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Subject Areas:
ecology
1. Introduction
Keywords: Species endemic to deep-sea methane seeps can be broadly distributed, despite
“Bathymodiolus” childressi, Bathynerita their reliance on chemosynthetic primary productivity. Cold-seep sites on the
east side of the Atlantic share nearly 12% of their megafauna with seeps on
naticoidea, vertical migration, cold seep,
the west sides of the Atlantic [1]. These include mussels in the subfamily Bath-
dispersal
ymodiolinae, which always bear chemoautotrophic symbionts and, therefore,
are found exclusively at cold seeps, hydrothermal vents, sunken wood or
whale falls. Members of the “Bathymodiolus” childressi species complex (genus
Author for correspondence: uncertain) form extensive beds at cold seeps that range in depth from 500 to
more than 2000 m throughout the Gulf of Mexico [2]. Recent morphological
Shawn M. Arellano
and genetic analyses reveal that one member of this complex, “B.” mauritanicus
e-mail: shawn.arellano@wwu.edu
occurs at cold seeps distributed along the Atlantic Equatorial Belt from the
Barbados accretionary prism across to the Nigerian margin seeps [1,3–5].
This broad amphi-Atlantic distribution suggests at least episodic connectivity
via dispersive larvae, yet dispersal in slow deep-sea currents is expected to take
too long for larvae to cross this ocean [6]. Connections among the Atlantic Equa-
torial Belt seeps would be facilitated by ontogenetic vertical migration because
dispersal distances are expected to increase in the faster currents of surface
waters compared with the deep-sea [6,7]. However, initial hypotheses suggested
that the larvae of bathymodiolin mussels probably do not migrate to surface
†
Present address: Shannon Point Marine Center, waters, because migration would increase advection of larvae away from the
Western Washington University, 1900 Shannon required chemosynthetic habitats [8–10]. Moreover, in situ collections of hydro-
Point Road, Anacortes, WA 98221, USA. thermal vent larvae have suggested that transport takes place mostly at depth
[11,12]. While indirect evidence from morphology, isotopic analysis and lipid
profiles suggests that some vent and seep larvae might undergo vertical
migrations (reviewed in [13,14]), direct evidence for ontogenetic vertical
migration by organisms that rely on chemoautotrophy is scarce [15].
& 2014 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.
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Within the Gulf of Mexico, there is minimal genetic differ- bivalve larval morphotype, we were unable to successfully 2
entiation among populations of “B.” childressi [16]. Similarly, sequence the COI amplicon; instead, we successfully sequenced
approximately 550 bp of the 18S ribosomal RNA amplicon with
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the amphi-Atlantic species, “B.” mauritanicus, which is distinct
from “B.” childressi (approx. 5% sequence divergence for mito- the DNA extraction methods of Johnson & Geller [25] and the pri-
mers from Giribet et al. [26] and compared it to the blast database
chondrial COI), exhibits minimal (less than or equal to 0.42%)
for identification at the family level. Sequences were deposited in
genetic distances between eastern and western Atlantic popu-
GenBank under accession numbers: KF739294–KF739297,
lations [5]. These genetic findings support a hypothesis of
KJ576847, KJ576848 and KJ585667.
infrequent or historical connectivity of “B.” mauritanicus via
widespread larval dispersal [1,4]. The neritid gastropod
Bathynerita naticoidea is usually found in association with bath- (c) Scanning electron micrograph identifications
ymodiolin mussels in the Gulf of Mexico and is also known Scanning electron micrographs (SEMs) of larval shells were taken
from the southern Barbados Prism at depths from 400 to on a JEOL 6400F field emission scanning electron microscope.
