Pressure Instrumentation

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 SCOPE / OVERVIEW................................................................................................................. 4

2.0 CODES, STANDARDS, AND REFERENCES............................................................................ 4

3.0 INTRODUCTION – WHAT IS PRESSURE?............................................................................... 5

3.1 Definitions and Types of Pressure Measurement ............................................................ 5
3.2 Why is Pressure Measurement Important? ..................................................................... 5
3.3 Common Units of Measure ............................................................................................. 6
3.4 Common Locations of Pressure Measurement on P&IDs................................................ 7
4.0 PRESSURE INSTRUMENT GENERAL REQUIREMENTS........................................................ 9

5.0 MEASURING DEVICES........................................................................................................... 10

5.1 Manometer.................................................................................................................... 10
5.1.1 Definition of a Manometer ................................................................................. 10
5.1.2 Pressure Measurement by a Manometer........................................................... 10
5.1.3 Limitations of a Manometer ............................................................................... 11
5.2 Pressure Gauges .......................................................................................................... 11
5.2.1 Definition of a Pressure Gauge.......................................................................... 11
5.2.2 Gauge Construction .......................................................................................... 11
5.2.3 Analog Gauge Pressure Ranges and Accuracies .............................................. 13
5.2.4 Pressure Gauge Overpressure Limits................................................................ 15
5.2.5 Pressure Gauge Temperature Limits ................................................................. 15
5.2.6 Pressure Gauge Data Sheet.............................................................................. 16
5.2.7 Limitations of a Pressure Gauge ....................................................................... 16
5.3 Pressure Gauge Options............................................................................................... 17
5.3.1 Liquid Filling ...................................................................................................... 17
5.3.2 Syphons ............................................................................................................ 17
5.3.3 Pulsation Dampeners, Restrictors, and Snubbers ............................................. 18
5.3.4 Gauge Protectors and Pressure Limiting Valves................................................ 19
5.4 Digital Pressure Gauges ............................................................................................... 19
5.5 Pressure Switches ........................................................................................................ 20
5.5.1 Definition of a Pressure Switch.......................................................................... 20
5.5.2 Switching Elements and Shelf State .................................................................. 21
5.5.3 Switch Technologies .......................................................................................... 22
5.5.4 Understanding Pressure Switch Ratings............................................................ 23
5.5.5 Common Switch Selections on Data Sheets...................................................... 23
5.5.6 Pressure Switch Wiring ..................................................................................... 23
5.6 Pressure Transducers................................................................................................... 24
5.7 Pressure Transmitters................................................................................................... 24
5.7.1 Definition of a Pressure Transmitter................................................................... 24
5.7.2 Pressure Transmitter Sensor Technology .......................................................... 24
5.7.3 Pressure Transmitter Construction .................................................................... 28
5.7.4 Common Pressure Transmitter Selections on Data Sheets ............................... 30
5.7.5 Pressure Transmitter Response Time................................................................ 31
5.7.6 Pressure Transmitter Ranges and Overpressure Limits..................................... 31
5.7.7 Pressure Transmitter Operating Temperature.................................................... 32

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 5.7.8 Common Pressure Transmitter Options............................................................. 32
6.0 LOCAL PNEUMATIC PRESSURE CONTROLLERS............................................................... 33
6.1 Purpose and Indications for Use ................................................................................... 33
6.2 Local Pneumatic Pressure Controller Construction ....................................................... 33
6.3 Local Pneumatic Controller Installation ......................................................................... 34
7.0 DIAPHRAGM SEALS .............................................................................................................. 34
7.1 Purpose and Indications for Use ................................................................................... 34
7.2 Seal Construction.......................................................................................................... 35
7.3 Fill Fluid Selection......................................................................................................... 36
7.4 Capillary Tube Construction.......................................................................................... 36
7.5 Recommended Diaphragm Sizes.................................................................................. 37
8.0 PRESSURE CALIBRATION DEVICES.................................................................................... 38
8.1 Deadweight Tester........................................................................................................ 38
8.2 Portable Electronic Test Equipment .............................................................................. 38
8.3 Precision Test Equipment ............................................................................................. 38
8.4 Required Accuracy of Test Equipment .......................................................................... 39
9.0 STANDARD TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE .................................................................... 39

APPENDICES...................................................................................................................................... 40
Appendix 1: References .......................................................................................................... 40

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2.0 CODES , S TANDARDS, AND REFERENCES
These are the common definitions/acronyms used in this document.
API American Petroleum Institute
ISA International Society of Automation
MAWP Maximum Allowable Working Pressure
MOC Management of Change
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
P&ID Piping & Instrument Diagrams
PFD Process Flow Diagram
PIP Process Industry Practices
STP Standard Temperature and Pressure
SS Stainless Steel

References / sources of graphics, etc., are found in Appendix 1.

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3.0 INTRODUCTION – WHAT IS P RES S URE?

3.1 Definitions and Types of Pressure Measurement

Pressure is the force per unit area
PRESSURE = FORCE/AREA

Categories of Pressure Measurement

• Gauge Pressure - Because atmospheric pressure always exists all around us without
significant change, we do not notice it. Therefore, we consider atmospheric pressure
to be "zero" pressure. Gauge pressure does not take into account the additional
pressure resulting from atmospheric pressure.
• Atmospheric Pressure - The pressure produced on the earth's surface by the weight
of the air surrounding the earth is typically 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch), but
varies by particular location.
• Absolute Pressure - When converting a volume of gas at actual conditions to a
volume at standard conditions, conversions must be made using absolute pressures
(the total pressure on the gas).

