Theory:

Diodes and transistors are made from semiconducting materials typically crystalline silicon. Pure
silicon has few free electrons and is quite resistive. To increase its conductivity, the silicon is
normally "doped", i.e. deliberately contaminated with other elements. Some dopants like
phosphorous, arsenic and antimony easily give up one of their electrons to the silicon
crystal. These donated electrons are free to move about the crystal and its conductivity increases
dramatically. Other dopants like boron, indium and aluminum grab electrons from the
surrounding silicon atoms leaving positively charged silicon ions behind. In turn, these positive
silicon ions try to regain their neutrality by grabbing electrons from their neighbors, the net result
is that there are regions of “positiveness” floating around the crystal lattice. Such “absence of
electrons” are called holes. A doped semiconductor with more mobile electrons than holes is
called an “n-type” semiconductor; conversely, a doped semiconductor with more holes than
mobile electrons is called a “p-type” semiconductor.
A diode is a two-terminal nonlinear device that performs differently under forward and reverse
bias. The diode acts like a one-way switch, current can only flow in one direction. Diodes
designed to operate with a specific abrupt breakdown voltage are known as zener diodes. The
current through an ideal pn junction is given by the diode equation.
I(V)=Isat [exp(eV/nkT) −1]

where V = voltage drop across the junction

Isat = saturation current (Isat = 4×10−10A), depends on temperature, geometry and material of
junction
e=1.6×10−19C is the charge of an electron
k=1.38×10−23J/K is Boltzmann’s constant
T = temperature in Kelvin.
n = constant, varies between 1 and 2 depending on diode

When forward biased, the positive end of the diode is called anode and negative end is called
cathode. The direction of "arrow" indicates the direction of current flow.

On an actual diode, the cathode is normally marked with a painted band. Light emitting diodes
(LEDs) are marked differently, the cathode is the shorter lead.
I(V)=(V0−V)/R
This equation is called load line because it is determined solely by the load. The equilibrium
current and voltage for the circuit are given by the intersection of load line and the diode
characteristic. The equilibrium voltage for above circuit V=0.75V and current I=1.25mA. The
equilibrium voltage and current across diode is called operating point of the circuit.

Classification of diodes:

1. Small Signal Diode

2. Large Signal Diode

3. Zener Diode

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

5. Constant Current Diodes

6. Schottky Diode

7. Shockley Diode

8. Step Recovery Diodes

9. Tunnel Diode

10. Varactor Diode

11. Laser Diode

12. Transient Voltage Suppression Diode

13. Gold Doped Diodes

14. Super Barrier Diodes

15. Peltier Diode

16. Crystal Diode

17. Avalanche Diode

18. Silicon Controlled Rectifier

19. Vacuum Diodes

20. PIN Diode

21. Point Contact Devices

22. Gunn Diode

Questions:

1. Explain diode operation and important diode properties.

2. What is a load line used for?

3. Enlist diode applications.

4. Explain depletion region in PN junction and barrier potential.