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field (Philippines) the Nancy School of Mines (France) and from the
Institut Français du Petrole and a Ph.D. in car-
bonate sedimentology from the University of
François Fournier and Jean Borgomano Provence in Marseilles (France). After a short ex-
perience in oil companies as an exploration ge-
ologist in France and Angola, he joined the Geology
of Carbonate Systems Laboratory (Marseilles,
ABSTRACT France) as lecturer in 2005. His research focuses on
the relationship between sedimentology, diagene-
The integration of petrographic analyses of cores and thin sections, sis, and seismic reflections in carbonate reservoirs.
petrophysical measurements, and well logs demonstrates that varia-
tions in acoustic impedance in the Malampaya buildup (upper Eo- Jean Borgomano Formation de Recherche
en Evolution - Centre National de la Recherche
cene to lower Miocene, offshore northwest Palawan) are related to
Scientifique 2761, Laboratoire de Géologie des
vertical changes in porosity and pore type, which are dominantly
Systèmes Carbonatés, Case 67, Université de
controlled by diagenetic processes. The Nido Limestone was subdi- Provence, 3, Place Victor Hugo, F-13331 Marseille
vided into 10 –50-m (30 –150-ft)-thick units characterized by spe- Cedex 03, France
cific diagenetic patterns and petrophysical properties (diagenetic Jean Borgomano obtained a Ph.D. in carbonate
units). The alternation between tight and porous diagenetic units geology in 1987 at the University of Provence in
is mainly controlled by meteoric diagenesis (leaching and pedogen- Marseilles (France). In 1988 – 2003, he worked
esis) and by late-burial cementation and leaching. Well-to-seismic at Shell as senior carbonate geologist in various
ties show that the main seismic reflectors within the buildup in- exploration and production Shell companies.
terior reflect the boundaries between diagenetic units. Most of the He is currently a professor at the University of
negative amplitude reflectors are related to unconformities, where- Provence and the director of the Geology of
Carbonate Systems Laboratory. His research fo-
as positive amplitude reflectors have a more questionable chrono-
cuses on the geological characterization and nu-
stratigraphic value and may represent the bases of cemented lenses merical modeling of carbonate reservoir archi-
that can crosscut time lines. Comparison with other southeast Asian tecture and properties.
Tertiary buildups indicates different origins of seismic reflections
related to distinct patterns of diagenetic evolution. The identification
of such seismodiagenetic units and of their controlling factors is of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
paramount importance for the architecture and the petrophysical This work was funded by Shell Philippines Ex-
characterization of carbonate reservoirs. ploration B.V. We gratefully acknowledge Shell,
Chevron-Texaco, and the Philippine National
Oil Company for the access to data and the per-
INTRODUCTION mission to publish this work. This paper signifi-
cantly benefited from stimulating discussions
Seismic reflection imaging has become an unparalleled geophysical with many Shell staffs in research and opera-
method to image subsurface architecture of carbonate systems (e.g., tional business units. We thank M. Joachimski
Belopolsky and Droxler, 2004; Eberli et al., 2004) and to assess the (Erlangen University) for carbon and oxygen iso-
tope analyses and the Laboratory of Isotope
Geochemistry at the Vrije Universiteit (Amster-
dam) for Sr isotope ratio measurements. Re-
Copyright #2007. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved. viewers Richard Worden, Art Saller, and David
Manuscript received April 26, 2006; provisional acceptance July 6, 2006; revised manuscript received Eby gave constructive suggestions for the im-
August 21, 2006; final acceptance October 16, 2006.
provement of the manuscript.
DOI:10.1306/10160606043
AAPG Bulletin, v. 91, no. 2 (February 2007), pp. 235 – 258 235
factors controlling their evolution (e.g., Bachtel et al.,
2004; Isern et al., 2004; Fournier et al., 2005). Seismic
reflection images result from the interaction between
seismic waves and subsurface rocks. Seismic reflectors
are the interference composites resulting from several
contrasts in acoustic impedance (Sheriff, 1977). In car-
bonate sedimentary systems, diagenetic processes sig-
nificantly modify the pore network and the mineralogy
of the primary sediments, therefore affecting their
acoustic properties (Eberli et al., 2003).
