Electricity

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 *Electrostatic meter - does not allow current to flow through it

 *Thermocouple - generates heat when current flows through it. At the same time generates dc.

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 The distribution of electrons in the orbital rings determines the atom’s electrical stability.
Especially important is the number of electrons in the ring farthest from the nucleus. This
outermost ring requires eight electrons for stability, except when there is only one ring, which
has a maximum of two electrons.
 The net effect in the wire itself without any applied voltage, however, is zero because of the
random motion of the free electrons. When voltage is applied, it forces all the free electrons to
move in the same direction to produce electron flow, which is an electric current.
 In general, all metals are good conductors, with silver the best and copper second.
 However, insulators can hold or store electricity better than conductors. An insulating material,
such as glass, plastic, rubber, paper, air, or mica, is also called a dielectric, meaning it can store
electric charge.
 An element is defined as a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by chemical
action.
 The atom is the smallest particle of an element that still has the same characteristics as the
element.
 A group of two or more atoms forms a molecule.
 A compound, then, consists of two or more elements.
 The molecule is the smallest unit of a compound with the same chemical characteristics.
 The atomic structure with all its shells filled to the maximum number for stability corresponds to
an inert gas.
 The maximum number of electrons in the remaining shells can be 8, 18, or 32 for different
elements, depending on their place in the periodic table. The maximum for an outermost shell,
though, is always eight.
 The number of outer electrons is considered positive valence because these electrons are in
addition to the stable shells.
 For this reason, valence can also be considered the number of electrons in the outside ring
needed to make eight. This value is the negative valence. As examples, the valence of copper
can be considered +1 or -7; carbon has the valence of (+-)4.
 The subshells indicate magnetic properties of the atom.
 The generation of static electricity is also referred to as the triboelectric effect.
 Because paper and rubber are dielectric materials, they hold their extra electrons or protons.
 Any charge is an example of static electricity because the electrons or protons are not in
motion.
 The analysis of static charges and their forces is called
 This unit is named after Charles A. Coulomb (1736–1806), a French physicist, who measured the
force between charges. Coulomb established the law of inverse squares and defined the basic
unit of charge quantity, the coulomb.
 Potential refers to the possibility of doing work
 When we consider two unlike charges, they have a difference of potential.
 The force between charges is in the electric field.
 In 1796 Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) developed the first chemical battery,
which provided the first practical source of electricity.
 Therefore, the net number of electrons moved in the direction of the more positive charge
depends on the difference of potential between the two charges.
 A potential difference cannot exist at only one point!
 Consider the 2.2-V lead-acid cell in Fig. 1–8 a . Its output of 2.2 V means that this is the amount
of potential difference between the two terminals.
 It may be helpful to think of voltage as an electrical pressure or force. The higher the voltage,
the more electrical pressure or force. The electrical pressure of voltage is in the form of the
attraction and repulsion of an electric charge such as an electron.
 . The conclusion, therefore, is that two connections to two points at different potentials are
needed to produce a current.
 The formulas Q = IT for charge and I = Q / T for current illustrate the fundamental nature of
Q as an accumulation of static charge in an insulator, whereas
 I measures the intensity of moving charges in a conductor. Furthermore, current I is different
from voltage V. You can have V without I, but you cannot have current without an applied
voltage.
 Carbon opposes the current more than copper, therefore, and has higher resistance.
 The lower the resistance, the higher the conductance.
 Its symbol is G , and the unit is the siemens (S), named after Ernst von Siemens (1816–1892), a
German inventor. (The old unit name for conductance is mho, which is ohm spelled backward.)
 Voltage can exist without current, but current cannot exist without voltage.
 Therefore, the battery keeps the current flowing by maintaining the potential difference across
the circuit.

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