Chinese Characters Their Origin Etymology History Classification and Signification L Wieger PDF

CHINESE CHARACTERS
THEIR ORIGIN, ETYMOLOGY, HISTORY,

CLASSIFICATION AND SIGNIFICATION. A
THOROUGH STUDY FROM CHINESE
DOCUMENTS
by Dr. L. WIEGER, S.J.
Translated Into English by L. Davrout, S.J.
Second Edition, enlarged and revised

according to the 4th French edition
PARAGON BOOK REPRINT CORP., NEW YORK

DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC., NEW YORK
This edition, first published in 1965, is an un-
abridged and unaltered republication of the second
edition, published by the Catholic Mission Press in
1927. The first edition of Chinese Characters was
published in 1915.
This edition is a joint publication of Paragon
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PREFACE.
The end aimed at by the Author has been to analyse the an-
cient forms of the Chinese characters, to extract from them
their primitive constituents, and then to group them together
according to these primitive elements, in an order both logical
and synoptical.
The materials, figures and interpretations, were gathered from
the works of the Chinese epigraphers and philologues. After
having eliminated the useless characters, the Author picked out,
among the usual characters, 224 Primitives. Around these elements
were grouped about 1500 logical aggregates and phonetic com-
plexes, from which all the other characters are derived. Then
the whole matter was divided into 177 Lessons. A f t e r many ex-
periences, this disposition seemed to be the most advantageous
for study.
The Introduction is designed to furnish some necessary ex-
planation respecting the history, the categories, the analysis and
the different classificalions of the Chinese characters.
The Graphies are fac-similes of the oldest specimens of Chinese
writing cast, not engraved, upon bronze bells and vases.
The Phonetic Series, are a natural complement of the Lessons.
Two Lexicons showing the characters arranged by o r d e r of
Sounds a n d Radicals, complete the work.
The Romanisation adopted by the Translator, was according
to the Wade system.
L. Davrout S.J.
CHINESE CHARACTERS.
INTRODUCTORY.
I. HISTORICAL SKETCH.
Tradition ascribes the idea of the. characters to Fu-hsi, and their first
drawing to Ts'ang-hsieh, two worthies of the prehistoric age. The syste-
matisation of the Chinese writing, is attributed to Huang-ti, the founder
of the Chinese empire, 25th century B.C. Some texts of the Annals, may have
been written earlier than the 22th century B.C. — In the beginning, writing was
used only for matters of government and administration. By its means, the Em-
peror was given information, and his orders were transmitted to the mandarins
and to the people. The shih, recorders, registrars, scribes, were trained up in
official schools, under the direction of a t'ai-shih grand-recorder.
The oldest ku-wen graphies that have come down to us in their original
form, are traced back to the 18th century B.C. Their study reveals the fact, that
while their making was well defined, their form varied much. Towards the year
B.C. 800, the grand-recorder Chou drew up, for the use of the official scribes,
a catalogue of the then existing characters, and fixed their standard shape. Those
ku-wen are called by Chinese philologists chon-wen, or ta-chuan
greater seal characters, or k'o-toa-tzu tadpoles. The origin of the lat-
ter appellation is thus recorded, lo the 2d century B.C., when the house in which
6 Introductory — Historical sketch.
Confucius bad dwell was pulled down, old books written in ancient characters
were discovered in a hiding-place. At the sight of the big heads and the slender
tails, Hung prince of Lu who was not a learned man, exclaimed: these
are tadpoles!.. The name has stuck to them ever since.
As the decay of the Chou Dynasty grew worse, studies were neglected and
the scribes became more and more ignorant. When they did not remember the
genuine character, they blunderingly invented a false one. Those non-genuine
characters, copied out again by other ignorant writers, became usual. Confucius
himself made this statement. Towards the year B. C. 500, he uttered this complaint:
«When I was young, I still knew some scribes who left blank the characters
which they could not write; now there are no more such men!» Consequently
the ch'i tzu «odd characters» were multiplied without restraint, to the
great prejudice of etymology.
Towards the year B. C. 213, under the Emperor Ch'in-shih-huang

who destroyed the classical books, Li-ssu, his prime-minister, published a
new official index of the characters, and fixed a way of writing which became
obligatory for scholars. His collection, entitled San-ts'ang, contained 3300
characters. This new form of writing was known as the hsiao-chuan,
lesser seal characters. — The study of the work of Li-ssu discloses two
facts:.. l. He did not create a n y new primitive, but he contented himself with
composing, by means of preexisting elements, the names for objects which were
unknown before. Therefore the evolution of characters was certainly closed before
the times of Li-sau, probably many centuries before him... 2. Deceived by the
ch'i-tzu, then so numerous, Li-ssu wrongly interpreted some characters, and
fixed them for posterity under a wrong shape. Many instances of these mistakes
of Li-ssu wilt be seen in the Etymological Lessons.
A few years after the catalogue of Li-ssu was edited, a new era was opened in
the study of characters. Two facts are peculiar to this change: an excessive mul-
tiplication; a gradual transformation. Let us briefly state the causes of these
philological phenomena:
Introductory. — Historical sketch. 7
\. Causes of the excessive multiplication of characters... First, the ignorance of
scribes who continually brougt to light faulty forms which were stupidly reproduced
by posterity ; then, the need felt to give names to new things. 1 he Empire was gro-
wing, learning was spreading; writing had become a public thing; the process
hsing-sheng (see page 10) being an easy one, all took to it. From this disorderly fer-
mentation, without direction, without control, without criticism, sprang up, together
with useful characters, thousands of useless doubles. Things could not well be
otherwise, when one remembers that the centres of fabrication were multiplied,
and that the local idioms were very different. The index of Li-ssu contained 3300
characters. In the space of two centuries, it was completed seven times, a nd
the 7th edition, published at the beginning of the Christian era, contains 7380
characters. Two centuries later, there were 10.000. Now the dictionary of
K'ang-hsi(A.D. 1716), contains 40,000 characters that may be plainly divided as fol-
lows: 4000 characters in common use; 2000 proper names and doubles of limited
use; 34.000 monstrosities of no practical use. We are far from the legendary num-
ber of 80.000 usual characters, ascribed to the Chinese language.
5. Causes of the gradual transformation of characters. — The first to be noti-
ced, is the complete change in the instruments and material used for writing. The
ancient wrote with a sort of fountain-pen, upon small laths of bamboo or smooth
wooden tablets. Hereby the figure of the fountain-pen of
old, as it has been transmitted to us on a bronze of the 2d
dynasty. Above, the reservoir holding the fluid, presuma-
bly a black varnish. The narrow bamboo tube contained
probably a wick, to regulate the flowing of the ink. Such
an instrument traces lines any way it is moved, either
backwards or forwards, straight or curved, as one likes,
but all equally thick. Therefore in the, chuan, greater
or lesser seal characters of all ages, there are figures of
every shape, round, ova), sinuous, the lines being all uni-
formly thick. — Not long after the catalogue of Li-ssu was
edited, Ch'eng-miao invented
a pencil of soft wood,
ending in a fibrous point, which being dipped in the black
varnish, was used for writing on silk strips. Traced with this coarse instrumen t
on a rough material, the rounded figures became square, the curved lines were
broken at right angles. But this ungraceful writing being quicker than with the
fountain-pen, the wooden pencil was adopted for public deeds, and the Li-
tzu or official hand, became the current writing, while the lesser seal characters
remained the classical writing.
As it commonly happens, the way being opened, inventions succeeded one
another. During his campaigns against the HANS, the general Meng-t'ien is
8 Introductory. — Historical sketch.
said to have invented or improved the writing-brush, the ink a n d the paper. This
invention was fatal to the characters. — A writing- brush cannot trace lines against
the hair, therefore m a n y characters could not be written and were replaced by
arbitrary and fanciful sketches. — The mate rials used further helped to increase
the confusion. Paper is absorbent: hence came the thick strokes, the thin strokes
and the slabbery letters, which were all unknown to the ancients. — A writing-
brush, made with stiff and elastic hair, flattens o u t when pressed down, twists
when turned, projects its poi nt when raised u p ; hence the swellings, the joints,
the crooks, which are not intentional, but are due to the instrument itself. — Therefo-
re the actual classical writing chieh-tzu, represents the hsiao-chuan
as transformed by the writing-brush.
There is more. The writing-brush galloping, the strokes were connected up,
giving birlh to the lien-pei-tzu; then it flew, throwing on the paper mis-
shapen figures, which are called ts'ao-tzu. The fancy for these novelties be-
came a rage. At the beginning of the Christian era, a man believed himself disho-
noured if he wrote in a legible way. In this crisis, the initiative of a private scholar
saved what could still be saved.
Towards the year A.D. 200, after long travels undertaken to get the authentic
originals, a literate of renown Hsu-shen or Hsu shu-chung,
vulgo Hsu-shih, published the lexicon Shuo-wen chieh-tzu.
It was the collection of Li-ssu, controlled, amended, explained and classified
under 540 rational keys. The aim of Hsu-shen was to impede any ulterior altera-
tion of the characters, by setting their authentical form before the eyes of a l l
scholars. His book contains 9353 simples and 1163 doubles, which makes 10.516
in all. It was not less useful to the nation, the admirers say, than the canals of the
great Yu It remained, from that time, the canon of the tzu, the authority
consulted in all doubts, by Chinese philologists. All the dictionaries published for
the last 17 centuries, boast of their having followed the Shuo-wen,
Bat the work of Hsu-shen had a more far reaching effect than the mere
conservation of the hsiao-chuan. It was the origin of archeological researches
which brought to light more of the antique ku-wen, a n d of philological studies
which explained them. These successive discoveries were published, according to
the Chinese way, in enlarged and annotated editions of the primitive Shuo-wen.
See — Later on, u n d e r each key of Hsu-shen, were ranged a
chronological series of ancient forms, copied either f r o m stones or bronzes that
were discovered, or from books t h a t were extracted from tombs or other hiding
places, throughout the Empire. See . — Published in fine books, care-
fully analysed, learnedly explained, these Series give the genealogy of the actual
characters. Their study enabled the critics to rectify the errors and mistakes of Li-
ssu and of Hsu-shen. It gave the material for the Etymological Lessons contai-
ned in this volume.
Introductory. — Historical sketch. 9
For instance, Series of the character chun, prince, through 45 centuries.
1. The primitive form, ku-wen. A

cap with horns, to inspire awe. Two
arms, the executive power. A mouth,
the legislative power.
2. A mere graphic variety. The
elements are the same, but their form
is different.
3. Another variety. The same
elements, a different form; It is so with
all the ku-wen: the idea is determined,
the form varies.
Then came a fanciful scribe who
gave to the cap a curious form; whence
the k'i-tzu 4, the elements being still
the same.
The next writer, an ignoramus,
thought he saw two hands, instead of
the horns on the cap, and he invented
the ch'i-tzu 5. The hands figure the
power, the mouth makes law; the idea
is still the same, but the graphic ele-
ments are partially different.
An idle writer, for the sake of
abbreviation, replaced one of the hands
by a simple stroke, which gave the
ch'i-tzu 6.
This last character, being in use at
the end of the Chou Dynasty, Li-ssu
interpreted if. a hand which acts, a
mouth which makes law. Thus was
fixed the hsiao-chuan 7.
The wood-pencil made with this
hsiao- chuan, the li-tzu 8 and 9.
The writing-brush changed the
li-tzu into the chieh-tzu. 10, which
is still classic in our days.
The latter being connected toge-
ther, became the lien-pei-tzu 11, the
successi veabbreviations of which gave
the ts'ao-tzu 12, 13, 14.
U is all about the same for the
other Series,
10 Introductory, — Six Categories.
II. LIU-SHU.
Six Categories of Characters.
The Chinese philologists divide the characters into two great classes: the
wen, simple figures, and the tzu, compound letters.
The figures are subdivided into hsiang or nsiang-hsing, imitative
drafts; and chih-shih, indicative symbols.
The compound letters are subdivided into hui-i, logical aggregates,
in which all parts have a meaning; and in hsing-sheng or hsieh-
sheng, phonetic complexes, in which one part has a meaning, while the other
points out the pronunciation. _______
Let us summarise the matter, with a few details and instances.

First category. Imitative drafts, rough sketches representing the object;
The Shuo-wen contains 364 imitative drafts.
Example: the right hand.
Second category. Indicative symbols. A figure that suggests the meaning;

The Shuo-wen contains 125 indicative symbols. Exam-
ple: action of the authority which exerts itself from up down. Those symbols
often suggest an idea of motion.
Third category. Logical aggregates. They are made with two or several
characters more simple. Their signification results from the meanings of the dif-
ferent elements; The Shuo-wen contains 1167 logi-
cal aggregates. Example: , composed of mouth and divination; the
outcome is chan, to consult fortune-tellers, to cast lots.
Fourth category. Phonetic complexes. They are made with two or more
simple characters. One of them gives the meaning; the other is not a «meaning
element», but gives to the complex its pronunciation;
The Shuo-wen contains 7697 phonetic complexes. Example: The first
part , water, gives the meaning; the second , chan, gives the sound. The
compound means, to tinge, to moisten, and is pronounced chan.
To complete the study of the lin-shu, there are two more categories
to be studied, the chuan-chu and the chia-chieh. The above four
categories are based upon the composition of characters. The last two are based
upon their use.
Fifth category. Chuan-chu. Acceptation of the character in a meaning more

extended, derived, generalised, metaphorical, analogous, adapted, figurative, etc.
Introductory. — Six Categories. H
Example: picture of a fishing-net. By extension of the primitive sense, any

net-work, cobweb, reticulate design; lo catch with a net, to calch iu general, to
envelop, to gather, etc. All these meanings are chuan-chu. i. e. begot by successive
turns in the interpretation. Nearly all the primitive characters refer to concrete
objects. As the ideas became broader, the signification of characters spread in
the same proportion. The abstract terms are commonly chuan-chu of concrete
characters.
Sixth category. Chia-chieh. A mistake, lit. false borrowing. Use of a
character in a sense which is not its own, either 1. By error, for an other existing
character; or 2. By convention, to designate an object which has its name in the
spoken language, but which has no special character. Examples:
1. In the first paragraph of the Analects of Confucius, one may lind the charac-
ter meaning lo rejoice. Now means to speak, a n d to rejoice is written
Once a scribe wrote for . It was a mistake, a chia-chieh, which was not
amended, on account of the superstitious respect for the classical text.
2. Formerly, in some time, in some place, the elder brother was called ko.
This word was used in the spoken language only. None among the then existing
characters ko. had that meaning. Instead of m a k i n g a new one, it was agreed t h a t
ko, to sing, should be used also to mean, elder brother. Though this
meaning he unconnected with the composition of the character, however it was
admitted. This was a chia-chieh, an arbitrary character. — Not a few usual cha-
racters were thus given artificial meanings, besides their own meaning a n d their
different meanings chuan-chu. Other characters, either names of lost things, or
useless doubles, first disappeared and then appeared again with a meaning quite
new and in absolute contrast with their composition. Thus the foreign student is
quite puzzled when he sees the figure of a scorpion meaning also a myriad, a n d
he wonders how a n y relation may be found between the two terms? The answer
is very easy. There was not a proper character lo mean a myriad, wh i c h was
said wan in the spoken language. On the contrary, there were many characters to
write scorpion a nd one among them was just pronounced wan. It was dispossessed,
installed in its new functions, and from that time, myriad is written with two claws
and a tail. See, in the Lessons, the numbers 47 X, 49 H, 50 O, 71 Q, etc.
Those chia-chieh are the very reason why the interpretation of the Chinese
characters, which was primitively simple and easy, became so intricate a n d so
difficult. They obscure many texts, fill up the lexicons, overburden the memory,
and exasperate the students. These sad results spring not from a vice inherent lo
the Chinese characters, but from their antiquity and from the carelessness of
their successive keepers.
Notice. In the Lessons, for the sake of brevity, we shall not say in English,
about each character; this is «an imitative draft,» that is «an indicative symbol,»
or at logical aggregate,» or a «phonetic complex.» More commonly we shall
12 Introductory — Composition and Decomposition.
content ourselves wilh the Chinese definition given in Chinese characters. The
ordinary formulas for these definitions are thus given:
or hsiang or hsiang-hsing. Lit. imitative draft of the right hand.
, chih-shih. Lit. shows the thing, indicative symbol, to act, action.
, , , , Lit. from hand, draft; from
to act, symbol; by the fusion of meanings, to govern. This is a logical
aggregate.
, , , , Lit, from hand, from rod; by a
fusion of meanings, to strike. A logical aggregate.
, , , Lit. from , to enclose; gives the sound;
closed on the four sides, shut up hermetically. It is a phonetic complex.
As for the derived or arbitrary meanings, we shall be satisfied with indica-
ting them by the words chuan-chu or chia-chieh, inserted in the text. The most
important chuan-chu have been indicated, b u t not all the chia-chieh. The latter
are to be looked for in the larger dictionaries, which are absolutely necessary on
their account.
III. COMPOSITION AND DECOMPOSITION.

Primitives. Radicals. Phonetics.
From the calligraphic stand-point, the Chinese characters are all reduced into
simple strokes. These material elements amount, for the modern writing, to nine
in theory, and to about seventeen in practice. Their form is ascribed to the nature
of the writing brush, as explained previously. The strokes are:
Introductory — Composition and Decomposition. 13
Note well and do not forget that this reduction into simple strokes, into
material elements, has DO connection whatever with the etymological study of
the characters.
From the logical, etymological point of view, the compounds are made, not
with strokes, but with characters more simple, having their own use and meaning.
These simple characters are what we call «elements», when we speak of composi-
tions and decompositions. The more iutricate character was formed by their
association, and the analysis must end when it has separated and isolated these
formal elements. To go further, to decompose into strokes, would add nothing to
knowledge. Just as, in systematic botany, the study of a plant is ended when one
has determined its specific organs. The ulterior decomposition of these formal
elements into cells and fibres, belongs to histology, and is of no interest for
classification purposes. Examples:
, a logical aggregate, is decomposed into
, a phonetic complex, is decomposed into and
If one says that and which are given as elements, are evidently themsel-
ves compounds, we answer: no doubt, if it is a question of material analysis, one
should decompose into , and into and . But here, this is
not the question. What we look for, is the logical etymological analysis. Now, in
the logical aggregate , the element gives the meaning; it is therefore a formal
element. In the phonetic complex , gives the sound; it is therefore a formal
element. The etymological decomposition ends there.
It may be asked how numerous are those relatively simple characters or for-
mal elements, which are used to compose the more intricate characters? — Before
answering, one must distinguish two categories, indicated previously: the mean-
ing elements and the phonetic elements.
\. Meaning elements. — Theoretically, any simple character could be used
for the composition of a logical aggregate. The ancient writers used those they
wanted. — Practically, how many of those elements did they use? Relatively very
few. Indeed, the research of those elements had to be made among the ancient
regular forms, and not among the modern corrupted forms. Different Chinese
authors numbered from about five to six hundred elements, but their choice was
imperfect because there were compound forms, either multiples or inverted,
which were kept without reason. The first European who studied the question,
J.-M. Gallery, suggested the number of 300. J. Chalmers who resumed this study,
gave also 300 as a rough estimate Our own researches deliberately circumscribed
in the practical, domain led us to give 224 meaning elements, the list of which
may be found at the head of the Lessons.
14 Introductory. — Composition and Decomposition.
As said above, we call primitives the elements of the logical composition
called by the Chinese chien-shon, fundamental heads. The definition of
this term is to be noted well. Primitive, forrnal meaning element that cannot ad-
mit of an ulterior decomposition into meaning parts; or, more shortly, ideographic
minimum. In other words, the primitives are characters relatively simple, having
sound and meaning, and which are not formally resolved into figures having sound
and meaning. Materially, they may be reduced into strokes, b u t this is without any
use for the analysis. Just as a simple chemical body, or a bar of sulphur, or an
iron ingot, can be smashed with a hammer, a n d y e t this is not a decomposition,
but a breaking up. — In a few characters, strokes or dots were added to extend or
to modify the meaning. We call those characters partial primitives. They are
primitives, relatively to the graphical details superadded. See, as examples, the
nipples in , Lesson 67 0; the thorns in , Lesson 120 H; the grains of salt in
, Lesson 41 D; etc.
2. Phonetic elements. — Theoretically, the Chinese sounds not being numerous,
four hundred characters would have been sufficient to compose a phonetic scale. —
Practically, the Chinese used as phonetic elements, a greater number of characters;
the reason of this will be given below. Some Chinese authors numbered one thou-
sand of them, which they called the thousand mothers of sounds. J.-M. Callery
who made a special study of these characters a n d round in them a key to his
system, numbers 1040. Our researches, circumscribed in the practical domain,
gave 858 phonetic prolific elements. This list may he seen at the head of the
Phonetic Series. In the choice of these phonetic elements, the Chinese cared only
about the sound and not about the character. They employed, from which has
one stroke only, till which has twenty-four.
The inflected words of European languages are decomposed into radical and
termination. The radical gives the meaning; the termination indicates case, time,
mood. The (irst sinologists applied those grammatical terms belonging to inflected
languages, to the Chinese language which is not an inflected one. In the phonetic
complexes, they called radical the meaning part. They dared not call termina-
tion the phonetic part, and w i t h reason, for it would have been a mistake. They
called that part phonetic. We make ours those two terms, radical and phonetic,
but strictly in the sense above given, viz. Radical, formal element which gives
the meaning. Phonetic, the formal element which does not give the meaning, but
indicates the sound.
Why do we insist thus upon the delinition of these terms?.. The reason is this:
in sinologv, they were often used in an equivocal sense. — Some divided the charac-
ters into categories, stating that such a one is a radical, and such a one a phonetic,
while a n y character may be, in composition, either a radical, or a phonetic, ac-
cording to the part it has to act. — Others reduced the extension of the term radical
to the keys of the dictionaries, and gave as radicals only the 214 keys of K'ang-hsi;
16 Introductory. — Important Notices.
put in circulation with that sound, went to the North and to the South. Now the
Chinese philologists say that the North is known as corrupting the finals in the
words, while the South alters the initials. Thus when passing over in the Northern
dialects, had its final an transformed into en; was ended into yen and
into yeh: which are dialectic differences of a common origin. In a Southern dialect,
the ch of became t in , a n d n in : which are also differences of a common
origin. At the same time, the tones and aspirates, special to different places, stuck
to the former as well as to the latter. Then at last when, in the making of a big
dictionary, Ssu-ma kuang for instance, gathered u n d e r the mother
word its roving brood, it was diversified with odd colours; there were characters
pronounced chan, chen, tien, nien and t'ieh. The compiler neither made a choice,
nor criticised, nor tried to restore the primitive pronunciation, nor returned to a
unique dialect, but simply set down what was then used, and posterity was told
by him, once for all, t h a t was pronounced chan, that was pronounced
t'ieh, and that was their common phonetic. — Upon the whole, with regard to
the phonetic series, note the three following points: 1. The sound was well deter-
mined in the beginning... 2. There were dialectical corruptions... 3. The sound was
finally, and without any critical study, fixed by insertion in the dictionaries.
But then when one says that the phonetics determine the sound of compounds,
is this determination practically reduced to something rather vague? — It is much
to be regretted th a t it is often so. The determination is somewhat vague for the
final (vowel), still more vague for the initial (consonant), and nearly non-existing
for the tone and aspiration.
But then is the study of phonetics useless? — It is an exaggeration to say so.
The study of phonetics and of the phonetic series is useful. For, after all, the
sounds, initials and finals of each series varied only to a certain extent and accor-
ding to certain dialectic rules. Therefore the knowledge of phonetics allows, after
a certain use, to guess approximatively the sound of compound characters. It
helps also to fix those characters in the memory. Further, the study of characters,
made by following the phonetic series, is more attractive and more useful than
by following the series by radicals or by sounds. It is the reason why we add to
this volume a lexicon by phonetic series.
IMPORTANT NOTICES.
1. Use of a compound instead of a simple, as a radical. The same need

