Vol.

79, 1973] 487

RAPID BEER PRODUCTION AND CONDITIONING USING

A PLUG FERMENTOR

By D. A. Baker and B. H. Kirsop

{Brewing Industry Research Foundation, Nutfield, RedhiU, Surrey)

Received Uth May, 1973

Beer has been produced very rapidly, with residence time of less than 1 hour,
by passing wort continuously through a plug formed from a yeast/kieselguhr
mixture. Using malt wort the total output from the fermentor is limited by
gradual blockage of the plug; nevertheless output is high per unit of yeast used.
Prolonged operation is possible using nitrogen-free sugar solutions. The
properties of beer produced from normal wort vary over the period of operation
of the fermentor and blending is required to give a constant product. The
average pH and nitrogen content of the beer is high if conventional wort is
used but can be reduced to normal levels by control of wort composition.
Details of a procedure for controlling the content of diacetyl and 2,3-pentane-
dione in the beer are described and the potential value of a yeast-plug unit for
beer conditioning is discussed.

Key words:—ale, continuous fermentation,

Beer
fermentation equipment, maturation, Saccharo-
myces cerevisiae.

Introduction
The quantity of yeast produced during a
brewery fermentation is greater than is
required for repitching. The excess yeast is of
high fermentative capacity13 and the present
Support plate
paper reports the utilization of this capacity
in a high-yeast-density continuous fermentor.
It is necessary to maintain high permeability
in the yeast zone of such a fermentor so that
wort flow is not impeded. This may be
achieved by using loosely packed flocculent
yeast as in the Tower fermentor14, by stirring,
or by circulation of the yeast in some way16.
Recently the use of kieselguhr as a filter aid to
maintain wort flow was described18.19 in
connection with the production of lager, and
this especially interesting approach was
followed in the present study, which has been
particularly aimed at determining the likely
limits of applicability to ale brewing.

Experimental
Fermentor operation.—-The basic design of
the fermentor is illustrated in Fig. 1. A
mixture of yeast and kieselguhr is held
Wort
between two filters and wort is passed upward
through the resultant yeast plug. Bright Fig. 1.—Diagram of a plug fcrmentor.
 488 BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR
wort was used in order to eliminate blockage
of the lower filter with participate matter.
De-aerated wort was used to minimize yeast
growth; the wort was collected with restricted
access to air and the absence of oxygen in
solution was ensured by passing nitrogen
through the wort for some hours. It has been
shown that appreciable yeast growth occurs
in de-aerated wort if oxygen has been freely
available to the yeast during propagation8.
Accordingly, the yeast used was grown
"anaerobically" in conditions similar to those
of a brewery fermentation, but with addi
tional precautions to prevent diffusion of
oxygen into the propagating vessel during
yeast growth6. A strain of Sacckaromyces
cerevisiae, NCYC 1236, which had been used
in earlier studies8'18 and was known to be of
high fermentative capacity, was used to form
the yeast plug. Yeast (70 g centrifuged
weight) and kieselguhr (Celite 546, 80 g) were
slurried with sterile de-ionized water and
poured into a sterile glass container (QVF,
5 cm diameter x 10 cm length, volume 200
ml) closed at the lower end by a filter sheet
(Carlson Ford 2) supported by a perforated
stainless-steel plate. Excess water was sucked
away from the column and more slurry was
added until the compact yeast and kieselguhr
plug completely filled the column. A second
filter and a further perforated stainless-steel
plate were placed on top of the column. The
interstitial volume of the plug was found to be
approximately 120 ml by subtracting from
the total volume that volume occupied by the
kieselguhr particles and the centrifuged yeast,
the latter having been corrected for inter
stitial water volume0. Wort prepared as
described earlier^ was passed through the
plug, using a peristaltic pump, in an upward
[J. Inst. Brew.
direction to simplify the problems of collect
ing the COa evolved during fermentation.
Adjunct wort was prepared by mixing malt
wort with an equal volume of a nitrogen-free,
maize starch hydrolysate of the same specific
gravity.
Analyses.—Amino nitrogen was measured
by using trinitrobenzene sulphonic acid21.
Higher alcohols, esters and acetaldehyde were
measured using gas liquid chromatography of
the head space vapour18. Free diacetyl and
2,3-pentanedione were measured by a similar
technique18 using an electron capture detector
and 1,3-dichloropropane as an internal
standard; total vicinal diketones and pre
cursors were assayed similarly after heating
the beer (80cC for 30 min) or by distillation
followed by colorimetric analysis22. Bitter
ness was determined using the recommended
method of the Intitute of Brewing82 and
organic acids by partition chromatography on
silica gel12. Viability of yeast was measured
using the methylene blue technique22. Yeast
growth during fermentation was assessed by
counting the cells present before and after
fermentation or by measurement of the total
content of DNA3.
Results and Discussion
The maximum daily output of beer from
the fermentor was approximately 3 litres at
20°C, when wort (specific gravity 1-040) was
fully attenuated (beer specific gravity, ca
1-006). This amount of fermentation was that
expected on the basis of earlier results
obtained using NCYC 1236, when added
carbohydrate was fermented in a batch
fermentor13. The quantity of beer produced
diminished when wort of higher specific
gravity (1-080) was used but the total amount

