Liquid Penetrant Test [7]

¾ Introduction to Nondestructive Testing (NDT)

The use of noninvasive techniques to determine

the integrity of a material, component or structure
or
quantitatively measure some characteristic of
an object or part without damaging it.

1>
 Methods of NDT

The
Visual rmo
grap
Micr hy
owav
e ar t i cle
t ing e t ic P
p Tes Magn
Ta
Acousti
X-ray c Micros
copy
Acous
tic Emi e nts t
ssion em t r a n
ea sur
uid Pene
tic M Li q
Ult gne
ras
on Ma Replication
ic
Lase Eddy
r Inter Curr
Le akage fero me t r ent
Fl ux y
2>
 Six Most Common NDT Methods
¾ Visual
¾ Liquid Penetrant
¾ Magnetic
¾ Ultrasonic
¾ Eddy Current
¾ X-Ray

3>
 Visual Inspection

Most basic and common

inspection method.

Tools include
fiberscopes,
borescopes, magnifying
glasses and mirrors.

Portable video inspection

unit with zoom allows
inspection of large tanks
and vessels, railroad tank
cars, sewer lines.
Robotic crawlers permit
observation in hazardous or
tight areas, such as air
ducts, reactors, pipelines.
4>
 Liquid Penetrant Testing (LPT)

¾In penetrant testing, a liquid with high surface

wetting characteristics is applied to the surface of
a component under test.
¾The liquid “penetrates” into surface breaking
discontinuities via capillary action and other
mechanisms.
¾Excess penetrant is removed from the surface
and a developer is applied to
pull trapped penetrant back
the surface.
¾With good inspection
technique, visual
indications of any
discontinuities present
become apparent.

5>
 Basic Process of LPT

1) Clean & Dry Component 4) Apply Developer

2) Apply Penetrant

5) Visual Inspection
3) Remove Excess

6) Post Clean Component

6>
 What Can Be Inspected by LPT?

Almost any
material that
has a relatively
smooth, non-
porous surface
on which
discontinuities
or defects are
suspected.

7>
 What Can NOT be Inspected by LPT?

¾Components with rough

surfaces, such as sand
castings, that trap and hold
penetrant.
¾Porous ceramics
¾Wood and other fibrous
materials.
¾Plastic parts that absorb or ¾Defect indications
react with the penetrant become less
materials. distinguishable as
the background
¾Components with coatings “noise” level
that prevent penetrants increases.
from entering defects.
8>
 Penetrant Materials

Penetrants are formulated to possess a

number of important characteristics. To
perform well, a penetrant must:
– Spread easily over the surface being inspected.
– Be drawn into surface breaking defects by capillary
action or other mechanisms.
– Remain in the defect but remove easily from the
surface of the part.
– Remain fluid through the drying and developing
steps so it can be drawn back to the surface.
– Be highly visible or fluoresce brightly to produce
easy to see indications.
– Not be harmful to the inspector or to the material
being tested.
9>
 Penetrant Removal Method

¾Penetrants are also classified by the

method of removing the excess penetrant.
¾Solvent Removable penetrants are removed
by wiping with a cloth dampened with solvent. They
are supplied in aerosol cans for portability and are
primarily used for spot checks.
¾Water Washable penetrants are removed with
a course spray of water. They are the easiest to
employ and most cost effective when inspecting
large areas.
¾Post-Emulsifiable penetrants are water-
washable only after they have reacted with an
emulsifier solution. A post-emulsifiable system is
used when washing the penetrant out of the defect
is a concern. The emulsifier is given time to reacts
with the penetrant on the surface but not the
penetrant trapped in the flaw.

10>
 Developers
¾The role of the developer is to pull trapped
penetrant out of defects and to spread it
out on the surface so that it can be seen.
Also provides a light background to
increase contrast when visible penetrant is used.
¾Developer materials are available in several different forms
¾Dry Powder is a mix of light fluffy powder that clumps together where
penetrant bleeds back to the surface to produces very defined indications.
¾Wet, Water Suspendable is a powder that is suspended in a water
that covers the surface with a relatively uniform layer of developer when the
water is evaporated. The solution is somewhat difficult to maintain as the
powder settles out over time.
¾Wet, Water Soluble is a crystalline powder that forms a clear solution
when mixed with water. The solution recrystallizes on the surface when the
water is driven off. Indications sometimes lack definition and look milky. Not
recommended for use with water-washable penetrants.
¾Wet, Non-Aqueous - is supplied in a spray can and is the most
sensitive developer for inspecting small areas. It is too costly and difficult to
apply to large areas.