3
(a) (b) (e)
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Proc. R. Soc. B 281: 20133276
(c) (d )
( j)
Figure 1. Field-collected larvae and juveniles of Bathynerita naticoidea (a –h) and “Bathymodiolus” childressi (i – l ). (a) Newly hatched veliger larva of B. naticoidea
from laboratory culture. (b) Veliger larva collected 10 November 2003, 650– 700 m depth. (c) Aperture (ventral) view of veliger larva collected 11 February 2003,
0–100 m depth. (d) Dorsal view of the larva depicted in (c). (e) Recently settled juvenile collected from the sea floor at the Brine Pool cold seep. Arrow marks the
transition between the larval shell (protoconch) and the juvenile shell (scale bar for (a–e): 500 mm). ( f ) SEM, ventral view, of a larva collected from the plankton 11
February 2011, 0–100 m depth, showing the larval operculum occluding the large aperture (scale bar, 200 mm). (g) SEM of the shell apex of a larva collected in
February from the upper 200 m of the water column (scale bar, 100 mm). (h) SEM of the shell apex of a larva collected in a larval tube trap on the sea floor at the Brine
Pool cold seep (scale bar, 100 mm). (i) Early D-shell larval stage of “B.” childressi cultured in the laboratory. ( j) Bathymodiolin veliger larva collected from the plankton
in November 2003, 300–350 m depth. (k) “B.” childressi veliger collected 11 February 2003, 300–400 m depth (scale bar for (i–k): 200 mm). (l ) Newly settled
juveniles of “B.” childressi captured on settlement plates on the bottom at the Brine Pool cold seep [31]. Darker portions of the shell are the prodissoconchs
(larval shells) and lighter portions are the dissoconchs, representing juvenile growth after settlement (scale bar, 1 mm).
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Table 1. Cold-seep mollusc larvae collected in MOCNESS plankton tows. All larvae were preliminarily identified by examining morphological characters under 4
light microscopy. Some identities were confirmed with SEM or gene sequencing as noted. Lengths are of the prodissoconch II or protoconch II; ‘n.d.’ indicates
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no data collected due to specimen damage.
species depth collection date ID method number length (mm) accession no.
Table 2. Larval shell dimensions measured by SEM for “Bathymodiolus” childressi veligers found in plankton tows taken from 0 to 100 m depth on 11 February
2003 (table 1). PI and PII are the prodissoconchs I and II. Hinge is the length of the hinge line. Means and standard deviations (in italics; n ¼ 5) of shell
dimensions given for “B.” childressi are from recent settlers collected from the Brine Pool cold seep [13].
PI PII provinculum
for normality and heteroscedasticity, arcsine transformed, then [20] and hydrothermal vent larvae [35]. Table 1 includes individ-
analysed with a one-way analysis of variance followed by a uals identified based on morphology as viewed under light
two-sided Dunnett’s test against the control (78C) [32]. microscopy only if we could confirm the identity of individuals
with similar morphotypes via SEM or sequencing. Thus, we con-
sider our estimates of the numbers of larvae of these two species
that we captured in the plankton to be conservative; many of the
3. Results and discussion individuals we tentatively identified as “B.” childressi or B. nati-
Eleven B. naticoidea and three “B.” childressi veligers were col- coidea based on morphology were not included in table 1
lected in the top 100 m of the Gulf of Mexico above the Brine because methodological limitations prevented some identities
Pool cold seep in February 2003 (table 1 and figure 1). Additional from being confirmed. For one bivalve morphotype (figure 1
veligers of each species were collected at greater depths in and table 1), we were unable to successfully sequence the COI
November and February. Larval shells of mytilid mussels and amplicon; however, sequence comparison of the 18S rRNA
neritid snails were easily identified due to their distinctive amplicon showed 100% similarity to other members of the Bath-
shell shapes (figure 1). We further narrowed our search for ymodiolinae in the GenBank database. In addition to “B.”