of variety, of distinction, that multiplied the phonetics (as above stated),
impelled the use sometimes, as a radical, of a compound, instead of a simple
character. Item, an inverted character was used instead of the straight form,
etc. For example for , or or for , for , for
M. for •
Introductory — Composition and Decomposition. 15
they called phonetic any character which was not radical. — Hence arose ways of
speaking, improper, equivocal and false. For example: because is the 75th key
of K,ang-hsi, some say : the radical is phonetic in , instead of saying: is
phonetic in , and radical in . Because is the 190th key of Callery, some
say: the phonetic is radical in , instead of saying: is radical in , and
phonetic in . — To avoid such a confused and inexact way of speaking, one
must remember that radicals and phonetics are not two categories of characters
specifically distinct. They are two categories of a certain number of characters
which, being neuter or indifferent by nature, are used in composition, either as
radicals, or as phonetics, according to the cases. Even the primitives are, in com-
position, radicals or phonetics, according to the cases. They form a class by them-
selves only as elements formally indivisible; elements which, being not composed,
compose all the others.
Why did they use one thousand characters, when four hundred could do? — It
was to avoid confusion. In certain categories, there were to be placed objects of
different kinds, but having the same sound. The radical proper to the category
could not be changed and consequently the phonetics had necessarily to be chan-
ged, in order to get different characters. Example: In the category of trees, the
radical of which is , the phonetic had given the phonetic complex k'u,
dead tree. Now there is a kin d of elm which is also pronounced k'u. For this
elm, the character k'n was made, in which is used as phonetic; and so on
for many others. — As above stated, the new characters are selected, for more
than twenty centuries, exclusively among the phonetic complexes. Out of the ten
thousand characters that constitute the main part of the big dictionaries, about
seven thousands of them are phonetic complexes. Some variety in their composi -
tion was of absolute necessity, to form a way of distinguishing one. from another.
In which sense must we understand the assertion that the phonetics give their
sounds to the phonetic complexes? — To answer the question, one must presuppose
the following facts which are so evident that they need no proof. The Chinese
language is spoken for tens of centuries past, in an immense territory. Its sounds
are not numerous, and may be easily confounded. Hence arose a great number of
dialectic differences. A Chinese proverb says that at a distance of one hundred li,
people cannot understand each other. This assertion is exaggerated, but it is right
to say that, at a distance of one hundred U, there are perceptible dialectic dif-
ferences; that, at a distance of one thousand li, only a half of the things said are
understood: and that, at a distance of two thousand li, nothing is understood.
Further, the dialect of the same district varied in the course of ages. — That fact
being granted, let us take as example . In the place and time when was
first chosen to be used as a phonetic, this character was pronounced chan. Its
compounds, made after the same phonetic, were all pronounced chan, and being
Introductory. — Important Notices. 17
2. phonetic-Radicals. — In some a n c i e n t characters, an element which is
radical gives also its sound to the compound, being thus together radical and
phonetic. For ex. Lit. ping ice, from shui water,
from ping to freeze; ping is thus both radical and phonetic,Those chara-
cters are like a l i n k between the logical aggregates and the phonetic complexes.
3. Radical or phonetic redundancies. — \. The ancient characters were
relati vel y simple. When t h e systematic classifications begun to be made, then
w i t h o u t change in t he meaning of those characters, a meaning clement was su-
per-added to m a n y of them. This was a new radical, well chosen, but useless, un-
der which the character was classified in the new dictionaries. Thus, to chiao,
to teach, which nicely figured the action of the master descending upon the
disciple, a h a n d was added, ho ld in g a rod, symbol of t he master's authority.
This addition was the cause why was classified under the 66th radical in K'ang-
hsi. Thus the old characters happened to have, nearly all, synonym compounds,
and it is the compound that is used now, w h i l e the p r i m i t i v e character remains
in the dictionaries with the mention ku-wen, ancient form. This is why one
may often read in the Lessons the words « it is now written. » For ex., ,
now ; the ancient form was enriched with the radical , the rest being quite
the same. — 2. The ancient drafts, or symbols, or logical aggregates, had no pho-
netic element, and n o t h i n g helped the memory to remember the sound. Later on,
specially in the ti m e of Li-ssu, a phonetic element was added to some ancient
characters, w i t h o u t changing anything in the sense. For ex., to the character kui,
was added tui, to recall the sound ui, which gave Those embellished logical
aggregates differ from the phonetic complexes in this, t h a t they cannot be a-
dequately decomposed i nt o two elements, one being a radical, the other a pho-
netic... Another example: cb'u was added with the phonetic hu, which
gave ch'u... Now a n d are no longer used. They are found in the dictio -
naries, with the mention ku-wen, ancient forms of and
i. Phonetics and Radicals contracted. — See the phonetic Series 469,
, etc. It seems to come from hsin, h u t it ends in ao. Its phonetic is not
hsin, but nao, a logical aggregate made from hsin. Bu t nao having already
a lateral radical , the addition of the radical of phonetic complexes would make
ugly characters. To avoid this, is contracted, that is: its is suppressed, and
in its place the radical of the. complex is substituted. It the series 469, nao con-
tracted is the phonetic, . — The same happens in the series 119, un-
der ch'u, where one may find compounds in ieh. Their phonetic is chieh
contracted, in which gave place to another radical. — Remember well this re-
mark, it is very important in practice. One may often read, in the Lessons, the
expression "contracted phonetic" — In the logical combinations some
radicals are abbreviated in the same way. Thus becomes or . See
and , L. 44 E,J. — The scribes definitively contracted several intricate ancient
forms, for example:
18 Introductory. — Classification ol Characters.
5. Phonetics mixed. — Under some numbers of the phonetic Lexicon, one

may find two series written in the same way, but of different sound. The reason
is that in the modern writing, two ancient phonetics were mixed. Thus one wri-
tes to-day in the same way two series utterly distinct in the ancient writing. See,
for example, the Series 227, 284, 359-549.
6. Synonyms. — The great number of phonetic complexes, different in form
and in sound, but perfectly synonymous, is explained by the fact that they sprung
from many different places, in the modern times, after Li-ssu. Some double logical
aggregates probably owe their origin to the same cause, v.g. LL. 2 B
and 32 B. There were differences between the rival states and the jealous literati
of those times.
7. Multiples. — An element reproduced two or several times, figures graphically
the great number, or the great intensity. For example: Two trees make a
forest. Two fires means to blaze. Three men , a multitude. Three
chariots , a rolling, a big rumbling. .
8. Figures straightened. — Certain figures, broader than high, as , are of-
ten straightened in the compounds, to take less place. See L. 82 C, L.
66, L. 167, L 158, etc.
Conclusion. — The knowledge of the Chinese characters consists in mastering
less than 300 primitives, and about 1500 principal compounds made with the pri-
mitives, that is less than 2000 characters. A l l the others are derived from them.
Those are the elements and groups that are treated in the Etymological Lessons,
and collected in the Index of usual Groups, When the student knows them, he
may explain to himself all the compounds. The Lessons explain the logical ag-
gregates under their principal primitive. Each paragraph refers to the phonetical
series which contains the phonetic complexes derived from the same element.
The paragraph and the series form a whole, t h a t exhausts practically the study
of an element.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERS.

A. Chinese classifications.
1. Natural classification. — The first classifications were encyclopedias of

things, after the manner of the present lei-shu. The prototype of those
compilations is the Erh-ya, the first sketch of which is ascribed to
Chu-kung ( 1 1 t h century B.C.). Remodelled in the 5th century B.C. by a disciple
of Confucius, Tzu-hsia, it took its actual shape from Kuo-p'u, circa
Introductory — Classification of Characters. 19
A.D. 280. The things of this world were distributed under 16 sections: kindred,
houses, utensils, music, heaven, earth, mounds, hills, waters, plants, trees, insects,
fishes, birds, wild and domestic animals. IN the actual lei-shu, the hea-
dings are more numerous.
2. Logical classification, by Radicals. — Starting from the meaning element
of the phonetic complexes, or from one among the meaning elements in the logical
aggregates, the characters were disposed by logical series, under keys called
Radicals, according to the number of strokes. The shuo-wen was the first
lexicon, thus disposed. It contains 540 keys, some of them being very abundant,
and some very poor, according to the notion expressed by them. Later on, for the
sake of simplification, the latter keys were suppressed. This reduction brought
about the placing of the characters that had belonged to the keys left out, under
other keys, with which the former had some analogy of figures, but no real relation.
The classification thus became h a lf logical, half arbitrary. Under the Ming, the
number of keys was reduced to 214; which meant that the characters belonging
to more than 300 ancient keys, were arbitrarily placed where they should not be.
The dictionary of K'ang-hsi , is based upon these 214 keys. This
dictionary is easy enough to consult and precise in its definitions. But one must
avoid to use it for an y study of etymology or of classification, under pain of
committing the worst blunders. We shall indicate, in the Lessons, a certain
number of these mistakes, for which the compilers are not personally answerable,
because the system of keys used by them was composed before their time. —
Recently the Commercial Press of Shang-hai has printed a very
good abbreviated K'ang-hsi.
3. Phonetic classification, by Rhymes. — Towards the year A, D. 500,
Shen-yao introduced the system fan-ch'ieh, which consists in associating,
for the expression of a sound of any unknown character, two other known cha-
racters, the first of which gives the initial consonant, and the second the final
vowel. Examples: p'an and nieh make p'ieh; li and mo make to; etc. — The
fan-ch'ieh was devised by Indian Buddhist Monks, in order to render approxima-
tely, in Chinese, the Pali or Sanskrit syllables. — It was according to this system,
that dictionaries called yun-fu were made. In the beginning, they were
nearly dictionaries by sounds, the finals being very numerous: under the T'ang,
there were 206 finals for 36 initials. Later on, the number of finals was reduced,
by gathering in the same category all those that rhymed according to the
Chinese prosody; so that now en, in, un, un, are mingled; an, nan, ien, form a
same category, etc.— The yun-fu have all five volumens, one for each
tone. To find a character, one must know first its tone, then its prosodical catego-
ry; lastly one must seek in the latter, following the order of initials. The largest
Chinese dictionary, the P'ei-wen-yun-fu, was composed after
this type. We join here the usual table of rhymes.
20 Introductory. — Classification of Characters.
Table of Rhymes.
Ung. U, u, in, etc.

laug.
Ih.
Ei.
O. Ih, ei, i, e, etc.
D.
I.
Ai, uai, yeh. E, o, ai.
Ei, uei. A, ia.
E, ieh, ueh.
Iao, ieh, o, uo, ao.
En, in, un, un.
Ai, ei, e, i, ieh,

An, uan, yen. ih, o, uo, u.
I, ih.
A, ia, o, uo.
Ao, iao.
E. o. Ieh, yeh.
A. ai, ya, ua.
Ang, iang, uang.
Eng ing, iung.
Iu, ou.
En, in, un
Introductory. — Classification of Characters. 21
4. Phonetic classification, by sounds. — Basing himself upon thesystem

fan-ch'ieh, a certain Fan t'eng-feng invented, towards the year 1700, a
combination of 20 initials and 12 finals, that is nearly as easy as the European
alphabetical order though it does not attain it, for sounds li ke i, ih, u ei, are still
confounded. Instead of being capital, the. division by (ones is accessory. This
classification is far more convenient t h a n the dictionaries by rhymes. Therefore
the Wu-fang-yuan-yin was a great success. It was the. most com-
mon dictionary in the days ot the Cu'ing dynasty. Us key is thus given:
Initials Finals
P Sh ien, an, nan.

P' J en, in, unn, un.
M Ch ung, ing, cng, iung.
F Ch' an, iang, uang.
T Hs iu, ou.
,
T Y ao, iao.
N K u.
L K' uo, iao, o.
Ch H e, ieh, ueh.
Ch W u, ia, ua.
ai, uai.
i, ei, ui, ih, erh, u, iu.
5. The Tzu-hsiao-chu- yiii t hat will be occasionally

meutioned in
the Lessons, is a small hook that gives the f orm of the modern characters, as it
was required for the official examinations, till A.D. 1905, with an index of the
wrong characters. H contains some mistakes.
6. European classifications.
1. By radicals. The dictionary by radicals of K'ang-hsi was translated,

abridged or enlarged, a figuration replacing the original fan-ch'ieh. For
ex., the "Dictionnaire classique de La langue chinoise,du P.S. Couvreur S J.,
Ho-chien-fu, 1904». These dictionaries partake of the advantages and drawbacks
of the K'ang-hsi's dictionary.
2. By phonetics. The characters "were gathered according to the phonetic
series. The type of the k i n d is the " S g s t e na phoneticum scripturae sinicae,
auctore J.-M. Gallery, C, Miss., Macao, 1841.»
22 Introductory. — Classification of Characters.
3. By sounds. Being given a system of figuration, the characters were classified

according to the European alphabetical order. The big English dictionaries of
Williams and Giles, and the big «Dictionnaire chinois-francais du P.S.
Couvrcur S.J., llo-chien-fu, 1890», are made after this method.
Use of the dictionaries. — To find a character the sound and meaning of

which are unknown, one must refer to a dictionary by radicals, which supposes
the knowledge of the 214 keys of K'ang-hsi. — If the sound is known, with the
help of a Chinese master, or otherwise, then the shorter method is to use a di-
ctionary by sounds, supposing that one is well acquainted with its figuration. —
The phonetic series are the most useful for study, but they are not very useful as
a dictionary, unless one is already far advanced in the study of Chinese.
ETYMOLOGICAL LESSONS
LIST OF THE 224 PRIMITIVES.
Modern form. The ancient form may be found at the number given.
P'ieh1. Chiu1. Ju2. Po3.

1
7. 54. 15. 56.
Chi4. Ya2. Chiung3. K'an3. Shin*
11. 9. 34. 38. 24.
Chn3. Yin3. Ch'u1. Kung1. Shu2.
4. 10. 38. 38. 22.
Chuan3. Ch'uei2. Li*. Sau1.
18. 13. 53. 89.
2 Fang1.
Chueh4. Mi*. Tao1.
6. 51. 34. 52.
I1. Chi1. Han3. Nai3. Ting1
1. 20. 55. 19. 57.
I4. Ch'i1. Han4. Pa1. Wu3.
8. 33. 59. 18. 39.
I I. Ch'iao3. I4. Pi3. Yu4.
9. 58. 39. 26. 43.
Kun3. Chiu3. Jen2. Ping1.
6. 23. 26. 17.
24 List of the Primitives.
Kung1. Chieh4. Shih4. Ho2.

87. 97. 114. 121.
3 Liang3. Ch'ien4. Hui2.
Shou3.
35. 99. 48. 76.
Ch'e4. Jan3.
Mien2. Chih3. Shui3.
78. 35. 112. 116.
125.
Chi*. Nu3. Chin4. Jou3.
Tan1.
68. 67. 128. 23.
115.
Chi1. Ching3. Kua1.
Shan1. Tou3.
70. 115. 162.
62. 98.
Chi3. Ch'uan3. Kuan3.
Shan1. Wen2.
84. 134. .108.
80. 61.
Chi2. Chung1. Kuan4.
Shao2. Wu4.
14. 109. 153.
54. 101.
Chih3. Fang1. K'ui4.
Ssu4. Wu3.
31. 117. 111.
Ch'ih4. 85. 130.
Sui1. Feng1. 2
Ta . Mao2.
63. 97. 95.
31. 147.
Chin1. Hu4. Min2.
Ta4. Yu4.
35. 68. 114.
60. 83
Chiu3. Hu4. Min3.
31.
T'o .
1
Yu2.
33. 129. 95. 157.
Chung1. Huo3. Mu4
T'u3. Yueh4.
17. 126. 158.
81. 64.
Fan2. Hsin1. Ping3.
Ts'ai2. Yun2.
21. 41.
96. 107. 93.
Hsi4. Shih3.
Tzu3. Jih4.
64. 131.
94. 143.
Hsun3. Ssu4.
Wei . 2 Ku3. 5
11. 42.
74. 106.
I*. Ch'ai2. Tai3.
Teh3. Mao2.
71. 156. 118.
107. 100.
I3. Mu4. Chia3. T'ien2.
85. 119. 152. 149.
Kan1. Niu2. Ch'ieh3 T'o1.
102. 4 132. 20. 108.
Ko4. Pa1. Ch'ing1 Tseng4
77. 55. 55. 154.
K'ou3. Ch'i4. P'ien4. Chu4. Wa3.
72. 98. 57. 145.
127.
Kung1. Ch'iang2. Fu4. Tu2.
Pu 2 .
82. 127. 133. 87. 151.
Llit of the Primitives. 25
Shu2. Shou3.
124. 160. 9 11
6 T'ien4. Ti4.
41. 87. Ch'ao1. Ch'ing4.
2
Ch'i . Tzu4. Tou4. 106. 173.
70. 159. 165. Che3. Lu4.
Ch'ien1. Yang2. Yu3. 159. 136.
115. 103. 41. Chiu3. Niao3.
Chih4. Yen3. 170. 138.
133. 117. 8 Chuan1. T'ou3.
Chiu4. 164.
82.
139. Ch'ang2. Yin2.
7 Ch'uan2.
Chon1. 113. 172.
125. Yu2.
66. Chin1. Fei1.
Ch'u1. Ch'e1. 142.
14.
167. 11.
51. 3 Cho4.
Chiao . Ko2.
Erh3. 43. 12 &
142. 105.
146. Chui4.
Erh2. Chih4. T'iao2. Ch'i2.
168.
166. 41. 174.
164. Fei1.
Fao3. Chiung3. Yang2. Chiao2.
170.
130 42. Fu4. 101. 176.
Fu4. Ch'uan4. 86. Ch'ih3.
40. 153. I*. 1O 175
Hsi1. Ch'uang1 101.
Huan1.
41. 40. Li4. Ko2. 106.
Hsia*. I2. 163. 155. Kai1.
41. . 82. P'eng2. Kou4. 108.
Hsin4. K'uai3. 64. 104. Lung2.
40. 156. T'u4.
Ma3. 140.
Hal. Lu3. 106. 137. Min3.
135. 90. Tzu1. Ssu4. 108.
Hui1. Pan1. 150.
136. Shou*.
110. 104. Tsao2. 144.
I1. Pei4. 102. Sha 3 .
16. 161. 54.
Jou*. Pien4. Shu 3 .
65. 123. 139.
Kua3. Shen1. Yao4.
118. 148. 88.
, Mi3.
122.
Shih3.
69.
Teni4.
141.
26 Etymogical Lessons. 1.
LESSON 1.
About the pr im it i ve , a single stroke.
I1 represents the unity, pr in ci ple of numeration;

It figures the primordial uni t y, source
of a l l beings;
— It
is the 1st r a di c al in K'ang-hsi's dictionary.
In composition, says t he Shuo-wen, — is most c o m m o n l y symbolic;