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure

Pabsolute = Patmospheric + Pgauge

Types of Pressure Measurement

• Differential Pressure - The difference between 2 pressures. Example = psi, or
pounds per square inch (sometimes written as psid)
• Gauge Pressure – The pressure above atmospheric pressure. Example = psig, or
pounds per square inch gauge
• Absolute Pressure – The pressure above absolute zero pressure (a perfect vacuum).
Example = psia, or pounds per square inch absolute

Caution – references such as “5 pounds of vacuum” are not specific, can lead to
misinterpretation, and should not be used. This example could be interpreted two ways:
either as 5 psia, or as -5 psig (note that -5 psig = {0 psig – 5 psig} = 9.7 psia)
3.2 Why is Pressure Measurement Important?
Many processes must be held within a set of pressure limits. Pressure must be
measured for proper Process Control and Process Safety.

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3.3 Common Units of Measure

In the USA, common units for pressure measurement are: • psig – used for moderate or
high pressures
• inches of water – used for low pressures (must be specified with a reference temperature, as the density of water
changes with temperature)
• psia – used for vacuum measurement, or pressures close to zero psig

However, the following basic units of pressure are commonly found internationally for measurement of moderate or high
pressures:
• 1 bar = 14.5 psig
• 1 kg/cm2 = 14.5 psig • 1 kPa = 0.145 psig

Additionally, the following basic units of pressure are commonly found internationally for measurement of low pressures:
• 1 mbar = 0.402 inches of water (at 20 deg C) • 1 mmH2O = 0.0394 inches of
water
• 1 kPa = 0.145 psig

One recommended source for measurement units and conversion factors is API Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards Chapter 15—Guidelines for the Use of the International System of Units (SI) in the Petroleum and Allied Industries.
This document is found in the Wood Group Mustang Library IHS collection as API MPMS 15. This document is based on
metric units of pascals (Pa).
A detailed source of pressure conversion factors may be found on the website of the National Institute of Standards and
Technology (NIST), in Appendix B of The NIST Guide for the use of the International System of Units, at
http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/contents.full.html or at
http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/pdf/sp811.pdf

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3.4 Common Locations of Pressure Measurement on P&IDs

Measurement of pressure in vessels (in this example, a pressure transmitter tagged PT
and pressure gage tagged PG are in the top of the vessel).
The ISA default suggestion for Pressure Indicator tagging is “PI”. Note that some clients
will tag Pressure Gauges as “PG”, to help differentiate from the control system software
tag “PI” (the software readout for the PT). Note that the thermometer below is similarly
tagged “TG”, and not “TI”.

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Measurement of pressure at pump suction and pump discharge (in this example, tagged
PT and PG), and measurement of differential pressure (in this example, tagged PDG)
across pump suction strainer.
The ISA default suggestion for Pressure Differential Indicator tagging is “PDI”. Note that
some clients will tag Pressure Differential Gauges as “PDG”, to help differentiate from
the control system software tag “PDI” (the software readout for a PDT, which is not
shown here, but which may be installed across the suction strainer). Note that the
thermometer below is similarly tagged “TG”, and not “TI”.

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Measurement of pressure on inlets and outlets of heat exchangers (in this example,
tagged PG on shell inlet and tagged PT and PG on shell outlet; tagged PT and PG on
tube inlet and tagged PG on tube outlet).
Refer to earlier discussion on tagging of pressure gauges as “PG” versus “PI”.

4.0 P RES S URE INS TRUMENT GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Pressure instruments must meet or exceed the pressure ratings of the system in which they are
installed. This is typically the system Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP).
The portion of an instrument or a device that is exposed to process fluid is referred to as the
“wetted materials”. Pressure instrument wetted materials must meet or exceed the corrosion
resistance of the piping or vessel on which they are installed. Typical transmitter or pressure
gauge metallurgy is 316SS, which is usually suitable for carbon steel or 316SS piping. Where
piping metallurgy is exotic (such as 2205 duplex SS, or Hastelloy C-276, or Titanium), upgraded
instrument wetted materials are required.

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5.0 MEAS URING DEVICES

5.1 Manometer
5.1.1 Definition of a Manometer
A Manometer is a “U” tube measuring device, often made of glass, and normally limited
to the measurement of pressures close to atmospheric pressure.
5.1.2 Pressure Measurement by a Manometer
Manometers are rarely used in the process industries, but the principles described below
are the basis for many types of pressure and differential pressure measurement.
Manometers consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to
different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the
pressure differential between the two ends of the tube. A very simple version is a U-
shaped tube half-full of liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest
while the reference pressure (which might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is
applied to the other. The difference in liquid level represents the applied pressure.

The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and density r is given by the
hydrostatic pressure equation, P = rgh, where g= acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2).
Therefore the pressure difference between the applied pressure P and the reference
pressure Po in a U-tube manometer can be found by solving P-P0 = rgh.
Any fluid can be used, but mercury is preferred for its high density (13.534 g/cm³) and
low vapor pressure. For low pressure differences which are well above the vapor
pressure of water, water is a commonly-used liquid (and "inches of water" is a
commonly-used pressure unit).
Note that reference fluid density may change with ambient temperature.

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5.1.3 Limitations of a Manometer

Manometers have poor dynamic response, a limited pressure range, and are rarely
found in the modern process industries.

5.2 Pressure Gauges

5.2.1 Definition of a Pressure Gauge
A pressure gauge (commonly spelled in literature as “pressure gage”), is a local reading
device, used to display pressure.
5.2.2 Gauge Construction
Analog pressure gauges (digital pressure gauges are described elsewhere in this
document) typically utilize a “C” shaped bourdon tube as the primary measurement
mechanism. As the outside of the “C” shape has a larger surface area than the inside,
increasing pressure will cause the “C” to straighten. This movement will cause a pointer
to move.
High pressures (typically above 1000 psig) will often use spiral wound tubes, instead of
“C” shaped tubes.