11>
 6 Steps of Liquid Penetrant Testing

1. Pre-Clean
2. Penetrant Application
3. Excess Penetrant
Removal
4. Developer Application
5. Inspect/Evaluate
6. Post-clean

12>
 Pre-cleaning – Step 1

¾Parts must be free of dirt,

rust, scale, oil, grease, etc.
to perform a reliable
inspection.
¾The cleaning process must
remove contaminants from
the surfaces of the part
and defects, and must not
plug any of the defects.

¾Pre-cleaning is the
most important step
in the LPT process!!!

13>
 Penetrant Application – Step 2

Many methods
of application
are possible
such as:
– Brushing
– Spraying
– Dipping/
Immersing
– Flow-on
– And more

14>
 Dwell Time

¾The penetrant solution

must be allowed to
“dwell” on the surface of
the part to allow the
penetrant time to fill any
defects present.
¾The dwell time vary
according to penetrant
type, temperature,
material type and surface
finish.

15>
 Excess Penetrant Removal – Step 3

The removal technique depends upon

the type of penetrant used, as stated
earlier…
– Solvent Removable
– Water Washable
– Post Emulsifiable

16>
 Developer Application – Step 4

The method of developer application is is

dependent on the type of developer used.
The primary methods for the following main
developer types will be covered in the
following slides.
– Dry
– Wet
– Nonaqueous Wet

17>
 Inspection/Evaluation – Step 5

In this step the

inspector evaluates the
penetrant indications
against specified
accept/reject criteria
and attempts to
determine the origin of Non-relevant weld geometry indications

the indication.
The indications are
judged to be either
relevant, non-relevant or
false.
Relevant crack indications from an
abusive drilling process

18>
 Post Clean – Step 6

¾ The final step in the

penetrant inspection
process is to thoroughly
clean the part that has
been tested to remove all
penetrant processing
materials.
¾ The residual materials
could possibly affect the
performance of the part or
affect its visual appeal.

19>
 Advantages of Liquid Penetrant Testing

¾Relative ease of use.

¾Can be used on a wide range of material types.
¾Large areas or large volumes of parts/materials can
be inspected rapidly and at low cost.
¾Parts with complex geometries are routinely
inspected.
¾Indications are produced directly on surface of the
part providing a visual image of the discontinuity.
¾Initial equipment investment is low.
¾Aerosol spray cans can make equipment very
portable.

20>
 Limitations of Liquid Penetrant Testing

¾Only detects surface breaking defects.

¾Requires relatively smooth nonporous material.
¾Pre-cleaning is critical. Contaminants can mask
defects.
¾Requires multiple operations under controlled
conditions.
¾Chemical handling precautions necessary (toxicity,
fire, waste).
¾Metal smearing from machining, grinding and other
operations inhibits detection. Materials may need to
be etched prior to inspection.
¾Post cleaning is necessary to remove chemicals.

21>
 Standards relating to Liquid Penetrant Testing

¾ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

• ASTM E165 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Penetrant

Examination (2012).
• ASTM E433 - Standard Reference Photographs for Liquid
Penetrant Inspection (2013).
• ASTM E1417 - Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant
Examination (2013).
• ASTM E1316 - Standard Terminology for
Nondestructive Examinations (2016).

22>
 Dye Penetrant Inspection Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xEK-c1pkTUI
23>
 References

¾ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dye_penetrant_inspection
¾ NDT Resource Center. https://www.nde-ed.org/index_flash.htm
¾ The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. www.asnt.org
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E165 - Standard Test Method for Liquid Penetrant
Examination. West Conshohocken, 2012. (DOI: 10.1520/E0165_E0165M-12)
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E433 - Standard Reference Photographs for Liquid
Penetrant Inspection. West Conshohocken, 2013. (DOI: 10.1520/E0433)
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E1417 - Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant
Examination. West Conshohocken, 2013. (DOI: 10.1520/E1417_E1417M)
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E1316 - Standard Terminology for Nondestructive
Examinations . West Conshohocken, 2016. (DOI: 10.1520/E1316-16)
¾ASM International. ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation
and Quality Control. ASM, 9th edition, 795p., 1989. (ISBN: 978-0-87170-023-0)