TABLE I
Varying Composition of Beer Obtained from Malt Worts of Differing Specific Gravity

Spccillc Gravity 1.040 Specific Gravity 1.080

Wort Day 1 Day 2 Day 4 Day 0 Wort Day 1 Day 2 Day 4 Day 0
Specific Gravity 1.040 1.010 1.008 1.010 1.010 1.080 1.021 1.017 1.020 1.021
pH 5.0 3.0 4 1 4 2 4 4 5.3 4.3 A ±
1.% 11
4.U A ft
Nitrogen (mg/lOOml) .. 70 40 G2 73 75 140 87 112 121 185
Anilno nitrogen (mg/lOOml) . 22 0 13 15 17 44 7 14 38 44
Bitterness (E11U) 45 IS 27 24 21 54 17 18 18 22
Dlkctonca A precursors (ppm) 0.6 0.0 0.8 2.1 >2.5 2.2 2.4 2.:t
Foam stability (half-llic, sec) _
111 112 109 110 __.

Acetoldcliyde (ppm) __

2 2
1 2 _

9 4 7 H
Iso-Butnnol (npm) 46 30 20 18 — 87 60 55 40
Iso-Amylnlcoliol (ppm) 113 85 82 61 103 128 04 119
Ethyl acetate (ppm) .. 26 20 21 18 60 58 65 58
IsO'Amylacetnte (ppm) —
2.2 1.3 1.0 1.0 2.8 2.3 2.7 2.2
Acetate (ppm) .
33 63 144 __ _

Pyruvatc (ppm).. 118 53 38 ™~ — — — — —

Vol. 79, 1973] BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR 489

of fermentation, measured as the product of
the (volume of wort used) x (fall in specific
gravity) was similar with both worts. When
wort of the lower gravity was used residence
time within the unit was slightly less than
1 hour. It seems likely that much of the
interstitial volume of the plug was occupied
by gas bubbles so that the true contact time
between wort and yeast is probably much
less than 1 hour.
Output from the fermentor increased
slightly during the period of operation, sug
gesting that some yeast growth was occurring.
Nitrogen was absorbed from the wort,
particularly during the early stages of
operation (Table I), again suggesting that de-
aeration of the wort had not eliminated
growth of the yeast. Some growth of oxygen-
requiring cells in the de-aerated wort was
expected in view of the earlier results6 with
this strain. Estimates of the number of cells
present before and after the fermentation of
15 litres of wort (S.G. 1-040) showed that the
number of cells had increased by 76%
indicating the production of 63 g (centrifuged
weight) of yeast; measurements showed that
most of the growth occurred at the base of the
plug, where cells were exposed to fresh wort
(Table II). When yeast growth was assessed
basis) an upper limit of 20 g dry yeast matter
(ca 100 g centrifuged weight) is produced, this
representing 140% increase during fermenta
tion. This is clearly a maximum value and it
seems likely that the results given by other
methods are more realistic; on this view only
about half of the nitrogen removed from wort
is utilized for new growth. It is clear that the
production of new yeast (ca 3-6 g centrifuged
yeast/litre) is substantially less than that
normally obtained in a batch fermentation
(ca 15 g centrifuged yeast/litre).
It was noticeable that the pressure in the
tubes carrying wort to the fermentor gradu
ally increased during the course of a run,
indicating that the plug was becoming
blocked. After about 15 litres of beer had
been produced, using malt-wort, resistance
became so high that wort flow was greatly
restricted and output dropped. It seems likely
that the increasing difficulty in passing wort
through the plug is due both to the precipita
tion of wort solids in the body of the plug, as
suggested earlier18, and to the growth of
yeast. The relative importance of these two
factors is not known, but the fact that
resistance to flow continued to increase
during the period when yeast growth, as
judged by nitrogen uptake, was diminishing,