The bottom of the tube assembly shown above is the bourdon tube socket. It is
commonly made of the same materials as the bourdon tube. Connection sizes for
process gauge sockets are typically ½” MNPT, with ¼” MNPT used for air regulators,
etc.
The bourdon tube and socket are the only process wetted parts.

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Pressure gauges typically have 2 styles of construction

Utility gauges, or commercial gauges,
with open front construction (no barrier
between the bourdon tube and the face
of the gauge)
Process gauges, or safety gauges, with solid
front and blowout back construction (a solid
metal or plastic barrier between the bourdon
tube and the face of the gauge, plus a rubber
blowout disc in the back of the gauge, to
relieve pressure from a ruptured bourdon
tube)

Except for small air pressure gauges (as found on air filter regulators), solid front,
blowout back construction is typically the default requirement for process pressure
gauges. The following is a picture of an Ashcroft 1279 phenolic gauge. Note the solid
front is part of the phenolic case, and note the blowout disc at the bottom of the rear
plastic cover.

Do
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Process pressure gauge cases are commonly supplied either as 4.5” diameter phenolic
cases, or as 100mm diameter 304SS cases. Phenolic cases are typically resistant to
chemicals and corrosion, but may crack under high exposure to sunlight and UV rays.
Stainless steel cases are resistant to physical damage, but cost more than phenolic
cases.
Bourdon tubes and sockets are commonly supplied as 316SS for most services, or as
Monel for seawater or sour gas (H2S) services.
Pressure gauges in extremely corrosive fluids will often utilize 316SS bourdon tubes and
sockets, with the gauge installed on a diaphragm seal (see below).
Pressure gauge movements are often 316SS
5.2.3 Analog Gauge Pressure Ranges and Accuracies
For maximum readability, bourdon tube gauges should be typically specified such that
the normal range of pressures is in the middle half of the gauge. For example, if the
vessel normally operates at 25 to 75 psig, and the vessel maximum pressure is 90 psig,
then a 100 psig range gauge may be a good selection.
Process pressure gauges typically have an accuracy of +/- 1%
In the picture below, this 0 to 2000 psig range gauge (with stainless steel case) has 20
psi small graduations.

Note that if a vessel operates at a very low pressure relative to its maximum pressure,
digital gauges or indicating pressure transmitters may be indicated. For example, if the
vessel operates at 180 to 200 psig, but has a maximum pressure of 1800 psig, then
discerning pressure gauge needle movement between 180 and 200 psig is very difficult
if the gauge range is 2000 psig. In this case, an indicating pressure transmitter may be
a good alternative, as the transmitter often has 0.1% accuracy. Additionally, a
transmitter in this example could be calibrated, say, 0 to 300 psig, but still have an
overpressure limit in excess of 1800 psig.
Refer to Overpressure Limits, below, for additional discussion regarding range
selection.

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The bourdon tube range selection table below is typical for many gauge suppliers.

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5.2.4 Pressure Gauge Overpressure Limits

Mechanical pressure gauges have small overpressure limits, as compared to pressure
transmitters. Many gauge manufacturers will design their bourdon tubes to withstand up
to 130% overpressure without damage. If overpressure protection is required above
130%, then gauge protectors may be considered (see below) if the process media is
non-plugging, or indicating pressure transmitters may be utilized.
Be very cautious of the system Maximum Allowable Working Pressure when
specifying a pressure gauge.
Example – if the gauge range is 0 to 100 psig, a pressure above 130 psig may cause
damage to the gauge calibration. Depending upon manufacturer, pressures above 400
to 1000 psig (common 4x to 10x safety factor, depending upon supplier) could cause
tube rupture.
Additional note -- It is possible to purchase a pressure gauge with a higher pressure
bourdon tube, and a custom calibrated scale. For example, if MAWP is 2000 psig, but
operating pressure is 180 to 200 psig, a 2000 psig bourdon tube could be purchased,
with custom calibration and a 300 psig dial. However, there are known safety issues
with this design – several years after startup, when the gauge is replace, the operator
sees a 300 psig dial, and replaces this unit with a 300 psig bourdon tube, which likely will
rupture if pressure rises to 2000 psig MAWP.
5.2.5 Pressure Gauge Temperature Limits
Mechanical pressure gauges have cases, and may have liquid fill materials, which have
minimum and maximum temperature limits. If the temperature at the gauge is lower
than -20 deg F, or exceeds 150 deg F, the manufacturer should be consulted. Note that
uninsulated and non-flowing small bore piping or tubing will rapidly lose heat, such that
remote-mounted gauges are typically operating at ambient conditions.

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5.2.6 Pressure Gauge Data Sheet

Some of the common data sheet fields for specifying a pressure gauge include:

• Range is as per the process requirements (example: 0 to 100 psig)

• Case is typically 304SS or PHENOLIC
• Lens is typically UV RESISTANT PLASTIC or SHATTERPROOF GLASS
• Connection Size is typically ½” MNPT
• Dial size is typically 100mm for stainless steel cases, and 4.5” for phenolic cases
• Blowout protection is usually SOLID FRONT, BLOWOUT BACK
• Pressure element material is usually 316SS, but varies with service (socket
material is usually the same)
• Connection location is usually BOTTOM for a process gauge, and BACK for a
panel mounted gauge.