“B.” childressi and B. naticoidea based on colour and size: “B.” childressi, at least four species of bathymodiolin mussels are
childressi and other bathymodiolin larvae are a distinctive pink known from the Gulf of Mexico seeps. While Idas macdonaldi
colour [13,31], and B. naticoidea veligers are smaller than the and Tamu fisheri can be found on the upper Louisiana slope,
coastal and estuarine neritid larvae that may be present in the Bathymodiolus heckerae and B. brooksi are generally found at the
Gulf of Mexico. Identifications based on morphology viewed deeper Gulf of Mexico seep sites (e.g. Alaminos Canyon,
under light microscopy were further corroborated with either Atwater Valley, Florida Escarpment) from approximately
analysis of the larval shell using SEM (table 2 for “B.” childressi) 2000–3000 m [3]. Besides some estimated larval size ranges
or sequencing (table 3 for “B.” childressi). COI and 16S mtRNA [13], there are virtually no data available on the larval develop-
sequences of our B. naticoidea larva (table 1) were 99% similar ment or reproductive timing of these other bathymodiolin
to B. naticoidea isolate GM.1 (EU732361, EU732198). species. Nevertheless, while we cannot confirm that those bath-
A similar multistep approach to larval identification has ymodiolin larvae that we identified with 18S rRNA sequencing
been used to identify species of mytilid mussel post-settlers are “B.” childressi, the timing of their collection from November
Table 3. Kimura-2-Parameter % distance matrix of “Bathymodiolus” childressi larvae collected in MOCNESS tows (from table 1) and representative mussel taxa known from Gulf of Mexico (in bold), Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Cadiz and West
African hydrocarbon seeps and hydrothermal vent sites.
larvae (table 1)
“B.” childressi Brine Pool 0.00
“B.” childressi (EU288173) 0.00 0.00
“B.” aff. childressi 3.67 3.67 3.67
(DQ513438)
“B.” mauritanicus 3.67 3.67 3.67 0.00
(AY649801, EU288164)
B. platifrons (AB250695) 5.59 5.59 5.59 1.80 1.80
B. tangaroa (AY608439) 9.13 9.13 9.13 6.09 6.09 6.11
B. brooksi (HF545110) 13.73 13.73 13.73 12.11 12.11 11.56 11.04
Gigantidas horikoshii 14.51 14.51 14.51 13.42 13.42 13.37 12.29 14.57
(HF545113)
B. azoricus (FJ766924) 16.00 16.00 16.00 13.21 13.21 13.18 11.58 8.58 15.04
B. heckerae (DQ513441) 16.00 16.00 16.00 14.32 14.32 14.29 14.89 11.16 19.13 7.09
B. boomerang (DQ513449) 16.05 16.05 16.05 13.24 13.24 13.21 13.80 10.12 17.96 5.61 1.35
Idas macdonaldi 16.38 16.38 16.38 15.79 15.79 13.61 16.40 15.32 18.78 16.40 19.87 19.30
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(AY649804)
Idas sp. (FJ937190) 17.68 17.68 17.68 17.04 17.04 17.01 14.76 16.40 18.18 16.98 18.74 17.59 18.57
Tamu fisheri (HF545104) 20.88 20.88 20.88 18.44 18.44 16.59 17.23 14.98 17.90 16.64 20.81 19.00 17.13 18.67
5
temperature (°C) 6
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
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0
Nov 2003 Dec 2004 Feb 2003 Mar 2002
100
200
300
400
500
600
Figure 2. Temperature-depth profiles of the water column above the Brine Pool NR1 (278430 2400 N, 918160 3000 W) cold seep in November 2003, December 2004,
February 2003 and March 2002. Water column profiles were taken concurrently with MOCNESS tows; December 2004 is given as a representation of the temperature-
depth profile during the December 2002 tow.
periods from October to March annually [13,36,37]. In this would explain the lack of genetic differentiation among 7
study, adult B. naticoidea deposited egg capsules in the populations of “B.” childressi throughout the Gulf of Mexico
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laboratory between October 2002 and March 2003, with peak [16] and the equally widespread distribution of B. naticoidea
oviposition between late December and February. Similar throughout the Gulf of Mexico and at the Barbados Accre-
cycles of oviposition were observed in the field, where capsules tionary Prism. Using physical oceanographic data, we have
were common in November and February 2003 but none were modelled dispersal of “B.” childressi and B. naticoidea in the
found in July 2004 [37]. Assuming all populations of B. naticoi- upper water column and near the bottom; these models
dea in the Gulf of Mexico have a reproductive season from show that maximum dispersal distance is increased by onto-
October to March, and considering the lengths of larvae genetic migration [6]. Molluscan larvae with a 1-year larval
obtained from MOCNESS tows in February (389–676 mm; period originating in the Gulf of Mexico have the potential
table 1), the larvae of B. naticoidea would be planktonic for at of dispersing up the entire eastern seaboard of the US in a
least 7 to 12 months, tripling in size before settling at cold single generation [6], a result that explains the recent discov-
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