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Institutional Culture in Higher Education

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DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_544-1

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Institutional Culture in Higher workers to meet the challenges of a knowledge


Education economy have encouraged tertiary institutions to
create new degree programs and expand access to
William G. Tierney and Michael Lanford students from previously underrepresented ethnic
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, and socioeconomic backgrounds (Jongbloed et al.
CA, USA 2008). Hence, the identity of a university campus
is not often easily definable, especially since the
culture of an institution is both subjective –
Synonyms depending on the perspectives and motivations
of different individuals – and complex – moving
Institutional viewpoints; Organizational culture beyond the descriptive clarity offered by organi-
zational charts and quantitative measurements of
institutional progress.
Introduction As faculty and staff endeavor to ascribe mean-
ing to their work and students attempt to decide
In recent years, colleges and universities through- which college or university is the best fit for their
out the world have engaged in an impressive career goals, the topic of institutional culture has
number of institutional initiatives and activities taken on special relevance in higher education
that complicate the notion of a single, unified studies. This entry explores institutional culture
culture in higher education. To promote research by first defining culture writ large and explaining
and cultivate ties with business communities, uni- its utility in deciphering the complex nature of
versities have courted private donors, forged alli- higher education institutions. Afterward, six
ances with dissimilar institutions, and cemented important terms that establish a framework for
entrepreneurial partnerships with a variety of cor- examining institutional culture are provided and
porate entities (Eckel and Hartley 2008). To nur- discussed in detail. Subsequently, the import of an
ture global networks and recruit talented students, institutional culture framework for administrators
many prominent universities have explored the and researchers is delineated. The paper con-
viability of building branch campuses in foreign cludes with a summary of the advantages and
countries (Lanford and Tierney 2016). Online disadvantages of a cultural perspective, along
education has transformed what many institutions with a brief prospectus for future research on
think of as their traditional constituency or who institutional culture in higher education.
teach their courses. Meanwhile, national govern-
ments focused on improving the skillsets of
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2018
J.C. Shin, P. Teixeira (eds.), Encyclopedia of International Higher Education Systems and Institutions,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_544-1
2 Institutional Culture in Higher Education

Defining Institutional Culture are rarely static. Therefore, it takes considerable


time for an individual to comprehend the intricate
Until the 1980s, the study of culture was thought web of relationships and routines that constitute
to reside in the discipline of anthropology, where institutional culture. Moreover, one’s understand-
researchers studied “exotic” tribes. Modern orga- ing of institutional culture is subject to reinterpre-
nizational studies, conversely, presumed that tation as new individuals instigate change through
rational decision-making and strategic planning the unique perspectives and ideas they introduce
could be fostered by a clarification of lines of and propagate (Austin and McDaniels 2006).
authority (Chaffee and Tierney 1988). Through For these reasons, most contemporary discus-
such a hierarchical structure, a select group of sions of institutional culture proceed from the
leaders would chart a path for the institution, epistemological stipulation that the organizational
setting necessary rules and guidelines, while environment of higher education is “socially
lower-level staff and faculty assiduously constructed.” This view is different from some,
followed. The environment of an institution like Peterson and Spencer (1990), who define
consisted of a fixed number of identifiable ele- culture as “the deeply embedded patterns of orga-
ments. To the extent that an organization might nizational behavior and the shared values,
undergo substantive change, it was perceived as a assumptions, beliefs, or ideologies that members
necessary response to consumer preferences. have about their organization or its work”
Over the past couple of decades, however, the (p. 142). While it is true that every institution
field of cultural studies has become a mature, depends on a certain level of fidelity to shared
active area of academic research. Concurrently, values, assumptions, beliefs, and ideologies, a
linear and formalized decision-making arrange- socially constructed view of institutional culture
ments have been displaced by flatter, more collab- does not rely entirely on agreement among indi-
orative structures. Insomuch as they encourage viduals. It acknowledges the pluralistic, occasion-
diversity, intrinsic motivation, and autonomy, ally cacophonous, landscape of the contemporary
such environments are often better incubators for university, where experts are brought together
the cultivation of innovative ideas (Tierney and from a wide range of backgrounds and disciplines.
Lanford 2016). Hence, a deeper understanding of These individuals are likely to perceive vigorous
culture has become vital for those who wish to debate as a necessary activity for deeper under-
encourage an innovative climate that can enable standing, rather than as a barrier to progress.
higher education to positively impact diverse According a perspective grounded in social
societies and nations. construction, individuals within an institution
The topic of culture is most conspicuous when also rely on a wealth of organizational data –
people transcend their home culture and recognize including information gleaned from their orienta-
that their assumptions, beliefs, and practices are at tion events, peer advice, and their knowledge of
odds with the norms of a new cultural environ- campus traditions – to comprehend their institu-
ment. Likewise, institutional culture in higher tional activities, construct their own identities
education is perhaps most apparent when individ- within their institutions, and supply meaning to
uals move to a new campus environment after contemporary events. Early studies by Weick, as
spending a significant amount of time at a single well as Nystrom and Starbuck, explored the impli-
college or university. In such instances, the rela- cations of conducting organizational research
tionships between faculty and administrators, the from a socially constructed perspective. Weick
expectations concerning office hours, the proce- (1979) argued that “boundaries between organi-
dures concerning student grading and plagiarism, zations and environment are never quite as clear-
and the implicit, yet axiomatic, practices guiding cut or stable as many organizational theorists
dozens of daily interactions may be quite differ- think. . . these boundaries shift, disappear, and
ent, if not alienating. It is important to emphasize are arbitrarily drawn” (p. 133). Nystrom and
that these practices are only seldom codified, they Starbuck (1984) contended that understanding
Institutional Culture in Higher Education 3