Notas de aula preparadas pelo Prof. Juno Gallego para a disciplina Lab. Materiais de Construção Mecânica II.
® 2016. Permitida a impressão e divulgação.
http://www.feis.unesp.br/#!/departamentos/engenharia-mecanica/grupos/maprotec/educacional/
24
 Magnetic Particle Testing (MPT) [8]

Magnetism is the ability of matter Magnetic field lines:

to attract other matter to itself. • Form complete loops.
Objects that possess the property • Do not cross.
of magnetism are said to be • Follow the path of least
magnetic or magnetized and resistance.
magnetic lines of force can be • All have the same
found in and around the objects. strength.
A magnetic pole is a point where • Have a direction such
the a magnetic line of force exits that they cause poles to
or enters a material. attract or repel.

Magnetic lines of force Opposite poles attracting Similar poles repelling

around a bar magnet

1>
 Magnetism of the Materials
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic
field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. Most elements in the
periodic table, including copper, silver, and gold, are
diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic
field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties
when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic materials
include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum..
Ferromagnetic materials exhibit a strong attraction to
magnetic fields and are able to retain their magnetic properties
after the external field has been removed. When a magnetizing
force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a
strong magnetic field within metals such as iron, nickel, and
cobalt.
2>
 Ferromagnetic Materials

¾A material is considered ferromagnetic if it can be

magnetized. Materials with a significant Iron, nickel
or cobalt content are generally ferromagnetic.
¾Ferromagnetic materials are made up of many
regions in which the magnetic fields of atoms are
aligned. These regions are call magnetic domains.
¾Magnetic domains point randomly in demagnetized
material, but can be aligned using electrical current or
an external magnetic field to magnetize the material.

S N
Demagnetized Magnetized
3>
How Does Magnetic Particle Inspection Work?

A ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with

a strong magnetic field created by a magnet or
special equipment. If the specimen has a
discontinuity, the discontinuity will interrupt the
magnetic field flowing through the specimen and a
leakage field will occur.

4>
 Magnetic Particle Inspection

The part is magnetized. Finely milled iron particles coated

with a dye pigment are then applied to the specimen.
These particles are attracted to magnetic flux leakage
fields and will cluster to form an indication directly over the
discontinuity. This indication can be visually detected
under proper lighting conditions.

5>
 Magnetic Particle Inspection Procedure

Basic steps involved:

1. Component pre-cleaning

2. Introduction of magnetic field

3. Application of magnetic media

4. Interpretation of magnetic particle indications

6>
 Pre-cleaning – Step 1

When inspecting a test part with the magnetic

particle method it is essential for the particles to
have an unimpeded path for migration to both
strong and weak leakage fields alike. The part’s
surface should be clean and dry before
inspection.
Contaminants such as oil,
grease, or scale may not
only prevent particles from
being attracted to leakage
fields, they may also
interfere with interpretation
of indications.

7>
 Introduction of the Magnetic Field – Step 2
The required magnetic field can be introduced into
a component in a number of different ways.
1. Using a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
that contacts the test piece
2. Flowing an electrical current through the
specimen
3. Flowing an electrical current through a coil of
wire around the part or through a central
conductor running near the part.

8>
 Direction of the Magnetic Field

¾ A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic

lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of
the part.
¾ A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of
force that run circumferentially around the
perimeter of the part.
¾ Being able to magnetize the
part in two directions is important
because the best detection of
defects occurs when the lines of
magnetic force are established
at right angles to the longest
dimension of the defect.

9>
Magnetic Field Orientation and Defect Detectability

¾ Defects that have a significant dimension in the direction of

the current (longitudinal defects) should be detectable.
Alternately, transverse-type defects will not be detectable with
circular magnetization.

10>
 Producing a Longitudinal Magnetic Field Using a Coil

A longitudinal magnetic field

is usually established by Coil on Wet Horizontal
placing the part near the Inspection Unit
inside or a coil’s annulus.
This produces magnetic
lines of force that are
parallel to the long axis of
the test part.

Portable Coil 11>

Producing a Longitudinal Field Using Electromagnetic Magnets

Permanent magnets and

electromagnetic yokes
are also often used to
produce a longitudinal
magnetic field. The
magnetic lines of force
run from one pole to the
other, and the poles are
positioned such that any
flaws present run normal
to these lines of force.