5.2.7 Limitations of a Pressure Gauge

Mechanical gauges are subject to wear in pulsating services, do not have a wide range
of materials selections for wetted parts, and do not have a high overpressure limit
relative to normal operating range.
Despite the above negatives, many plants have hundreds of pressure gauges.
However, in some industries (primarily Upstream) clients are moving to minimize
gauges, and maximize use of indicating transmitters. Refer to transmitters, below, for a
discussion of their advantages related to overpressure limits and materials of
construction.

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5.3 Pressure Gauge Options
5.3.1 Liquid Filling
The delicate links, pivots, and pinions of a traditional gauge are sensitive to both
condensation and vibration.
Process induced vibration is commonly found around positive displacement pumps (e.g.,
small chemical injection plunger type pumps). Vibration such as this will quickly destroy
a gauge.
Pressure gauges are often liquid filled. Liquids such as glycerin are used to fill the case
(inside the case, but outside the bourdon tube), thus dampening movement from
pressure spikes. The liquid also lubricates the gears and linkages in the gauge. The
presence of the fill fluid also prevents moisture penetration and icing.

Example liquid filled gauge, with

304SS case, and 0 to 10 bar range.
Note that this is gauge pressure, but,
depending upon manufacturer, dial
may say “psi” or “bar”, versus “psig” or
“barg”.
Liquid filled gauges normally are not
totally filled (to allow room for thermal
expansion). The liquid fill needs only
to cover the tube and the movement.

Glycerine is the most common fill fluid. Silicone fill fluids are commonly used in
temperature extremes, such as -40 deg F. Insulating oils are typically used if the gauge
has electrical switch options. Other specialty fluids may be used with process media
such as oxygen and chlorine.
5.3.2 Syphons
Pressure gauge syphons (also called “pigtails”) are intended to protect the pressure
gauge from the effect of hot pressure media such as steam. Condensate of the
pressure medium that is collected inside the coiled or U-shaped portion of the syphon
prevents direct contact. When first installed the syphon should be filled with water or
any other suitable separating liquid.

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5.3.3 Pulsation Dampeners, Restrictors, and Snubbers

Pulsation dampeners, restrictors, and snubbers all share the common purpose of
dampening pressure gauge pulsations. All should be used with caution.
The simplest means of providing a restriction, a throttle screw, can be ordered with the
gauge. Threaded or pressed into the socket, the throttle screw orifice selected is based
on the viscosity of the pressure fluid, rapidity of pressure fluctuations, and the amount of
dampening effect desired. A smaller orifice should be used for low viscosities, high
frequencies, high pressure and reduced pointer amplitude.

To accommodate various process

needs, throttle screws are typically
available in these (or similar) sizes:
0.0135, 0.020, 0.031, 0.040, and 0.070
inches

Used for dampening and filtering, the snubber has a metal disc available in several
different grades of porosity.

Example Snubber with example filter sizes.

Pulsation dampeners, restrictors, and snubbers should NOT be default solutions,

and should NOT be used except in VERY clean fluids. A plugged dampener or
snubber can lead to unsafe conditions, where pressure is trapped inside the gauge, or
blocked from the gage, resulting in incorrect readings.
Process pipe pulsation dampeners, liquid filled gauges, and use of transmitters instead
of gauges are all potential alternative solutions to use of restrictors and snubbers.

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 5.3.4 Gauge Protectors and Pressure Limiting Valves
As discussed above, the bourdon tube rating should exceed the system Maximum
Allowable Working Pressure. This goal is sometimes difficult to achieve, if the operating
pressure and desired pressure gauge range is low, compared to the MAWP (example:
the operating pressure is 180 psig, but the MAWP is 1800psig). How is it possible to
have a pressure gauge with a low range bourdon tube, if the MAWP is high?
Gauge protectors function to limit the pressure to which a pressure gauge is exposed.
When the process pressure reaches a pre-set value, an internal assembly acts to shut
off pressure to the gauge, to prevent the gauge from being exposed to more pressure
than its bourdon tube can withstand.

Gauge Protectors should NOT be default solutions, and should NOT be used
except in VERY clean fluids. There are multiple reasons:
• An operator can easily be misled regarding system pressure, if the gauge
reading is low, but the protector is blocking high actual pressure.
• A plugged unit (example: waxy crude oil) can lead to unsafe conditions, where
pressure is trapped inside the gauge, or blocked from the gage, resulting in
incorrect readings.
• The seals in the unit can leak, and the gauge might still be subjected to
pressures beyond its limits.
• The unit’s setpoint can easily drift or be accidentally changed.

Use of indicating transmitters instead of gauges is an alternative solution to use of gauge

protectors.
5.4 Digital Pressure Gauges

Digital pressure gauges are essentially indicating

pressure transmitters, installed in a pressure gauge
case.
Refer to the discussion on transmitters, below.

Document is valid only at time of printing. See myMustang® for latest revision.
TM-IE-0602 Page 19 of 40
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5.5 Pressure Switches