The seismic sequence stratigraphy method is based
on the assumption that seismic reflections follow de-
positional surfaces and erosional unconformities (Vail
et al., 1977), and therefore, they have chronostratigraphic
significance. However, several studies on seismic mod-
eling showed that this assumption is not always valid,
especially when abrupt depositional facies changes oc-
cur (Stafleu and Sonnenfeld, 1994; Zeng and Kerans,
2003), or when seismic resolution is limited (Rudolph
et al., 1989). In addition, meteoric or burial-diagenetic
alteration of carbonate rocks does not necessarily con-
form to depositional bodies. This implies that acoustic
impedance interfaces and, therefore, seismic reflectors
can potentially crosscut depositional surfaces and can-
not be necessarily predicted by sequence-stratigraphic
models. Figure 1. Depth map (in meters subsea) of the top Nido Lime-
Hence, it is necessary to carefully study the origin stone and location of wells in the Malampaya gas field (modified
of the reflections and to validate the basic assumption from Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999) within Block SC 38, offshore
of the seismic-stratigraphic method prior to any sedi- Palawan, Philippines.
mentologic and stratigraphic interpretation of the seis-
mic data.
The objectives of this article are (1) to identify the Williams, 1997). The field was discovered in 1989 and
processes that controlled the evolution and the spatial contains a 56-m (180-ft)-thick oil rim (29.4j API) and
distribution of petrophysical properties of the Malam- a 650-m (2000-ft)-thick gas column (Neuhaus et al.,
paya carbonate reservoir; (2) to evaluate the relative im- 2004). The gas has been produced since October 2001
pact of depositional facies, diagenetic processes, tectono- by means of a subsea manifold and five deviated wells.
stratigraphic evolution, and seismic resolution on the Nido Limestone deposition was initiated during the rift-
seismic imaging of these carbonates; and (3) to evaluate ing phase of the South China Sea (late Eocene to early
the chronostratigraphic value of the seismic reflections. Oligocene). In the middle Oligocene (magnetic anom-
aly 11), the South China Sea sea-floor spreading started,
and the Calamian-north Palawan-North Borneo micro-
LOCATION AND GEOLOGICAL SETTING continent, bearing the Nido carbonate buildups, drifted
southward (Briais et al., 1993). During the last of the
The Malampaya oil and gas accumulation is located in early Miocene, sea-floor spreading ceased as a result
the deep-water Block Service Contract no. 38, offshore of the collision between the north Palawan block and
Palawan (Philippines), at a depth of 3000 m (10,000 ft) the accretion wedge of the Paleogene subduction zone
below present sea level (Figure 1), within a northeast- of north Cagayan (Briais et al., 1993; Schlüter et al.,
southwest–oriented carbonate buildup. Like several hy- 1996). Carbonate development in the area stopped in
drocarbon accumulations in the north Palawan block, the response to downwarping of the northwestern part of
Malampaya reservoir occurs within the upper Eocene the block and extensive clastic supply from the uplifted
to lower Miocene Nido Limestone (Sales et al., 1997; Palawan Island (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). Since
the early middle Miocene, the Malampaya carbonate solution and cementation associated with high-frequency
buildup has been progressively buried below 2000 m subaerial exposure events.
(6500 ft) of terrigenous deep-marine sediments (Pagasa Except for the lowermost part of the Malampaya
and Matinloc formations). Deep-burial conditions are carbonates (upper Eocene) where a significant amount
expressed by elevated present-day formation tempera- of quartz grains is present, the Nido Limestone min-
tures (100–170jC) in the Nido reservoir. eralogy is almost exclusively calcitic. Only very occa-
Grötsch and Mercadier (1999) proposed a model of sional dolomite cements, formed during the burial dia-
growth history of the Malampaya buildup using three- genesis, were found in the western flank and in the
dimensional (3-D) seismic data and relatively sparse core western part of the buildup interior (Fournier et al.,
and sidewall samples from 4 wells (Malampaya [MA]-1 2005).
to MA-4). This model was refined by Fournier et al.