12>
 Application of Magnetic Media – Step 3

MPI can be performed using either

dry particles, or particles
suspended in a liquid. With the
dry method, the particles are
lightly dusted on to the surface.
With the wet method, the part is
flooded with a solution carrying dry particles
the particles.
The dry method is more portable.
The wet method is generally more
sensitive since the liquid carrier
gives the magnetic particles
additional mobility.

wet particles
13>
 Interpretation of Magnetic Particle Indications – Step 4

¾ Examples of Visible Dry Magnetic Particle Indications:

Indication of a crack in a saw blade

Before and after inspection pictures Indication of cracks

of cracks emanating from a hole originating at a fastener hole
14>
 Interpretation of Magnetic Particle Indications

¾ Examples of Visible Dry Magnetic Particle Indications

Indication of cracks in a weldment Indication of cracks running

between attachment holes in a
hinge

15>
 Interpretation of Magnetic Particle Indications

¾ Examples of Fluorescent Wet Magnetic Particle Indications

Magnetic particle wet Magnetic particle wet

fluorescent indication of a fluorescent indication of a
cracks in a drive shaft crack in a bearing

16>
 Advantages of Magnetic Particle Inspection

¾ Can detect both surface and near sub-surface

defects.
¾ Can inspect parts with irregular shapes easily.
¾ Precleaning of components is not as critical as it
is for some other inspection methods. Most
contaminants within a flaw will not hinder flaw
detectability.
¾ Fast method of inspection and indications are
visible directly on the specimen surface.
¾ Considered low cost compared to many other
NDT methods.
¾ Is a very portable inspection method especially
when used with battery powered equipment.

17>
 Limitations of Magnetic Particle Inspection

¾ Cannot inspect non-ferrous materials such as

aluminum, magnesium or most stainless steels.
¾ Inspection of large parts may require use of
equipment with special power requirements.
¾ Some parts may require removal of coating or
plating to achieve desired inspection sensitivity.
¾ Limited subsurface discontinuity detection
capabilities. Maximum depth sensitivity is
approximately 15 mm (under ideal conditions).
¾ Post cleaning, and post demagnetization is often
necessary.
¾ Alignment between magnetic flux and defect is
important

18>
 Standards relating to Magnetic Particle Testing

¾ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

• ASTM E125 - Standard Reference Photographs for

Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings (2013).
• ASTM E709 - Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle
Examination (2015).
• ASTM E1444 - Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
Examination (2012).
• ASTM E1316 - Standard Terminology for
Nondestructive Examinations (2016).

19>
 Magnetic Particle Inspection Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qpgcD5k1494
20>
 References

¾ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_particle_inspection
¾ NDT Resource Center. https://www.nde-ed.org/index_flash.htm
¾ The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. www.asnt.org
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E125 - Standard Reference Photographs for
Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous Castings. West Conshohocken, 2013.
(DOI: 10.1520/E0125)
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E709 - Standard Guide for Magnetic Particle
Examination. West Conshohocken, 2015. (DOI: 10.1520/E0709-15)
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E1444 - Standard Practice for Magnetic Particle
¾Examination. West Conshohocken, 2012. (DOI: 10.1520/E1444_E1444M-12)
¾ ASTM International. ASTM E1316 - Standard Terminology for Nondestructive
Examinations . West Conshohocken, 2016. (DOI: 10.1520/E1316-16)
¾ASM International. ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation
and Quality Control. ASM, 9th edition, 795p., 1989. (ISBN: 978-0-87170-023-0)

Notas de aula preparadas pelo Prof. Juno Gallego para a disciplina Lab. Materiais de Construção Mecânica II.
® 2016. Permitida a impressão e divulgação.
http://www.feis.unesp.br/#!/departamentos/engenharia-mecanica/grupos/maprotec/educacional/
21
 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) [9]

¾Ultrasonic Testing (UT):

A nondestructive test method that uses
high frequency sound energy to conduct
examinations and make measurements.
¾Sound:
The mechanical vibration of particles in a
medium (solid, liquid or gaseous).