I t s d i f f e r e n t s y m b o l i c m e a ni ngs may be s u m m e d up u n d e r four
pri nc i pal categories.
Firstly, w h e n w r i t t e n on top of [he c om p o u n d, — represents e i t h e r heaven, or

a roof, or any cover. Example:
Yu3 The rain. Drops of water f a l l i n g from a cloud
t h a t hangs to — h e a v e n ; J m eans t h e vertical f alling;
— It is the
173th radical in K'ang-hsi.
T'ien 1 . Heaven, the vast — e x t en t of space that is

above men, t he highest of things;
Note that ( L . 60)

means watt a n d not great; therefore do not translate
the unique great. The derived idea, as expl ai-
ned by all the commentators, is that of physical or
m o r a l superiority. The Ch'un-ch'iu says:
Placed abo ve them, heaven go-

verns men... According to this fundamental notion,
any superior, says the Erh-ya, is the of his
inferior;
— For the
compounds of , see Lesson CO C.
Mo4. The outmost twigs, the — top of a tree;

— Phonetic
series 138.
Etymological Lessons. 1. 27
Secondly, placed below the compound, — represents the foundation, the
base, or any support. Examples:
Tan*. The dawn, the beginning of the day. The
sun above a line, viz. the horizon;
— Phonetic series 162.
Li4. To stand, to be erected. A man (L. 60) stand-

ing upon the ground. This character is the reverse
of , above C.
It forms the 117th radical in
K'ang-hsi. Phonetic series 134.
Pen3. The t r u n k of a tree. The part of a tree

above the — earth. This character is the reverse of
, above D
Thirdly, — represents a barrier, a hindrance. Examples:
Shuan1 A beam — used to holt a door.
Ch'iao3. Difficulty in breathing, oppression;
The
line bent up represents the brealh that tries to

go out, but is checked by the transversal barrier.
See L. 58. — Phonetic series 3.
Fourthly, — represents something contained. Example:

Hsueh3. Blood. A vase containing — something.
This character primitively meant the oblation of the
blood of the victim in the sacrifices;
See the Legge's edi-
tion, Part II, Bk VI, Ode VI, 5,
The modern signification, blood, is a
derivative, chuan-chu. See Lesson 157. — It forms the
143th radical in K'ang-hsi. — Phonetic series 208.
28 Etymological Lessons. 2.
LESSON 2.
About the character , two strokes, and some of its derivatives
Erh4. Two. The number of the earth, because it
makes the pair with heaven. The number of the two
principles yin and yang.
— It is the 7th radical in K'ang-hsi.
In composition, has three different uses.
Firstly, means two. Example:

Jen2. The fundamental virtue of Confucianism, which
t h e Shuo-wen defines:
, to love each other. The benevolence
that must l i n k each man with his neighbour;
two, mutual, reciprocal. From is derived
Ning4. Coaxing, flattery; ; the of
women.
Secondly, represents two terms, two extremes. Examples:

Chi2 . Activity, working up of faculties, struggle for
life. A man who acts, who struggles, with his
mouth and his hand, between heaven and
earth, to gain his point;

Ken4 or Keng4. Idea of passage, of crossing, of
duration, between two terms. Ilrepresents a passage-
boat, that crosses from one bank to the other:
See L. 66. — In the modern writing,

(L. 76 H) is often used for . II is a mistake. Note
the compound
Heng. Constancy, perseverance. The heart (the
w i l l ) crossing f r om the beginning till the end, as a
boat does from one bank to the other; the moral trip
c o n t i n u e d t i l l one reaches the harbour. Rather a well
found simile.
Etymological Lessons. 2. 3. 29
G Thirdly. is an old form of shang4, h i g h ; a n d — reversal, an old
4,
form of hsia low. See L. 5. —This remark is to be remembered; there w i l l he
many applications of it. See, for instance, L. 3 D, L. 29 H, etc... is
sometimes reduced to a single stroke, as in L. 43 N, L. 50 0, etc.
LESSON 3.
About , three strokes, and its derivatives.

San1. Thr e e; The n u m b e r of
1 2
heaven ea r th a n d h u m a n i t y ; the san is'ai ,
three Powers. Hence
Wang2. King.
According
to the ancients, the k i n g is the one, the man
who connects together heaven earth and h u m a n i -
ty. See L. 83 C. — Phonetic series 87.
represents bo un dary lines, limits, in

C h iang 1 . Bounds. The partitions that d i v i d e
and limit two fields;
Phonetic series 724.
straightened , forms a part of

4
Shih . Influx coming from heaven; auspicious or
inauspicious signs, by which the will of heaven is
known to mankind ;
The two horizontal lines are the old form
of the character shang1, hi gh, superior (L. 2G);
here they mean heaven; The three
vertical lines represent what is hanging from hea-
ven, viz. the s u n, the moon and the stars, th e muta-
tions of which reveal to men the transcendent thing s ;
The actual meaning, to teach, is chuan-
chu. forms the 113th radical of characters relating to transcendental mat-
ters. Note its modern contracted form, tha t is easily mistaken for the
contracted form of garments (L. 16 A).
30 Etymological Lessons. 3. 4
doubled forms hsuan4. It is believed that this

character figures the. primitive abacus, and has no-
t h i n g to do w i t h See an d L. 47 G, F. A n y -
how from is derived the phonetic compound
hsuan4, garlic.
LESSON 4.
About the dot.
Chu5. A dot, a sign of punc tuation, etc. Formerly

the dot was r o u n d ; it is n o w p i r i f o r m , on account of
the. w r i t i n g - b r u s h t h a t writes thus. It is the 3d radical
in K'ang-hsi.
is found in the. following characters:
Chu3 T h e i n f e r i o r p a r t re pr esents a l a m p , the. f l a m e

of w h i c h is One wri te s
now to mean a lamp, the character signifying
( c h u a n - c h u ) pr i n c e , m u s t e r Becaus e , say t he i n t e r -
preters, the prince
rises a b o v e t h e m u l t i t u d e a n d is seen by a l l , as the
f l a m e rises a n d shines over t h e lamp. — Phonetic
series 115.
Ta n 1 . C i n n a b a r . The is s u p p o s e d to represent the
red mineral, a n d the m i n e where it is found;
The an cient charac te rs suggest
a different interpretation. They represent the crucible
of the Taoist alchimists, w i t h cinnabar in it De-
compose and recompose cinnab a r, was their chief prac-
tice. See L 115 D. — Ph o n et i c Series 83. Compare,
(L.14T.) —Two old characters express the (L.30 D)
transformation of mortal m e n i n t o im mo r t al genii,
by means of a l c h e m y an d divination (L. 56 A.)
D N.B. —In the modern w r i t i n g , many characters, for in s tance , are
s u r m o u n t e d w i t h a dot, t h a t replaces e l e m e n t s w h i c h are ver y different in the a n -
cient w r it i n g . It is t h e same w i t h the d o t i n t r o d u c e d inside some of the charac-
ters, for exa mpl e The w r i t i n g - b r u s h is the cause of i t . — Note by the
way that t h e 8th radical, is but a corruption of the 11th tb radical.
LESSON 5.
We saw (L. 1, 1° and 2°) — used as meaning an horizontal line. From this accep-
tionare derived the following characters;
Shang4. Up, upon, superior, to mount. A sign
placed above, the fundamental line , signifying
above the level;
The ancient form of this character was
(L. 2 G), the s m all er top line being usep as a sign
r elatively to the longer bottom line. In the more
recent forms, the sign became more a nd more intricate. —
In the modern wri-
ting, kept up its ancient form at the top of many characters, for e xa m pl e,
. It is to be distinguished from , the fictitious Sth,radical in K'ang-hsi.
(See L 4 D).
Hsia 4 . Below, to descend, inferior. A line traced
below the fundamental line , signifying below the
level; —The ancient form
Of t h i s character was (L. 2 G), the shorter bottom
line being used as a sign relatively to the longer top
line.
LESSON 6.
About two primitives, and
Firstly, kun3.
Kun3. A vertical stroke, a perpendicular;
— It forms the 2d radical in K'ang-hsi.
It is f o u n d in m a n y characters, in which it has gene-
rally a symbolic significat ion.
It represents the t r u n k , in
Mu4. Tree. See L. 119 A.
It represents a man standing, in
Shen1. To gird up (with both hands). See L. 50 C.
It represents an arow fixed in a target, in

Chung1. Middle, centre. L. 109 A.
32 Etymological Lessons. 6. 7.
It represents a spindle running through two objects, in
Ch'uan4. To string together. See L 153 B.
It represents a bow-string, in
3
Yin , to draw a bow; See L. 87 A. Etc.
Secondly, chueh2.
Chueh2. A crooked stroke, a hook;
It is the fictitious 6th radical in K'ang-hsi. The
Sbuo-wen gives no derivative s from this primitive.
However, in the modern characters, occurs very frequently.
The reason of the
fact is that, with the writing-brush, it is easier to trace than Consequently:
1. replaced in many characters, for e xa m pl e:
Hsiao3. See L. 18 H.
2. is arbitrarily written, as an abbreviation of different

figures, for example, for
the longer line of in
Ts'un4. See L. 45 B.
N. B. — inverted gives
Chueh2. A hook, . that is found

in
Yueh4. A halberd with a hook. See L 71 L.
LESSON 7.
About the primitive

P'ieh1. An oblique line from righ to left;
General idea of action, of motion. — It is the
fictitious 4th radical in K'ang-hsi. Nearly all the mo-
dern are abbreviations for other signs, while the
true are hardly recognized in the modern writing.
For example:
Sheng1 . The tenth part of a bushel. Composed

of bushel, and of which figures that a tenth
part of it is taken o ut. See L. 98 B.
Mei 2 . Eye-brow; represents the curve of the
orbita; the lines on the top represent the hairs;
is the eye. — Phonetic series 463.
inverted gives
Fu2, an oblique line from left to right.
This stroke that seldom occurs in the
ancient writing, is now frequently used as an abbrevia-
tion.
and combined, give
I*. To cut down with scissors, to mow. See L. 39 B.
LESSON 8.
About the primitive
I4. To draw, to drag; Forms several
compounds, for ex.
I*. A crooked arrow, a dart, kept by a thread, to kill

birds. In the modern writing, the hook was changed
in t o a point; and that represents the thread or the
action of drawing the arrow back, became . It forms
the 56th radical in K'ang-hsi.
I4. To draw. See L. 50 F. — Phonetic series 213.
The same in ti4, L. 135 G. — in pa2, L. 134.A.

1 1
In hsi , L. 92 B. — IN cheng , L. 49 D, whe-
re became in the modern writing.
inverted gives
I4. To drag; Is found in
Yu2. To drag, to trail. See L. 50 G.

34 Etymological Lessons. 9.10.
LESSON 9.
About the primitives i1 and ya2.

I1. Germination; it represents the germ that strives
to get out; Hence,
general notion of movement, of effort. Cyclical charac-
ter. To be distinguished from B;
— It is the 5th radical. Among its derivati-
ves, note L. 90 B, L. 129 A, and
Shih1. To let slip from the hand, to lose. See
L 48 B. — Phonetic series 155.
Ya2. Swallow, It represents the jerking

flying of this bird, . To be distinguished
from A; —Phonetic series 1. Logical
aggregates, , L. 94 A, B, etc. The modem wri-
ting is
Ya2 Swallow, the jerking bird. See L. 138.
Note: The scribes often write as an abbreviation of

intricate compounds. In
that case, it is n either i1 nor ya2, but a conventional sign. For instance, for
, etc.
LESSON 1O.
About the primitive and its two important compounds, and , with their
series; then about the derivatives , a group apart .
Yin3. Curve; to cover, to conceal;
First series: combined with — ( L . 1), gives

Hsi3. Chest, trunk, box;
Therefore — represents the cover, the chest
or the action of containing. —It is the 23th radical. —
Note the next derivatives:
Lou4. Shut up, in a confined space;
As in a cliest. It forms the compound
, mean, ugly ; perhaps cave-dwelling moun-
taineers (L. 86 A). — As the engravers often take off
a part of , to make room for , this character
might seem to be derived from (L. 41 A), which
it is not.
Ni4. To hide, to ahseoud; —
(L. 46 G) meaning to collect, to gather, the ag-
gregate means, to gather and to hide in a chest. Pho-
netic series 639.
Note. The derivatives of Hsi, the 23th radical, are to be distinguished from those
of Fang, the 22th radical. In the ancient writing, the two series were distinct; in
the modern writing, they are mingled together. See L. 5t A, and the Lexicon by
order of Radicals.
Second series: combined w i t h (L. 15), gives

Wang2. Primitive meaning, to hide;
Now meaning to enter, means to en-
ter into a hiding place. Derived meanings, to die, to
perish, to van ish. — Phonetic series 35.
Cha4. It is , plus . But

the line representing an obstacle, as in (L.1,I),
the meaning of cha is, to try to hide one's self and to
be hindered. Hence the modern meanings chuan-chu,
suddenly, unexpectedly. — Phonetic series 102. See L.
37 G.
Kai4. To beg, a beggar; A
wandering man, who seeks a refuge in a foreign
country, begging alms for his livelihood;
See L. 54 A. In the old
form, and were in juxtaposition; then co-
vered . Note the fanciful modern contractions of
this character.- It forms an important compound
See L. 73 A.
36 Etymological Lessons. 10
Sang1. Etymologically.
to weep over the dead; funerals. This compound
is a typical picture of the Chinese thing which it me-
ans: to howl with several mouths, as dogs do,
over a dead person. Meanings chuan-chu, to die,
to destroy. Note the contraction of the lower part of
the modern character.
Wu2. A multitude
(L 24 H) of me", acting upon a forest, felling
the trees, clearing of wood a tract of land. In the old
form J, stated t h a t the wood had vanished. Hence
chuan-chu the general abstract notions of vanishing,
defect, want, negation. — Phonetic series 718.
Note. The study of this second series, E F G H I J, proofs wit h evidence that it
is impossible to understand the characters, if one attends only to the modern forms,
Third series : combined w i t h ten (L.-24), and eye (L. 158), gives
the interesting following compounds :
Chih2. Perfectly right, n o t curved in the l e a s t ;

The eyes h a v i n g looked
at something, d id not discover a n y deviation. Pho-
netic series 335. — N o t e t h e r i g h t way of w r i t i n g t h i s
character. The modern engravers cut , so that one
may believe it is composed of two strokes . The scri-
bes often change it in to a single horizontal line ,etc.
Chen1. Perfectly t r u e ; So-

mething having been exposed on a pedestal, ten
eyes could not find a n y f a u l t in it... The of the pe-
destal was mingled w i th the lower p a r t of . Perfect genuineness of nature
b e i n g the characteristic of the Taoist Genii, the scope at which the Taoist
transformation (L. 30 D) of man aims, the Taoisls replaced by at the
top of chen (contraction). The calligraphic remarks
made about , are to be made here also. — Phonetic series 509.
2
Te . The rectitude of the,
heart. In modern writing, the was bent down
to gain room (L. 158 A), the is often reduced to
a small horizontal stroke. — It forms the compound
te2, moral conduct ( L. 63 A) directed by a
righteous heart, righteousness, virtue. — Another
compound is
T'ing 4 Rectification
of the h e a r t heart of a disciple (L. 81 0) or an
aud itor, by his ear (L. 146 A). To hear, to listen,
to be attentive, to conform to instruction, to obey...
ting is also phonetic. — It forms the compound
T'ing 1. From shelter and to hear. An open
hall, used for meetings, teaching, official proclama-
tions (L. 59 J ).
Hsiao1 has n o thin g in common with this series.

Note:
See LL. 12 N, a n d 160 A.
Lesson 11.
about , three series perfectly distinct in the ancient writing, but

mingled together in the modern writing.
First series: hsun4. Before s t u d y i n g this primitive, one must explain

Fei1. To fly. A primitive. It represents a crane (very
common in China) seen from behind. Upwards, the
head a n d the neck bent u p , as when the cranes arc
flying. Below, the tail. On both sides, the wings
fluttering. The small strokes represent the q ui ll s se-
parated when the bird is flying.
— It is the 183th radical in K'ang-hsi. That
being granted, one may now explain
Hsun4. To hover. A primitive. Compare with A. The

crane is hovering; its wings do not flutter. The feathers
being close together, are not visible;
— Phonetic series 20. Note the
compound
Shih 1 . Formerly, it meant the mosquito, the hove-
ring insect, forming swarms, that bites men ;
Now this character means a louse. Note its
abbreviated form t h at it commonly called
pan4 feng1, half wind. However (L. 21 B) has no-
t hing in common with . See also hsu4, below G.
Second series: Chi*. Is derived from the p r i m i t i v e

Chi*. To catch. This primitive is found only in one
compound, with the hand (L i8), which gives
Chi*. To do, to hold. It represents the hand doing or

keeping something; forms
important compounds in which it is nearly always
wrongly shaped. The scribes write (as above B), or
(as below J), or (L 21 ), etc. See shu2, L.
4 2
75 E; i , L. 79 K; chih , L. 102 G; lo3, L
74 B;etc.
K'ung3. To do a work (L. 82 A), by pressing or

knocking; Notice the com-
pounds k'ung3, pulsations of the heart, fear;
2
and chu , to build a clay-wall by battering mud
betwen boards a n d mats. — Phonetic series
226, u n d er its modern form.
Hsu4. The e n d of t h e night, before d a w n ; the time

for oblations a n d sacrifices;
Lit. To present one's self before dawn, when
it is still night, while holding one's ofl'ering for
sacrifice. — In the modern form, mutilated covers
Compare with feng1 denived from fan2,L. 21 B.
Inverted, forms
Chu2. To seize, to hold;
This ancient form is no longer used and was replaced
by .
Both combined form

Tou4. To seize each other, to fight;
— It is the 191th radical in K'ang-hsi, not
to he confounded wi th the 169th radical.
Third series. wan2.

Wan2. A p i l l , a n y t h i n g round. Often used for the
preceding . It is chai3 i nverted (L. 59 E). — The
deri vatives of (phonetic series 34) are to he distin-
guished from those of (L. 21; phonetic series 19).
It is sometimes difficult to make the distinction.
LESSON 12.
Tins lesson contains three series, , a n d an appendix.
First series: chuan3.
Chuan3. Small water course, rivulet;

A primitive. Forms some important compounds,
as:
Shui 3 . Water, small river; The four strokes

added to the rivulet represent the waves of the water.
See L. 125. — It is the 85lh radical in K'ang-hsi.
Yu1. Primitive meaning, to sound a ford. A man

crossing writer, holding with the hand a
stick ( L. 43 [)), s o u n d i n g t he river with a stick;
An ancient form is
s i m p l y composed of
water and to sound. —
Chuan-chu the place where one is going. Often used chia-chieh as a relative
pronoun. — Phonetic series 318, in which the radical is placed under
etc. In these compounds. may be easily taken for the
radical; in real Ry is but a part of the phonetic. The small stroke at the
right of is what remains of in the modern writing. — Note that has no
relation with this character; it is an arbitrary abbreviation of pi4, pei4 (L. 54
G).
Second series: kuai4. It is doubled

Kuai 4. A river, a stream larger than
This character, now obsolete, was replaced
by . — Forms some compounds, for instance
Lin2. A torrent (L. 126 D).
Yu2. A boat ( L. 14 F).
Note that engravers substitu te for the character ,

easier to be engraved.
But being also an abbreviation lor , the l8th radical, this double employ of
the same sign brings confusion.
Third series: ch'uan1. It is repeated thrice.

Ch'uan 1 . A river, a bi g stream formed by the junc-
tion of several others;
Note the differences in the modern writing. — It is the
47th radical. P honetic series 18 Note the following
compounds:
Lieh4. Bubbles; The phonetic is not

hsi4 ( the 36th r ad ical), as the modern character
might suggest; it is tai3 (the 78th radi c al) contrac-
ted, It forms the i m p o r t a n t compound lieh4 (L.
52 D).
Yung1. Moats. In
the w r i t i n g ta-chuan, instead of i4, city ( L . 74 C),
there was , representing circumvallations (L. 90 G);
— It forms the compound
Yung1. Wagtail; the bird that likes the sides

of moats . This character is the important
phonetic 769, under its modern contracted form
( takes the place of , and
Of . See L. 74 C, and the series hsiang1, L. 26 M.
1
C hi n g . The u nd e r gr ou n d water courses, so i m p o r -
tant in the Chinese geomancy feng-shui.
The
currents of water that flow under the surface
of the ground (L. 1 . 1 ) . The p ho n eti c is not kung1
(L. 82), as the modern character m i g h t induce one to
believe, it is t'ing2 (L. 8l D). The primitive
meaning was perhaps to ex a mi n e the underground
veins. — Phonetic series 262.
Tsai 1 . A ct u al mean in g chuan-chu, calamity, misfor-
tune; . Primitive
sense,
A river barre d (L. 1 ,3 ) , which causes t he
c a l a m i t y of i n u n d a t i o n . The character now used to
mean calamity, is the c o m p o u n d , t h a t represents
indifferently either a flood ( water), or a fire (
fire). Note moreover the n ext compound:
Tzu 1 . Grounds uncultivated,
exposed to floods;
One writes now Th
character tzu1
must be carefu lly distinguished
from tzu1 (L. 150) t h a t forms th e phonetic series
406. The two have no co n n e ct i o n whatever. — The
engravers o ft en cu t , instead of , because it is
easier; hence the c o n f u s i o n of series.
H uang 1 . Devastation, ravage caused by the

rivers; , See L 10 E. - It forms.
H u a ng 1 . Wild, barren, drought,
a co nsequence of inundations for
the, plauts. Phonetic series 536.
K'an3. Incorr uptible uprightness,

inflexible rigidity
of principles;
Fidelity ( , an ancient
form of ) to one's principles, constant as the
current of a river. See L. 25 H.
Chou1 Main lands inhabita ble (iles or continents),

surrounded by waters. The lands are represented by
three points in the modern writin g , and by three
rounds in the old writing. This character was composed of two superposed.
Appendix: In a l l the f o l l o w i n g characters, is not ch'uan, hut it represents

the hair. Nevertheless they are nearly all classified under the 47th radical.
See L 40 B.
Tzu3. Different wr iti ng of , a child horn with hair.