(2005) using a newly acquired high-resolution seismic
survey and a comprehensive set of well data from 10 wells DATA AND METHODS
(MA-1 to MA-10). Fournier et al. (2005) subdivided the
Nido carbonates into 11 units (Figure 2) and showed that The data set consists of a 3-D seismic survey acquired
the Malampaya growth history was largely controlled by Shell Philippines in 2002 and well data from 10 wells
by tectonic deformation. In addition, using core data (MA-1 to MA-10). Cores were recovered from wells
from wells MA-5 and MA-7, Fournier et al. (2004) docu- MA-2, MA-3, MA-4, MA-5, MA-7, and MA-9. Analyses
mented meter-scale parasequences attributable to high- and interpretations of cores, thin sections, well logs, and
frequency relative sea level changes. These authors seismic data were performed by the authors in the Car-
showed that the petrophysical properties of the inner- bonate Laboratory of the Marseille University (France)
shelf carbonates are strongly controlled by meteoric dis- and with the Carbonate Team at Shell International
contribution to the present-day reservoir properties. areas cannot be ruled out. Finally, fractures are encoun-
Corrosion of late-burial cement was observed within tered systematically within tight horizons, thus indi-
the southwestern flank of the buildup, in well MA-3 cating a control of cementation phases (meteoric and/
(Fournier et al., 2004). Very minor matrix leaching or burial) on the spatial distribution of fractures.
overprinting stylolites is reported from MA-2. The del-
icate preservation of alveolar septal structures within
rhizoliths in MA-5 cores suggests that later dissolu- Origin and Identification of Diagenetic Units
tion stages probably did not affect significantly the
innermost part of the Malampaya shelf. However, Diagenetic units are defined as carbonate rock inter-
closer to the western margin of the buildup, dissolu- vals characterized by (1) a specific diagenetic history,
tion vugs with noncemented walls are found in well (2) a range of reservoir and acoustic properties, and
MA-7 (Figure 5b), coexisting with vugs occluded by (3) a specific well-log signature.
speleothems and coarse-grained blocky calcite. This On the basis of petrographic analysis on cores and
could be interpreted in two different ways: (1) The thin sections, well-log patterns, and petrophysical mea-
noncemented vugs have a low connectivity, thus pre- surements, the Nido carbonates were subdivided into
venting an efficient circulation of saturated fluids; or diagenetic units that are grouped into five main types.
(2) the vugs have a late origin and formed after the They are characterized in Figure 6 in terms of litholo-
latest phase of cementation. Vuggy porosity develop- gy, pore type, diagenetic evolution, reservoir, and well-
ment under deep-burial conditions has been document- log patterns.
ed in other Tertiary southeast Asian carbonate build-
ups (Saller and Vijaya, 2002; Esteban and Taberner, Type Ia and Ib Diagenetic Units
2003; Zampetti et al., 2003, 2005; Sattler et al., 2004). The type Ia unit refers to quartz-rich packstones (bio-
In addition, although the present data set did not al- micrite) with variable matrix content. Primary poros-
low us to clearly establish the timing of hydrocarbon ity is completely occluded by blocky calcite cements.
migration, the function of high hydrocarbon satura- Type Ib units are related to high-energy grainstone
tions in the preservation or enhancement of porosity (biosparite) facies with well-developed isopachous rim
(Worden and Heasley, 2000) in the eastern and central cements. Residual pores are commonly occluded by
Figure 6. Characterization of the diagenetic units in terms of lithology, diagenesis, petrophysical properties, and well-log pattern. Porosity is derived from density logs and fluid corrections.
blocky spar cements of meteoric and/or burial origin. Within porous intervals, cements are more rare, and
Type Ia and Ib units are devoid of dissolution features vugs with noncemented walls coexist with vugs filled
and do not appear to be affected by repeated subaerial with speleothem cements (Figure 7B-a, d, f ). The ver-
exposure events. Reservoir quality of these units is poor, tical evolution of diagenetic features and petrophysical
with porosity less than 15% and permeability less than properties in MA-7 cores is interpreted as follows
100 md. (Figure 7A): (1) High-porosity and high-permeability
layers form during subaerial exposure events as a re-
Type II Diagenetic Units sult of rhizolith and dissolution vug development;
Type II units are characterized by very little diagenetic (2) locally, the pore space is partially occluded by
alteration, with rare dissolution and cementation fea- fine-grained blocky calcite, and vugs are rimmed by
tures. They represent intervals of protected inner-shelf speleothems in later phases of subaerial exposure;
sedimentation, dominated by wackestone to packstone (3) saturated deep fluids circulate preferentially with-
textures (biomicrite), that are not interrupted by re- in high-permeability paleosol horizons and precipitate
peated subaerial exposure (Fournier et al., 2004). How- blocky-calcite cement, during the late-burial phase, oc-
