need current to
flow through the armature. The current flowing in the field coils forces the rotor to turn.
However, it does have to have a three phase supply, i.e. one where AC has three conductors,
each conducting at a point one third into the normal cycle period.
The two big advantages of the 3-phase design are that, one, the motor has no brushes,
since there is no electrical connection between the armature and the fields and, two, the
armature can be made of steel laminations, instead of the large number of windings required
in other motors. These features make it more robust and cheaper to build than a commutator
motor

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The input power of the induction motor drive is given by the formula shown below

Where φs is the phase angle between stator phase voltage and the stator phase current I s. For
motoring operation, the phase angle is always less than the 90º. If the rotor speed becomes
greater than synchronous speed, then the relative speed between the rotor conductor and air
gap rotating field reverse.

Figure No 9 Characteristics Of Induction Motor

This reverse the rotor induces emf, rotor current and component of stator current which
balances the rotor ampere turns. When the φ s is greater than the 90º, then the power flow to
reverse and gives the regenerative braking. The magnetising current produced the air gap
flux.The nature of the speed torque curve is shown in the figure above. When the supply
frequency is fixed, the regenerative braking is possible only for speeds greater than
synchronous speed. With a variable frequency speed, it cannot be obtained for speed below
synchronous speed.
The main advantage of regenerative braking is that the generated power is fully used.
And the main drawback is that when fed from a constant frequency source the motor can not
employ below synchronous speed

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3.5.2Specifications of induction motors used in traction application

Table No 4: Specifications OF I.M

TITLE OF SPECIFICATION ABB Switzerland

FRAME / MODEL 6 FXA 7059

MANUFACTURER ABB

VOLTAGE PHASE TO PHASE 2180

FREQUENCY 50HZ

OUTPUT AT SHAFT 1150KW

TORQUE AT SHAFT 6930 TO 9920 Nm

SPEED 1585 TO 3184 RPM

DESIGNED SPEED 3571 RPM
POWER PACTOR 0.86

STATOR WINDING INSULATION CLASS 200, VERIDUR(R) SYSTEM

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Chapter 4

ADVANTAGES OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING OVER

CONVENTIONAL BRAKING

1.Energy Conservation:

The flywheel absorbs energy when braking via a clutch system slowing the car down
and speeding up the wheel. To accelerate, another clutch system connects the flywheel to the
drive train, speeding up the car and slowing down the flywheel. Energy is therefore
conserved rather than wasted as heat and light which is what normally happens in the
contemporary shoe/disc system.
2.Wear Reduction:
An electric drive train also allows for regenerative breaking which increases
Efficiency and reduces wear on the vehicle brakes. In regenerative braking, when the motor is
not receiving power from the battery pack, it resists the turning of the wheels, capturing some
of the energy of motion as if it were a generator and returning that energy to the battery pack.
In mechanical brakes; lessening wear and extending brake life is not possible. This reduces
the use of use the brake.
3.Fuel Consumption:
The fuel consumption of the conventional vehicles and regenerative braking system
vehicles was evaluated over a course of various fixed urban driving schedules. The results are
compared as shown in figure. Representing the significant cost saying to its owner, it has
been proved the regenerative braking is very fuel-efficient. The Delhi Metro saved around
90,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from being released into the atmosphere by regenerating
112,500 megawatt hours of electricity through the use of regenerative braking systems
between 2004 and 2007. It is expected that the Delhi Metro will save over 100,000 tons of
CO2 from being emitted per year once its phase II is complete through the use of regenerative
braking. The energy efficiency of a conventional car is only about 20 percent, with the
remaining 80 percent of its energy being converted to heat through friction. The miraculous
thing about regenerative braking is that it may be able to capture as much as half of that
wasted energy and put it back to work. This could reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 25
percent. Hydraulic regenerative braking systems could provide even more impressive gains,
potentially reducing fuel use by 25 to 45 percent.

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4.Braking is not total loss:

Conventional brakes apply friction to convert a vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat. In
energy terms, therefore, braking is a total loss: once heat is generated, it is very difficult to
reuse. The regenerative braking system, however, slows a vehicle down in a different way.

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Chapter 5

FUTURE SCOPE

 The recently updated IDTechEx report Energy Harvesting/Regeneration for Electric

Vehicles Land, Water & Air 2014-2024 finds that 90% of heavy industrial electric
vehicles will use regenerative braking by 2024 to charges traction batteries.
 Regenerative braking is an efficient process at speed by which a vehicle brakes
primarily by making the traction motor working in reverse. It takes the kinetic energy
from the traction wheels or propeller and converts it into electricity which is then
stored for future use. It is widely used in electric and hybrid electric vehicles that
already have batteries to store the recaptured energy - and used in air, water and land
vehicles, though not universally and never without a backup such as the flaps on an
aircraft and disc brakes on its wheels.
 Regenerative brakes have minimal impact on fuel economy during highway driving,
but can significantly improve the fuel economy of vehicles that are driven primarily in
city traffic. In heavy vehicles that make frequent stops (e.g. garbage trucks)
regenerative braking systems can improve fuel economy substantially.
 Land vehicles particularly can have a problem with lead-acid batteries being damaged
by the surge of power from regenerative braking, lithium-ion batteries being
acceptable though super capacitors have the highest power density. Kinetic Energy
Recovery Systems such as low-mass, very high revolution flywheels may charge the
traction battery in a 10-15% efficient controllable system or have their rotational
energy directly tapped for subsequent acceleration, this being less controllable but up
to 20% efficient.
 Some regenerative braking systems store the recaptured energy mechanically,
typically by pumping hydraulic fluid into an accumulator where the energy is stored
in a compressed gas. When the accelerator is pressed, the direction of fluid flow is
reversed, and the pressure is used to aid in acceleration. These systems boast higher
efficiency than electronic regenerative braking systems, but are primarily
implemented only in commercial vehicles due to their size and noise of operation.

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Chapter 7

CONCLUSION
Generally efficiency of conventional braking system is about 20% and 80% is loss

during braking in the form of friction and heating. Hence in case of regenerative brake it

recovers 50 to 60 % of that 80% wastage of conventional braking. Hence there is need for

such technologies which improves energy efficiency with less fuel consumption along with

indirectly CO2 emission in atmosphere.

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