this delicate interplay between organizations and In summary, one could reasonably contend that
the environment was vital in a dynamic world administrators and researchers need to have more
where organizations must respond in real-time to than an intuitive understanding of institutional
broader crises. culture. By consciously interrogating and under-
In reading these authors (as well as subsequent standing the codes, symbols, and interpretations
writers on institutional culture), the influence of that inform institutional culture, leaders can
anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1973) is omni- appraise likely outcomes before charting a course
present. According to Geertz, the definition of of action. The next section outlines a conceptual
culture concerns the following: language that can be utilized to depict and exam-
Man is an animal suspended in webs of significance ine institutions across various national higher edu-
he himself has spun. I take culture to be those webs, cation systems, thus delineating a useful
and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experi- framework for the consideration of institutional
mental science in search of law, but an interpretive culture.
one in search of meaning. (p. 5)

Two implications follow from Geertz’s definition


of culture. First, a comprehensive understanding Key Terms: Assembling a Conceptual
of any higher education institution requires anal- Framework
ysis beyond the structural elements and
established procedures (i.e., the web) of the insti- When anthropologists conduct fieldwork to better
tution. An understanding of how individuals inter- understand the culture of a society or a collective
pret their place within that web is equally vital. group, they are equipped with disciplinary-
Second, one cannot expect that an objective his- specific terms, such as “fictive kinship,” that
tory of any given institution, combined with define commonly encountered phenomena.
established organizational norms, will result in a These terms are not only intelligible to other
limited set of immutable outcomes for any given anthropologists, but also deemed crucial for a
situation. Instead, a broad array of factors – thorough description and analysis of a given cul-
including changes in the greater environment, ture or cultural activity. For a discussion of insti-
the unanticipated actions of individual actors, tutional culture in higher education, it is therefore
and the constructed understanding of an institu- useful to pinpoint similarly important phenomena
tion’s history – are more likely to inform contem- and provide a working terminology that can serve
porary events. as the basis for a conceptual framework (Välimaa
The task of coming to terms with each of the 1998). In what follows, six such terms are
disparate elements in Geertz’s web to construct an provided – mission, environment, socialization,
embryonic picture of institutional culture is admit- information, strategy, and leadership:
tedly daunting. However, one might argue that it
is essential in today’s competitive higher educa- 1. Mission: As described by Fugazzotto (2009),
tion environment. Many crises in higher educa- “mission statements dictate the core activities
tion can be attributed to instances in which an of an organization” (p. 285). For colleges and
actor or group of actors, such as an administrator universities, mission statements are exception-
or a board of trustees, transgress the boundaries of ally important, as they can affirm which parts
institutional culture, resulting in strained relation- of the institution should be points of emphasis,
ships, general confusion about shared values and how resources are allocated, and the types of
goals, and conflict. Unfortunately, introspective individuals that are considered exemplary
ruminations concerning the cultural values of an members of the university community. The
institution often become a priority only during language used to depict elements of a mission
such moments of crisis, once individuals find it statement can also provide clues about an insti-
necessary to assert their significance within the tution’s relationship with the surrounding com-
organizational web. munity, its status among peer institutions, its
4 Institutional Culture in Higher Education