5.5.1 Definition of a Pressure Switch
An instrument that upon the increase or decrease of a pressure or vacuum, opens or
closes one or more electrical switching elements at a predetermined actuation point
(setting).
The following definitions are also necessary in order to discuss pressure switch
operation:
• Deadband (Differential) - The difference between the actuation point and the
deactivation point. For instance, if a pressure switch reaches its actuation point
and closes the snap action switch at 100 psig, it is in an actuated condition. If
the pressure then drops and the switch deactivates (returns to its normal
condition) at 90 psig, it is said to have a deadband of 10 psi.
• Shelf state – The condition of the device when it is on the shelf (no power, no
process pressure). Normally open contacts are open, normally closed contacts
are closed.
• Normally Closed (N/C) Switching Element - Is one in which the terminals are
wired so that current can flow through the switching element until the plunger pin
is actuated to open the electrical circuit.
• Normally Open (N/O) Switching Element - Is one in which the terminals are wired
so that no current can flow through the switching element until the plunger pin is
actuated to close the circuit.
• Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switching Element - A SPDT switching
element has one normally open, one common, and one normally closed terminal.
Three terminals mean that the switch can be wired with the circuit either normally
open (N/O) or normally closed (N/C).
• Double Pole Double Throw (DPDT) Switching Element - A DPDT switching
element has six electrical terminals. In simple terms, it is two SPDT switches
combined for simultaneous operation. This type of switch can handle two
independent circuits without using a relay.
• System pressure – (note - definition may vary by Supplier) – maximum
continuous operating pressure which the switch will withstand without
degradation. It is recommended that this value be greater than the process
MAWP.
• Proof pressure – (note - definition may vary by Supplier) – maximum momentary
operating pressure which the switch will withstand without degradation

Switches are commonly found where a pressure limit is being monitored via on-off type
indication, and are often characterized by low cost installations or installations where no
diagnostics are required (e.g., lube oil low pressure switches). Note -- pressure
transmitters are more expensive than pressure switches, but provide additional
information and diagnostics.

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5.5.2 Switching Elements and Shelf State

The terms above are schematically explained below.
SPST
Single Pole,
Single Throw
(normally open)

SPST
Single Pole,
Single Throw
(normally closed)

SPDT
Single Pole,
Double Throw

DPDT
Double Pole,
Double Throw

Shelf state -- condition of a switch when it is on the shelf (no power, no process fluid)
• Normally Closed contact is closed (connected to Common terminal)
• Normally Open contact is open

When the switch is tripped

• Normally Closed contact is open
• Normally Open contact is closed (connected to Common terminal)

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5.5.3 Switch Technologies

Pressure switches can be constructed by use of several different types of actuation
methods, but the most common involve use of pressure to generate a movement that is
detected by an electrical switch.
A very common switch actuation method is to use a snap-action disc, such as a
Bellville washer. As pressure overcomes the force from the disc and spring, the
actuator rod snaps from one state to another, and activates a switch. The wetted
parts are the pressure port and pressure plate.

An alternate switch actuation method is to use a bourdon tube. As pressure

moves the bourdon tube, the movement activates a switch. The wetted parts are
the bourdon tube and socket.

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5.5.4 Understanding Pressure Switch Ratings

Switches are typically specified using tables similar to the example below.

Switch actuation depends on increasing/decreasing pressure (note the different ranges

for PSH devices that trip on increasing pressure, versus PSL devices that trip on
decreasing pressure). For example, a Range Code #2 unit is capable of performing a
PSH function at pressures only between 15 and 150 psig.
Switch deadband must be low enough to allow for normal operation. For example, a
Range Code #2 unit is capable of performing a PSH function at 86 psig, but will not self-
reset and allow the process to return to normal until pressure has dropped below 80
psig, due to the 6 psi deadband.
Switch maximum system pressure must be high enough to allow for normal operation.
For example, a Range Code #2 unit has a system pressure of 3000 psig, meaning that it
can withstand pressures of 3000 psig without loss of calibration. It is recommended that
the process system’s MAWP be less than this value.
5.5.5 Common Switch Selections on Data Sheets
Similar to the data required for a pressure gauge, some of the common data sheet fields
for specifying a pressure switch include:
• The range is function of both the desired setpoint, and the available selection
from the chosen Supplier (typically a value such as 15 to 150 psig)
• Connection Size is typically ½” FNPT
• Pressure element and disc material is usually 316SS, but varies with service
• Setpoint must be specified with direction (example: 86 psig RISING)

5.5.6 Pressure Switch Wiring

Switches are typically wired as per the example below (SPDT shown, DPDT available).
In the example shown, the switch is in the
“shelf state”. There is an electrical
connection between “common” and
“normally closed” (the switch is closed).
If wires are run to “C” and “NC”, increasing
pressure beyond the setpoint will change
the switch state, and the circuit will open.

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5.6 Pressure Transducers

A pressure transducer converts applied pressure to an unamplified signal, usually in the
millivolt range. These low power signals are not suitable for long transmission
distances. Accordingly, transducers (by themselves) are typically not used in the
process industries for process pressure measurements.
Pressure transducers form an integral part of pressure transmitters. See below for
details.

5.7 Pressure Transmitters

5.7.1 Definition of a Pressure Transmitter
A pressure transmitter utilizes a pressure transducer (to sense pressure), combined with
sufficient electronic components to permit an analog or digital signal to be transmitted
over long distances.
Pneumatic pressure transmitter ranges are typically 3 to 15 psi, but may be 6 to 30 psi.
In the case of a pneumatic PT calibrated at 0 to 2000 psig, the output at 0 psig would
typically be 3 psi, and the output at 2000 psig would typically be 15 psi.
Electronic pressure transmitter ranges are typically 4 to 20ma. In the case of an
electronic PT calibrated at 0 to 2000 psig, the output at 0 psig would typically be 4ma,
and the output at 2000 psig would typically be 20ma.
Digital electronic pressure transmitters may have standardized outputs (e.g. Profibus or
Fieldbus), or may have proprietary protocols (e.g., Honeywell DE).
5.7.2 Pressure Transmitter Sensor Technology
Pressure transmitter sensors may be based on several different types of technologies,
depending upon the particular manufacturer. Two of the more common types of
electronic transmitters, plus a pneumatic transmitter, are discussed below.