1>
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

Time

From the duration of one oscillation One full

T the frequency f (number of oscillation T
oscillations per second) is
calculated:

1
f =
T
2>
 Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The actual displacement

a is termed as:

a = A ⋅ sin ϕ
a
Time
0 90 180 270 360
Phase

3>
 Spectrum of Sound

Frequency range (Hz) Description Example

0 - 20 Infrasound Earthquake, whales

20 - 20.000 Audible sound Speech, music

> 20.000 Ultrasound Bat, quartz crystal

4>
 Wave Propagation

Ball = atom Spring = elastic bonding force

During one oscillation T the wave

T front propagates by the distance λ:

Distance travelled
λ
Wave equation: c= or c = λ ⋅ f
T 5>
 Sound Propagation

¾ Longitudinal wave

Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

6>
 Sound Propagation

¾ Transverse wave

Direction of propagation
Direction of oscillation

7>
 Wave Propagation

¾Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials.

¾Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies.
¾Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse
waves travel at lower speeds.
¾Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and
Young‘s modulus of the material.

Air 330 m/s

Water 1480 m/s
Steel, long 5920 m/s
Steel, trans 3250 m/s

8>
 http://www.advanced-ndt.co.uk/index_htm_files/Reference%20Chart%20-%20Velocity%20Chart.pdf
Wave Propagation

v:
ρ:
Z=ρ*v

density

velocity

9>
 Wave Propagation

¾ Behaviour at an interface:

Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Interface

10>
 Ultrasound Generation
¾ Ultrasound is generated with a transducer.

A piezoelectric element
in the transducer
converts electrical
energy into mechanical
vibrations (sound), and
vice versa.

The transducer is
capable of both
transmitting and
receiving sound
energy.

11>
 Ultrasound Generation

Piezoelectric Effect (I) PZT

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)

12>
 Ultrasound Generation
Piezoelectric Effect (II)

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

13>
 Ultrasound Generation
Piezoelectric Effect (III)

The effect inverses with polarity change

14>
 Ultrasound Generation
Piezoelectric Effect (IV)

Sound wave
with
frequency f

U(f)

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

15>
 Sound Field
Crystal Focus Angle of divergence
Accoustical axis
γ6
D0

N
Near field Far field

¾ Transmitted sound waves are divided into regions

designated as the “near field” and “far field”
¾ Extensive “noise” in the near field where sound
originates – this makes it difficult to accurately evaluate
flaws in this region
¾ Desire to have the detection area in the far field so no
flaws are missed during an inspection
16>
 Test Techniques

• Ultrasonic testing is a very versatile inspection method,

and inspections can be accomplished in a number of
different ways.
• Ultrasonic inspection techniques are commonly divided
into three primary classifications.
– Pulse-echo and Through Transmission
(Relates to whether reflected or transmitted energy is
used)
– Normal Beam and Angle Beam
(Relates to the angle that the sound energy enters the
test article)
– Contact and Immersion
(Relates to the method of coupling the transducer to
the test article)

17>
 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo
¾In pulse-echo testing, a transducer sends out a pulse of energy
and the same or a second transducer listens for reflected energy
(an echo).
¾Reflections occur due to the presence of discontinuities and the
surfaces of the test article.
f
¾The amount of reflected sound energy is displayed versus time,
which provides the inspector information about the size and the
location of features that reflect the sound.

initial
pulse
back surface
echo

crack
echo
crack
plate
0 2 4 6 8 10
UT Instrument Screen

18>
 Test Techniques - Pulse-Echo

Digital display
showing signal
generated from
sound reflecting
off back surface.

Digital display
showing the presence
of a reflector midway
through material, with
lower amplitude back
surface reflector.
The pulse-echo technique allows testing when access
to only one side of the material is possible, and it
allows the location of reflectors to be precisely
determined.
19>
 Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

¾Two transducers located on 11

opposing sides of the test
specimen are used. One T
T R
R
transducer acts as a transmitter,
the other as a receiver.
¾Discontinuities in the sound path T
T R
R
will result in a partial or total loss 2
of sound being transmitted and
be indicated by a decrease in the
received signal amplitude.
11
¾Through transmission is useful in
detecting discontinuities that are
not good reflectors, and when 2
signal strength is weak. It does
not provide depth information. 0 2 4 6 8 10

20>
Test Techniques – Through-Transmission

Digital display
showing received
sound through
material
thickness.

Digital display
showing loss of
received signal
due to presence
of a discontinuity
in the sound field.