aspirations, and its priorities. If a mission state- an institution when it is located in Maine, for
ment is articulated regularly by prominent example, but its students reside in all 50 states?
administrators and other university officials, The environment surely is no longer defined by
the culture and direction of the institution a geographic radius; at the same time, the insti-
may be understood by stakeholders. If it is tution still needs to incorporate its members
not articulated frequently or is unclear, the into the culture of the institution. Today, the
mission statement may be ineffectual, and institutional environment is shaped as much by
institutional priorities may be contested by the flows of international and intranational stu-
various actors. dents and faculty as the campus location.
2. Environment: The environment surrounding a 3. Socialization: The process of socialization is
higher education institution can be interpreted how actors – whether they are students, staff,
in multiple ways, particularly in today’s digital or faculty – discern which values and character
age. Traditionally, though, one might first con- traits are valued by their institution (Tierney
sider the relationship between the university and Rhoads 1994). This aspect of institutional
campus and its surrounding city or town. The culture can be assessed in at least three differ-
extent to which the student population of the ent ways. First, one can examine how new
institution reflects the demographics of the members in an institution become socialized
city’s citizenry can provide valuable informa- to their environment. Second, similar to the
tion about its impact on, and relationship with, analysis of mission statements, the manner
the community. and frequency in which socialization is articu-
The state of an institution’s campus can also lated can be investigated. Third, one can
shed light on an institution’s heritage. Some assume the position of different individuals
universities have strategically positioned within the institution and interrogate the types
statues and inscriptions, harkening back to of knowledge that are necessary for success in
august figures that either cast the institution in their positions. Through each of these three
a positive light as prominent alumni or gave approaches, knowledge about the socialization
back to their institution through financial dona- process can offer insights into why people
tions or extended periods of service. interpret and react to institutional actions in a
A university that considers itself to be innova- certain fashion. Socialization becomes partic-
tive and transgressive, on the other hand, may ularly important in the twenty-first century
deliberately eschew Gothic architecture in insofar as some students and faculty may
favor of modern buildings that proudly exhibit study and work from afar. And more individ-
new investments in technology or resemble the uals work from home than ever before. Never-
type of work environment future graduates will theless, individuals still need to be socialized to
hopefully one day inhabit. If an institution the culture of the organization. The degree to
values residential education, the campus will which an institution’s leaders consider these
be populated by student learning spaces and issues, the likelier they are to create and main-
dorms. If an institution’s student population tain a vibrant culture, even from a distance.
mostly commutes to campus, study locations 4. Information: Although information may
may be limited to a couple of buildings. appear to be a straight-forward concept, it can
Finally, the attitudes of faculty and staff toward be subject to an equally complex set of consid-
their institutional environment may reveal erations as the other terms listed here. Similar
whether an individual is comfortable with to socialization, three different approaches can
their institutional culture or if they pine for guide an understanding of information in insti-
the type of institution they attended as under- tutional culture. A valuable starting point is to
graduate or graduate students. query what constitutes information within an
The digital age has thrown the idea of “envi- institution. In today’s age of email, twitter
ronment” into turmoil. What does it suggest for feeds, and numerous social media outlets,
Institutional Culture in Higher Education 5