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Electronic Transmitters based on Strain gauges

A pressure transducer contains a diaphragm which is deformed by the applied pressure.
This deformation can be measured by a strain gauge element. The strain gauge is
typically a length of conductor arranged in a zigzag pattern on the diaphragm. When the
diaphragm is stretched, its resistance increases (in the diagram below, R1 and R3 are
compressed (lower resistance value), and R2 and R4 are stretched (higher resistance
value).
A strain gauge-based transmitter responds to the movement of a diaphragm, based on
pressure applied to the diaphragm.

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Electronic Transmitters based on Capacitance

Capacitance describes how the space between two conductors affects an electric field
between them. The capacitance between two plates is determined by the gap between
the plates -- capacitance decreases as the gap increases.
A capacitance-based transmitter responds to the movement of a diaphragm, based on
pressure applied to the diaphragm.

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Pneumatic Transmitters based on Force Balance Mechanisms

Technically obsolete, but still found in some facilities, are pneumatic force-balance
transmitters. Movement of a bellows or pressure capsule is converted to physical
motion, and a flapper is moved closer to, or father from, a pneumatic nozzle, and a
pressure of (typically) 3 to 15 psi is produced that is proportional to the pressure sensed.

The pressure P of the medium measured

by the measuring element (10) produces a
force that acts on the primary beam (9).
This force is transmitted to the secondary
beam (7) over the adjustable span rider
(4). The system is balanced when the
input force and the force resulting from the
output air pressure pA and the surface
area of the feedback bellows (2) are
identical.
The supply air pZ supplies the booster (17)
and flows against the flapper (14) through
the throttle (1) and the nozzle (15). When
the medium pressure P increases, the
primary beam (9) changes position and the
flapper (14) moves closer to the nozzle
(15). As a result, the cascade pressure
supplied to the booster (17) as well as the
output pressure pA supplied to the
feedback bellows (2) are increased. pA
increases until the force produced at the
feedback bellows (2) and the force at the
pressure measuring element (10) are the
same and a new equilibrium has been
established. When the pressure P inside
the pressure measuring element (10)
drops, the flapper (14) moves away from
the nozzle (15) and both the cascade
pressure and the output pressure pA
decrease until the system is balanced
again. The pneumatic output signal pA
assumes a value proportional to that of the
input pressure.

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5.7.3 Pressure Transmitter Construction

Transmitter construction varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, and from model
number series to model number series. However, most transmitters have the following
basic construction features:
• Process Flanges (possibly with Adapters, or “footballs”)
• Diaphragm
• Electronics housing
• Bolts

A typical differential pressure transmitter exploded view is shown below

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Alternate style constructions are also available, including “stick” transmitters. Typically,
this style of transmitter does not have an electronics housing with wiring terminals, but
instead, has “flying leads” (signal wires that may be 18” to 72” long).
This type of construction is light-weight and
small, and is often used inside of control
panels or is line-mounted, directly on a ½”
valve.

The primary construction features include:

• Body (process pressure port), typically ½”
FNPT
• Diaphragm (typically of the same material
as the pressure port)
• Electronics housing (typically welded to
the pressure port)

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5.7.4 Common Pressure Transmitter Selections on Data Sheets

Typical instrument data sheets contain the following fields:

These fields are commonly filled out in the following fashion:

• Body material (either flanges/adapters, or pressure port, depending upon
construction) – typically 316SS for routine services; possibly Hastelloy C-276 or
other exotic materials for corrosive services)
• Element material (diaphragm) – typically 316SS for routine services; possibly
Hastelloy C-276 or other exotic materials for corrosive services)
• Process connection – typically ½” FNPT
• Body Rating – see “Overpressure Limits”, below
• Output – typically 4-20ma, or 4-20ma HART
• Mounting – 2” Pipestand, or Line Mounted, or Panel Mounted (in the case of 2”
Pipestand, ensure that the model code includes a 2” pipestand bracket)
• O-Rings Material – typically Mfgr Std, or N/A, depending upon construction style
• Electrical Connection – often ½” FNPT, but possibly ½” MNPT or other
• Instrument power – typically , 24VDC, 2-wire
It should be noted that transmitter diaphragms are very thin, and that many Clients utilize
Hastelloy C-276 diaphragms as a standard, due to their much increased resistance to
pitting (it only requires a small pit in order to perforate a thin diaphragm).
The above data sheet fields do not contain the following, which can be added to the data
sheets manually:
• Bolting – manufacturer’s standard is typically carbon steel; 316SS is a typical
upgrade to minimize corrosion (caution – in high pressure or sour gas services,
Inconel 718 or other bolting may be required)
• Electronics housing -- manufacturer’s standard is typically painted aluminum;
316SS is a typical upgrade in near-shore or offshore environments, to minimize
corrosion. Below is a picture of a transmitter on an offshore facility, which was
exposed to salt spray. The housing is aluminum and the bolts are carbon steel.

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5.7.5 Pressure Transmitter Response Time
Transmitter response time is a function of the electronics processor and manufacturer.
Response times of “smart” transmitters range from a low of about 100msec, to a high of
over 1 second. Response times of some high-speed analog (“non-smart”) transmitters
are much faster, at around 7 msec.
Use of fast response time transmitters may be required by certain processes (e.g.,
compressor surge control normally requires response times of < 150msec).
5.7.6 Pressure Transmitter Ranges and Overpressure Limits
Instrument Range
The Instrument Range is the capability of the transmitter. Some manufacturers will refer
to this as the “range and sensor limit”, or “Upper Range Limit” (URL) and ”Lower Range
Limit” (LRL).
For example, a particular transmitter may have the following specifications:
• LRL = -14.7 psig
• URL = 150 psig
• Minimum Span = 1.5 psi

For example, the above unit could be calibrated to any of these

• 0 to 150 psig
• 0 to 75 psig
• -5 to 30 psig
But not 0 to 1.0 psig (because minimum span = 1.5 psi)

Calibrated Range
The Calibrated Range is the desired calibration, for the particular process application.
As shown above, the Calibrated Range consists of values less than or equal to the
capabilities of the Instrument Range.