ever, slight microspar replacement of micrite occurs cluding most of the pore network; and (4) in a later
locally within the matrix. Matrix microporosity (pore phase, corrosive fluids could have formed dissolution
space between micrite crystals) is the dominant pore vugs within the residual permeable intervals. Various
type. These units display low vertical and lateral varia- processes leading to carbonate dissolution in a burial set-
tions of reservoir properties. Porosity values are high, ting have been proposed. Burial dissolution does not
averaging 24%, whereas permeability is moderate, with necessarily involve large fluid fluxes. For Mazzulo and
values typically less than 50 md. Harris (1992), brines charged with organic acids, carbon
dioxide, and/or hydrogen sulfide derived from organic
Type IIIa and IIIb Diagenetic Units matter degradation and thermochemical sulfate re-
Type IIIa and IIIb units represent intervals of cyclic duction are the most likely fluids responsible for buri-
inner-shelf sedimentation, dominated by wackestone al dissolution of carbonates in a burial setting. Thermo-
to packstone textures (biomicrite) and marked by re- chemical sulfate reduction is known to be responsible
peated subaerial exposures. Dissolution vugs and cal- for the partial dissolution of carbonates in deep-burial
cretes are abundant features in both types of units. settings at temperatures greater than 100–140jC (Wor-
Type IIIa and IIIb units differ by the amount of blocky den et al., 1995; Machel, 1998; Worden et al., 1998) that
calcite cement. Whereas paleosol-related and vuggy are consistent with present-day formation tempera-
porosity are preserved in type IIIa units, blocky calcite tures (100–170jC). In addition, Esteban and Taberner
cements, of meteoric and/or burial origin, largely oc- (2003) demonstrated, from different carbonate-reservoir
clude the pore space in type IIIb units. Figure 5 compares case studies, that corrosion occurs mainly after the ces-
two cored sections within a type IIIa unit (Figure 5a; sation of pressure solution and results from the mix-
MA-5 well, cores 1 and 2) and a type IIIb unit (Figure 5b; ing of formation fluids and externally sourced fluids
MA-7, cores 1 and 2). In both cases, the cored interval at higher temperatures. The external fluids could be
is subdivided into meter-scale parasequences (Four- warmer hydrothermal fluids rising from depth as in
nier et al., 2004), and most of them are bounded by the Tertiary limestones of the Bombay Basin (Minero
exposure surfaces displaying paleosol features. The et al., 2000; Esteban and Taberner, 2003) or compaction
MA-5 cores 1 and 2 (type IIIa diagenetic unit) are waters from the shales overlying the carbonate build-
mainly composed of porous, mud-rich carbonates in- up, as suggested in the Liuhua platform (Sattler et al.,
terbedded with a few thin layers containing blocky 2004). In the case of Malampaya, additional stable iso-
spar cements. The highest porosity (>28%) and per- tope studies of cement stages and fluid-inclusion analy-
meability values (>500 md) are related to rhizolith- ses should be performed to clarify the origin of the cor-
and/or macrovug-bearing intervals (Figure 7B-b). In rosive fluids.
the MA-7 cores (type IIIb diagenetic unit), meter- Reservoir properties are highly variable in both unit
thick tightly cemented beds alternate with more po- types. Type IIIa units have a porosity modal value be-
rous and permeable layers. Tight intervals correspond tween 20 and 25%, and permeability is commonly greater
to paleosol horizons in which root-related pore space has than 100 md, whereas in type IIIb units, the porosity
been completely occluded by coarse-grained blocky cal- modal value is between 5 and 10%, and permeability
cite cements of probable burial origin (Figure 7B-c, e). rarely exceeds 100 md.
Influence of Depositional Facies on the Evolution 2. Dissolution and cementation processes, vuggy po-
of Petrophysical Properties rosity development, and pedogenesis can affect any
of the three main facies.
Figure 8a–c display porosity-versus-permeability graphs 3. For a given type of diagenetic alteration, ranges of
for the three dominant depositional facies of the early porosity and permeability are very similar in the
Miocene buildup interior (echinoderm and red-algal three dominant facies (see envelopes for root-related
wackestone, foraminiferal and red-algal packstone, and pore types and vuggy plus root-related pore types).
coral, red-algal, and foraminiferal packstone). The fol-
lowing observations can be highlighted regarding these In contrast, grainstones have a specific diagenetic
graphs: evolution because marine fibrous rims and later blocky
cements commonly occlude most of the primary in-
1. The three dominant facies have very similar ranges tergranular pores. In the lower Miocene Malampaya
of porosity (24–28%) and permeability (5–20 md), inner shelf, grainstones (Figure 8d) are relatively rare
when they are not affected by dissolution or cemen- and have low porosity (<20%) and low permeability
tation processes (dominant matrix microporosity). (<10 md).
