Bosnia and Herzegovina

Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Una-Sana Canton
Richmond Park College

Fluids
Graduation work
Subject: Physics

Student: Faris Halilović Mentor: Sabahudin Vrtagić

Bihać, April 2018

1
Table of Contents

1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 3
2. Pressure in Fluids ................................................................................................................... 4
3. Atmospheric and Gauge Pressure ......................................................................................... 5
3.1 Atmospheric pressure ......................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Gauge pressure .................................................................................................................... 6
4.Measuring pressure ................................................................................................................ 7
4.2 Other devices for measuring pressure ................................................................................ 8
5.Pascal’s principle .................................................................................................................. 10
6.Buoyancy ............................................................................................................................... 11
7.Archimedes’ Principle ........................................................................................................... 12
8. Fluid motion ......................................................................................................................... 13
9. Principle of continuity ......................................................................................................... 15
10. Bernoulli’s Equation .......................................................................................................... 17
11. Bernoulli’s Equation – Application.................................................................................... 19
11.1 Torricelli’s theorem ......................................................................................................... 19
11.2 Airplane wing ................................................................................................................... 19
11.3 Sailboat ............................................................................................................................ 20
11.4 Ball’s Curve....................................................................................................................... 20
12. Viscosity ............................................................................................................................. 21
13. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 22
14.References .......................................................................................................................... 23
1. Introduction

The topic of this work is fluids. The reason why I have chosen this topic is because effects
and laws connected to fluids are crucial for the world and this work was made so that we
can appreciate the impact fluids have on everyday life.

Fluids are substences which do not maintain a fixed shape, a fluids shape varies according to
its container, and also they have the ability to flow from one place to another. Liquids, gases
and plasmas are collectively referred to as fluids. , "Fluid" is often used as a synonym for
"liquid", with no implication that gas or plasma could also be present. For example, "brake
fluid" is hydraulic oiland and it will not perform its required incompressible function if there
is gas in it. This colloquial usage of the term is also common in medicine and in nutrition,for
example in the phrase "take plenty of fluids" we mean „drink plenty of liquids“ not gas or
plasma. Liquids form a free surface1 while gases do not. The distinction between solids and
fluid is not entirely obvious. The distinction is made by evaluating the viscosity2 of the
substance. Some substances are best described as a viscoelastic3 fluid.

This work will focus on laws and principles closely connected to fluids and fluid motion as
well as the application of these laws in everyday life, this work will also touch on pressure
and ways we measure pressure.

1
a surface not created by a container
2
the viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear stress
3
viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when
undergoing deformation

3
2. Pressure in Fluids

The pressure in fluids (P) is defined as force (F) per unit area (A), where the force is acting
perpendicular to the surface area.

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
Equation 1: Pressure formula

Even though force is a vector, pressure is a scalar quantity because it only has magnitude.
The unit of pressure in the SI system is pascal (Pa) which is the official name for N/m2 , that
is 1Pa = 1 N/m2 .

Pressure is the same in every direction in a nonmoving fluid at a given depth. If this weren’t
true, the fluid would be in motion, and since the fluid is not flowing, then the pressures is
equal.

Figure 1: Pressure on a fully submerged object

For a fluid at rest, the force due to fluid pressure always acts perpendicular to any solid
surface it touches. If there were a component of force parallel to the solid surface of the
container, the liquid would move in response to it because of the Newton’s third law.

The pressure at a depth (h) below the surfave of the liquid is due to the weight (m) of the
liquid above it, the weight will be equal to the product of density and volume (m=𝜌 V) and
volume will be the product of area and height (V=hA). This relation is valid for any liquid
whose density does not change with depth.