individuals are often inundated with “urgent” such as curricular issues (Rhoades 2005). If
messages and, at times, suspect information. leaders do not respect these values and expec-
As a result, the process by which individuals tations, their internal legitimacy may be
determine who holds useful information is also undermined and institutional trust and support
a vital line of inquiry. After determining what for future strategies may be difficult to obtain
information is significant and who holds it, the (Stensaker and Vabø 2013). And yet, shared
efficacy of how information is disseminated governance and academic freedom are not uni-
can be assessed. Public representatives of the versal values in higher education systems
university regularly supply information about throughout the world, nor are they uniformly
their institutions through speeches and formal embraced at colleges and universities within
documents. Increasingly, however, as higher the same country (Altbach 2001). Hence,
education institutions adopt neoliberal ideolo- many institutions may adopt a more linear stra-
gies and the practices of corporate culture tegic process, with even minor strategic deci-
(Kirp 2003; Slaughter and Leslie 1997), mar- sions remaining the province of a small group
keting and communications departments have of individuals in high-level administrative
become essential generators and communica- positions.
tors of information that can inform an analysis The rhetoric of change and disruption also
of institutional culture (Olssen and Peters plays a role in contemporary strategic decision-
2005). making, particularly when it appears that early
As a result, these departments also play a adopters of a new technology may have a stra-
crucial role in defining and promulgating orga- tegic advantage over peer institutions. Lest
nizational identities. Traditionally, higher edu- they be placed at a disadvantage that could
cation has been portrayed as a field of “loosely cripple their institutions’ future economic via-
coupled institutions” that are not only inward bility, many leaders feel compelled to make
looking, but resistant to change (Weick 1976; quick decisions, circumventing traditional par-
Stensaker 2015). With state governments ticipatory processes that give voice to multiple
demanding increased accountability and effi- constituencies. Consequently, communication
ciency from higher education, many colleges becomes an essential tool for the dissemination
and universities have been compelled to take and implementation of institutional strategies.
charge of their public image, instigate reforms, In the next section, the importance of commu-
and publicize identified strengths while com- nication will be discussed in greater detail.
peting for scarce resources. One active area of 6. Leadership: Leadership may seem to be the
research on institutional culture investigates most obvious aspect of institutional culture,
such “branding” efforts, insofar as they repre- but it is a deceptively complicated concept,
sent a deliberate attempt to shape public opin- especially in the university setting. Everyone
ion and frequently engender resistance from might point to a university president or provost
within the institution (Humphreys and Brown as individual “leaders.” Nevertheless, the
2002; Stensaker 2007; Wæraas and Solbakk leaders who, at times, have the most palpable
2009). impact on institutional practices may be deans
5. Strategy: Strategic concerns may involve some or division chairs who enjoy enhanced legiti-
of the most complicated and subjective aspects macy due to their academic backgrounds as
of an institutional culture analysis. At many professors within the departments they over-
universities where academic freedom and see. The expectations for different levels of
shared governance are presumed to be non- leadership can vary drastically, depending on
negotiable, fundamental values of the institu- the institution. Furthermore, “informal”
tion, faculty may expect a participative leaders who do not hold a specific leadership
decision-making process, especially for insti- position, yet are recognized as dependable
tutional decisions that match their expertise, individuals who represent certain important
6 Institutional Culture in Higher Education

positions on behalf of others, exist in every a framework similar to the one outlined above,
institution. A thorough examination of institu- administrators may feel less beholden to tradition
tional culture explores the expectations that and more willing to solicit diverse opinions and
individuals have of leadership, the multilay- build consensus in support of a bold initiative.
ered nature of leadership, and the recognized They might also be mindful that a viable solution
“formal” and “informal” leaders in an effort to for an issue will likely need to be revisited at some
contextualize strategic decisions that impact point in the future, as both the environment and
higher education institutions. the individuals within an institution continue to
Taken together, the six terms that have been evolve.
described here in detail – mission, environ- Amid this turbulent environment, two key
ment, socialization, information, strategy, and administrative behaviors have the potential to
leadership – form a comprehensible, and instill a sense of stability and confidence within
potentially useful, framework for understand- an institution. First, adherence to an institutional
ing institutional culture. As one might antici- identity is key. Change is a healthy part of any
pate, how one enacts a term changes over time. organization. And yet, change that appears to
As we noted above, for example, the environ- contradict the core values of an institution, as
ment of the twenty-first century gets defined in established by cultural artifacts such as the insti-
a manner very different from that of the 1980s. tutional mission statement, can foment a sense of
How students are socialized to the mores of the existential despair, even among the most talented
organization involves social media in a manner and/or productive individuals. The challenge for
that did not exist a generation ago. Neverthe- many institutions today involves maintaining a
less, the terms themselves remain of funda- strong sense of identity while remaining dynamic
mental import. The applicability of this enough to respond to outside pressures and envi-
framework, however, is dependent on a view ronmental needs (Vaira 2004). Leadership that
of higher education institutions as socially changes institutional direction or priorities based
constructed. In the next section, the ways in on the vagaries of the marketplace may well solve
which an institutional culture framework can a short-term problem, but they may also do noth-
be useful for different stakeholders, namely ing for long-term viability.
administrators and researchers, are explored. Second, the maintenance of effective commu-
nication channels is critical in any conceptualiza-
tion of institutional culture. For mission
Import of Institutional Culture for statements to be effective, their basic principles
Administrators and Researchers need to be reinforced by leadership through
speeches, letters, and other forms of written and
Higher education institutions, despite their lon- spoken discourse, especially at times of institu-
gevity and reverence for tradition, are not static tional uncertainty. When new people join an insti-
entities. Administrators who consider their insti- tution, the socialization process needs to establish
tutions from a cultural perspective keep the multi- preferred forms of communication so that feed-
dimensional nature of higher education in mind. back channels can be utilized. Additionally, com-
Depending on the individual, this can be either a munication from administrators is essential during
disconcerting or a liberating way of looking at an strategic reform processes that can easily be mis-
institution. On the one hand, a cultural perspective interpreted by individual actors.
suggests that, for most problems, no single solu- It is important to emphasize that researchers
tion is likely to ameliorate every potential issue looking to establish either an association or cau-
and appease all parties. On the other hand, a sality between two isolated variables are not likely
cultural perspective encourages administrative to be seduced by a framework based on institu-
creativity and multiple feedback channels. By tional culture (Smircich and Stubbart 1985).
weighing the positives and negatives advised by Researchers gathering qualitative data, however,
Institutional Culture in Higher Education 7