See L. 94 A.
T'u2. The l a st inverted. P r i m i t i v e sense, partus ce-

phalicus, t h e h a i r y head coming first. See L. 94 F.
Shou 3 . A h a i r y head. See L. 160 A
Hsiao1. The last inverted. Head of a criminal h u n g

up, as a lesson; the h a i r h angs down. See LL 160 A,
119K.
Oh'ao 2 . A bir d' s nest u p o n a ( r e e , t h e b i r d covering

it; The at the
top ot a tree is the. nest (a p r i m i t i v e , a n d not both
hands (1, 50, A ) ; represent s t h e feathers o f t h e bird
brooding on the nest. N ote t ha t this character has
n o t h i n g in common w i t h kuo3 (L. 110 F), though
t h e engravers a l w a y s c u t it in t h a t way. — Phonetic
series 594.
LESSON 13.
About the p r i m i t i v e
Ch'ui2. An object suspended, a pendant; with its
multiples
First series: doubled . It is f o u n d in

3
Shan .
A thief bringing under his arms stolen things ( a
ma n , L. 60 A). It forms the compound
Shen3, the name of the Province of Shen-si.
Lai2. represents bearded ears of

corn hanging
down, ; the other part of the
character is a primitive, representing the plant. A sort
of bearded barley, which constituted the main food of
the people und er the Dynasty. This character now
means chia-chieh to come, the contrary of to go.—
Phonetic series 374. Note the following derivatives:
Mai 4 . It is composed of and
of (the 35th radical) to ad-
vance; ripening corn. Now, ei-
ther barley or wheat, according to HIP times, the pla-
ces, or the epithet added to it. — It is the 199th radi-
cal of a group of characters relating to corn.
Sbe4. Primitive sense, corn
gathered in the barn;
; this character is now written . Meaning chuan-

chu, thrift, parsimony; for the. countrymen are not
inclined to waste corn that cost them so much labour.
— Note how, in the modern character, the bottom of
and the top of were blended into a —...
Yin4.
logical aggregate. A dog (
L. 134) that s hows his teeth, the
points of which are. represented by instead of
(page 16, notice 1) . It forms the phonetic compound
yin4, to desire, to ask, etc.
Note: chia4, to pinch (L. 27 F); tsu2, soldier (L. 16 M ) ; as well as

different others (27 B C D E), have nothing in common with the primitive
which is spoken of here.
Second series: A repealed twice and superposed . It represents

the hair of the eye-brows, in the hanging fruits in
Mei2, eye-brow, L. 7 A. T'iao2, to bear fruit, L 41 E

Third series: repeated four times . Note t h e arbitrary deformation of

the modern forms in this series
Ch'ui2. A bough loaded with leaves and drooping

flowers; This character,
now obsolete, was superseded by the n ex t compound,
its synonym and homophone
Ch'ui 2 . To hang, to be suspended from. It is the last

character combined with t'a3, the earth (L. 81), the
leaves hanging down towards the earth. — Phonetic
series 485.
Hua 1 . Flower;
The vernal expansion ( L . 58 E) of lea-
ves a n d flowers. In t h e second a n c i e n t ch ar act er,
is a r adical r e d u n d a n c e (L . 78 B) . — P h o n e t i c series
687. -- The modern character , means the term of
vegetal ev olut i on, t h e flower ( L . 30 D).
Ch'a4. Divergency, error, etc. It is a logical aggregate.

See L. 46 C, where this character was f ully explai-
ned. — Phonetic series 500.
4
SU Pongee, silk obtained from the cocoons of
wild silkworms, collected on the boughs of mulber-
ries. Chuan-chu, na tur a l, sim ple. — Phonetic series
568.
K u a i 1 . It represents the torso, back view. The verti-

cal l i n e is t h e spine, represents the muscles on
each side, — represents the waist;
— It forms
Chi2. Spine, back ( L. 65).

So far, all is right. But there wat a n ot h e r
Kuai 1 . Odd. singular, irregular. See L 103 C.
The scribes confounded these two kuai1. So well defined and

distinct in the
ancient writing, and they formed the single modern character , which resembles
neither of them. Now one may read in K'ang-hsi,
under the arbitrary radical kuai, spine, odd,
irregular.
Who is to blame, if the students not forewarned, find Chinese
characters absurd
and inexplicable?
LESSON 14
A b o u t the p r i m i t i v e a n d its more i m p o r t a n t derivatives.

Three series,
Chi2. Notion of union, of assemblage, of a junction

of different elements, represented by three lines. Three
is used to mean m a n y ; . A primitive,
w h i c h is n o w c o m m o n l y superseded by t h e character
chi2 ( L . 119 G ) . It forms
First series;
Ho2. U n i o n , a g r e e m e n t , h a r m o n y ;
Etymologically,
many ( t h r e e ) mouths ( L . 72) speaking together;
good understanding. — Phonetic series 198. — Note
the two following compounds:
Ta2. Vetch, pea, vegetables
whose boughs are joined, get
entangled. Chuan-chu, to join,
to adapt, to answer. In the last
sense, this character is now
written , which is unautho-
rised. — Phonetic series 570.
Yen3. To j oin the hands
to cover so mething; to cover.
See L. 47 L — Phonetic series
496.
46 Etymogical Lessons 14.
1
She . A shed, a booth;
Joining of walls in beaten earth
and of thatch (LL. 74 and 78). In its modern form,
this character seems to be derived from (L. 102 C,
1 3 5 t h radical), under which it was classified by
K'ang-hsi. Rut there is no relation whatever between
3
both. It forms the compound she , to part with,
to reject, and the logical aggregate
2
Yu . I. me;
Comp osit io n :
to distinguish (L. 1 8 ) ;
contracted, being replaced by
. The Chinese
custom requires that anyone enteri ng a house,
should make known his presence and distinguish
hi ms el f from any other person by c r yi ng o u t : It is
I, so and so, who comes for such a n d such a purpose.»..
A man entering a house and k e e p i n g silence, is liable
to suspicion. — P h o n et i c scries 3 1 9 It forms the,
phonetic complex
2
Ch'a . T e a ; The
modern s c r i b e s m u ti l a t e d the an-
cient form. — Phonetic series 507.
4
Hui . To gather, a me eting ;
To order , to add (contracted,
L. 40 D). The ancient c haracter was simpler;
To assemble
a multitude represented by three. — Phonetic
scries 736.
1
Ch'ien . Meeting, together; . From
to gather, from several men, from
several mouths. It is a w e l l k n o w n fact t h a t a Chinese
cro wd cannot keep silent. — Phonetic series 726.
2
Yu A small boat, a primitive barge;
Junction of a few planks,
forming a bout , to go up the river (L. 12 D).
Note for (. L. 66). Note also t h a t the engravers
often cut instead of , which wrongfully reminds
of the 18th radical (L. 52). — Phonetic series 501.
Lun2. To gather documents (L. 156), to com-

pare, to me ditate, to develop them ;
Yao4. This character, w hich is much like the

precedin g, is not derived f r o m it.
A flute, a p a nd ea n pipe. Assemblage of se-

veral bamboos, the holes of w hic h are disposed in
a row, and t h a t gives sounds together;
Now, accord, h a r m o n y , in g e n e r a l. — It is
the 214th radical of characters r e l a ti n g to pipes a n d si-
m i l a r instruments. — Phonetic series 835.
Note, th e two f o l l o w i n g charact ers: ling 4 , decree;

a n d its compou nd by the. a d ditio n of a month,
4
ming , order. T h e r e is a dif ference b e twe e n th em.
: to lix upon a written
order t h e seal ( L. 55 B) w h i c h m a k e s it a w r i t of
exe cution. ; an order gi-
ven orally. — In t h e
philosophical language, m eans the decree by which
h e a v e n c a l l s men to life, a n d d e t e r m i n e s t h e ir f a t e . Two
a n c i e n t characters expre ss this m e a n i n g w e l l :
mouth of heaven d i c t a ti n g to a man h is d e s t i n y b e t -
ween heaven a n d earth (L . 2 D ) . . . combining
of t h e destiny of a man.
J Note. In the modern w r i t i n g , may be easily confounded with

11th radical, L 15), ( 12th radical, L 18), ( 9 t h radical, L. 25) placed
on the. top of a compound K'ang-hsi arbit r aril y classified under
under , etc. But the horizontal li n e of , some vestige of
which generally remains, is the test t h a t manifests t h e mistake. Its presence is
indicative of a derivative from . — See L. 15 B.
Second series; . This character is put apart from the derivatives of ,
on account of its many and important sub-derivatives.
Chin 1 . The actual moment; notion of actuality, of
presence;
The composition is taulologic; union,
contact. Note that is often written . For the old
forms of chi2, see L. 19 E — Phonetic series 17. It
forms
Han2, hen2. To hold in the mouth ( to have actually

in the mouth);
Meaning chuan-chu, to co ntain, to shut up. — Pho-
netic series 272. — It is d istinct from yin2, to
mutter, which is composed of the same elements.
T'an1. To covet;
The feeling moved by the presence precious
object Its phonetic compounds are unimportant.
Nien4. To remember, to th i n k again o f ;

, To make actually present
to the heart, to the mind, a fart of the past.
Derived meanings, to speak of, to recite, to read; these
actions reviving, making actual, the idea of a thing
passed or absent. — Phonetic series 385.
Yin3. wine (L. 41 G), new. It forms
Yin3. To d r i n k ; to water. This character is now

written ,a wrongly chosen compound, for it means
to wish for food. There were formerly three chara-
cters
Yin3. To have water in one's presence ; to

drink.
Yin3. To have food at one's disposal ; to eat.
Yin3. To wish for wine: to drink.

The first character, which was the right one, became
obsolete. An element was taken from each of the last
two. Thus was made the irregular character
Yin 1 . Cloudy weather;

Lit. There are actually clouds
(L 93 A). In the dualist system, yin denotes the
inferior pri nc iple (obscurity ), by opposition to
yang the superior princ i pl e (light). The compounds
and are now used. yin1, the shady Northern
watershed of a v a l l e y ; yang2, the s u n n y South
watershed . See L. 86 A.
Ch'en1. The sharp pike of a mountain (L. 80). It

is a phonetic complex; — Phonetic
series 253.
Ch'in 2 . A phonetic complex. See L. 23 E.

Ch'in2. A phonetic comp lex. See L. 83 B. Note the
contraction.
Third series:
Chin 1 . Metal. According to the Chinese geology, the

metals are born from the earth. Hence the
etymology:
In the hosom of the earth , two grains or
nuggets of gold; is phonet ic . The bottom stroke of
is combined w ith the top of , and is sometimes
in verted, as stated above K. This interpretation was
made by Li-ssu. — The old character was composed of
four nuggets, of horizontal lines denoting the stratifi-
cation of the metalliferous layer, and lastly of a cover
which meant that the whole was conceited under
the earth. Evidently a primitive. — It
is the 167th radical of a group of characters describing
metals and their uses.
LESSON 15.
About ll>e primitive and its derivatives.
Ju3. To enter, to put in, to penetrate into;
The character represents
the penetration of roots into the earth ; the vertical
l i n e representing the plant, the two descending lines
denoting the roots. It is the reverse of ch'u1, to go
out (L. 78 E), that represents a plant growing
upw ards; — It is the 11th radical.
2
Ch'uan . Complete, entire, perfect. The etymologists
give two different interpreta tions of this character:
1. The ol d one : The work
(L. 82) is ordered , linished, complete, perfect.
According to this etymology, is derived f r o m
(L. 1 4 ) a n d not f r o m The b ot tom stroke of is
c o m b i n e d together w i t h the t o p stroke of
2. The modern one:
A jade (L. 83) spotless, perfect; would he
an abbreviation of yen3 (L. 117 B) , used as a
phonetic. This unli ke ly supposition is of Li-s su.
Ph o netic series 192, u n d e r its present Conn.
N ei l To enter, interior, into;
See chiung3, t he outside, L. 34
A. — Phonetic, series 74. It forms
O4. Na4 To speak in a whisper, as it were i nt o
one's month.
Note the mod ern form contracted. Taken for (the
c o m p o u n d for t h e sim p le, p. 16, I ) , it forms t h e two
following characters:
Yu4. To penetrate into , to
pierce with a sharp instrument
( L. 95 C). — Phonetic series 720.
Hsi1. Swallow;
A bird
that builds its nest within
the dwel lings (a thing common in China); (and not
, as the modern cha-
racter might induce to believe) represents the head (L. 78 A), says the Glose. It
m a y b e so; it seems probable however that represents the grass with which
the swallow stuffs its nest. — Phonetic series 840. is a wrong abbreviation of
this character (see L. 87 C).
The following character is d e r i v e d from , a n d not from . It is formed by

combination and fusion of and . The mouth at the bottom of the
compound, belongs to (L. 73 C).
Shang 1 . To give advice, to consult, 1o deliberate;

To express , one's interior feelings.
In t h e old c h a r a c t e r there, were two d a y s added,
which proves that the deliberations of old,
were n o t shorter t h a n the p re s e n t t i m e onos; they
p r o b a b l y took place d u r i n g the n i g h t , betw een two
days, ju st as now; —
In the sense of trade, is chia-chieh for its com-
pound w ith (L. 161, cowry, the money of the an-
cients), trade, being made with talk and money.
The Glose says so.
E In the modern writing, became on the top of wang2 (L. 10 E),
lin3 (L. 76 B); and in erh3 (L. 18 0). — Two are a part of the
3
character liang "(L. 35 H I).
LESSON 16.
About the primitive

I 1 . Clothes, a cover, cloak. The summary outlines of
c lothing. On the tup. the, u p p e r garments a n d sleeves,
At the bottom, the robes wavin g a n d
d raggling, — It is t h e 145th
r adical of a large group of characters relating to
garments. The phonetic complexes are not important;
note i1, to rely on, to trust to. Note the modern
contracted form, and compare it with that of
113th radical (L. 3 D).
Note. In composition, has three positions. — 1. One the l e f t side of the cha-
racter. It is then contracted u n d e r the form . — 2. on the top or at the bottom,
it is then unchanged. — 3. Cut i n t o two halves, on the top, at the bottom,
the phonetic being introduced between the two. These characters are n o t to be
confounded with those belonging to th e 8th radical is the test; a n y
time
one sees at the bottom of a compound, the n it is a derivative of 145th ra-
dical, not of 8th radical. — 4. Note also that in some characters, as a conse-
quence of the fusion with an element placed on the top, the upper part of is
quite altered in the modern forms. The lower part has also been altered in the
character (L. 16 M).
52Etymological Lessons, 16.
Examples of the four remarks.
Note the fo ll o wi ng derivatives;

Ch'u1. Beginning;
A knife and garments; for, says the Glose, the
cutting is the first thing required to make clothes.
. This is quite true!
Nai 1 . To bewail, to lament;

Howling of t h e mourners clad in m o u r n i n g
dress.
Shuai1. So1. Straw-clothes against rain ;

(See L. 116). This character is
now written — The modern meaning, decay, is
chia-chieh for , cachexy from malaria, slow
ex haustion caused by the marsh-fever, the disease
of the rainy countries. -- Phonetic series
563,
un der its modern form.
C hung 1 . P ri mitive sense, th e under-garments :

clolhes, inside (L. 109);
Then, by extension, the inside of man, the feelings
of his heart, fidelity.
Kun 3 Official robe of

the Emperor, adorned
w ith dragons; .
See L. 18 C.
Note the modern form. —
Its phonetic complexes
are not important, v. g.
kun3, to bubble.
The two followin g characters a re to be c a r e f u l l y

distinguished:
Li3. The inside, the lining of clothes,

Then, in general, interior, inside. is a
synonym. See L. 149 D.
Ko3. To tie up. Note that
3
lo naked, composed of the same elements, is neith er
an homophone nor a synonyme. See L 120.F.
Hsiang 1 . To take off one's ,robe

, in or d e r to work in common, to help t h e others.
See (L. 72 H) the radical nang2, intricate and unrecog-
nisable in the modern writing. — Phonetic series 831.
Huai 2 . To tie the clothes tight round the body; to

hide in one's bosom; See (L. 100 C) the
phonetic tai V — Phonetie series 820.
Piao3. The outside of the clothes (compare above G).

The first garments were beasts'skins worn with
the ha ir outside;
See
L. 100. — Phonetic series 389.
Yuan2. Trailing robe;

About , contracted a n d combined with , see L,
91 E. — P h o n e ti c series 587. It forms the phonetic
complex
Huan 2 . Timid looks;

See L. 158. — Phonetic, series 734, u n der Its modern
coutracled form.
Tsu2. Soldier, satellite; A

gar me nt , marked with a sign. The u n if o r m of
the a n c i e n t Chinese soldiers, viz. an ordinary garment
w i t h an indicative m a r k ; Then, by
e x te n si o n , t h e man who wears the uniform, a soldier,
a satellite. Lastly, a sudden a n d unexpected accident,
end, death; th e soldiers, says th e Glose, being unceas-
ingly laid open to surprises a n d to death in their
fights against the enemies and against the w i l d beasts.
— Note the alteration of the two modern forms, —
54 Etymological Lessons 17.
LESSON 17.
About the prim itive a n d . in an appendix, about some characters t h a t might

seem to be d e r i v e d from it, b u t t h a t do n o t do so in reality.
Pi ng 1 . To freeze, ice;
It represents t h e rays t h a t
a p p e a r by crystallisation at the sur face of water when
it is freezing. — It. is the. !5th r a d i c a l of characters
r e f e r r i n g to cold, freezing, a n d ice. It forms.
Ping 1 . Ice; water crystallised;

— The scribes often
write , whic h is an u n a u t h o r i s e d form. This is not
to be c o n f o u n d e d w i t h yung3 (L 125 D)
Y e h 3 To f u s e m e la l s, solidification of the melted

metals;
See L. 85 E
T i a o 1 . T a k e n by fr o st , e x h a u s t e d , fading, d y i n g ;
See L. 109 C.
This character suffered f r o m m a n y f a n c i f u l alterations

in t h e course of ages. Its t r u e s o u n d is p ' i n g 2 . It
m e an s a horse s l i p p i n g on ice, nervous, a n -
xious. It forms the homophone derivative
P'ing2. Anxiety of the heart.
Now 1. The first of these, two characters was misused, as

an abbreviation, for the
f a mi l y nnme feng2. 2. The second was misused and written (chia-chieh) for
2
p'ing , proof, evidence, to lean upon. Then the scribes semi-repaired the
mistake, which change gave b i r t h to the new character p'ing 2 , proof, etc.
Etymological Lsssons 17 55
Tung1. Winter. It forms chung 1 , end, extremity, term.
Before explaining these characters, the primitive must be dealt with.

1
Chung . 't represents a
thread skein, the extremity of which is fixed by a tie
or a brooch, to keep it closed. Hence two notions, end
and fixation. — Compare L. 83 B. This character,
in its modern form, is to be distinguished from the
34th, 35th, 36th, 66th radica ls of K'ang-hsi. Now let
us come back to
Tung1. Winter
The frozen end of the year. The old character
meant cessation of the solar action, confinement
of the sun; For,
says the Glose, must be interpreted as in
Lao2, a paddock: oxen confined, In the

modern w r i t i n g . was changed into by the
scribes.
Now Chung1 replaced t he pr i m i t i v e . , in the sense of end, extremity, term.
Appendix
ln the f ollowing characters, is a special primitive,
that has nothing in common with . It means
thongs, folds, in G H I .J; scales, streaks, in K.
Ju 4 jou 4 . Me at, flesh. .Thongs of
dried meat , made up into a bundle (L. 54). The
anc ien t Chinese were used to dry-salt meat, without
smoking it. The pay of a school-master is still called
shu-hsin, because he was formerly paid with
dried meat. See L. 65. — It is t he 130th radical
of many characters rel ating to meat and food. Note
the derivative
Tsu3. Credence-table charged with meat, that was
offered in the sacrifices;
See L. 20 D. K'ang-hsi wrongfully classified this
character under the 9th radical
Etymological Lessons. 17.
Ch'iao 4 . The top lip. flesh above t he mouth

ft forms the phonetic complex
Ch'iao*. To restrain on'es

desires. There are various chia-
chieh.
See L. 55 B This character is now written ;
it is a licence. It forms the phonetic complex
chiao3 the feet. — Distinguish ch'iao4 from ku3
(L. 18 E ) ; the modern writing of both is identic.
T'ien4. This character matches with the preceding.