In conclusion, because mud-bearing carbonates are display the same scatter as in a water-saturated interval.
dominant, depositional facies apparently have only a mi- This indicates a relative inefficiency of the pore system
nor impact on the present-day petrophysical properties with regard to the P-wave propagation, probably in
in the Malampaya buildup interior. Variations in po- relation to pore geometry and size. P-waves propagate
rosity, permeability, and pore type are mainly related to predominantly within the carbonate matrix and bypass
dissolution, cementation, and pedogenetic processes. most of the pore network. Anselmetti and Eberli (1993,
1997) demonstrated that variations in velocity at equal
Acoustic Properties of Diagenetic Units porosity are mainly controlled by pore types. The large
scattering in acoustic velocity in type IIIa and IIIb units
The first step in determining the geological significance is the result of vertical heterogeneity in pore-type
of a seismic reflector is to correlate rock velocity with distribution and diagenetic evolution. Within these
other parameters such as porosity. Figure 9A and B intervals, the dominant pore type varies vertically
display graphs of sonic velocity in well MA-1 versus from matrix microporosity to moldic and vuggy po-
porosity. In gas-saturated carbonates (at constant gas rosity, with variable calcite cement content. In type II
saturation > 90%) from type IIIa and IIIb units, graphs units, velocities also exhibit significant deviations, al-
show a major scattering of velocity values at a given though dissolution features and cements are rare or
porosity (Figure 9B). In Malampaya as in other carbon- absent. Variable intensity of matrix neomorphism
ate reservoirs, pore-fill fluids have only a moderate ef- (microspar replacement of micrite) in these mud-rich
fect on acoustic velocity (Neuhaus et al., 2004). This intervals could be responsible for the scattered values of
low sensitivity of acoustic velocity to fluid content is shown velocity. In type Ib intervals, acoustic velocity varies with
in Figure 9C, where P-wave (= compressional wave) porosity without significant scattering, thus reflecting a
velocity (V p) values from gas-saturated carbonates low pore-type diversity, with porosity being related
Figure 10. Well-to-seismic tie. (a) Shape and amplitude spectrum of the wavelet extracted from the seismic data within the carbonate buildup: the spectrum shows frequencies
between 5 and 65 Hz, with 30 Hz the strongest but not overdominant; (b –d) synthetic panels compared with the actual seismic data for wells Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2, and
Malampaya-5, respectively. Synthetic seismograms were calculated using the extracted wavelet. mMD = meters, measured depth.
Table 1. Relationship between Diagenetic Unit Boundaries and Seismic Reflectors in the Malampaya Buildup Interior
As explained by Sheriff (1977), most reflections are and IIIb units. Individual synthetic seismic responses
the composite interferences of several interfaces. Petro- at reflectivity interfaces are calculated (Figure 13A)
acoustic properties in Malampaya carbonates display using a 30-Hz mode wavelet, extracted from the seismic
rapid vertical variations, particularly with type IIIa signal within the carbonates (see Figure 10). Internal
Figure 11. Correlation panel of the diagenetic units between wells Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2, Malampaya-5, Malampaya-7, and
Malampaya-8. Inset map represents the depth of the top Nido Limestone and the location of wells. mTVDSS: meters total vertical
depth subsea.
reflectivity interfaces within diagenetic units typi- diagenetic body thickness and morphology from the
cally represent bases and tops of 1–10-m (3.3–33-ft) interpretation of seismic reflectors after time-to-depth
intervals of thick, tightly cemented, or leached porous conversion. Nevertheless, units SC2.1-IIIb, SC2.2-IIIa,
carbonates (see MA-7 cores, Figure 5b). Nevertheless, and SM3-IIIb-2 are too thin to be correctly imaged, and
Figure 12a shows that they have only a minor influence negative interferences occur between the top and base.
on the total seismic response because severely destruc-
tive interference occurs. The reflectivity interfaces at
the boundary between two diagenetic units are the
main contributors to the final composite signal. How- DISCUSSION
ever, interferences can occur between these major inter-
faces, and an analysis of the tuning effect is needed to Are Seismic Reflection Time Lines in Carbonates?