21>
 Test Techniques – Angle Beam
¾ Weld inspection

a = s sinß
F ß = probe angle
a' = a - x s = sound path
s a = surface distance
d' = s cosß a‘ = reduced surface distance
d‘ = virtual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100
d = 2T - t' d = actual depth
T = material thickness

a
x a'
ß d
Lack of fusion
Work piece with welding s

22>
 Test Techniques – Immersion testing

1 2
surface = water delay
sound entry

backwall flaw

IP 1 IP 2
IE IE

BE BE
F

0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10

Couplant: material used to facilitate the transmission of ultrasonic energy

from the transducer into the test specimen
23>
 Test Techniques – Example

¾ The longitudinal velocity in aluminum is 0.65

cm/µs. Using a 2.25 MHz transducer, what is
the wavelength of sound produced in the
material? What is the minimum size flaw
detected?
c 6420m / s
λ= = = 2.85mm
f 2.25 ⋅10 cycles / s
6

*Rule of Thumb: A discontinuity must be >1/2 the

wavelength to be detected (influences transducer
frequency selected). So, for the example flaws must be
greater than 1.42mm using 2.25MHz transducer.
24>
 Advantage of Ultrasonic Testing
¾Sensitive to small discontinuities both surface and
subsurface.
¾Depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement
is superior to other methods.
¾Only single-sided access is needed when pulse-echo
technique is used.
¾High accuracy in determining reflector position and
estimating size and shape.
¾Minimal part preparation required.
¾Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
¾Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems.
¾It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection.
25>
 Limitations of Ultrasonic Testing
¾Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
¾Skill and training is more extensive than with some other
methods.
¾Normally requires a coupling medium to promote
transfer of sound energy into test specimen.
¾Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small,
exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to
inspect.
¾Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult
to inspect due to low sound transmission and high signal
noise.
¾Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may
go undetected.
¾Reference standards are required for both equipment
calibration, and characterization of flaws.

26>
 Some Standards relating to Ultrasonic Testing
¾ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

• ASTM E114 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-

Beam Examination by the Contact Method.
• ASTM E164 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact
Examination of Weldments.
• ASTM E213 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of
Metal Pipe and Tubing.
• ASTM E273 - Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Examination of the
Weld Zone of Welded Pipe and Tubing.
• ASTM E588 - Standard Practice for Detection of Large Inclusions in
Bearing Quality Steel by the Ultrasonic Method.
• ASTM E797 - Standard Practice for Measuring Thickness by Manual
Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method.

27>
 Ultrasonic Testing Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UM6XKvXWVFA
28>
 References
¾ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_testing
¾ NDT Resource Center. https://www.nde-ed.org/index_flash.htm
¾ The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. www.asnt.org
¾ ASTM E114-15, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Straight-Beam
Contact Testing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2015.
(DOI: 10.1520/E0114-15)
¾ ASTM E164-13, Standard Practice for Contact Ultrasonic Testing of
Weldments, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2013. (DOI: 10.1520/E0164)
¾ ASTM E213-14e1, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Pipe and
Tubing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2014. (DOI: 10.1520/E0213-14E01)
¾ ASTM E273-15, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of the Weld Zone of
Welded Pipe and Tubing, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2015.
(DOI: 10.1520/E0273-15)
¾ ASTM E588-03(2014), Standard Practice for Detection of Large Inclusions in
Bearing Quality Steel by the Ultrasonic Method, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, 2014. (DOI: 10.1520/E0588-03R14)
¾ ASTM E797 / E797M-15, Standard Practice for Measuring Thickness by
Manual Ultrasonic Pulse-Echo Contact Method, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, 2015. (DOI: 10.1520/E0797_E0797M-15)
¾ASM International. ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation
and Quality Control. ASM, 9th edition, 795p., 1989. (ISBN: 978-0-87170-023-0)
Notas de aula preparadas pelo Prof. Juno Gallego para a disciplina Lab. Materiais de Construção Mecânica II.
® 2016. Permitida a impressão e divulgação.
http://www.feis.unesp.br/#!/departamentos/engenharia-mecanica/grupos/maprotec/educacional/
29
 Radiographic Testing (RT) [10]

Definition:
An NDT method that utilizes x-rays or
gamma radiation to detect discontinuities in
materials, and to present their images on
recording medium.

1>
 Electromagnetic Radiation
The radiation used in Radiography testing is a higher
energy (shorter wavelength) version of the
electromagnetic waves that we see every day. Visible
light is in the same family as x-rays and gamma rays.