It means the chin, flesh below the mouth (a
line between the two lips closed ).
The circle depicts the chin-dimple. See L. 41 B.
Hsi2. Thongs of flesh drying or dried in the

sun; Chia-chieh,
formerly, in days of old, ancient; or perhaps chuan-
chu, the dried meat being old, if compared with the
fresh meat. The second ancient form, which is incor-
rect, recalls (L 103 C). The modern form is con-
tracted. — Phonetic series 358. It forms the phonetic
complex
Chi2. Field ploughed by the
Emperor. Appanage. Property.—
Yu2. Fish. See L. 142 A. Here represents the

scales. A sharp head, a scaly body, a tail represented
by (L. 126 C), makeup a fish. The modern character
is contracted. — It is the 195th radical of names and
parts of fish.
Chiao3. Horn. See L. US B. It would be the

preceding, less the tail. For, says the Glose, a
horn resembles a fish. It seems rather to be that
is a primitive, representing the streaks of the
horns. — It is the l48th radical.
Etymological Lessons. |g 57
LESSON 18.
About the primitive , and its derivative , which forms an important group.
First series:
Pa1. Etymological sense, to d ivide, to partake. It is a
primitive representing the division in two parts, the
separation; This character
now means eight, this number being easily divided
into two equal parts (note that four, a square, is a
kind of unity in the Chinese reckoning). — It is the
12th radical. Phonetic series 8. — In the compounds,
placed on the top of the character, is sometimes
reduced to two points in t he modern writing, v.g.
for . Most of the characters having at the bottom
in the K'ang-hsi dictionary, as ,
have really nothing in common with this primitive.
— Note the following derivatives:
Fen1. To divide, to separate, to partake;

knife
(L 52) t h a t divides. Phonetic series 58 It forms
P'in2. Poverty, pecuniary
difficulties. That to which leads
the partition of goods;
was the money of

th e ancients(L. 161 ). The ancient
form is still more expressive;
dwellings,
to partake. Note t h a t the heritage being
equally divided among the male offspring, and the
Chinese families c o unti ng many members, poverty
follows the partition.
Kuug1. Common. Division and distribution of

private goods (L. 89 A);
By extension, justice,
implying a treatment equal for all; while ( L. 71Q)
means justice in the sense of a kind, decent
treatment. — Phonetic series 68. It forms the phonetic
complexes
Sung1. The fie- tribe;

— Phonetic
series 394.
\Veng1.
Hairs or feathers in the neck.
The modern m eaning, old man,
sir, is a chia-chieh; the characters and were
chosen to denote, appellations of politeness which
existed before;
Phonetic series 584. See. kun2, L. 16 F, etc.
Pan4. To divide in two by the middle, equa ll y;

a half;
Etymologically, to divide an ox in two parts,
in all its length, as the, butchers do, hefore the
c u t t i n g up. — Phonetic series 144. K'ang-hsi w r o n gl y
classified this character under the radical
Y e n 3 , The ravines, on the m o u nt ains' ridges;

separation and flowing of wate rs ;
. — Phonetic series 169. Note the phonetic
complex ch'uan2, a boat. Distinguish from
1
pan , I. 66 B. See L. 29 D.
K u 3 . A deep h o l l o w , a gorge, a torrent;

— It is t h e 150th
radical Phonetic series 284. Distinguish ku3 from
4
ch'iao , L. 17 H. The two are i d e n t i c in t h e modern
wr i t i ng. — It forms
Jung 2 , yung2. To contain, to

Shut up; . From to cover,
and hollow, a recipient;
. Chuan-chu, to endure, to hear,
to compose one's
demeanour, a mask, a face made to
disguis
e
the depths of the heart. — Phonetic series 542.
Ilsun 4. A ravine, a torrent. See L 118 D .

Chieh 4 . Boundaries, limits; the tines that
separate men.
Pi2. Certainly, necessarily. An arrow that divides

, t h a t solves a d o u bt , a dilemma;
It seems to have primitiv ely
been a k i n d of interjection pointing o u t a strict order;
There are, different meanings derived
from it. K'ang-h si wrongly classified this character
u n d e r t h e radi cal . — Phonetic series 148. It forms
the phonetic co mplex
Mi4. A quiet retreat (L. 36),
close, still, silen t; . —
P h o n e t i c series 383. It forms
Mi4. A grotto, secret, mysterious
( L . 80); Etc.
Second series:
Hsiao3. Small, trifling, mean; This
idea is represented by the partition of an object
already sm all by its nature;
— It is the 42th radical. It forms
Chien 1 . Point, sharp. A big object (L. 60) that

becomes small on its top It is a vulgar
modern character.
Hsiao4. To he like one's father, not degenerate;

Small flesh , offspring, like the
big flesh, one's parent... pu-hsiao, to be
degenerate; —
Phonetic series 277. In the modern writing, some
derivatives of (L. 65 D) v.g. , seem to be derived
from ; the scribes are the cause of this mistake,
as of so many others.
So3- A smal l object, not larger than the (L.
161) cowries used as money by the ancients.
In that sense, this
character is now written . — Phonetic series 566.
4
Hsi . Chink, fissure very small, that leaves
passage for a sl ender light (L. 88);
Note how the
top of disappeared, by its fusion with the upper
. This character is now replaced by the compound
hsi4, chink, fissure.
Mu 4 . Striped;
This character is derived from the preceding; the
on the top was suppressed, and replaced by (L. 62
A) stripes, added at the bottom. It forms mu4, the
waving of grain; chuan-chu, grace, amenity.
Shao3 Little, few, wanting; It comes

from to diminish that which is already small;
See L 7 A sheng1. — Phonetic series 80 It forms

Sha1. Sediment, gravel or sand
deposed by water.
That which appears, when water

decreases. — Phonetic series 302. It forms
Miao 3 . To contract the
eyelids, or to use one eye on-
ly, in order to examine att ent ively
a subtile object. By
extension, subtle , confused — Phonetic series 465.
Chiao3. Is derived from , and not from .A

sparrow. Lit.
the small bird that lives from the, superfluit y
of m e n; an d , by extension, a n y small bird. Note, tha t
the that reminds of , belongs to . See an
analogous case in ( L. 34 F). — forms
t h e following compound, in which passed through
a still more singular alteration in t he modern writing.
Chieh2. To c ut off;
See 71 F. Not to he
confounded with the
d e r i v a t i v e s of , L. 96 B.
For
hsing3, see L. 158 D.
Appendix: The following characters have nothing in common with nor

with See L. 36 E, L. 35 F, L 92 A, L. 124 A, L. 75 C,
L. 3 D, L. 59 C, L. 126 E, L. 112 G, L, etc. The following is
derived from and not from
Erh3. A final used as a f u l l stop, equivalent to a

there now, that is done; At
the end of a phrase, the voice is drawn in, and the
reserve of breathing is sent forth;
It is now used
(chia-chieh for L. 35 L) as a personal pronoun,
thou, you. The modern compound is used for the
same purpose.
LESSON 19.
About the two series and
First series;
Nai3. A primitive. A difficulty of breathing; any

difficulty in general; It is intended
to represent the air curling to make its way through
the wind-pipe. A sigh, a cry. This character, or rather
the sound that is written , is in style an important
connective particle, a , as say the
Chinese etymologists; the
conjunctions being not meaning characters, but exclamations to make the
hearer understand, how that which one is to say, is connected with that which
one has just said — Phonetic series 7. In reality, does not form a series.
Among the derivatives ascribed to it, i Those in nai are arbitrary abbreviations
of more intricate forms, e. g. for nai3, mil k. 2 Those in eng and ing belong
to the phonetic (later on ) jeng1, for which was written from immemorial
time. meant the shrieking gry of a bird surprised on its nest, a meaning
analogous to that of (See L. 41 D, and L. 10 A). Now and being
both read nai, are used one for another, and is the graphic radical of a series
that has no relation whatever with it.
To this character combined with chih3 (L. 31 B), is ascribed the compound
Ying 2 . Note the fusion of the from ,with the
from . Success, h a p p y issue. To get well out of
a difficulty; . It forms with the dish
(L. 157), the compound
Ying2. The
a b u n d a n c e that comes to one when, by one's efforts,
one arrived to fill with provisions one's vessels.
The etymologists give also as a de ri va ti ve of

Yun4. To be with c h i l d , , This derivation
is a fancy one, as the c o m me nt at or s admit. In this
character, is a primitive, that represents the
closing in of t he (L, 94 A) foetus by the womb.
Note. L. 22 C, a n d L. 23 B, have nothing in common w i t h
Second series:
Chi 2 . To reach, to seize, to ca t c h;

hand that seizes a man. Not con-
nected with . — Phonetic series 40. Note the
compound
Chi 2 . An emotion of the heart; with that

which occasionally ensues, haste, zeal, impatience,
hatred, etc. Note how the old form of was preser-
ved in the modern character
E Note: had old forms, primitives, now obsolete, but that may be still found
in compounds. Those forms are
For instance at the bottom of
Chin1. L. 14 K. Shih4. L 34 D.
LESSON 2O.
About the primitive , and its derivative that forms important compounds.
First series:
Chi 4 A seat, a stool; — It
forms the artificial 16th radical. Phonetic series 4.
Derivatives
Ch'u3, ch'u4. To stop in a place, to sojourn; a

place; The
p r i m i t i v e idea is to have found a seat, a place of
rest. In the m o de r n character, hu is a phonetic
redundancy. Compare L. 32 C.
P'i ng 2 . To lean u p , to sit do wn;

(L. 82 C). To lean one's self on a stand.
By extension, moral help, proof, evidence. This cha-
racter is now written or L. 17 E.
Note: is written as an ar b it r ar y abreviation of more intricate phonetics,
e.g. chi1 for dearth, famine.
Second series.
Ch'ieh3. A partial primitive. It was formerly pro-
nounced tsu3 or chu3. It represents a small square
stand, with shelves superposed; this utensil, so
common in China, was primitively used at sacrifices;
the — lower stroke represents the earth. See L.
17 G, the modern form more explicit ( the stand,
the meat placed upon it );
Now changed
its meaning and became (cbia-chieh) an important
conjunction, — Phonetic series HO. It
forms the phonetic complexes
Chu4. To help; To exert one's

strength (L. 53) for others. The fanciful ways of
engravers are the cause why this character is often
mistaken for a compound of the 109th radical. See the
lead cut character here joined. — Phonetic series 264.
Ch'a2. A proper Dame; Chia-chieh for

. to examine, to search. — Phonetic series 420. See
below, note.
Cha1. A proper name; — Phonetic
series 589. See below note.
Note. The engravers fancifully cut the two preceding

characters, F and G, as here joined, which leads one to
mistake them for derivatives from L. 143 B. —
These characters, with their series, would, according
to the Chinese etymologists, origi nate from the Kiang-
su. Hence the ir a n o m a l o u s pr o n u nc ia ti o n. It is an effect
of the dialect. See pp. 15 a n d 16
LESSON 21
About the primitive fan2.
Fan2. Idea of generality, of universality;

This character was differently explained by the
philolog ists. — Some, starting f r o m an ancient form
that was probably but an abbreviation, explain:
( a n old form, L 19 E) .
The num-
ber of heaven a n d earth, generalised by ; a l l be i ngs e xi st a n t . — The classi-
cal form of t h e character seems to denote a more, n a t u r a l e x p l a n a t i o n : the
unity, the origin of beings a n d numbers (L. 1 A ), contained in a k i n d of p r i m i t i -
ve, which denotes the generalisation of a p ar ticular case. It is the t r u e n o t i o n of
. — Phonetic series 19. The scribes often write. instead of or (L. 11
E J). See also (L. 11 G ) .
Feng1. The wind; For, says the

Glose, when the wind blows, insects are born;
This composition and interpretation are in the
manner of Li-ssu. —The ancient character was derived
from sun, motion (L. 7 A),
extension,
expansion. A l l this seems to mean that the atmos-
pheric currents are produced by the action of solar
rays; which is t r ue for some wind s. — It is the 182th
radical of a group of characters relating to storms,
etc. Phonetic series 439. See ( L. 1 f C).
Feng4. The male phoenix. A modern character;

See the old character, L. 64 I.
P'ei4. Small ornaments made of jade or ivory, scent-
cushions, hanging from the girdle, when full dress is
worn. Anything
worn by a man on the piece of li ne n which,
b eing rolled up, makes a gi r dle (L. 35 A). This cha rac-
ter seems to be of a relatively modern origin.
LESSON 22.
About the p r i m i ti v e , and its derivative
First series:
Shu2, ch'u2. The j er k y flapping of a short w i n g ;
Then, in general,
any rhythmical and jerky motion. The derivatives of
must be carefully distinguished from those of L.
19, and L. 20; in the modern writing, this distin-
ction is not easy to be made. Forms
Fu2. A wild duck; the bird which flies
heavily;
To3. The balancing of twigs and flowers. It is used

as a specificative of flowers, i-to hua.
— Phonetic series 240. Note the modern form
Second series;
Shu2, ch'u2. The right hand making a jerky
motion; to strike; . By extension,
a slick, a ferule. — It is the 79th radical. Phonetic
series 51. Note the following derivatives
Shan4; Jerky
motion of the scythe that cuts the grass ; to mow.
Ku3; . The upper part of the

thigh,
the fleshy part of man's body, upon which the
mandarins of old bestowed the ferule bountifully.
Tien4; . The. great hall of a
tri bunal,
where flogging was given on the breech;
a realistic.but exact description. The modern scribes
write . See L. 32 A.
She4. To notify an order;
to set in order, in the Asiatic way, with many cries
and strokes;
I4. The satellites; those who, being armed with a

wh ip or a bamboo, prowl about every where,
lo o k in g f o r a v i c t i m ;
Other i m p o r t a n t derivatives w i l l bo explained elsewhere, e, g. tuan4 L 164 D,

ch'ing 4 L. 173, pan1 L 66 B Etc.
LESSON 23
A b o u t the two p rimitiv es and
First series:
Chiu3. Nine; a numerical sign, without any other
signification; . — Phonetic scries
5. It forms
Hsiu4. This character was made, they say, to be
used as the name of the. founder of the Hou-han
Dynasty, Liu-hsiu. At his birth,
a story says there were found,
hanging down from o ne only stalk,
nine
b e a u t i f u l ears. This phenomenon was regarded as a
presage of the Emperor's future elevation. Hence
This auspicious character
was used to designate the bachelors hsiu-ts'ai,
in imperial times. In t he modern writing, was
changed into (See L. 19 ). — Phouetic series 278.
Second series:
Jou3. The h i n d legs a n d lail of an a n i m a l ; (he track
of an animal's paws a n d rail; a step;
It is a p r i m i t i v e t h a t has n o t h i n g in common
with . — It is th e 114th radical. F o u n d in
Yu2. It represents an insect with a big lail, probably
t h e sc or pion. Name of the c e l e b r a t e d
Emperor who was the f o u n d e r of t h e Hsia Dynasty,
1989 B.C. Sec o u r Textes H i s t o r i q u e s , p. 38. —
Yu3. M o n k e y ; Its bead,
says t h e Glose, resembles t h a t of t h e d e m o n s ( L 40 C),
a n d its l a i l is a p r e h e n si l e one. Gf. [.. 49 H. —
Phonetic series 503. Note the successive f o l l o w i n g
compounds
Li2. A y a k ; th e paws and
the big t a i l ; is an ab bre viati on
of L. 40 C, t h e b ead;
changed i n t o in the modern w r i t i n g , represents
the boms ( G f . L. 136). —
Phonetic, serie s 628.
C h ' i n 2 . it is , the horns
being replaced by the phon etic,
chin1 (L. 14 K ) . W ild ani mal s
by opposition to domesticated a n i m a l s
( b e l o w ). — P h o n e t i c series 728.
Fei4. A big ape. The c h a r a c t e r represents, t h e

head, the. f o u r bands, a nd the t a i l . Note the
successive abbreviations. A c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e las t ,
is considered as the c e n t r a l p a r t of t h e compound
hsia2.
Hsieh 4 . The w h ite a n t ; it forms
Ch'ieh;
A swarm of termites stealing
grain in a storehouse, to eat it. To steal, to act by
stealth, etc. The scribes write in different mauners this intricate character. Note
th a t the form authorised by the is also mutilated. From (L.
24 H) there remains only a . w h ic h leads to confound with (L. 123).
Wan4. A scorpion, The claws , the head

, the tail . This character is now used to write
the number 10000 (chia-chieh); see page 11.
It has
nothing in common with the 140th radical, under
which it was classified by K'ang-hsi. It is not derived
from yu2 (above E), b u t from ch'ai4 L. 47 X. —
Phonetic series 765, that must not be confounded with
the series of . The sound of th e compounds is de-
rived from ch'ai4, a n d not f r o m wan4; e.g. mai4.
Note
Li4. A scorpion
crouched
down under a stone (L. 59 A).
Pricking, sharp, bad, cruel, and
other chuan-chu. — Phonetic series 804,
Shou4. The domesticated animals, by opposition to

ch'in3 wild (above E);
On the top two ears, in t h e
middle the head, at the bottom the paws a n d
tail. The second a n c i e n t c h a r a c t e r f r o m w h i c h c a m e
the modern one, is an abbreviation. It forms the
compound shou 4 , flocks or h erds guarded by
dogs. B u t t'o2, c rocodile, has a nother origin. See
L. 72 E.
LESSON 24
About the p r i m i t i v e a n d its m u l t i p l e s

First series:
Shih2. T e n
The number that
contains all the other simple numbers (decimal nume-
ration). Symbol of extent (two dimensions) and of the
five cardinal points (East, West, South, North, Centre).
— It is th e "24th radical. Phonetic series 10. Note the
derivatives
Ghi4. To k n o w how to calculate;
To k n o w how to enounce the ten
numbers of the decimal system. By extension, to
reckon, to plan, a scheme.
Shih4. An affair, a t hi n g;
Because, says
the Glose, ni l things are comprised between the two
terms of numeration, and . By extension, a sage,
a m a n pointed out, by his le arni ng, to become an of-
ficial ( n o w .). — It is the 33th radical. It forms
Chi2. Speach of a sage,
b r i n g i n g l u c k ; good, a us picious,
happy;
Com pare hsiung 1 ,
inauspicious, L. 38
D. — P h o n e t i c series 180. See L. 38 G. Compare
L. 165 B, L. 75 B. e t c. Note
Chieh 2 . A phonetic c o m p l e x .
To k e e p one's head straight;
is phonetic. — Phon.ser. 797.
Ch'ien1 . A
th ou san d;
Ten limes one hundred. The hundred is not represen-
ted in th e character. The on the top, an abbr evia-
t i o n of (L. 28), is phonetic says t h e Glose. is
perhaps an old primitive. —
Phonetic series 16. Forms
Nien2. The crop, the h a r v e st ;
The
thousand grains. By extension, a
year, the. t i m e required for a harvest. The modem
character is an incongnious contraction.
Chang1. A l e n g h t o f ten spans, now of ten feet;
A band and ten
See L. 43 L. — P h o n e t i c series 13.
Ku2. Old;
That which passed through ten
mouths, i.e. a tradition dating back ten generati ons. —
hsieh composed of the same elements means
u n a n i m i t y , ten mouths speaking in unison;
— Phonetic series 132. It forms
Ku*. Hermetically closed on
a l l sides (L. 74).
2
Hu . T h e fetlock of an o x ;
It is
now used a? an interrogative
particle, chia-chieh for — Phonetic scries 450.
2
Note: ti is not derived from . See L. 120 H.
Chih2. Straight; When

t u n eyes have seen to it, the line must be straight. See
L. 10 K, where this character was f u l l y explained. —
Note: K'ang-hsi i n c o r r e c t l y classified u n d e r L 46 M,

L 18 D, etc.
Second series: repeated twice ,
Nien 4 . Erh4 shih2 . Twenty;

The tens a d de d O U R to another. In composition, it
O f t e n m e a n s a m u l t i t u d e (L. 10 I). It is l i a b l e to he
confounded with kan 1 (L. 73 B). It forms
K u n g 4 . An a c t i o n d o n e in c o m m o n , a l l t a k i n g p a r t in
i t , represented by twenty pairs ot h a n d s ;
See L 47 Q — P h o ne t i c series 225.
K u a n g 1 . L i g h t , lust er .
P r i m i t i v e l y twenty tires (L 126). The
m o d e r n f o r m r epre se nt s , a man w i t h fire
(L 2 9 ) : p r o b a b l y a man c a r r y i n g a torch T h e a n c i e n t
f o r m was m a i n t a i n e d in a few compounds ( b e l o w L) —
P h o n e t i c series 222 It f o r m s
H u a n g 3 . Brightness of t h e
sun, to dazzle:
— Phonetic series
537.
Huang 2 . Yellow, the hue of

t h e ploughed e a r t h (L. 119);
Note h o w and are mixed up. See t he

derivatives, !,. 17 1 . — It is t h e 201th ra di cal Phonetic
series 688.
Shu4. All the inhabitants of a

dwelling,
gathered around the hearth (L. 126); among the
ancients, the hearth gave light and heat;
Meanings chuan-chu
the familial flock, concubines and children;
the h u m a n herd, the people. Various chia-chieh. —
Phonetic series 615. — Note the following logical
aggregates, in which was replaced by the. radical.
Tu4. To measure, a rule, a

degree;
A hand
which counts or
measures a quantity. — Phonetic series 484.
Hsi3. A mat, a meal; because,

in the olden times, people
used to eat, while sitting on
mats, the dishes being placed oil
a mat.
See a napkin, L 35 A.
Third series: repeated three limes;

San1-shih2 Thirty; It
forms
Shih4. A period of thirty years; duration of a man's

active life; an age, a generation;
The vertical stroke of
on the left side is lenghtened, to denote the
prolongation and duration of life. — Phonetic series
157. It forms
Yeh4. The successions of

leaves upon the trees; a leaf
(now ); by extension, a t h i n
plate of metal or
gold;
— Phonetic series 494. Compare L.
104 A.
Fourth series: repeated four times,
Ssu4-shih2 Forty; Twice

twenty. Some etymologists think this to be the top
part of the following character
Tai4. A girdle, to take along as if worn at the girdle,

to wear; This derivation is an
arbitrary one,
calligraphic, not etymological. is a primitive, while
— means the girdle, and the other part represents
the trinkets (L. 21 D) hanging from thegirdle;
At the bottom, the robes are represented by two
(L. 35), one above the other; — Pho-
netic series 648.
2
WU . See L. 10 1, where this character was fully
explained. A luxuriant forest destroyed by a
great number of men. It is now an adverb of
negation; no, none, no more. — Phonetic series 718.
LESSON 25.
Note: The p r i m i t i v e jen 2 , a man, being written in different manners; several

lessons are dev oted to it. Here is a list of them.
jen2 slanding, or put on the side. L. 25
jen2 inverted. L. 26
Multiples of a n d , L. 27
jen 2 on the top of t h e compounds, curtailed. L. 28
jen2 at the bottom of t he compounds. L. 29
jen2 bent down. L. 30 A
jen 2 sitting down. L. 32
jen2 overturned. L. 30 D
jen2 doubled up. L. 54
jen2 moving on. L. 31
2
jen with arms. LL. 60, 61
Etymological Lessons. 25 73
About the primitive under its two forms, and

Jen2. A m a n . represented by his legs; t h e one. who
stands upright. Compare (L. 60);
— It is the 9th r a d i c al of characters relating to man.