establish the validity of the use of seismic reflectors in
delineating diagenetic bodies. Figure 14 shows that, in Seismic-stratigraphic interpretation is based on the as-
well MA-1, petrophysical unit thicknesses are com- sumption that seismic reflections are generated by
monly close to the tuning thickness. Most of the unit stratal surfaces or erosional unconformities (Vail et al.,
boundaries constructively interfere, thus implying that 1977) and have therefore a chronostratigraphic value.
amplitude anomalies are created, with peak-to-trough Despite its crucial economic and academic importance,
amplitude values higher than expected, but without sig- studies questioning this paradigm are rare (Schlager and
nificant discrepancy between apparent and actual peak- Stafleu, 1993; Tipper, 1993; Anselmetti et al., 1997).
to-trough time thickness. As a consequence, in most In Malampaya, seismic reflections signify bound-
cases, it will be possible to reconstruct with accuracy aries between carbonate bodies that have been affected
by distinct diagenetic evolutions, thus conferring spe- the negative amplitude seismic reflectors. Some of the
cific petroacoustic and reservoir properties. By integrat- corresponding surfaces can be unambiguously inter-
ing the diagenetic, petrophysical, and seismic response preted as major unconformities (sensu Mitchum, 1977)
analyses and stratigraphic results by Fournier et al. (2004, on the basis of significant breaks in the vertical and lat-
2005), the chronostratigraphic value of seismic reflec- eral evolution of depositional facies and diagenetic pat-
tions can be assessed. tern (e.g., reflectors R20.1, C11.1, C12.1, C22.1, M11.1,
Only negative amplitude reflectors (expressing a or M40.1). In addition, reflectors M20.1 and M30.1
downward increase of acoustic impedance) can be in- (Figure 12) are related to surfaces representing signif-
terpreted as having a stratigraphic significance. Table 2 icant hiatuses as suggested by the abrupt shifts in Sr iso-
summarizes the chronostratigraphic significance of tope ratios (Wheeler and Aharon, 1991). Nevertheless,
for some other negative amplitude reflectors (R10.1, up interior at this time. In addition, during the early
M12.1), no direct chronostratigraphic or sedimento- Oligocene unit SC1.1, the vertical succession of depo-
logic evidence supports their interpretation in terms sitional facies suggests an eastward-prograding system
of unconformity or stratal surface. In the Malampaya (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200). This prograding unit is
buildup interior, major unconformities can be either topped by an exposure surface imaged by the reflector
related to phases of tectonic deformation (tilting and/or C11.1; the upper part of the SC1.1 unit contains abun-
folding) or by uniform falls in relative sea level (Fournier dant meteoric and/or burial cements (type IIIb diage-
et al., 2005). Such unconformities may contain time netic unit). The C11.0 reflector marks the base of these
lines, but no time lines will cross them. cemented zones and is roughly parallel to the C11.1 un-
In contrast, except for the base carbonate reflec- conformity. As a consequence, the C11.0 reflector prob-
tor, positive amplitude reflectors mark the bases of cal- ably crosscuts the different prograding clinoforms form-
cite cement precipitation and, in the absence of further ing the SC1.1 unit and, therefore, crosscuts time lines
high-resolution biostratigraphic or chemostratigraphic (Figure 15). Although meteoric and burial diagenesis
datings, they cannot be rigorously considered as time have been largely controlled by stratigraphy, diagenetic
lines. The abrupt eastward pinch-out of the 40-m unit boundaries are not always parallel to stratigraphic
(130-ft)-thick SM2-IIIb body (Figure 12) implies that boundaries. As a consequence, some seismic reflectors
the diagenetic unit boundary probably crosscuts time crosscut time lines because diagenetic transformations,
lines because no significant changes in paleowater particularly burial cementation, have not perfectly fol-
depth (Fournier et al., 2004) occurred within the build- lowed stratigraphy.
M40.1 Type IIIb Pagasa clastics Drowning surface Severe deepening in Malampaya-8 (Fournier
et al., 2005, p. 207)
M30.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa Unconformity Significant hiatus revealed by Sr isotopes (this
paper, Figure 11)
M20.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa Unconformity Significant hiatus revealed by Sr isotopes (this
paper, Figure 11)
M12.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa ?