TABLE II
Yeast Growth Occurring During thb Fermentation of 15 Litres of Malt Wort

No. of cells (millions) and total D.N.A. content (mg)

Portion of plug Before fermentation After fermentation Increase
(%)

Upper Cells 60,227 72,867 21

(outlet end) D.N.A. 14-4 180 25

Middle Cells 43,740 62,000 42

D.N.A. 10-3 21-4 103

Lower Cells 53,571 142,010 167

(inlet end) D.N.A. 10-9 270 148

Total Cells 157,547 277,773 76

D.N.A. 35-6 60-4 87

by measuring the DNA content of the plug
before and after fermentation similar values
for total reproduction to those given by cell
counting were obtained (Table II). A further
estimate was obtained by calculating the
quantity of yeast likely to have been produced
if all the nitrogen absorbed from the wort was
incorporated into new yeast. If this yeast is
assumed to contain 7% nitrogen (dry matter
may indicate the greater importance of pre
cipitation as a cause of blockage. Evidence
was also obtained to show that blockage
occurred after a particular quantity of wort
had been utilized; thus a reduction in beer
output increased the duration of a run.
It was thought that use of de-aerated wort
might lead to a rapid loss of viability of the
yeast in the plug. However, the increasing
 490
BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR
output of the unit showed that the yeast
population as a whole remained active,
although the growth of new cells may have
masked the effects of the death of some cells.
Vital staining with methylene blue indicated
that 76% of the cells were viable on the sixth
day of operation. It was not possible,
because of blockage of the unit, to establish
the longevity of the fermentor by operating it
until sugar utilization ceased. However,
experience with a similar unit which was
supplied with de-aerated, nitrogen-free maize
starch hydrolysate (specific gravity 1-040)
and remained unblocked, showed that fer
mentation continued for a long time. Thus
after 27 days operation the output had fallen
by only 50% (Fig. 2) and viability of the
yeast, as judged by methylene blue staining,
was 52%. It thus seems that death of the
yeast is unlikely to be a problem when wort
is fermented.
c
o its synthesis. The levels of ethyl acetate
5 20
S sumably because the concentration of ethanol
£15
12 16 20 24
Days
Fig. 2. Fermentation of a nitrogen-free sugar
solution (S.G. 1.040) over several weeks.
• Calculated as litres of sugar used x fall in
specific gravity x 1000.
Beer properties vary substantially during
the period of operation, reflecting the
variations in the extent of growth. Thus,
nitrogen and amino nitrogen values rise
steadily (Table I) during the operation of the
plug with normal and high gravity worts, and
in the later stages very little nitrogen is
absorbed by yeast from either wort. Values
for pH also rise, possibly because of the
presence of un-utUized buffer substances.
There was some variation in the nature of the
acids produced during the period of fermenta
tion, and, in particular, the concentration of
acetate increased after the first day (Table I).
The accumulation of acetate was not due to
the contamination of the plugs as these were
shown to be free from bacterial and wild yeast
[J. Inst. Brew.
contamination by the appropriate tests11-17'24.
A relationship between acetate production
and growth of yeast was noted by Nord-
strom10 who found that inhibition of growth
led to acetate accumulation in the medium.
Pyruvate, which has been shown to accumu
late in the medium during the period of yeast
reproduction in a batch fermentation4, was
present in diminishing amount toward the
end of a run (Table I).
Beer bitterness was relatively low (Table I)
and study showed that this was partly due to
losses during de-aeration and partly to losses
within the plug. Head retention values were
in the normal range (Table I).
The variations in nitrogen utilization and
in growth were reflected in changing levels of
higher alcohols and esters during the opera
tion of the fermentor (Table I). Thus, the
levels of isobutanol and iso-amyl alcohol
diminished after the first day, thus paralleling
the diminution in the uptake of nitrogen.
Iso-amyl acetate levels were reduced after the
first day, paralleling the fall in the concentra
tion of iso-amyl alcohol which is required for
fluctuated less markedly (Table I), pre
is determined by the extent of attenuation
rather than by yeast growth. The mean
reduction in the concentration of the higher
alcohols and esters was less than that noted
28
when lager was produced18"19.
The fresh beer had no aroma or taste of
diacetyl, and neither diacetyl nor 2,3-
pentanedione were found when the beers were
analysed by gas liquid chromatography of the
headspace. However, fresh beer gave very
high values for vicinal diketones when the
distillation procedure was used, and on
storage a strong aroma and taste of diacetyl
developed; both diacetyl and pentanedione
were then detectable by gas liquid chromato
graphy.
In considering the value of this method of
beer production it is clear that the beer
differs from that produced conventionally in
(a) the changing nature of the beer produced
during continuing operation, (6) the high
content of assimilable nitrogen and the high
pH, both of which are factors which pre
dispose to microbiological spoilage and (c)
the aroma and taste of diacetyl which is
present after the beers have been stored for
some days. Considering these problems in
turn, it seems clear that the variation in beer
Vol. 79, 1973] BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR 491