It forms
Ch'iu2 . A prisoner, to emprison ;

A man in an enclosure, L. 74. See
L. 157 C.
Shan3. A man in a
door (L. 129 C ) , moving sideways to give way
to others; by extension, a sudden a n d quick motion
in general.
Shu4. To guard the frontiers; a man with a

spear ( L. 71 F); See
the. c o m p o u n d (L. 90 D).
Fu2. From man and dog (L. 134). A

man
imitating the dog, or m aking others imitate it. To
crouch, to f a l l or lie prostrate, to hide, to h u m b l e ,
to subject, etc. — Ph o ne ti c series 196.
Wei4. The place where a m a n is standing

erect; t h e place assigned, according to his d i g n i t y , to
each official;
By extension, seat, r an k, person. See
(L. 60 H).
Jen2. The virtue that must unite men to men;

See L. 2 B, where this
character was explained.
Hsin4. True words, and, by extension, the effect

produced by these words upon others, truthfulness,
faith, confidence;
A man and a word. In the
old form, a man and a mouth. In still more
ancient form, a word and a heart; words
coming from the heart and appealing to it.
Hsien1.
The taoist Genii;
According to the legends, they live OD the mountains,

hence the modern character , man and mountain.
The etymological meaning is a man who rose,
by the taoist practices, above mortals. (See L. 50 P,
L. 10 L).
LESSON 26.
About the inverted which is now written (Compare with the old forms,
L. 25 A and 26 B).
Preliminary note: The modern . corresponds to two old primitives. —

1. representsanold instrument, a kind of scraper, of
spoon. This character became soon
obsolete. In the derivatives that remained after it (
etc.) it was written even before the reform of Li-ssu. This explains how,
in the series , one may f i n d several characters th a t mean utensils (below C,
D, M). — 2. i nverted, over-turned. Hence, the significations derived from the
origin of this character; to turn round, to invert, to compare, to join, to match, to
pair (right side and reverse).
Pi3 . To t u r n one's self round, etc. — It

is t h e 21 th radical.
First series: Compounds in which means an object.
Shih2. A spoon, a key. (Phon. L. 112 I).
Ch'ang4. A special liquor, used in the sacrifices, to

induce the shen2 to come down;
A vase (L. 38 E) f u l l of grain

which, when fermented, produced the liquor; at the
bottom, the spoon with which people drew up the
liquor from the vessel. Compare below M. — It is the
192th radical. It forms
Yu4. Oblation of the liquor . See L. 130 E.

Tsan1. A forked brooch used to fix the hair. Now
The character represents a man , with a
brooch on the top.
Note the alteration of the
modern character and try do distinguish it from
wu2 L. 61 C, and from chi4 L. 99 E. Repeated
twice, tsan1 is phonetic in hsun2, a caldron (L. 155),
and in
Tsan1. To murmur;
See L. 73 A. Not to be confounded, either with t'i
(L. 60 L) as many scribes do, or with L. 79 B. —
Phonetic series 709. Note
Tsan2. I, we. This modern character is an arbitrary

abbreviation of . It is used, regardless of the sense,
to write the sound tsan2, a personal pronoun used by
common peopl e in the provinces of the North. Its
derivatives and , much used in the books written
in spoken l angua ge, have no more v a l u e t h a n itself.
must be distinguished from chiu 1 , L. 31 B
Second series: Compounds in which means man, etc.

Pao3. A tithing of ten men. It forms some
phonetic compounds, eg pao3, a bustard, etc.
Ni2. Near, in contact; Morally, intimity.

Etymology, But ( L . 32)
means also, a man. Therefore ni means, two men near
one another. Phonetic series HO.
Nang2. A high dignity, towards which rise the

eyes and desires of men; exalted, to desire;
— Phonetic series 73. Compare yin4, L. 49 I.

Ssu3. Dead, to die;
A man, dead (L. 118 C). Note t. tn the
modern character, the top stroke of is prolonged
and covers . 2. In the ancient form, instead of ,
the inverted form, there is. the straight form.
P'in 3 . Etymologically, t h e row thai makes the

pair with the bull. Now mu3 means the male,
and p'in3 the female of a l l kinds of animals. Note
the analogous compound yu1. hind, female of the
4
lu , stag.
Keng3. Etymologically to t u r n the head.

Then, to turn over, to overthrow, in ge neral ;
There are also a few unusual phonetic
complexes; for these, see tsu 3 , L. 112; and
3
pi , L. 27 I.
Third series: A special series is ascribed to the f o l l o w i n g compounds of

on account both of the si n g u la r f o r m s wh ic h were give n to t h e m in the modern
writing, and of the importance of their derivatives. In t h e old writing, those
characters were perfectly regular.
Yao3. To t u r n one's back

to the sun; obscure, hidden. It forms yao3,
3
dark as in a cavern; yao , the South-East
angle, t h e most retir ed place in a house; etc. lu
its modern form, the next seems to be a compound of
the same e l e m e n t s ; it is not so.
Chih 3 . The old t o r m is composed of , the tongue

(L. 102 C ), a n d of , a sweet t h i n g (L. 1. 4 0 ); good,
agreeable to t h e taste;
After Li-ssu. the character was composed of kan1
sweet (L. 73 B), an d of phonetic ;
Chuan-chu, an edict of the Emperor who is supposed
to speak iu soft words. — Phonetic series 186. It forms
ch'ang2 (L. 36 E), ch'i2 (L. 30 E), chi1 (L.
121 M ) .
Ken4. To turn
suddenly round , in order to look a man f u l l in
the face, haughtily; anger, defiance. — It is the 138th
radic al. Phonetic series 219 and 741.
Note. Hang- has another origin. See L. 75 F.
Hem t'ui4. See L. 31 C.
Hsiang 1 Boiled grain, the Chinese soup fan4- It

is composed as (L. 26 C). A vase ( p r i m i t i v e ) ;
— its contents (L. 1.4°); the spoon to draw up
(L. 26 A).
Its contra cted form must be distinguished from
hang ( L . 75 F). It forms the following characters:
Hsiang1. The g rain producing country, between

the walled cities, r epresented by two one of them
being straight, the other being inverted and abbrevia-
ted in the modern writin g ( L. 74 C).
— Phonetic serins 682.
Ch'ing 2 . Ministers. Those who were present at the

imperial meals, standing in two opposite rows,
holding the sceptres, badges of their dignity;
See L. 55 A.
Chi 2 . The c o n v e n i e n t measure (L. 55 B) of

soup; temperance, m o d e r a t i o n ; now . — Chi2 is
w i d e l y used chia-chieh as a c o n j u n c t i o n exp ressi ng
t h e logical consequence. — Phonetic series 424. It
forms the phonetic c o m pl e x.
Chieh2. A segment of the
bamboo, between two nodes.
Chuan-chu, an article, a limit
of time, a term. Chia-chieh for
chi2, temperance,
moderation. — Phonetic series 798.
Chi4. To suck up, to swallow; (L. 99 E). Chuan-chu,

already passed, as swallowed soup; finished.alrea-
dy, since; _ Phonetic series 596.
Shih2. ssu4. Food, to eat, to feed: ,

See L 14, union, together; grain, food.
Because, says the Glose. it is by mixing the. different
(si x) kinds of grain that the human food is prepared;
Note the top stroke of ,
a contraction of , is confounded with the lower
stroke of . — It is the 184th radical of characters
relating to food. It forms
Shih2. To nourish; to give

food to a roan;
It
forms the phonetic complexes shih4, to adorn, and
ch'ih4, an order, injunction. See L. 28.
Ts'ang 4 . A granary, govern-

ment storehouse. In this cha-
racter, is mutilated, to
make room beneath t o r (L. 7 4 ) :
Chin4 is not derived from . The modern forms are

corrupt. Compare the ancient forms with L. 1 1 7 B.
The rearing of c a t t l e , u n d e r trees, in the steppe. Hence
now chin4, a stud, a stable.
O N. B. — Let us recall — \. That is the classical abbreviation of

ken3 (26 L), h u t that it is also used for oth er compounds. — 2. That is the
1
classical abbreviation of hsiang (26 M). By the principle of the least effort,
the scribes often write instead of . — 3. That these abbreviations are to be
distinguished from the d erivati ves of liang2 (75 F); a thing easier to say than
to do. — 4. That the engravers, fo llowing the scribes, cut in fanciful ways, several
characters of this series, as one may hav e noticed. — See also , L. 31 C.
LESSON 27.
About the multiples of .
First series: repeated twice (the straight form, L. 25).

Ts'ung2. A m a n walking after another; to follow,
to
obey. It is the opposite

of , L. 27 C.
Ghuan-chu, a preposition, as the Latin ab, ex;

it is in this sense that is so often used in this work,
for the analysis of characters. It is now practically
superseded by the. next homophone and synonym
compound
Ts'ung2. Note the curious form

of the modern character. It is
composed of , and of (Rad.
162; L. 112 E) dislocated; the three placed on the
left side simulate , the 60th radical, under which
K'ang-hsi wrongf ully classified and its similes ; the
lower part is placed under . ID the ancient
character, there is simply A juxtaposition of the
e l e m e n t s . — Phonetic series 657.
Ch'ien1. To c ut. Two men a n d a halberd;

See, L. 71. Compare L.
25 D, and L. 47 E. — It forms
Ch'ien1. The wild garlic ;
See L.
!70 B. — Phonetic series 829.
Ch'ien1. Reunion, meeting. By extension, together.

(L. 14), A meeting
of
several men, who speak. — Phonetic series 726.
Second series: Two turned face to face.
Tso4. To sit down, to be seated;

Two men sitting on the
ground, in the old fashion, and facing each other to
talk. — Phonetic series 309.
Wu1. The work (L. 82) of witches; magic,

incantations. Two witches who dance to obtain rain
It forms
1
Shih . The stalks of
Achillea Sibirica , t h a t were
used by the wizards to divine.
It forms
the phonetic complexes shih4, to bite, to gnaw;
shin4, bank, quay.
See Ling2, L 72 K. Distinguish from
L, 16 M, a n d from contracted in L. 13 C, etc,
Chia1. A man (L. 60) who clasps two others

in his arms: to press, to squeeze, to pick up, to f i x ;
To be distinguished from shan3 (L. 13 B), and
from lai2 (L. 13 C). It forms the, p h o n e t i c co mpl ex
Ch'ieh4. Box, casket,
(L. 10. B), It is
now
wr i tt e n
Third series: Two t u r n e d one against a n o t h e r .

Pei3. The opposite of ( L. 27 A). Not to follow
each other, to t u r n one's back, disagreement;
Derived meaning, the back ; a n d , by

extension, the North t he cardinal point
towards w h ic h o ne t ur n s one's hack when s i t t i n g
down facing the South, according to custom. — The
modern scribes wr ite for different more intricate
characters. See kuai1, L 103 C ; ch'eng2, L 31
E, etc.
Ch'iu1. A hill, a mound;

The Glose is summed up thus: — represents
the top of a height. On the top, two men turned
one against another, instead of four men whom it
w o u l d have been too difficult to depict. The meaning
is that, from the top one may see towards the four
directions i. e. towards a l l directions; a c ul mi nati ng point. — Phonetic series
113. — Note that ping1 (L. 47 D) is unconnected will) Item, the k i n d
of
primitive (L. 80 B)... But forms
Hsu1. A high upland;
These uplands being generally wild and barren, hence
chuan-chu, empty, that which contains nothing;
— Phonetic series
685, under its modern corrupt form.
Fourth series: repeated twice ( , inverted form, L. 26).

4
Pi . It is inverted (27 A), To
effect a union, to follow, to cooperate, to plot.
PP. Meanings derived from th e inversion (See L. 26
A, 2»), to draw a parallel between, to compare, r an k . —
It is the 81th radical. Phonetic series 77. It forms
Pi3. A synonym of the preceding. The two men are

placed upon (L 81 ) the earth. — Phonetic series
299.
Chieh1. Together, all;

Sev era l men (L 169 A c o n t r a c t e d ) a c t in g in
concert, — Pho n etic scries 428. K' a n g - h s i e r r o n e o u s l y
classified this c hara cter u n d e r t h e radical 106
K'un1 A number or men u n d e r t h e su n (L.

143); m u l t i t u d e , generality;
Chuan-chu of different kinds; , a posterity,
those who will succeed in life, under t he s un;
the multitude of insects that the sun is supposed to
bring forth... Chia-chieh , an elder brother;
compare ko1, p. 11. — Phonetic series 371.
P'i2. The navel which is supposed to be in communi-

cation with the head (L. 40 A) through channels
in which circulate the- vital spirits.
So the lower part
would not be , but a kind of primitive, represen-
ting the channels. Instead of , the scribes write
hence the erroneous character here joined. — Phone-
tic series 567.
Note 1 : is intended to delineate the feet in some characters that represent
animals, e. g.
Ch'ao4, jerboa, L. 106 C. Lu4, antelope. L. 136 A.
Note 2:Two , one above the other, represent also the feet in the following series
Neng2, formerly Nai4, which explains the sound of
some derivatives. The great brown bear. After Li-ssu,
this character was explained thus: two paws,
the body, the growling of the angry bear. (L. 85 E).
But the study of the old forms reveals a special primitive
delineati ng a head, a hairy body standing, and claws.
(L. 146 H ). The bear is the symbol of bravery; hence
the meanings chuan-chu, valour, an officer ;
— Phonetic series 55*. It forms
T'ai4. Martial attitude. — The
outward of the interior valour.
Hsiung2. The s m a l l black bear; represents
the feet (L. 126 C), a graphic redundancy.
Pa4. A bear, f i g u r a t i v e l y an officer t a k e n in a
net (L. 39 C). to dismiss, to resign, to cease, and
other cbuan-chu. The Glose explains that the. net
means calumnious accusations. Compare L. 39 F.
Fifth series: repealed thrice.

Chung4. Gat h eri n g, meeting. Tres collegium
faciunt; The next compound, a
synonym a n d homophone, is now used instead.
Chung4. A crowd; Note

that is not (as above, in ), but the eye
(L. 158) depicted horizontally. The visual space
f u l l of men; all the m e n taken in at a glance;
crowd, a ll, etc. The scribes fancifully and strangely
altered this character, as one may see by the two
specimens here joined.
Ghu4. To meet; a reunion of men;
See L. 146 F. — Phonetic
series 775.
LESSON 28.
About some peculiar forms of . curtailed in the modern writing, either through
want of space, or through a p arti al f u sio n w i th a phonetic; is reduced to ,
, etc. In the ancient writing. has its normal form.
Chi2. To attain, to seize upon. A hand th a t seizes
a man T h i s character was explained, L. 19 D. —
phonetic series 40.
Hsien 4 . A trap, a p i t ;
A man who fa lls int o a
p i t ( L 139). Cf. L. 38 D. — Phonelic series 360.
Fu4 1. Morally, a m a n who has cowries,

m o n e y (L. 161); the pride caused by fo rtune,; insubor-
dination, disdain ; — 2.
Physically, a m a n who bears a load on his back,
in order to gain cowries; to toil hard, to suffer;
She4.
P r i m i t i v e sense, th e flush of the face;
The composition of t h i s ch a r a rt e r is typical; a man,

and (L. 55) a seal; because, says the Glose, the
c ol o u r of t h e face corresponds w i t h the feelings of the
h e a r t , as t h e s t a m p reproduces the seal. By extension,
the flush arising from passion, sexual pleasure, colour
in general — It is t h e 139th radical.
Wei2. A m a n l o o k i n g from up a steep cliff

(L. 59); a perilous situation, danger;
There are i m p o r t a n t compounds,
a b o u t w h i c h see L. 59 H.
Ch'ien 1 . O n e t h o u s a n d This a n o m a l o u s character

was e x p l a i n e d L. 24 D. on t h e lop is p h o n e t i c ;
is for ten times one h u n d re d , says
the
Glose.— Phonetic series 16.
T'ing2. Upright, raised, attentive;

A man on the
ground (L. 81). Not to be confounded with jen4
(L. 82 C). In the modern writing, the two characters
are almost identical.
Tiao4. Actual meaning, to mourn for one dead, in

order to console his family. Composition: a man
who carries a bow (L. 87) over his shoulders. The
Chinese of olden tim es did not bury their dead. The
corpse was packed up in a bundle of grass (L. 78 G),
an d l e f t to rot away in some remote place. The rite of
condoling, at that time,
consisted in offering one's self with a bow, to protect the corpse against wild
beasts. The
meaning, to hang u p , to suspend, comes from the fact that the bow was carried
hanging across the shoulder, wh ic h is represented by the old character.
Chiu 1. Primitive sense, egotism hurting one's
neighbour; a man who does not look for his own
(L. 31 B) benefit;
By extension, offence, fault, mistake;
Shen1. Body, person. It is with a big belly and a

leg. See L. 148. — Ii is the 158th radical of characters
relating to the shapes of the body.
Note: The head ( s h a r p s n o u t ) of some a n i m a l figures,

is like in the
ancient writing. The resemblance is merely a graphical one. For instance:
T
'u2, h ar e, L 106 B. Yu 2 , fish, L. 142 A.
LESSON 29.
About , the form taken by , when placed at the bottom of the characters.
Jen 2 . A m a n ( t w o legs). It sometimes means, feet,

support — It is the 10th radical.
Erh 2 . An i nf an t:
A body and a
head (L. 40 C) opened in the form of , repre-
sen ti n g a s k u l l , the fontanels of which are not yet
closed. — Phonetic series 352.
Mao4. The face;

From man and ( L. 88), white, colour or form
of the face. Instead of this, the synonym and
homophone co mpound is now used.
Huang 4 ; A mouth
on the top of a man; to speak strongly,
emphatically, a ut horitatively. Note the two modern
chuan-chu, with change of sounds
1. K'uang4. An emphatic conjunction, so much
the more, a fortiori. The scribes write , but
their writing is rejected by the critics,
2. Hsiung1. The eldest among several brothers;
the one who must exhort and correct his brothers.—
Phonetic, series 123. Note also the compounds
Chu4 An oration that goes with the oblation

of a sacrifice, and that touches the shen;
Chou4 A modern character. The added is

a redundancy. Adjuration, impre catio n ;
This character is often erroneously wr itten
Yueh 4 Good words t h a t dispel gri ef a n d rejoice, the

hear er ; hence the. two meanings, to speak, to rejoice.
It is added with a ( L. 18), that means, dissipa-
tion ;
It is u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h ( L. 18 E. ). It is
used as a modern a r b i t r a r y chia-chieh to mean,
exchange, d e l i v e r y in th e commercial transactions; it
is then p r o n o u n c e d tui4;
—
Yun3. To consent, to grant. A man who says

yes; To make out
one's assent, by breathing forth a yes. See L. 85 E. —
Phonetic series 100. Note the phonetic complex
Tsun1. To walk solemnly;

1
Ch'ung . To nourish a child, from its birth till,
knowing how to walk, it has become a man;
To feed,
to fill, f u l l , etc. Chuan-chu a n d chia-chieh of different
kinds. — Phonetic series 189.
Yeh4 The head:

A head (L. 160) u p o n a body
Note t h e c o n t r a c t i o n of in the modern charac-
ter. — It is t h e 181t h radi cal of a g r o u p of characters
r e l a t i n g to t h e head, neck, etc..
Yuan2. That which is on the top, u p on man.