Display Range
If the transmitter does not have a local integral indicator, the display range is “N/A”.
If the transmitter has a local indicator, the Display Range is typically the same as the
Calibrated Range.

Overpressure Limit
The Overpressure Limit is the maximum pressure that the unit can withstand without
damage. This value should be chosen to be greater than the process system’s
maximum working pressure, plus relief valve accumulation. For example, if the
transmitter is on a vessel that has a relief valve set at 1000 psig, and the relief valve is
specified to have 21% overpressure, the Overpressure Limit of the transmitter should be
at least 1210 psig.

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5.7.7 Pressure Transmitter Operating Temperature
Transmitter data sheets often carry a data field for operating temperature.
For the purposes of example, assume the transmitter is installed on a vessel with a
maximum temperature rating of 450 ºF,
If the transmitter is directly mounted on the vessel, then the transmitter could reach
450ºF. In this scenario, transmitter manufacturers may not be able to supply a unit for
these temperature extremes (because most transmitters cannot operate at ambient
temperatures above 180 ºF or so, or process temperatures above 350 ºF or so).
If the transmitter is remotely mounted, and connected to the vessel via tubing, the
transmitter will be at ambient temperature (non-flowing tubing temperature is typically at
ambient temperature within 2 or 3 feet of distance).
In the above example, if the data sheet Maximum Design Temperature field stated “450
ºF”, and the transmitter were also remotely mounted, an explanatory note regarding
remote mounting would clarify the transmitter temperature situation to the transmitter
vendor, so as to avoid a potential “no-bid”.
Caution – where “intelligent P&IDs” are used, line properties such as Maximum Design
Pressure and Temperature are often automatically associated with instruments on the
line. In this case, the engineer would need to decide whether to delete this data (to not
cause confusion for the vendor) or whether to add an explanatory note that the
transmitter is remote-mounted.
5.7.8 Common Pressure Transmitter Options
The project design criteria will typically determine the selection of the following:
• Mounting bracket – For the Clients who like to connect transmitters to the
process via tubing, and mount the transmitter at grade, the transmitter will need a
bracket to mount to a 2” pipestand. For the clients who like to purchase light-
weight transmitters and mount them directly on valves on the piping (to minimize
tubing costs and leak points), no bracket is needed.
• Hazardous area certificates – often required as part of the project documentation
package, for inspectors or insurance.
• Calibration – often required as part of the transmitter warranty (factory calibration
equipment is much more accurate than field equipment). If factory calibration is
purchased, field construction personnel need only to validate transmitter function,
and should not perform a recalibration.
• Transient protection – often required where transmitters are exposed to lightning
(such as areas with minimal overhead structures), but not typically required on
offshore platforms, with large amounts of overhead steel construction
• Custom software configuration – includes information such as HART tagging,
write protection on/off, special damping settings, etc.
• SIL Certification – this indicates that the particular design chosen has been
reviewed by a 3rd party and that Safety Integrity Level Documentation is
available. The choice of a particular transmitter model number series (and the
diagnostic capabilities of the transmitter) will determine if the unit is certified.

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6.0 LOCAL P NEUMATIC P RES S URE CONTROLLERS

6.1 Purpose and Indications for Use

In most Upstream and Downstream applications, the facility is fully equipped with
instrument air and electricity, and an associated electronic control system. In some
cases, however, small remote facilities have no infrastructure present, such as small
wellhead platforms or gas pipeline metering stations. Where no electronic control
system is available, but control valves must be used, pneumatic controllers are an
option.
Local pneumatic controllers may be powered by instrument air or instrument gas
(caution – if instrument gas is used, the venting of gas from the controller will create a
very small local zone where the electrical classification may need to be upgraded to a
higher category – consult the appropriate Electrical design guidelines).
Local pneumatic controllers may be used for pressure, level, flow, or other process
functions.
6.2 Local Pneumatic Pressure Controller Construction
A local pneumatic controller will use a signal from a pneumatic sensor, balanced against
a setpoint, to produce an output pressure to a control valve. The schematic below is an
example unit (Fisher C1 bourdon-tube pressure controller)

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 6.3 Local Pneumatic Controller Installation
A local pneumatic controller may be pipe-stand mounted, but is more often yoke-
mounted to the control valve (picture below is an example Fisher C1 bourdon-tube
pressure controller).
In Downstream facilities, air supply regulators are often set at 20 psig, and the controller
output is 3 to 15 psig to the control valve. In Upstream facilities, air supply regulators
are often set at 35 psig, and the controller output is 6 to 30 psig to the control valve (the
doubled pressure permits smaller control valve actuators).

7.0 DIAPHRAGM S EALS

7.1 Purpose and Indications for Use

A diaphragm seal is a piece of equipment that permits transmission of process
pressures from one side of a diaphragm to another. The diaphragm isolates the process
side from the instrument.
Process pressure exerts force on the diaphragm. The diaphragm moves, exerting
pressure on a fill fluid. The fill fluid transmits the pressure to the pressure instrument.
Diaphragm seals are often used to expand transmitter usage in difficult service
conditions, such as:
• Plugging, waxy, or viscous process fluids
• Sanitary requirements
• Corrosive applications (note – the total installed cost of an exotic alloy diaphragm
sea, plus a transmitter of standard materials, may exceed the cost of an exotic alloy
transmitter; diaphragm seal costs should be checked carefully before a seal is used
only for reasons of corrosion mitigation)

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 Pressure Instrumentation

7.2 Seal Construction

There are many types of seal construction. Several types are shown below.
Capsule type seal.
The bottom housing and diaphragm are
process wetted, and may be of exotic
alloys. The bottom housing is available in
flanged, threaded, or other configurations.
The top housing is not exposed to the
process, contains a fill fluid such as
silicone, and is commonly made of
316SS.
Flanged type seal.
Similar to capsule seal, except process
connection is flanged.