𝐹 𝜌𝐴ℎ𝑔
𝑃= = = 𝜌ℎ𝑔
𝐴 𝐴
Equation 2: Pressure at a depth

4
3. Atmospheric and Gauge Pressure

3.1 Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure (barometric pressure) is the pressure of the Earth’s atmosphere and
N
at sea level it is about 1.013*105 m2 ,this is called one atmosphere (atm). The atmospheric
pressure can be measured in various other units:

1 atmosphere = 760 mmHg = 29.92 inHg = 14.7 lb/in2 = 101.3 Kpa

The unit mmHg is often called torr, particularly in vacuum applications: 760 mmHg = 760 torr
N
Another unite of pressure is bar, one bar is 1.00*105 , so standard atmospheric pressure
m2
is just over one bar.

The pressure changes depending on the weather and altitude. As altitude increases,
atmospheric pressure decreases. . At low altitudes above sea level, the pressure decreases
by about 1.2 kPa for every 100 metres.

Pure water boils at 100 °C at earth's standard atmospheric pressure. The boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure around the
water. Because of this, the boiling point of water is lower at lower pressure and higher at
higher pressure. This is the reason we can boil pure water at 91°C on Mount Everest.

A barometer is a scientific instrument

used to measure atmospheric pressure. It
consists of a straight tube, partially filled with
liquid (most often mercury) and closed at the
top, with an open bottom inverted into an
open dish. The way it works is that the
atmospheric pressure provides the force
necessary to push the mercury up the
evacuated tube. Even though it acts
downward in the figure 2, we know that
the pressure acts in all directions and can
force the mercury up the tube until its
weight is enough to equal the force of the
atmosphere.

Figure 2: Barometer
The reason atmospheric pressure does not crush us is that our body maintains an internal
pressure that balances it.

5
3.2 Gauge pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the
surrounding atmosphere. Most gauges read the excess of pressure over atmospheric
pressure and this excess is called "gauge pressure". While a useful measurement for many
practical purposes, it must be converted to absolute pressure for applications like the ideal
gas law.

To get the absolute pressure we must add the atmospheric pressure to the gauge pressure:

Pabsolute = Patmosphere + Pgauge

Equation 3: Absolute pressure

Figure 3: System at atmospheric pressure

Figure 4: Closed system with pressure higher than atmospheric pressure

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4.Measuring pressure
4.1 With an open-tube manometer
The simplest way of measuring pressure is by useing the open-tube manometer. This is a
U-shaped tube partially filled with a liquid, most frequently are mercury and water used.
The pressure P which is being measured is related by ∆P = ρ ∆hg , to the difference in
height ∆h of the two levels of the liquid by the relation P = P0 + ρg∆h , where P0 is
atmospheric pressure and ρ is the density of the liquid.

Figure 5: open-tube manometer

Instead of calculating the product ρg∆h sometimes only the change in height ∆h is specified.
In fact, pressures are sometimes specified as so many “millimeters of mercury” (mm-Hg) or
“mm of water” (mm-H2O).
The unit mm-Hg is also called the torr in honor of Evangelista Torricelli, a student of
Galileo’s who invented the barometer.

Conversion Factors Between Different Units of Pressure

In Terms of 1Pa = 1N/m2 1 atm in Different Units

1 atm = 1.013 * 105 N/m2 1 atm = 1.013 * 105 N/m2

1 bar = 1.000 * 105 N/m2 1 atm = 1.013 bar
1 dyne/cm2 = 0.1 N/m2 1 atm = 1.013 * 106 dyne/cm2
1 lb/in2 = 6.90 * 103 N/m2 1 atm = 14.7 lb/in2
1 lb/ft2 = 47.9 N/m2 1 atm = 2.12 * 103 lb/ft2
1 cm-Hg = 1.33 * 103 N/m2 1 atm = 76.0 cm-Hg
1 mm-Hg = 133 N/m2 1 atm = 760 mm-Hg
1 torr = 133 N/m2 1 atm = 760 torr

7
4.2 Other devices for measuring pressure

There are many devices made for measuring pressure some of tham are :

 Aneroid gauge (are based on a metallic pressure-sensing element that flexes

elastically under the effect of a pressure difference across the element)

Figure 6: Aneroid gauge

 Piston (counterbalances the pressure of a fluid with a spring or a solid weight)

Figure 7: Piston-type gauge

8
 McLeod gauge (isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury
manometer until the pressure is a few millimetres of mercury)

Figure 8: McLeod gauge

 The Bourdon pressure gauge (uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to
straighten or regain its circular form in cross-section when pressurized.)