Head, principle, origin; as caput in latin;
See , an ancient form of

, L. 2 G. — Ph o net i c series 97. Note t h e compounds
Kuan 1 . The man's cap, then
caps a n d hats in general;
(L 45 B) s t a n d s f o r The m e a n i n g is,
w h a t is placed on t h e head, to cover it.
Wan 2 . En t ir e , finished, done;

The p u t t i n g up of the roof completes a building.
— Phonetic, series 314 It forms
K'ou 4 Robbers, to loot. The

m a n who ar m e d w i t h a stick
{ L. 43 D ) threatens the dwel-
ling-places;
K u a n g 1 . Light. The ol d f o r m of this character was

e x p l a i n e d L. 24 J. T his is t h e modem form,
probably, a m a n carrying a torch. — Phonetic series 222.
Jung3. I n a c t i o n , to rem ain in a ctive;

A man in his
bouse, because he has no work to do in the lields.
Not to be confounded w i t h yin3, composed of
and (L. 34 E).
4
Wu . A stool. A plane surface upon a support;
— Phonetic scries 36.
LESSON :30.
About ( who bends forward ), and ( inverted, the feed being

turned up).
First series:
Jen 2 . A m a n who leans, who bends u p ;
It f o r m s
Ch'en2.
A woman who bends
f o r w a r d to conceal her shame, says the Glose;
p r o b a b l y h e r menses (not h e r pregnancy L. 112 L).
H e n c e chuan-chu time, epoch, period. — It is t h e
161th r a d i c a l . — Phonetic series 254.—The p r i m i t i v e
ine a ning; h a s been preserved in t h e c o m p o u n d
Ju 4 . To sh a m e, to i n s u l t ; To
reveal ( l o r , L. 43 A ) a shameful situation
or t h i n g . — Phonetic series 541.
Ho u 4 . A p r i n c e ( b y extension, a prin ce ss).
The m a n who notifies bis orders, bending

tow ard s t h e people. This composition is ana logous to
that ot chun2, a prince, See page 9. — P h o n e t i c
series 109. — inverted, forms
Ssu4. The government, the administration, that is
like the reverse of the prince; —
Second series:
Hua4. A man tumbled head over heels;
The primitive sense was, to die;
Derived meanings, to overthrow, to
transform; It forms
Hua4. To change, to convert men by teaching

them; — Phonetic
series 64. It forms hua1, flowers, the term of the
evolution of plants. See L. 13 F.
Chen 1 . Transformation by the Taoist practices.

See, L. 10 L.
Lao3. Old, venerable, a septuagenarian. A man

whose hair and beard (L. 100) change , grow
white;
Note the strange modern contraction of and of . - It is the 125th
radical. This character forms i m p o r t a n t c o m p o u n d s, in w h i c h was suppressed to
give room to t h e radical or to the phonetic. For in st a n c e:
Ch'i2. Sexagenarian; old man who needs a

better food. See L. 26 K. — P h o n e t i c series 513.
K'ao3. Old age; represents the a st h m a o f old men

(L. 1, 1). By extension, to e x a mi n e, to interrogate
p u p i l s a n d candidates, which are attributes of wor-
thies. — Phonetic .series 218.
Hsiao4. Filial piety; the t h i n g which th e

c h i l d r e n owe to the aged persons in general, a n d to
t h e i r parents in particula r;
— Phonetic series 276. But
chiao1, to leach, has n o t h i n g in common w i t h
This character, whose exact form is g i v e n here,
w i l l be e x p l a i n e d L. 39 H.
Che3. This character is not derived from . See

L. 159 B.
LESSON 31.
About three derivatives of , partial primitives, viz.: chiu3, chin3, su1.
First series:
Chiu3. A man hinder e d w h i l e w a l k i n g , by a k i n d of
train;
Hence the notion of slowness, of duration —
Phonetic series 17.
Second series:
Chih 3 . To follow, to pursu e a man who walks;
— It is the 34th
radical, o r di n aril y placed on the top of compounds.
It forms
Ko3. To go on one's way. w i t h o u t hearing the

advice of others;
Separated, distinct, particular, other. The
i n d i v i d u a l described by his self-love, his own way.—
Phonetic series 220. It forms
Chiu 1 . A man attached to his own opinion,

who cares only for his own interes ts, a n d who
consequently offends against othe rs. By extension,
offence, fault;
See L. 28 I. Note the contraction of the modern
character. — Phonetic series 338.
Lu 4 . Way, road ; ; through which

each one trespasses. — Phonetic series 748.
K'o4. Ch'ieh4. A guest, a traveller; ;
to stay for a time in a house not one's own.
4
Liao . B o u n d a r y t h a t divides the fields. Chuan-
chu, to p a r t i t i o n , to s h o r t e n , a l i t t le , etc It forms
liao4, to l a y d o w n , to d e p o s e
4
Lao . O l d m e a n i n g : a t r e n c h to i r r i g a t e ; water
used by ev e ry b od y . It forms lao4, the fall of the
leaves, to sink.
See hai4, L. 97 H ; feng 1 L 97 A: and tung1 L. 17 F.

The 34th radical chih3 (three strokes) must be carefully distinguished from
the 66th radical p'u1 (four strokes), and from the. 36th radieal hsi4.
Third series:
Sui 1 . A man who goes on, despite of shackles;
To be distin-
guished from analogous forms, as stated above. — It
is the 35th radical, ordinarily placed at the bottom of
the compounds. It forms
Chih 4 To reach or make others reach the

a i m , despile of d i f f i c u l t i e s ; See
L. 133 B.
T'ui4. To have walked with difficulty all the day
long, and consequently, to refuse to advance
more, or to go backwards, on account of the difficul-
tie s of the road. To refuse, to retreat .
The added is a
radical redundancy (L. 112.E). Note the contraction of the
modern character, and
read again the note L. 26 0.— Phonetic series 578.
See L. 29 E; L. 79 K; L. 38 D; etc.
inverted, forms
K'ua4 To overcome an obstacle represented by ;
The modern character
k e pt t h e old form. P h o n et i c in ko 1 , a pot.
straight and inverted, forms
C h ' u a n 3 . I t . is composed of , t h e s t r a i g h t a n d the
inverted form, ba rk to h a c k ;
To po in contrary d i r e c t i o n s : opposition, contra-
d i c t i o n , offence, e r r o r ; Compare L. 27 G.
— It is t h e 136th ra dical. In th e compounds,
represents two men hack to hack
Note the following
Wu3. A dance wi t h gestures,
performed by twogroups opposing
each ot her (See L. 65 D); the
dancers hack to hack, a phonetic contracted (L.
10 I);
Chieh2. Primitive sense:
tree, on which cr i mi n al s were
hung, gallows of hackold. to
Thishack;
character
the
now means a roost, for f o w l s to rest
on;
— P h o n e t i c series 518. It
forms the f o l l o w i n g
Sheng4, ch'eng2. A warriors'
car, a so rt of roost for men
standing back to back, on two
r a n k s; the top represents a roof. The modern form
does credit to the ingeni ous scribes. — Phonetic
series 512
See also , and L. 126 D;etc.
Chiang 4 . From , the straight and the inverted

form one above the other;
Two men, one of th e m (th e inferior) is subject
to the oth er (the superior). This character is now
written . and the pronunciation is different accor-
ding to th e two different meanings. Hsiang4, to subject,
to s u b m i t ( t h e inferior.}. Chiang4, to descend, to send
down, to degrade, to gra n t (the superior). — Phonetic
series 182. — contracted is phonetic in lung2,
L. 79 F; being reduced to
Another form of straight a n d inverted, one above

t h e other. It is f o u n d o n l y in the compound
Wei2. R e f r a c t o r y op p o sit i on : two men who p u l l at

the same object in c o n t r a r y directions;
( L . 74). This character is now
written — P h o n e t i c series 487. See
L. 23 F.
LESSON 32.
About a peculiar form of , shih1, analogous to. , which was explained L 30A.
1
Shih . A seated m a n . The l i v i n g person who an-
ciently represented the dead; by extension, a dead
person. The Glose says: The sons, not seeing the de-
ceased ancestor whom they worshipped, i n v e n t e d the, to i mp er son at e h i m ;
It is the 44th radical of characters relating to parts a n d positions of
bodies. It forms
Shih 1 . Corpse; a man, dead (L. 26 H ) .
Ni2. Two men near each other (L. 26 F).
T'un2. The lower part of the body; the part seated

(L. 20 A); represents this part;
Hence tien4, the flogging on the buttocks (L 22 D).

Instead of , the scribes write , which makes one
more false character.
I2. It is composed as ( L . 2 B), the feeling that must
bind man to man ( two, men). Is phonetic in
Wei4. To smooth cloth, the hand holding a hot
iron. By extension, to make even, to sweeten;
It forms wei4, to soothe, to console, to iron

the wrinkles of the heart. Note how the scribes
changed into , and
into
Chu1. A place, a spot, an abode. Et y m o l o g i c a l l y ,

a man who f o u n d a seat. Its c o m p o si t i o n is a n al o -
gous to t h a t of . above A ;
This c h a r a c t e r was a r b i t r a r i l y changed by
the scribes in to Compare L. 20 B
— Phonetic seri es 345.
I3. Wei 3 . Tail. The h a i r at the e n d ot the

body. Contracted into and sometimes into
forms i m p o r t a n t c o m p o u n d s (See L. 100 B). The Shuo-
wen t e l l s us t h a t t h e ol d Chinese put on a fal se t a i l ,
in order to be as b e a u t i f u l as a n i m a l s ;
Sui1. Niao4. U r i n e , water coming f r o m u u d e i

the tail, for is contracted.
Shih3. Excr eme n t; th e residue of grain similarly

ejected ; is contracted. This character is a mo-
dern one a n d superseded the old .See L. 122 C.
Ch'ih3. The span of a ma n , of a male adult's hand.

This s p a n was, u n d e r t h e Dynasty, t h e u n i t y of
length and measured about twenty centimeters. The
grew longer, after that time, up to thirty centime-
ters . The Europeans c a l l it a foot. In China it is a
hand; The (L.
9 A ) , says the Glose, represents the opening of the
hand, f r o m the t h u m b to the little finger. See (L.
45 B). It forms
Chu2. To fit up, workshop where things are fitted

up. This end is obtained by using both mouth and
hands (span, used for the hand);
— Phonetic
series 266.
Wu1. Abode, lodgings. Place where a man being

arrived (L. 133 B), takes rest.
Compare Shih4
(L. 133 B), which is a synonym. — Phonetic series
490. It is contracted i n t o in several characters; for
instance
Lou4. The rain passing through the roof of

a
house ; to leak:
See L. 125 B.
LESSON 33.
About the two primitives, and

First series:
Ch'i 1 . Seven. A numerical sign, wi t hout a ny other
signification: It is radical in
ch'en3, second teething, about the age of seven
years. It is phonetic in ch'ih4, to cry out at, to
scol d ; a n d in
Ch'ieh1. To cut;
k
nife, L. 52. - Phonetic
series 43.
Second series:
T'o1. A partial primitive. It represents a small plant
s i n k i n g its root into the. ground. The ground —, the
root beneath, the stalk and a small ear above;
— Phonetic
series 29. It forms
Chai 2 . Habitation, abode;
The place where a man takes root, fixes his
dwelling, — Phonetic series 177.
LESSON 34
In this number we distinguish t h e series of two primitives. and , wantonly

mingled together by the scribes, and mixed up by K'ang-hsi.
First series:
3
Chiung . The. suburbs, the country, the space. The
t w o ve rt i c al strokes delineate the limits; the horizontal
s t r o k e represents the interval between t h e m , the void
space ; — It is the
1 3 t h radical. Note the deri vat i ves
3
Chiung . A synonym of the preceding. The
representation is more e x p l i c i t ; ( L. 74 delineating
t h e w a l l e d t o w n in the middle of t h e c o u n t r y . —
P h o n e t i c s eries 1 1 4 . The d eriv a t iv e s of are to be
distinguished from those of (L. 76 G). e. g.
3 2
chiung , to go in remote places; hui . to return.
3 4
Distinguish also chiung from hsiang and
4 4
shang ( L. 36 E) ; from o (L. 15 C); from
3
chiung (L. 42 B)
4
Nei . The i n t er i o r; to ent er in a void space,
in t h e i n t e r i o r . This ch a r a c t e r was e x p l a i n e d L. 15 C.
Not e how in the old form here joined, is already
m is ta ke n f o r (34 H), whi le the Glose gives t h e true
e x p l a n a t i o n . - Phonetic series 74.
4
Shih . A market The grass-grown space out
of the c i t y , wh er e people go and get (L. 19 El what
t h e y are in need of;
(L. 79 B)
This c h a r a c t e r has nothing in common with (L. 35),
under which it was erroneously classified by K'ang-
4
hsi. It must be carefully distinguished . from fu
4
(35 B), and from fei (L. 79 G ). There are a few
i nsignificant compounds. Note the logical aggregate
4
nao , to bustle; (L. 11 I) to quarrel as in the
market place ; the noisy wrangling and confusion
of a market, so dear to the Chinese.
2
Yin . To go away, to withdraw. A man who
walks in order to go out of a space;
— Phonetic series 94. Not to be
confounded with jung3, L. 29 J.
Hao4. To rise up, high. A bird that rises up in

the space; When
this character is not well engraved, one might believe
it is topped by a ( L. 36); in reality it is the of
the. left side of , that crosses , just as crosses
in the preceding. — Phonetic series 531.
Ming2 Obscurity, darkness;

The six Chinese hours (half a
day)
during which the space is in darkness, the sun
being absent. — Phonetic series 553.
Note. One. may see how, in the modern forms, and are absolutely mixed
together.
Second series:
Mi2. To cover. A line t ha t falls at both ends, to cover;

— It is the 14tlh radical
of a few characters meaning, to cover. Note the
f o l l o w i n g derivatives
Mi*. A t r i v et covered (L. 127 D)
Kuan1. To cover the head ; a cap. See L. 29 H.
Yuan1 Ill-use without motive, wrong, grievance.

Etymologically a rabbit (L. 106 B), trapped
It forms
a few insignificant phonetic complexes. This character
is sometimes wrongly written
is met, with the meaning of physical cover, of moral blindness, in many

characters, e.g. L. 126 F; L. 154 B; L. 72 D; L. 39 1. But the
following are derived from (L. 54), and not from , as the modern form
might induce one to believe, e.g. L. 69 G; L. 167 C; etc.
Mao3. To cover something (L. 1 , 4 ° ) ;

It forms
T'ung2. Agreement, u ni o n , reunion;

The primitive meaning is: adaptation
of a cover to the orifice of a vase. — Phonetic
series 246.
Ch'iao1. A cover with flowers ( L. 79 B);

(vegetable objects;
compare L. 1021). By extension, the shell of mollusks,
of fruits, of eggs, t h a t covers them, and is orna-
mented with fine designs;
In these last meanings,
this character is now written chia-cbieb ch'iao1,
the p r i m i t i v e m e ani n g of which was to strike. This cha-
racter forms t h e p h o n e t i c series 517, in which the
radical is placed u n d e r contracted; e.g.
The scribes a n d t h e engravers often forget the

s m a l l stroke of . On t h e o t h e r ha nd, they fancy the
different writing s . etc.
Meng2. To cover. Its composition resembles that of

( L . 34 If ), a boar t a k e n in a snare.
It f o r m s meng2, the wistaria, a
trailing plant t h a t cover s: to cover. Phonetic series
784. — The characte r meng2 is to he distinguished
3
from chung , L. 69 G
Mao4 A covering f o r t h e head; that which covers

the head (L. 1, 40);
It is now written —The scribes write
;
so that the derivatives of mao4 cannot be distinguished from those of yueh1
(L. 73 A). Still improving on the scribes, K'ang-hsi, a f t e r having classified, under
the 14th radical , characters that do not belong to it, placed the true derivati-
ves of , the whole series . u n d e r the 13th radical . Such is the value
of classifications based upon the modern characters, altered or mingled with
others. — It forms the compounds.
Mao4. To rush on heedless, to act wi th the eyes

covered ; imprudence, temerity;
— Phonetic series 462. It forms the
phouetic complex
Man2. To offend by headless
action. The of is bent
(L. 158), to give room to . —
T'a4 Birds of passage flying in flock; swarm of

wings covering the sky;
Chou4. A helmet, the headgear of soldiers;

(L. 151 A) is phonetic; Not
to be confounded w it h the character chou4 posterity,
that is pronounced a nd written in the same way (L.65
B); neither with wei4 ( L. 122 C).
Mien 3 . Offici al cap; mien3 ( L. 106 A) is

1
phonetic. Compare yuan , L. 34 H.
Tsui4. A meeting under the same roof. See

L. 146 F. — Phonetic series 711.
Appendix. The repeated twice, is given as being the lower part of the next
important compound, though it appears seldom, the
modern scribes having changed into
Yen1. Disappearance, loss, absence. An object that

was at one tine (L. 159 A) in a store, a n d
became invisible (a double cover) later on.
See L. 23 G. Note the phonetic complex
Pien1. To walk on the edge of a precipice, r u n n i n g

the risk of fal li ng into it and disappearing. Chuan-
chu, bank, edge, margin, a boundary in general;
LESSON 35.
About two primitives nearly identical in the modern writing, chin1, and
liang3, with their derivatives. :
First series: chin1.

Chin1. A small piece of cloth resembling the Euro-
pean handkerchief, that was worn in ancient times,
hanging from the girdle, and used for cleaning and
dusting. By extension, a bonnet, the ancient Chinese
putting on a cloth to cover
their heads; cloth in general, represents the two extremities of cloth hanging
from the girdle; represents the slate of suspension ;
— It is the the 60th radical of characters relating to cloth.
Note. The lower part of some ancient characters, v.g. L. 119, L. 92,
accidentally resembles . Note also t h a t (L. 79 C) has n o t h i n g in common
with . But (L. 21 D) is derived from it, as are also t h e f o l l o w i n g characters
Fu4. The cloth worn by t h e a n c i e n t Chinese, a ki nd

of skin apron hanging from the waist, down to the
knees. It was preserved as a s o u v e n i r of ancient
custom in the Imperial dress... represents the girdle, the piece of cloth,
the hanging of the same;
Compare tai4 (L. 24 Q), t h e construction
of which is analogous.
Note. The modern form is used for three characters th a t must be carefully
distinguished; shih4 market, L. 34 D; fu4 apron, L. 35 B; fei* vegetation,
L. 79 G, that forms the important phonetic series 45, whilst the two preceding
ones have only a few derivatives.
Pu4. A piece sf cloth made of h e m p , nettles or dolic;

the ancient Chinese did not know of cotton. At the
bottom , on the top fu4 (L 43 G) as phonetic.
Chuan-chu; to spread out, to display, to explain,

etc. — Phonetic series 152.
Hsi1. The interstices of a woven material, between

the crossed threads (L. 39 G);
Cbuan-chu, loose, not close, thinly, scattered, infre-
quent. Different chia-chieh. Now , literally
grain thin-sown. — Phonetic series 275.
Chou3. A dusting-brush. See L. 44 K, L,
Shua1. To wipe one's body with a rag; to

wipe; It is contracted
in the c o m p o u n d
Shua1. To scrape w i t h a k n i f e or otherwise, to
scrub, to cleanse:
Pi4. Rag, latters. A piece of cloth riddled with

holes (L. 18 A, division). K'ang-hsi erroneously
gives eight strokes to this character, instead of seven.
It forms the homophone

and synonymous compound
Pi4, in w h i c h (L. 43 D) re-
presents the p hysi cal action t h a t
lorethe cloth into shreds.—
C h i h 3 . It is also der iv ed f r o m . The top is

contracted (L. 102,1), houghs, foliage. cloth that
has been pierced with needles a n d so flowered.
Leaves were the first designs used for embroidery;
— It is th e 204th radical.
Second series: liang3.

Liang 3 . It represents scalse in equilibrium. This
character is no w obsolete, but forms important
c o m p o u n d s in w h i c h its p r i m i t i v e m e a n i n g may be
still found. In these compounds, a supperadded ele-
ment develops the notion of weighing and equilibrium.
Thus two, represents the weight and counterpoise;
to enter-enter (L. 15), means that an equal
weight was placed on both sides; graphically
represents the same thing. Etc.
Liaog3. Two weights e q u a l , state of balance;

Hence
Leang3. One ounce. This character is of modern

origin. The level beam, is a graphic redundancy.
In the sense of two, this character is chia-chieh for
t he preced ing. — Phonetic series 376. The scribes mu-
tilate in different ways, as may be seen here
Tsai4. A second weighing , equal to the first

one. on the top represents the horizontal beam.
Twice, again, repeated;
— It has nothing
in common with . L 116 A.
Ch'eng4. This character is formed like the

preceding; hut instead of a beam, there is a
hand that lifts the balance, in order to let it oscillate;
represents the equilibrium of the two scales.
To weigh, weighing,
sca les; now . It is often written by the scribes.
Erh3. Symmetry, harmony of proportions;

A balance loaded
e q u a l l y on both sides. On the top, erh (L. 18
0) is phonetic. See L. 39 N. Chia-chieh, personal pro-
noun, thou, y o u ;
It is often incor rectly engraved The right form has
only 14 strokes. — Phonetic series 776.
Man2. Before the equilibrium is perfect, the ba-

lance oscillating hither and thither. Compare L.
103.C.
The vertical strokes of
the two e lements are united. The modern scribes com-
monly write instead of . It forms.
Man2. Equality, equilibrium;

Compare L. 35 I. — represents the level
beam. — Phonetic series 636.
Chien 3 The cocoon of the silkworm: fr o m silk,

the worm, the regular form of the cocoon;
The modern character is place d h e r e
purposely to show how the engravers transformed
the
LESSON 36.
About the primitive
Mien1. It represents a h u t , a dwelling ;

— It is the 40th radical of characters relating to
dwellings. It forms
Sung*. A hut made with wood;
T'ang4. A cave-dwelling
, in the rock;
Tsung1. An ancestral h a l l ;
The b u i l d i n g from which ema nates
(L. 3 D) the influence of the deceased ancestors o v e r
their posterity. By extension, ancestors, a clan. —
Ning2. Rest, happiness; the heart of man being

satisfied, when he has a shelter and a full dish,
board and lodging;
It is found contracted in
Ning2. That which one is in need of, to e n j o y

rest; The of
was replaced by The srribes often write i n c o r -
rectly
2
N i n g . That which one aspires to , to enjoy
peace. To wish, to prefer; peace, to soothe;
The modern writers put
(L. 57) instead of ( L. 58), out of respect for the
etymology. — P honet ic series 785, under t he modern
form . — This character was specially ill-treated
by t he scribes. See, underneath t he right one, some
wrong ones invented by them.
Note: lao2 is not derived from . L. 17 F.
Second series. In some modern characters, i nst ea d of being contracted i n t o

, mien2 k e p t its a nc ie n t f o r m . O n l y t h e d o t w h i c h represents t h e top of the
roof, sometimes slipped to the le f t, a nd was changed i n t o . Exa m ple s:
See L. 123 F.
Hsiang4. A small round w i n d o w in t h e Northern

wall, under the roof , for ventilation;
The is the represent ation
of the small window, and not the mouth, 30th ra-
dical. Chuan-chu, to face, direc tion . — Phonetic series
200. To be distinguished from t he series 122.
chiung3 (L. 34 B). It forms
Shang4. Has n o t h i n g iu common w i t h (L. 18 H),

u n d e r which it was classified by K'ang- hsi. The vertical
stroke is th e top of protracted; the two l at er al
strokes are (L. 18 A), division, separation ;
The crest or ridge ou the roof of Chi-
nese houses, which divides wi n d an d rain,and which is
placed last of all. Hence the meanings, to add to, still,
elevated, superior, to esteem, etc. — Phonetic series
391, in which placed above the radical, is contrac-
ted into . In composition, means a roof or a
house.
Ch'ang3. To knock (L. 43 D ) a t a house door,

to open. — Phonetic series 663.
T'ang2. Dry and even soil under a roof. A hall,

a meeting-house, a court. — Phonetic series 649.
Tang1. Value of a field (L. 149 ), or of a

house. To value, equal to, to compensate, to match,
convenient, etc. — Phonetic series 763.
Tang3. A house which is smoky or dark. A

poor hamlet. To clob together in darkness, secretly,
a cabal, a conspiracy. — Phonetic series 857.
Ch'eng 1 . To give feet (L. 112 B) to a house,

to prop it up. The scribes altered the ancient form. —
Shang 1 . The flowing g a r m e n t , robe, which co-

vers the lower part of tbe body (L . 16);
Shang1. To bestow as a reward cowries (L 161),

the money of the ancients;
It forms ch'ang2, to pay, to compensate.
Chang3. The palm ot the hand. Chuan-chu, to

grasp, to rule (L. 48);
Ch'ang2. A banner used to head the troops

( L. 35); hence cbuan-chu, rule, constant way, con-
stantly;
Ch'ang 2 . To t hi n k something good, to taste

(L. 26 K ) ; Chia-chieh for the last. It
is often engraved incorrectly.
LESSON 37.
About , derived from the. pr i m i ti ve , explained in the last Lesson.