The energy E (keV) of the x-rays or gamma radiation is

calculated by c
E = h⋅
λ 2>
 Electromagnetic Radiation
X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10
nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range
30 petahertz to 30 exahertz (3×1016 Hz to 3×1019 Hz) and
energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.
Gamma rays typically have frequencies above 10
exahertz (or >1019 Hz), and therefore have energies
above 100 keV and wavelengths less than 10 picometers
(10−11 m), which is less than the diameter of an atom.

after Wikipedia (2016) 3>

 Radiation Sources

Two of the most commonly used sources

of radiation in industrial radiography are x-
ray generators and gamma ray sources.
Industrial radiography is often subdivided
into “X-ray Radiography” or “Gamma
Radiography”, depending on the source of
radiation used.

4>
 Gamma Radiography Sources

• Gamma rays are roduced by

a radioisotope.
• A radioisotope has an
unstable nuclei that does
not have enough binding
energy to hold the nucleus
together.
• The spontaneous
breakdown of an atomic
nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and matter
is known as radioactive
decay.
• Gamma rays cannot be
turned off. Radioisotopes
for gamma radiography are
encapsulated to prevent
leakage of the material.
5>
 X-rays Radiography Sources

• X-rays are produced by establishing a very high

voltage between two electrodes, called the anode
and cathode.
• To prevent arcing, the anode and cathode are
located inside a vacuum tube, which is protected
by a metal housing.

6>
 X-rays Radiography Sources

• The cathode contains a small High Electrical Potential

filament much the same as in a
light bulb.
Electrons
• Current is passed through the + -
filament which heats it. The heat
causes electrons to be stripped
off. X-ray Generator
or Radioactive
• The high voltage causes these Source Creates
“free” electrons to be pulled Radiation
toward a target material (usually
made of tungsten) located in the
anode.
Radiation
• The electrons impact against Penetrate
the target. This impact causes the Sample
an energy exchange which
causes x-rays to be created. Exposure Recording Device

7>
 General Principles of Radiography

The part is placed between the

radiation source and a piece of film.
The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense
area will stop more of the radiation.
The film darkness
(density) will vary with
the amount of radiation
X-ray film reaching the film
through the test object.
= less exposure
= more exposure
Top view of developed film

8>
 General Principles of Radiography

Contrast:
The first subjective criteria for determining radiographic quality is
radiographic contrast. Essentially, radiographic contrast is the
degree of density difference between adjacent areas on a
radiograph.
It is essential that sufficient
contrast exist between the
defect of interest and the
surrounding area. There is no
viewing technique that can
extract information that does
not already exist in the
original radiograph

low kilovoltage high kilovoltage

9>
 General Principles of Radiography
Radiographic definition is the abruptness of change in going from
one density to another.

good poor
High definition: the detail portrayed in the radiograph is equivalent to
physical change present in the part. Hence, the imaging system
produced a faithful visual reproduction.
10>
 General Principles of Radiography

Flaw Orientation:
Since the angle between the radiation beam and a crack
or other linear defect is so critical, the orientation of
defect must be well known if radiography is going to be
used to perform the inspection.

0o 10o 20o
10>
 Imaging Modalities

Several different imaging methods are

available to display the final image in
industrial radiography:

• Film Radiography
• Real Time Radiography
• Computed Tomography (CT)
• Digital Radiography (DR)
• Computed Radiography (CR)

12>
Film Radiography

• One of the most widely used

and oldest imaging mediums
in industrial radiography is
radiographic film.
• Film contains microscopic
material called silver bromide.
• Once exposed to radiation and
developed in a darkroom,
silver bromide turns to black
metallic silver which forms the
image.

13>
 Film Radiography
• Film must be protected from visible light. Light, just
like x-rays and gamma rays, can expose film. Film is
loaded in a “light proof” cassette in a darkroom.
• This cassette is then placed on the specimen
opposite the source of radiation. Film is often
placed between screens to intensify radiation.

• In order for the image to be viewed, the film must

be “developed” in a darkroom. The process is very
similar to photographic film development.
14>
 Computed Radiography

As a laser scans the imaging plate, light is emitted where

X-rays stimulated the phosphor during exposure. The light
is then converted to a digital value.
Optical
Scanner Photo-multiplier Tube

Laser Beam

A/D
A/D
Converter
Converter

Imaging
Plate
110010010010110
110010010010110
Motor

15>
 Computed Radiography

Digital images are typically sent to a computer

workstation where specialized software allows
manipulation and enhancement.