M11.1 Type IIIb Type II Unconformity Top of cyclically exposed carbonates, overlain
by deeper deposits (Fournier et al., 2005)
C22.1 Type IIIb Type II Unconformity Top of cyclically exposed carbonates
Above: deepening in environment
C12.1 Type IIIa Type II Unconformity Top of cyclically exposed carbonates, overlain by
deeper facies, in Malampaya-1, Malampaya-2,
and Malampaya-5 (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 205)
C11.1 Type IIIb Type IIIa Unconformity Exposure surface marking the top of a prograding
unit; evidences of tectonic deformation prior to
SC1.2 deposition (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200)
R20.1 Type Ib Type II Unconformity Tilted platform top, evidenced by eastward
deepening in environments of overlying SC1.1
deposits (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200)
R10.1 Type Ia Type II Unconformity? Possible significant hiatus: Tc stage (letter-stages
classification of larger foraminifera) could be
missing?
Implications for Reservoir Architecture and reasons: (1) acoustic impedance is not only related to
Reservoir Performance porosity but also to pore type, particularly in vuggy
intervals; and (2) the tuning effect between the top and
Malampaya seismic reflectors image envelopes of car- base of the diagenetic units induces significant ampli-
bonate bodies affected by a coherent set of diagenetic tude anomalies.
transformations instead of depositional surfaces. Pick- The layering of the reservoir into seismodiage-
ing the seismic reflectors in Malampaya consequently netic units also has implications for the permeability
leads to the definition of seismodiagenetic units in- model of the reservoir. Figure 6 shows that the different
stead of sedimentary bodies or depositional stratigraph- diagenetic units are related to distinct porosity-versus-
ic sequences (sensu Mitchum, 1977). permeability behavior. For example, type II and IIIa units
Because Malampaya reservoir properties are main- have the same porosity mode (20–25%), but perme-
ly controlled by the nature and the intensity of dia- ability values differ significantly because they com-
genetic alterations, 3-D picking of the seismic reflec- monly reach 100 md in type IIIa units and rarely exceed
tions will provide not only envelopes of porous and tight 50 md in type II units. Such differences are related to
units that are laterally continuous in 3-D, but also en- the nature of the dominant pore type (type II: matrix
velopes of dominant pore types. The highest hierar- micropores; and type IIIa: vugs and root-related pores)
chical levels of the reservoir layering can therefore be and, therefore, to the diagenetic evolution.
constructed in 3-D, when diagenetic unit thickness The interpreted reservoir architecture from seis-
is greater than tuning thickness. However, the use of mic and static well data suggests the presence of dense
seismic acoustic impedance inversion for the construc- and relatively tight diagenetic units that correspond to
tion of 3-D porosity models is complicated for two flat lenses and sheets in 3-D. These diagenetic units
can be locally stacked vertically and form apparent con- Comparison with Other Tertiary Carbonate Buildups
tinuous strata, but individually, they are not laterally from Southeast Asia
continuous at the scale of the Malampaya buildup.
Regarding the possible compartmentalization of the Tertiary carbonate buildups of southeast Asia are of
reservoir, they can therefore be considered as baffles considerable economic importance because they are
for vertical and 3-D fluid displacement and not as ver- major hydrocarbon targets both offshore and onshore
tical barriers. The systematic presence of open vertical (Sun and Esteban, 1994; Howes, 1997; Williams, 1997).
fractures within these dense diagenetic units enhances Although displaying very similar features in terms of
their vertical permeability at the reservoir scale. The age, general morphology, and biological assemblages,
initial reservoir conditions (pressure gradients and flu- many differences exist with regard to the growth pat-
id contacts) confirm that the Malampaya field is not tern, the evolution of the petrophysical properties,
compartmentalized. and the origin of seismic reflections. In Figure 16,
Given the previous considerations, the gas pro- Malampaya is compared with the early Miocene up-
duction, especially from the crest of the buildup, can- per Zhujiang platform (Liuhua 11-1 field), offshore
not be affected by the presence of these dense dia- China (Erlich et al., 1990; Wagner et al., 1995; Sattler
genetic units. One should, however, realize that such et al., 2004; Zampetti et al., 2005), and the early to
reservoir architectures would have more impact in middle Miocene Luconia buildups, offshore Sarawak,
other settings on the reservoir performance in the case Malaysia (Epting, 1980, 1989; Zampetti et al., 2003,
of oil production. 2004).
Figure 16. Comparison between the Malampaya buildup, the upper Zhujiang platform (offshore China), and the Luconia platforms (offshore Malaysia).