Figure 9: The Bourdon pressure gauge

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5.Pascal’s principle

Pascal’s principle states that if the pressure at one location in a closed container of fluid
changes, this change is transmitted equally to all locations in the fluid. Pascal’s principle is
valid for both fluids and gases, the gas must be held in a closed container and be in static
equilibrium.

Pascal’s principle is the basis of hydraulics lifts. In hydraulics lifts we use a small input force
to exert a large output force, we are able to do this because the input area is smaller than
the output area. The equality is written as:

Fout Fin Fout Aout

= or =
Aout Ain Fin Ain

Equation 4: Pascal’s principle

The quantity Fout /Fin is called the mechanical advantage of the hydraulic lift, and it is equal
to the ratio of the areas.

Figure 10: Hydraulic lift

Pascal’s principle can also be applied in:

 the underlying principle of the hydraulic jack

 force amplification in the braking system of most motor vehicles
 used in artesian wells, water towers, and dams.
 applied force in cylinder P1A1.
 the underlying principal of hot isostatic pressing
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6.Buoyancy

Buoyancy or upthrust, is an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the weight of an
immersed object. In fluids the pressure increases with depth because of the weight of the
overlying fluid. For this reason the pressure at the bottom of an object submerged in a fluid
is greater than at the top of the object, this pressure difference results in a net upwards
force on the object.

Objects with greater density than that of the fluid in which they are submerged tends to
sink. Objects with less density than the liquid, or if they are shaped appropriately (as in a
boat), the force can keep tham afloat.

Objects of equal volume experience equal buoyant forces, the difference in behavior comes
from the comparison of that buoyant force with the weight of the object.

Figure 11: Buoyant force acting on a cylinder

The net force on an object submerged in a fluid is the difference between the buoyant force
and the gravitational force. The buoyant force is a force with the same volume as the
displaced fluid.

𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝐴(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
= 𝜌𝐹 𝑔𝐴∆ℎ
= 𝜌𝐹 𝑉𝑔
= 𝑚𝐹 𝑔
Equation 5: Buoyant force

11
7.Archimedes’ Principle

In his work „On Floating Bodies“ Archimedes suggested that: Any object, wholly or partially
immersed in a stationary fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the object.

Archimedes is said to have discovered his principle in his bath while thinking how he might
determine whether the king’s new crown was pure gold or a fake. The way he determined
whether the king’s crown was gold or not was by comparing the density of the crown to the
density of pure gold. He found the density of the crown by measuring its mass and dividing it
by its volume. The hard part was finding the volume of the crown because of its shape, but
by submerging it into water he found that the volume of water displaced was equal to the
volume of the crown.

Another important factor in Archimedes’ principle is the apparent weight. The apparent
weight of an object is smaller than its true weight by an amount equal to the buoyant force
acting on it.

Archimedes’ principle: applies to all shapes and applies to object immersed in gases as well
as liquids. It is also necessary to note that Archimedes' principle does not consider the
surface tension 4acting on the body has been found to break down in complex fluids5.

Figure 12: Forces acting on a crown out of water and in water

4
Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible
5
Complex fluids are binary mixtures that have a coexistence between two phases

12
8. Fluid motion
The general theory of fluids in motion is very complex since the velocity of a fluid usually
varies from place to place within the fluid.
An ideal fluid is a fluid that satisfies the following assumptions:
• The fluid density is constant
• The flow is steady
• There is no friction
• There are no complex flow patterns

An ideal fluid can be used to illustrate some key aspects of fluid dynamics.