16>
 Computed Radiography

¾ Examples of computed radiographs:

17>
 Computed Tomography

Computed Tomography (CT) uses a real-time

inspection system employing a sample
positioning system and special software.

18>
 Computed Tomography

• Many separate images are saved (grabbed) and

complied into 2-dimensional sections as the
sample is rotated.
• 2-D images are them combined into 3-dimensional
images.

Real-Time Compiled 2-D Compiled 3-D

Captures Images Structure

19>
 Radiation Safety

Use of radiation sources in industrial

radiography is heavily regulated by state
and federal organizations due to potential
public and personal risks.

20>
 Radiation Safety
X-rays and gamma rays are forms of ionizing radiation,
which means that they have the ability to form ions in
the material that is penetrated. All living organisms are
sensitive to the effects of ionizing radiation (radiation
burns, x-ray food pasteurization, etc.) X-rays and
gamma rays
have enough
energy to
liberate
electrons from
atoms and
damage the
molecular
structure of
cells.
This can cause
radiation
burns or
cancer. 21>
 Radiation Safety
There are three means of protection to help
reduce exposure to radiation:

22>
 Radiographic Images

CHALLENGE: Can you determine what object was

radiographed in this slide?

FLASLIGHT
23>
 Radiographic Images

CHALLENGE: Can you determine what object was

radiographed in this slide?

CALCULATOR

24>
 Radiographic Images

CHALLENGE: Can you determine what object was

radiographed in this slide?

PHONE

25>
 Radiographic Images

CHALLENGE: Can you determine what object was

radiographed in this slide?

GRAPEFRUIT

26>
 Advantages of Radiography Examination

¾ Technique is not limited by material type

or density.
¾ Can inspect assembled components.
¾ Minimum surface preparation required.
¾ Sensitive to changes in thickness,
corrosion, voids, cracks, and material
density changes.
¾ Detects both surface and subsurface
defects.
¾ Provides a permanent record of the
inspection.

27>
 Disadvantages of Radiography Examination

¾ Many safety precautions for the use of

high intensity radiation.
¾ Many hours of technician training prior to
use.
¾ Access to both sides of sample required.
¾ Orientation of equipment and flaw can be
critical.
¾ Determining flaw depth is impossible
without additional angled exposures.
¾ Expensive initial equipment cost.

28>
Some Standards relating to Radiography Examination

¾ American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM):

• ASTM E94 (2010) - Standard Guide for Radiographic Examination.

• ASTM E1030/E1030M (2015) - Standard Practice for Radiographic

Examination of Metallic Castings.

• ASTM E1032 (2012) - Standard Test Method for Radiographic

Examination of Weldments.

• ASTM E1742/E1742M (2012) - Standard Practice for Radiographic

Examination.

29>
 Radiography Examination Video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcWjZbXiFkM
30>
 References

¾ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray
¾ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray
¾ NDT Resource Center. https://www.nde-ed.org/index_flash.htm
¾ The American Society for Nondestructive Testing. www.asnt.org
¾ ASTM E94-04 (2010) - Standard Guide for Radiographic Examination. ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, 2010. (DOI: 10.1520/E0094-04R10)
¾ ASTM E1030 / E1030M-15 - Standard Practice for Radiographic Examination of
Metallic Castings. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2015.
(DOI: 10.1520/E1030_E1030M-15)
¾ ASTM E1032-12 - Standard Test Method for Radiographic Examination of
Weldments. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2012. (DOI: 10.1520/E1032-12)
¾ ASTM E1742 / E1742M-12 - Standard Practice for Radiographic Examination.
ASTM International, West Conshohocken, 2012,. (DOI: 10.1520/E1742_E1742M-12)
¾ASM International. ASM Handbook, Volume 17: Nondestructive Evaluation
and Quality Control. ASM, 9th edition, 795p., 1989. (ISBN: 978-0-87170-023-0)

Notas de aula preparadas pelo Prof. Juno Gallego para a disciplina Lab. Materiais de Construção Mecânica II.
® 2016. Permitida a impressão e divulgação.
http://www.feis.unesp.br/#!/departamentos/engenharia-mecanica/grupos/maprotec/educacional/
31