properties with time can be overcome by induce beer spoilage are amenable to adjust
blending of beers; this may perhaps be ment by control of wort composition.
achieved by utilizing a number of fermentors Diacetyl content, however, was not adequa
with plugs of different ages, so that the tely reduced by this adjustment to the
blended beer stream is of essentially constant composition of the wort.
composition. It seemed likely that reduction As diacetyl aroma developed during beer
of assimilable nitrogen levels in the beer storage and as diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione
would be achieved by substituting a portion could not be detected in the fresh beer in
of the malt-wort with nitrogen-free adjunct. significant quantities, it seemed clear that
When this was done (Table III) the beer precursors of these substances were present
in the fresh beer and gave rise to the free
TABLE ill diketones either as a result of heating during
Influence on Some Beer Properties of analysis or of chemical breakdown during
Using Adjunct Wort Instead of Malt Wort storage. The existence of such precursors in
fresh beer is well documented ;7-9>10 no attempt
Range of values during a was made to identify the precursors in this
run of six days study. Presumably precursors were also
Malt wort +
present in the lager beer produced using the
equal part yeast kieselguhr fermentor;18-19 the remedy
sugar adopted in that case of "krausening" for
Malt Wort solution 24-48 hours would clearly overcome difficul
(SG 1-040) (SG 1-040)
ties arising from both the diketones, which are
pH 3-9-4-4 3-7-3-9 readily utilized by yeast, and their non-utiliz-
Nitrogen (mg/100 ml) 49-75 23-29 able precursors, which break down to the
Amino nitrogen diketones relatively slowly. It was desirable,
(mg/100 ml) 6-17 1-5-2-1
0-6-2-1 0-9-1-2
at least in the context of ale production, to
Diacetyl (ppm)
Acctaldchyde (ppm) 1- 2 <1- 3 accelerate this process of removing diacetyl
iso-Butanol (ppm) 46-18 39-19 and its precursors, for most of the advantages
iso-Amyl alcohol (ppm) 113-61 148-69 of rapid production of beer are eliminated if
Ethyl acetate (ppm) 26-18 27-12
the beer requires substantial further periods
iso-Amyl acetate
(ppm) 2-2-1-0 3-0-0-4 of storage to permit flavour improvement.
Accordingly, a more rapid method was
devised and a preliminary account of this has
nitrogen levels were substantially reduced been published1. Essentially the process
and, at the same time, the pH values consists of heating the beer to convert pre
decreased substantially. Fusel alcohol and cursors to free diketones followed by removal
ester levels were not substantially altered by of these by further treatment with yeast.
the presence of carbohydrate adjunct in the The precursors in beer were found to be
wort. Thus the two beer properties liable to relatively easily converted to the free dike-

TABLE IV
Comparison of Amounts of Diketones (ppm) Formed During Treatment of Beers by Batch
and Continuous Processes

Batch treatment* Continuous treatment!

Beer Diacetyl 2,3-pentanedione Diacetyl 2,3-pentancdionc

1 1-4 1-6 0-6 0-5

2 2-0 1-6 0-8 0-5
3 0-8 M 0-5 0-6
4 1-6 1-5 00 0-7
5 11 20 10 1-4

• Batch treatment involved heating in a scaled 25-ml vessel with 5 ml air head space for the same time at
the same temperature as in the continuous process.
I Continuous treatment using the heating coil described in the text.
492 BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR [J. Inst Brew.