Figure 13: Viscous fluid

Figure 14: Ideal fluid

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We can distinguish two main types of fluid flow:

• Turbulent flow ( is the most common flow in nature, in turbulant flow the speed of
the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and
direction, it is also characterized by small, erratic, whirlpool-like circles called eddies
or eddy currents )

Figure 15: Eddies

• Streamline flow or laminar flow(In streamline flows each particle of the fluid follows
a smooth path, called a streamline, and these paths do not cross one another)

Figure 16: Streamline flow

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9. Principle of continuity

The flow rate (Q) is the product of the area (A) and speed (v). The SI unite is m 3/s,
liters/second are also widely used.
The Principle of continuity explains that the rate at which a fluid flows into a pipe must equal
the rate at which the fluid flows out of the pipe.

Figure 17: Fluid flow through a pipe

We will use Figure 17 to explain the Principle of continuity. Considering the motion of the
fluid:

 The fluid flows in the direction x

 The fluid enters the pipe on the left with speed vL
 It exits on the right with speed vR

The mass flow rate is defined as the mass (m) of fluid that passes a given point per unit time
(t).

∆m
mass flow rate =
∆t
Equation 6: Mass flow rate

15
In Figure 17 the volume of fluid passing AL in a time ∆t is AL∆l1 where is the distance the fluid
moves in time ∆t. The velocity of fluid (density ρ) passing point 1 is vL=∆l1/ ∆t. Then the mass
flow rate ∆m/∆t through area A1 is:

∆m1 ρ1 ∆V1 ρ1 AL ∆l1

= = = ρ1 AL vL
∆t ∆t ∆t
Equation 7: Mass flow rate at pipe entrance

Since no fluid flows in or out the sides of the tube, the flow rates through AL and AR must be
equal.The mass of fluid flowing in from the left during a time interval Δt must equal the mass
flowing out of the right during that time. This means that a small-diameter flow stream with
a large speed can carry the same amount of fluid per unit time as a large diameter flow
stream with small speed.

For an incompressible fluid6, the volume that flows into the pipe must equal the volume that
flows out. The density (ρ) is constant.

AL vL = AR vR
Equation 8: Equation of continuity for an incompressible fluid
The product Av represents the volume rate of flow which is actually volume of fluid passing a
given point per second.

Figure 18: Fire hose

Firefighters use the principle of continuity to make a small pipe carry a large amount of
water with large speed.

6
An incompressible fluid is a fluid whose density does not change when the pressure changes

16
10. Bernoulli’s Equation

Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) was a Swiss mathematician and physicist. He made great
contribution in fluid dynamics. Bernoulli’s principle states that where the velocity of a fluid is
high, the pressure is low, and where the velocity is low, the pressure is high.
Lets use Figure 19 to explain Bernoulli’s principle. If we were to measure the pressure at
points AL and AR we would see that the pressure is lower at AR where the velocity is higher.
This happens because if the pressure at AR was higher than at AL than the pressure would
slow down the fluid.
To expresses this principle quantitatively Bernoulli developed an equation. To derive
Bernoulli’s equation, we assume the flow is steady and laminar, the fluid is incompressible,
and the viscosity is small enough to be ignored. To be general, we assume the fluid is flowing
in a tube of nonuniform cross section that varies in height above some reference level.

Figure 19: Set up for Bernoulli’s equation

17
The fluid to the left of area A1 exerts a pressure P1 on our section of fluid and does an
amount of work.

𝑊 = 𝐹1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1
Equation 9: Work done by the fluid
At point 2, the work done on our section of fluid will just be negative because the force
exerted on the fluid is opposite to the displacement.
Work is also done on the fluid by the force of gravity. The net effect of the process is to
move a mass from point 1 to point 2, so the work done by gravity will be:

W3 = –mg(h2 - h1)
Equation 10: Work done by gravity

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 +𝑊3
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ2

Equation 11: The net work done on the fluid

According to the work-energy principle, the net work done on a system is equal to its
change in kinetic energy. The mass has volume 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 for an incompressible fluid.
Thus we can substitute 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝜌𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 and then divide through by 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 = 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2
to obtain:

1 1
𝑚𝑣22 − 𝑚𝑣12 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 ∆𝑥1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 ∆𝑥2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ1
2 2
1 1
𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1
2 2
Equation 10: Bernoulli’s equation

18
11. Bernoulli’s Equation – Application

11.1 Torricelli’s theorem

Torricelli’s theorem is used to calculate the velocity of a liquid flowing out of a spigot at the
bottom of a reservoir.