Isolation Ring diaphragm seal.

The Isolation Ring has a flexible inner
cylinder, behind which is the fill fluid. As
process liquid flows through the pipe, it
exerts pressure. The pressure exerted by
the fill fluid is then monitored by the
instrument sensing element. A 360-
degree flexible cylinder minimizes
plugging,

Flushing rings and flushing ports are used when debris build-up is possible. Many
arrangements are possible, but one common type is shown below

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7.3 Fill Fluid Selection

All fill fluids expand and contract with changes in temperature. The coefficient of thermal
expansion defines the amount of change and is represented in cubic centimeters of
expansion per cubic centimeter of fluid per degree Fahrenheit (cc/cc/F). The amount of
expansion varies between fill fluids.
Selecting a fill fluid with a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion will help minimize
temperature error, but other factors must also be considered. Choices of fill fluids
involve trade-offs between operating temperature limits, thermal expansion coefficients,
and fill fluid viscosities (high viscosity fluids have longer response times).
Very few fill fluids are available for use at temperatures below -50 ºF, or above +600 ºF
7.4 Capillary Tube Construction
Diaphragm seals can be integral with the instrument (see example below).

However, diaphragm seals are often remote mounted from the instrument. A capillary
tube is used to connect the seal to the instrument.
Capillary tubing is typically constructed of flexible 316SS tubing.

Capillary diameters typically range from 0.03” to 0.07” diameter. A smaller capillary
inside diameter (ID) creates more restrictions and slows down the pressure transport. A
larger capillary ID provides a faster response time.
For reliability reasons, a welded capillary tube is recommended. If the fill fluid leaks, the
seal system is rendered inoperative. Welding of the instrument to the seal (thus sealing
in the fill fluid) is a common option.
By minimizing the capillary length and inside diameter, fill volumes can be kept as low as
possible to reduce temperature effects.

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 7.5 Recommended Diaphragm Sizes
Diaphragm seals are commonly available in process connection sizes from ½”to 4”.
Diaphragm stiffness is affected by the diaphragm surface diameter. Generally,
smaller diameter diaphragms are stiffer than larger diameter diaphragms. Smaller
diameter diaphragms also have more error when the fill fluid expands or contracts
with temperature changes.
Pressure transmitters will often utilize 2” diaphragm seals when measuring pressures
in the psig range. Differential pressure transmitters, and low pressure transmitters
will often utilize 3” diaphragm seals when measuring pressures in the inches of water
range.
The picture below shows pressure transmitters with 2” diaphragm seals.

Consult the manufacturer regarding recommended diaphragm sizes.

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8.0 P RES S URE CALIBRATION DEVICES
This section does not relate to the pressure instrument specification process, or to pressure
instrument data sheets. This section is provided as introductory information only.
8.1 Deadweight Tester
Benchtop calibration devices include deadweight testers. A hand-pump is used to
balance the hydraulic force created by precision weights. Accuracies are typically
around +/-0.1% of reading. Most benchtop units are typically not accurate enough to
calibrate the latest generation of modern transmitters.

8.2 Portable Electronic Test Equipment

Portable test equipment, with comparisons to references standards, are available from
several sources. Hand-pump calibrators such as the one shown below will typically
contain a NIST traceable reference standard strain gauge or similar sensor. Accuracies
vary, but are typically around +/-0.075% to +/-0.025% of reading.

8.3 Precision Test Equipment

Precision calibration equipment is very expensive and typically found only in precision
labs and in the factories of leading manufacturers.

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 8.4 Required Accuracy of Test Equipment
Pressure gauges have accuracies of +/-1%, but leading pressure transmitters accuracies
are typically around +/-0.025%. It is not valid to utilize a piece of test equipment with an
accuracy of +/-0.025%, to calibrate a transmitter to an accuracy of the same value.
The minimum required resolution of the test equipment is commonly 4 to 10 times better
than the required accuracy. Refer to literature on Metrology, from sources such as the
following, for additional details:
http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/labmetrologypage.cfm
http://www.metrology.asn.au/files/PressureGaugesMSATestMethod2Rev3.pdf

9.0 STANDARD TEMP ERATURE AND P RES S URE

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) are used to define standard conditions for process
and custody transfer measurements. However, STP values may vary, depending upon Client,
custody transfer contract, government, or country, and should be defined in the project Design
Basis.
Examples include:
Absolute Publishing or establishing entity
Temperature
pressure
°C kPa
0 100.000 IUPAC
15 101.325 ISO 13443
°F psia
60 14.73 API MPMS 14.3.1
60 14.696 OSHA
Source = http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure
API: American Petroleum Institute
IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
ISO: International Organization for Standardization[[4]]
OSHA: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration[[9]]

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AP P ENDICES

Appendix 1: References
www.ashcroft.com
www.ccsdualsnap.com
www.fisher.com
http://www.metrology.asn.au
http://ts.nist.gov/WeightsAndMeasures/labmetrologypage.cfm
www.neodyn.com
http://physics.nist.gov
www.rosemount.com
http://www.testequipmentdepot.com
www.wika.com
www.wikipedia.com

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