Oiacetyl formation Diacetyl formation

0-8 at 80° C 1-6 at 60° C
• Without oxygen
■ With oxygen

0-6 1-2

0-4

0-2 04

12 16
1-6
2,3-Pentanedione
formation at 60° C

1-2

_L
8 12 16 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (min) Time (min)

Fig. 3. Effect of heat on the formation of diacetyl

and 2,3-pentanedione in beers produced by plug
fermentation.

tones by heat. Thus, heating fresh beer
produced by plug fermentation for 4 min at
80°C, 15 min at 60°C or 45 min at 45°C was
effective (Fig. 3). There was no apparent
difference in the rate of breakdown of the
precursors of diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione
(Fig. 3). The rate of conversion of precursor
to diketones was not markedly affected by the
presence or absence of oxygen (Fig.
Breakdown of precursor to diacetyl also
occurred when beer was passed continuously
through a glass heating coil as soon as it
emerged from the primary fermentor, so that
the beer was not in contact with oxygen at
any stage. The precise conditions of heating
appeared, however, to have some effect on the
detailed pattern of precursor breakdown, for
it was found that the continuous treatment of
beer containing precursor gave rise to a lower
yield of diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione than did
3). heating in batch conditions (Table IV). In both
cases no precursor remained after treatment.
Effects of the method of heating on the yield
of diacetyl have previously been reported10.
Vol. 79, 1973] BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR 493

Diacetyl is rapidly removed from a medium
by Saccharomyces cerevisiae. When beer
containing added diacetyl was treated with
brewing strains of S. cerevisiae in batch
conditions diacetyl levels dropped rapidly.
The rate was clearly related to temperature
and the rate of utilization was linear when
19 g wet weight NCYC 1236 mixed with
kieselguhr (Fig. 5). The combination of heat
and exposure to yeast produced beer con
taining insignificant quantities of free dike-
Beer + co2
Finished
beer

40

30

20 10°C

§1-0
>0-8

Jo-6
Q Wort
30° C
04 Primary Conditioning
plug fermentor plug

12 3 4 5 Fig. 5. Diagram of a primary plug fcrmentor and

Time (hours)
Fig. 4. Effect of temperature on the utilization of
diacetyl in beer containing 5g (centrifuged
weight) NCYC 1230/litre.
diacetyl concentration was plotted logarith
mically (Fig. 4). Similarly yeast contained in
a plug removed diacetyl from beer (Table V),
as anticipated from the studies of Tolls etal23.
TABLE V
Removal of Diacetyl from Beer with
1-7 ppm Added Diacetyl by a Yeast Plug
Containing 10 g Yeast, Strain N.C.Y.C. 1236
"conditioning unit" i.e. pasteurizer and small
secondary plug.
tones (Table VI) and such beer did not
normally liberate diketones on further heating
or on storage. If the beer was not fully
attenuated, and if a substantial amount of
TABLE VI
Effect of a Heating Coil (60°C). and Second
Yeast Plug on the Diketone Concentrations
in a Plug-Fermented Beer
GLC Assay

Diacetyl 2,3-Pcntanedione
Flow rate of
Beer Sample (ppm) (ppm)
beer through
plug % removal
Immediately after
Day (ml/day) of diacetyl
plug fermentation 0075 007

1 1870 85
After heating coil 0-41 0-51
2 1870 85
3 1870 88
After conditioning
4 1870 96
plug 002 None
5 1870 97
5 3760 79
6 2700 85

fermentation occurred during passage through

The fully attenuated beer emerging from
the primary plug was passed through a
heating coil (15min at 60°C) and then
through a second smaller plug containing
the second plug, further small quantities of
precursors were produced, but these were
present in quantities unlikely to influence
beer flavour when they decomposed to yield
diketones.
494 BAKER AND KIRSOP: THE PLUG FERMENTOR
The control of diacetyl and 2,3-pentane-
dione levels in beer by the procedure described
above is rapidly achieved, for the heat
treatment, cooling and period of exposure to
yeast in a second plug collectively add less
than 1 hour to the time required for primary
fermentation. In essence the procedure is,
with regard to its effects on the diketone
content of beer, a conditioning unit. It was
found that acetaldehyde, a common con
stituent of green beer, was also removed by
[J. Inst Brew.
and not confined to the beer produced on the
first day of production; this problem can be
simply solved by the conditioning unit which
has been developed.
References
1. Baker, D. A. & Kirsop, B. H.. Journal of the
Institute of Brewing, 1073, 79, 43.
2. Brown, M. L. & Kirsop, B. H., Journal of the
Institute of Brewing, 1972, 78, 39.
3. Burton, K., Biochemical Journal, 1956, 62, 315.