Figure 20:Torricelli’s theorem

v1 = √2g(y2 − y1
Equation 11: Torricelli’s theorem

11.2 Airplane wing

There is a bulge at the top of the wing of an airplane. This causes the speed of the air to be
slightly higher over the top of the wing compared to the bottom of the wing. An increase in
speed causes a decrease in pressure. This produces the “lift” on the airplane wing.

𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡 − 𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑝 )𝐴

Figure 21: Bernoulli’s Equation on an airplane wing

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11.3 Sailboat
The way a sailboat moves against the wind is by setting the sails at an angle, this make a
difference in pressure on the front of the sail and the back, also the keel is used to keep the
boat from going sideways.

Figure 22: Sailboat placed at an angle against the wind

11.4 Ball’s Curve

A ball’s path will curve due to its spin, which results in the air speeds on the two sides of the
ball not being equal.

Figure 23: Ball moving with spin

20
12. Viscosity
Viscosity is the internal friction that is found in real fluids. Viscosity exists in both liquids and
gases, and is essentially a frictional force between adjacent layers of fluid as the layers move
past one another. Lets take as an example a fluid flowing through a tube. The fluid molecules
near the wall of the tube experience strong forces from the molecules in the wall. The
molecules close to the wall move relatively slowly.
The viscosity can be measured and is found from the relation
𝑣
𝐹 = 𝜂𝐴
𝑙
Equation 12: Relation between force and viscosity
The letter η is the coefficient of viscosity, the SI unit for η is Pa*s. The way we determin
viscosity is by placing a thin layer of fluid between two flat plates. One plate is stationary and
the other is made to move. The fluid,which is in direct contact with each plate, is held to the
surface by the adhesive force between the molecules of the liquid and those of the plate.
Thus the upper surface of the fluid moves with the same speed as the upper plate, whereas
the fluid in contact with the stationary plate remains stationary. The stationary layer of fluid
hinders the flow of the layer just above it, which in turn hinders the flow of the next layer,
and so on. So the velocity varies continuously from 0 to v. The increase in velocity divided by
the distance over which this change is made is called the velocity gradient. To move the
upper plate requires a force, which you can verify by moving a flat plate across a puddle of
syrup on a table. We find this force by using Equation 12.

Figure 24: Determination of viscosity

21
13. Conclusion
Fluids impact our daily lives in a lot of ways. Whan we take a bath we can see the bouyant
force exerted by the wather that was displaced. We experience the speed, pressure and
force of fluids in a lot of everyday actions like washing a car, watering plants and fireman
when they extinguis fires use the principle of continuity. As we can see fluids have a large
contribution in our lives.

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14.References

 Giancoli 6th edition, Douglas C. Giancoli

 College Physics: Reasoning and Relationships, 2nd edition, Nicholas J. Giordano

 Fizika za srednju školu, Ahmed Čolić, Bego Mehurić

 Khan academy, physics, fluids

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/fluids

 Encyclopedia britannica
https://www.britannica.com/science/fluid-physics

 Physics for Scientists and Engineers 9th Edition, John W. Jewett Serway
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

 The International System of Units (SI)

https://www.nist.gov/sites/default/files/documents/2016/12/07/sp330.pdf

 https://physics.stackexchange.com/

 https://www.nist.gov/

 Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archimedes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli

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Datum predaje maturskog rada: ___________________ M.P.

Mišljenje nastavnika-mentora o radu:

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Datum odbrane maturskog rada: ______________

Komisija u sastavu: Potpis članova komisije:

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1. __________________________________________________________________

2. __________________________________________________________________

3. __________________________________________________________________

Ocjena usmenog obrazloženja rada: ________________ ( )

Ocjena rada: ________________ ( ) M.P.

 Post Scriptum

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