In the three carbonate systems, petrophysical and they mark major unconformities and do not necessarily
petroacoustic properties are controlled by secondary conform to primary depositional stratal surfaces or
porosity formation under meteoric and/or late-burial stratal envelopes. Indeed, deformation, tilting, and ero-
conditions. Therefore, seismic reflections mark, in the sion could have occurred below such unconformities.
three cases, boundaries between diagenetically con- In addition, positive amplitude reflectors are of disput-
trolled tight and porous units. The main differences able chronostratigraphic value in Malampaya because
between the three examples involve the origin of the they are only related to bases of cemented zones, and
acoustic contrasts between the diagenetic and litho- some of them (C11.1, C21.0, M20.0) probably crosscut
logic units and the chronostratigraphic significance of depositional surfaces.
such contrasts. The imaging of the primary depositional architec-
ture is problematic in Malampaya as in other Tertiary
Origin of the Porous versus Tight Units carbonate buildups. For example, although the vertical
In the Luconia and Liuhua 11-1 buildups, impedance succession of depositional facies suggests an eastward-
contrasts are mainly induced by deep-burial leaching and prograding system during the early Oligocene unit SC1.1
cementation (Zampetti et al., 2003; Sattler et al., 2004). (Fournier et al., 2005, p. 200), only the unit top un-
In Malampaya, although late-burial cementation is also conformity is imaged, and prograding depositional sets
a major factor in the development of tight units, the are not visible on seismic data. The inability to image
spatial distribution of late cements is mainly inherited primary depositional features is related to (1) the severe
from the meteoric diagenetic history. Indeed, high- overprinting of the primary acoustic properties during
frequency exposure events are reported in Malam- meteoric and burial-diagenetic phases and (2) resolution
paya and are responsible for the development of high- effects because possible acoustic contrasts at the top
permeability paleosol-related intervals, of probable and base of the depositional strata are too close com-
major importance for fluid circulation during the late- pared to the seismic signal wavelength.
burial diagenesis. In contrast, even if several exposure
surfaces are reported from Luconia and Liuhua, no
evidence of high-frequency subaerial exposure and as- CONCLUSIONS
sociated paleosol development exists. In the Liuhua 11-1
field, the porosity spatial distribution is controlled by 1. The reservoir layering into porous and tight diage-
bedding-parallel aquitards of depositional origin (Sat- netic units is mainly inherited from the successive
tler et al., 2004) that diverted the circulation of deep- meteoric and burial-diagenetic transformations.
burial corrosive fluids. During repeated phases of subaerial exposure, high
Differences in tectonic evolution and subsidence porosity-permeability meter-scale intervals formed
regime can be invoked to explain the presence of cy- as a result of the development of root-related pore
clically exposed carbonates in Malampaya, in contrast networks in paleosols and dissolution vugs. In later
to Luconia and Liuhua 11-1 buildups. Indeed, in Ma- diagenetic phases, burial water flow circulated pref-
lampaya, Fournier et al. (2005) documented significant erentially through the high-permeability intervals
synsedimentary folding, tilting of the carbonate build- formed during subaerial exposure. They precipitated
up, and repeated exposure events that could be related blocky calcite cements, thus forming tight horizons,
to episodic pulses of tectonic deformation. In addition, particularly in the western margin of the buildup
climatic differences (amount of rainfall, seasonality) interior, in the vicinity of the main fault. Finally, a
between the three buildups can also explain the distinct later phase of deep-burial leaching may have locally
diagenetic patterns (intensity of leaching and cementa- enhanced porosity between tight horizons by creat-
tion, paleosol development) during subaerial exposure ing dissolution vugs. Within intervals that have not
phases. undergone subaerial exposure, matrix microporosity
(pore space between micrite crystals) is the domi-
Stratigraphic and Depositional Significance nant pore type.
Seismic reflectors from Luconia and Liuhua carbonates 2. Seismic reflectors in Malampaya more likely image
still conform to depositional architecture, despite the seismodiagenetic units instead of stratigraphic se-
dominant burial-diagenetic origin of the acoustic im- quences or sedimentary bodies. Most of the nega-
pedance contrasts. In Malampaya, only negative ampli- tive amplitude reflectors are related to unconformi-
tude reflectors have a stratigraphic value. Nevertheless, ties and have therefore a stratigraphic significance.