the second yeast plug (Table VII) further 4. Coote, N., Kirsop, B. H. & Buckce, G. K,
Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 1973, 79,
298.
TABLE VII
5. David, M. H. & Kirsop, B. H., Journal of the
Removal of Acetaldehyde, Added to a
Institute of Brewing, 1973, 79, 20.
Batch Beer, by a Yeast Plug Containing
10 c N.C.Y.C. 1236 0. Eddy, A. A. in The Chemistry and Biology of
Yeasts, Ed. Cook, A. H. Academic Press,
London & New York, 1058, 228.
Flow rate Acetaldehyde in
7. Haukeli, A. D. & Lie, S., Journal ofthe Institute
of beer beer (ppm)
of Brewing, 1071, 77, 538.
through
Beer collected plug Before 8. Hudson. J. R. & Birtwistle, S. E., Journal of the
After
after day: (ml/day) plug plug Institute of Brewing, 1966, 72, 46.
9. Inoue, T. & Yamamoto, Y., Proceedings of the
1 2329 42-4 3-5 American Society of Brewing Chemists, 1070,
2 1080 42-5 3-25 198.
3 1680 420 4-5 10. Inoue, T. & Yamamoto, Y., Report of the
Research Laboratories of the Kirin Brewery
Co.. 1972, 78, 51.
indicating its potential value as a condition 11. Kato, S., Bulletin of Brewing Science, 1067. 13.
ing unit. The use of a combined heating unit 19.
and yeast-kieselguhr plug should be of value 12. Kesner, L. & Muntwyler, E., in Methods in
as a conditioning unit to treat beer produced in Enzymology, XIII, Ed. Colowick, S. P. &
Kaplan, N. O., Academic Press, London &
batch as well as in continuous fermentations. New York, 1969, 115.

Conclusions 13. Kirsop, B. H. & Brown, M. L., Journal of the

Institute of Brewing, 1972, 78, 51.
Clearly the yeast/kieselguhr plug can be 14. Klopper, W. J., Roberts, R. H., Royston,
used for the rapid production of ale, providing M. G. & Ault, R. G., Proceedings of the
that wort composition is appropriately European Brewery Convention, Stockholm
adjusted. The maximum daily output of fully 1965, 238.

attenuated beer is about 15 times the total 15. Maule, D. R., Journal of the Institute of
Brewing, 1907, 73, 351.
internal plug volume, including yeast and
10. Millin, D. J. & Pinnegar, M. A., British Patent
kieselguhr. In our experience blockage of the No. 1,079,517. 1907.
fermentor is likely to be the limiting factor 17. Morris, E. O. & Eddy, A. A., Journal of the
and this seems to occur after about 15 litres Institute of Brewing. 1057, 63, 34.
of beer have been produced using the 200-ml 18. Narziss, L. & Hellich, P., Brauwelt, 1971, 111,
fermentor described above. Design modifica 1491.
tions to the fermentor may allow the period 19. Narziss, L. & Hcllich, P., Brewers Digest, 1972,
of use to be extended. The quantity of yeast 47, 106.

which is required to produce 1 hectolitre of 20. Nordstrom. K., Journal of the Institute of
Brewing, 1984, 70, 209.
beer is of the order of 0-5 kg (centrifuged
21. Pinncgar, M. A., Journal of the Institute of
yeast), i.e. 1-8 lb yeast/barrel. The yeast Brewing, 1966, 72, 62.
harvested after the fermentation of one barrel 22. Recommended Methods of Analysis, Journal of
of wort in a conventional brewery batch the Institute of Brewing, 1071, 77, 181.
fermentation would thus ferment a further 23. Tolls, T. N., Shovers, J., Sandine, W. E. &
2-3 barrels of wort when used in a fermentor Elliker, P. R., Applied Microbiology, 1070,
of the plug type. Our experience differs from 19, 640.

that reported elsewhere18-19 in that the 24. Williamson, D. H., Journal of the Institute of
Brewing, 1060, 65, 154.
presence of diacetyl is a continuing problem