will almost invariably notice that few events are thorough understanding of the history of an insti-
perceived by individuals in a similar light. Similar tution, administrators and other change agents
to administrators who are mindful of the multi- may repeat failed strategies that cause consterna-
dimensionality of their institutions, researchers tion throughout an institution. At some institu-
who are attracted to Geertz’s definition of culture tions, specific individuals in impacted positions
will find an institutional culture framework an may feel as though their input is necessary before
invaluable tool for contextualizing and making the implementation stage of an institutional
sense of their participants’ intricate “webs of sig- change can commence. Moreover, change may
nificance.” In short, a cultural perspective enables not be accepted among individuals within the
the exploration of the multiple perceptions at institutional community if certain informal
work within a single institution. leaders are not recognized and given an opportu-
A cultural perspective also embraces the tem- nity to express their opinions and/or support.
poral nature of an institution by encouraging lon- Lastly, an institutional culture perspective does
gitudinal analysis, along with the collection of not presume that procedures which are successful
historically derived data. This gives researchers at one institution can simply be transferred to
an opportunity to triangulate sources so that com- another, without modification. As Robert Arnove
plex phenomena, such as the effects of institu- (2003) has observed, “the school system of each
tional change over time, can be comprehensively country reflects the corresponding sociocultural
examined. Such an investigation requires the sort systems within which they are embedded. One
of “thick description” advocated by Geertz. Insti- cannot simply uproot elements of one society
tutional portraits, like those pioneered by Burton and expect them to flourish in the soil of another
Clark (1970, 1971), are excellent ways to demon- society” (p. 7). By employing an institutional
strate the enactment of culture in higher educa- culture framework, researchers can specify tangi-
tion. By capturing the voices and attitudes of ble reasons why what works at one university may
several individuals from throughout the institu- not work at another university, even if the two
tional spectrum, a more authentic portrayal can institutions share many similarities.
be produced than that of a faceless crowd stifling One of the primary disadvantages of an insti-
top-down reforms or a heroic individual tutional culture framework relates to its willing-
fomenting comprehensive change. ness to embrace complexity. To meet externally
imposed goals, it may make rational sense for
administrators to fixate on specific metrics and
Advantages and Disadvantages of an rely on proven techniques that have produced
Institutional Culture Perspective desired results in the past. At the same time, an
institution focused on the procurement of funds
To summarize many of the earlier points of this might use an institutional culture framework to
article, an institutional culture perspective confers better understand the relationship of the university
several advantages. It acknowledges that deci- with its alumni base, the institutional messages
sions are complex, necessitating the consultation that are most attractive to potential donors, or the
of numerous stakeholders and the consideration of possible negative effects of a tuition increase.
multiple perspectives. A nuanced understanding Another potential negative effect concerns the
of institutional culture has the potential to help resource-intensive nature of understanding the
leaders anticipate problems, minimizing the institutional culture. A thorough process of con-
potential for cultural conflict. sensus building, among several different constit-
As Kezar and Eckel (2002) have demonstrated uencies, may delay the implementation of
in their research on institutional transformations, a administrative directives. Industry partners inter-
thorough consideration of institutional culture is ested in developing a mutually beneficial, voca-
particularly important during periods in which tional curriculum may find the shared governance
leaders are planning change strategies. Without a model too sluggish. Also, some individuals in
8 Institutional Culture in Higher Education

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