2
Hsueh . A space obtained
l>y the removal of rock or of earth; a cave, a hole
a den. — It is the 116th radical. Phonetic series 125.
It forms
T'u4. A dog (L. 134) t h a t rushes headlong out of

its kennel, to attack an
i ntruder. Chuan-chu,
impetuousness,
suddenly;
Ts'uan4. A rat (L 139) in its hole. To hide

one's self, to conceal one's self in a place of safety;
Ch'uan 1 To bore ,with the teeth (L'. 147). To

perforate, to r un
through, to put on;
Wa1. A hole, to make a hole as the robbers do when

they pierce through the walls; (L. 9 B).
It forms wa1,
to dig out, to scoop out, to excavate.
Ch'iung 2 . A man (L. 28) who looks (L 168)

out from a cavern, to h it (L. 43 D) or to catch.
To be on the watch for, to spy , to expect, to covet.
It is often altered, as are a l l the intricate coin-
pounds;
It forms the phonetic compound ch'iung2,
a precious stone. It is a radical contracted in the
important compound
Huan4. To exchange, to change;
To pass an object from one hand to another,
whil e examining it attentively, to avoid deception.
Now . Note the contraction of into , in the
modern writing. — Phonetic series 451.
Chai3. In a confined space, narrow, as when one is

crouched down in a hole. See L. 10 F.
LESSON 38.
About the three primitives: k'an3 ch'u1, and kung 1 , which are both written
in the modern way.
A Note: Two other primitives,i 3 (L, 85 B) and ssu1 (L. 89) are also w r it t e n
, in the modern running h a n d : so that is used for four ancient primitives,
which fact does not make the matter cle arer.
First series: k'an3.

K'an3. A hole in the earth, a pit;
K'uai 4 . A clod, a shovelful of earth; there is a

hole , where the earth was removed; a f urr o w, a
trench; It forms chieh4 often
incorrectly engraved ; a man (L. 32) sitting
down on th e trench w h i c h marks the l i m i t of his
properly, and thus asserting his domain. Boundary, limit.
Hsiung 1 . This character represents the f al l

( L. 39 B ) of a man into a p it ;
Chuan-chu, an accident, unfortunate,
u n l u c k y . — Phonetic series 62.
Note the compounds
Hsiung 1 . The t h o r a x , the
breast, the heart, the affections.
concealed in a man
(L. 54). — In the second form,
( L. 65) represents the flesh
enveloping the inte
For, says t h e Glose, it is in the heart that the evil is
conceived; —
Hsiung 1 . A man (L . 29) under evil
influonces, contemplating or doing e v i l ;
, It forms the phonetic complex
Tsung1. To move, to s h a k e ;
(L. 31 C). -
Phonetic.series 483.
Hsu. Mad with d r i n k (L. 41

G).
Second series: ch'u1.
Ch'u1. Basin, porringer; This
representation is found in more intricate characters
designing different vessels, e. g.
Ch'u4. An empty vessel and its cover;

The top resembling in the
modern writing, and in the old one, is a special
primitive. Chuan-chu, to empty, to remove, to lay
aside, to leave; ideas coming from the removal of a
vessel's cover, and of its c ontents. Compare below
. — Phonetic series 119. It forms
Tiu 1 . To lose. Falling down and disappearance

of an object; Compare
L. 48 B
Chieh2. To prevent by violence (L. 53) a man

from going. as the brigands do;
By extension,
coercion, violence The scribes often write , which
is a wrong character. The philologists refer to ,a
contracted phonetic, the compounds of in ieh,
as chieh4, etc.
The same cover, upon a different vessel, may be found in the ancient forms of the
following characters
Hu2 A pot, a jug. The representation of the vessel
is a primitive. On the top, the cover.
It has nothing in common
with ya4, L. 82 H. Not to be confounded with
k'un3, L. 15 A. It forms the next.
1
I . A kind of ritual vase of old.
This character, now obsolete in
the primitive sense, is used ins-
tead of— one, in casting up accounts. See 24 C, and
38 D. was the auspicious vase; was the
inauspicious corresponding vase.— Phonetic series 680.
Etymological Lessons. 38 39. 107
Ho2. A dish filled and its cover. To till, to cover.

This cover resembles the cover of , the vase being
represented by (L 157 A) instead of . In the
vase. — represents the contents (L. 1, 4°).
In the modern writing, the scribes contracted the cover and the
contents into , thus forming an illogical character, for it is made with one cover
and two vases, and . It is often chia-chieh for , an interrogative particle:
— Phonetic series 532, under its modern form. Note the compound
Kai4. A. roof made with course grass used for
thatching, to put a roof on, to conceal both literally
and figuratively; a cover;
The mo-
dern form is admitted by the critics, but is an unauthorised character.
Third series: kung1.

K u n g 1 . I t w a s a t first a rudimental representation
of the arm bent; Then the hand
(L. 46) was added. The latter forms the phonetic
series 69.
LESSON 39
About the, character , which corresponds with two primitives (Series I and2);
and about its multiples (Series 3. 4. 5.1.
First series: wu3

Wu3. Five; a numerical sign, It
represents, says the Glose, the live elements (four
sides a n d the centre; compare L. 24 A). Later on,
two strokes were added, to represent heaven and
earth, and thus was formed
Wu3 Five;
The two principles yin1 and yang2, begetting the live
elements, between heaven and earth. It forms
Wu2. An appellation to design one's self; I, my, me;

Second series: i4.
I4. This character is intended to depict the blades of
shears; action Of cutting or turning; action or
influence of any kind. It is formed of two (L. 7 C)
intercrossed and jointed;
To c u t grass, to mow,. Jt is f o u n d in
Sha1. To cut an ear. See L. 45 J.
Hsiung 1 . To roll down into a pit. See L. 38 D,
Third series: Two , side by side, represent the meshes in the important
character
Wang3. A net; to throw down the net, to entangle,
to catch. It is derived f r o m covering (L. 34 H),
and representing the
net;
— It is the
112th radical of characters concerning nets. The
scribes alter so 1hat it m a y he mistaken for
bent down ( L . 158). It forms
Wang3. To car r y off by a cast of the
net (L. 10 E). By extension, disappearan ce,
absence, negation; compare (L. 10 I, J). The scribes
wrote in such a way t h a t it resembles the 169th
radical . — Phonetic series 408. Not to be
confou nded with the next
Kang 1 . The culminating p o i n t of a mountain
(L. 80), covered by t h e cloudst The
Close rejects as being a g r a p h i c redundan cy , a n d
gives as an irregular f o r m of — Phonetic
series 365.
Chao4. To take a bird (L. 168) in a net;
Lo2. To catch birds with a net made w i t h

threads (LL. 168 an d 92). — Phonetic series 815.
Li4 To blame. To entangle a culprit, in the

reproaches (L. 73 C) addressed to h im ;
Fa2. To punish, a penalty;

Railings and corporal maimings inflicted with a
sword ( L. 52 ).
Chih4. The Glose explains this character as follows:
to procure the delivery of a just man (L. 10 K),
fallen into the net of a slanderous accusation;
Chuan chu, to procure, to dispose.
Pa*. To dismiss a mandarin, drawn into a
snare. To cease, to stop. See L. 27 J.
F o u r t h series: Two superposed.

Yao2. M u t u a l action and reaction (L, 39 B ) ;
influence; symmetrical dispos ition, net-work, etc. —
It is the 89th radical. Note the f o r m of on the top
Of the compounds.
Hsiao2. To learn. The disciple (L. (4), impro-
ving u n d e r the influence of the master;
See below .—Not to be confounded with
hsiao4, filial'piely, L. 39 E. — It forms
Chiao 1 . To teach. Here the

( L . 4 3 D) ferule is joined to
the master's influence, for the for
mation of the disciple;
Hsiao2. To learn. This character is more, explicit

than (above H ) . Both hands (L. 50 A) of the
master, acting from above upon the darkness which
covers (L. 34. H) the mind of the disciple.
— Phonetic
series 733, under the contracted form , always
giving place to the radical. Note chiao3, to percei-
ve, to feel, whi ch forms some insignificant compounds.
110 Etymological Lessons. 39 40.
Yao3. Meat , cut up and made ready according

to the rules.— Phonotic series 4 1 2 .
Hsi1. Interstices of any material, between the

intercrossed threads; loose, scarce, etc. See L. 35
D. — Phonetic series 275.
Fan2. Fence, hedge-row. From two trees, bound

and interlaced , to form a hedge;
See , L. 47 Z.
Po2. A hoise (L. 1 3 7 ) , dappled, spotted;
By extension, to lind fault

with, to criticise, to censure, to refute. This character
is often incorrectly written
Fifth series: repeated four times representing symmetry, meaning

action, in the following
3
Erh . Harmony. See L. 35 L — Phonetic series 776.
Shuang3. A man (L. 60) acting with both

arms; active, alert, cheerful;
There are diflerent chia-chieh Compare 13 B, and 27 E.
LESSON 40
About the three series , indudiug five primitives.
First series: hsin4
Hsin*. The skull, the cover of the brain;

In composition, the head It is often altered in the
modern writing, so that it resembles (L 119) It forms
Pi2. The navel, which is supposed to be In commu-

nication with the head .through ducts in which
circulate the vital spirits See L. 27 I. — Phonetic
series 557.
Ssu1. To think;
When one is thinking, says the
Glose, the vital fluid of th e heart ascends to the
brain.— Phonetic series 477. It forms
Lu4. To meditate;
Head and hands. It wil l be

explained, w i t h its
i m p o r t a n t series, in the L. 50, M N 0 P.
Hsi 4 . Tenuous, slender, like a t h r e a d ;

It may be t h a t the pr i m i t i ve sense was hair,
the f i l a m e nt s that cover the head.
Sub-series: hsin4, which is often engraved by the modern writers op

4
Hsin . The hairy head;
This was fi r s t a special primitive, representing
the h a i r raised up a n d k n o t t e d in a t u f t ; then the
was covered w i t h h a i r (L. 12 M ) . The engravers often
cutting instead of , the derivatives of bsin4
1
are easily c o n f o un d ed wirh those of tzu . Sec LL.
150 A, an d 12 I. — It forms
Nao3. The brain, the m a r r o w of the head, says the

Glose;
The ( L. 56 A, 2 ° ) is i n t e n d ed to mean the
symmet rica l structure of t h e brain, hemispheres a n d
lobes. — Note : always contracted into
g i v i n g place to the radical, forms the p honetic s eries
469, etc.
Lieh4. Hairy, bristly, disorderly;
The top is the h a ir y head, as above. The bottom is
shu3, rat (L. 139 B) contracted ; the whiskers and
the t ail of a rat.— Phonetic series 80S.
Fei4. Monkey. Sec L. 23 F.
4
Second series: fu .
Fu 4 . Head of a devil, of a p h a n t o m ;
It forms
Kui 3 . The s p i r i t of a dead m a n , a manes, a ghost, a

spectre. F u r t h e r , a f t e r the introduction of Buddhism,
it m e a n t , a d e v i l , a preta.
The old character is evidently a primitive representing

a h u m a n f o r m floating in t h e air. The more recent
forms o f t e n show the, split head of B u d d h i s t pretas,
a n d alw ays ha ve an appendage, t h a t was sometimes
taken for a tail, but that really represents the whirling
made by t h e ghost, while, it moves. — It forms the
194th radical of characters relating to devils. Phonetic
series 5i8. — Now is a s y n o n y m for horrid, repul-
sive, malignant.
Wei4. To dread, to be in awe, a w f u l , terrible.

The c h a r a c t e r was first composed of t h e head of a
spectre , a n d of claws (L. 49). Later on, a man
frightened, was added; for, says the Glose, nothing
insp ires more awe, t h a n the head of a demon, or
the claws of a tiger;
Compare the composition of , L. 135 H.

The bottom of t h e modern character is a strange
contraction (compare L. tO H ) ; lost its ; finally
K a n g - h s i placed this character t h u s alt ere d under
, the 120th r a d i c a l , — Phonetic series 488.
Yu2. An ape; Its head

and its tail and paws ; the head resembles that of a
demon, See L. 23 E — Phonetic series 503.
Pi4. To agree, to enter into an engagement. is

not a head, It is the pledge, the earnest-money p laced
upon a small table (L. ?9 K), an act that conclndes
a transaction. By extension, to yield (to the condi-
tions), to give (the earnest-money). Classified by
K'ang-hsi u n d e r the 102th radical.
Compare L. 47 R i4, difference, disagreement.

The hands rejecting the pledge placed upon
the table , that is, the affair is not concluded, the
bargain is not made. — Pi4 is
phonetic In
PI2. The nose;
See (L. 159 A ) . - It is the
209th radical.
Note: and much annoyed K'ang-hsi. Finally he classified under
the 31th radical, and under the 102th radical. It Is therefore not easy to
see the etymological meanings in th e modern series of radicals.
Third series: ch'uang1.
This modern character has two ancient forms, each forming a distinct series.
Further there will be an appendix for the modern abbreviation
Ch'uang 1 . A window, closed by a shutter or by

lattices (two forms); It is now replaced by its
compound
1. Derivatives from the first a n c ie n t form Besides

1
cb'uang window, and
shu1 shutter, note
Ts'ung 1 . To feel alarm or agitation;
When the heart being restless.one looks
t h r o u g h the window, to see what is coming. —
2. Derivatives from the second ancient form.
Hei1. Black. That which the fire deposits around
the, aperture through which t h e smoke escapes;
soot ;
In the primitive
Chinese huls, the smoke found its way through the
window. Note the contraction of (L. 126 D) in the
modern character. — It is the 203th radical. Phonetic
series 678. It forms
Mei1. Chinese ink, an earthy substance
made with soot;
Hsun 1 . Smoke, to fumigate. Black va pour that

rises from the (ire; (L. 78 A) is used symboli-
cally;
Note the modern contrac-
tion. — Phonetic series 781.
Tang 3 . A meeting in the darkness ; conspiracy.

See L. 36 E — Phonetic series 857.
Tse ng 1 , ts'eng 2 . The words t ha t people say to

each other, when still at the door, at the moment
of deparlure; adieu. By extension, still, more, to
a dd. — Phonetic series 710.
H u i 4 . The words that people say at the door,

when (L. 14 A) they meet; greeting. By exten sion,
mee ting, reunion — Phonetic series 736.
Note. Chien3 does not come f r o m . It is added

with . See L 75 A.
3. A p p e n d i x . an a b b r e v i a t i o n of , a b o ve iO D, is f o u n d in ts'ung1 for
Hence ts'ung 1 o nion.
LESSON 41
The seven series of t h i s Lesson are devoted to seven characters, distinct in the
ancient writing, analogous or identical in the modern writing, viz: 1. ping3. —
2. t'ien 4 — 3. hsia4. — 4, 5, 6 hsi1, t'iao2, yao 1 . — 7, yu 3 .
First series: ping3.
Ping 3 . F ire, calamity. The fire u n d e r a roof,
in a house. The more recent form represents the
flames rising up and — spreading over the roof;
Phonetic series 150 It forms
K e n g 1 . To change, to improve;
, Intervention of the armed
h a n d (L. 43 D) in a fire, in an u n h a p p y s itua tio n;
change, amendment. Nole the contraction of the
modern character, and the
compound su1, to return to life. K'ang-hsi erroneously classified
under , the 73th. radical. — Phonetic series 283. It forms
4 2
Pien . Pien A man who settles his
afTairs well; advantage, convenience, ease;
— Phonetic
series AH.
Second series: tien4.

T'ien4. Chin A primitive. The second ancient
character is considered as an abbreviation of the first,
which was explained in the L 47 I. In composition,
is often used for (L. IT G), dried meal, It
forms the phonetic compound
Ch'ien4. Rubia cordifolia, a climbing plant with

large ovate leaves, used in dyeing.
Hsu4. A m a n who eats or offers (for )

dried meat It forms
Hsu 1 . Hsu3. A roof under which a traveller
stops, to spend the n igh t; means, either that he
eats the dried meal he brought w i t h hi m , or ra t her
t h a t he gives the dried m eat to pay his host.
Constellations, the. celestial i nns. The scribes write
for ; it is a licence.— Phonetic series 613.
Pi 4 . A i d , helper, lieutenant,
Two bows, strung on a bamboo with
leather-strongs, to prevent deformation;
The idea of helper, of minister, comes
from the fact that, in ancient times, bows, like swords,
were paired, not single. See L 87 B.
Third series: hsia4

Hsia4. A k i n d of stopper, of cover;
A primitive, often engraved . — It is the 116th
radical of a few common character. It forms
Chia3. Ku3. To buy. To cover an object by its

value in eowries (L. 161 ), to pay its value.
Fu2. To cover. See L. 75 1.

116 Etymological Lesson». 41.
Fourth series: hsi1.

hsi1. A primitive not to be confounded with the
preceding, under which K'ang-hsi wrongly cbassified
it. Image of a bird sitting on its nest; note the
successive contractions; Chuan-
chu, t h e West, for the birds go to roost when the sun
is setting;
It forms
Jeng1. Cry and flight of a bird caught on its nest;

It is n o w w r i t t e n . See L. 19 A, where this
character was fully explained.
Yin 1 . To destroy, to wall, to dam i n ;

See L. 81. It is now written
The pri mit ive idea was probably tha t of mud nests
built by certain birds, v.g such as the swallows. —
Lu3. The rock salt, that was first used by the Chinese,
a n d that comes from t h e West, says t h e Glose. Hence
the composition: hsi1, West, in its ancient form,
and four grains of s alt ;
the compounds
Yen2. Salt obtained by evaporation of the sea-water;
Ancient form salt and the basin (L. 157 A) used

to prepare it. Compare L. 82 F.
Chien3. impure carbonate of soda.
Hsien2. Salted.
Tan2. Pickled. See L. 75 G.

Fifth scries: t'iao4, contraction of

T'iao 2 . Fruits h a n g i n g f r o m plants or trees, in ears
or in bunches; A primitive. On
the top the pedicle, at the bottom the ear or the
bunc h. The ancient form was thrice repeated, to mean
the mu ltitu de of fruits. Not to be confounded w i t h
a singular form of yu3 (L. 41 G). K'ang-hsi
wrongly classified t h i s character under , the 25th
radical In composition, in the modern forms, is
written , v.g.
Li4. Chestnut-tree; See L.
119. — Phonetic series 550.
Su4. Ears, grains of corn; See

L. 122.
S i x t h series: yao4, c o n t r a c t i o n of
See L. 50, N, 0, P.
Sev enth series: yu3.

Yu3. A p r i m i t i v e . It represents an ancient vase, a
k i n d of a m p h o r a , u sed for m a k i n g or keeping t h e
f e r m e n t e d liquors. By extension, fermented liquor,
now chiu3. There are
chia chieh of different kinds. — It is the 164th radical
of characters re l a t i n g to liq u ors It forms
Yu2 or shu 2 . To offer up libations, in the old

way, on a straw b u n d l e ;
See page 362.
Chiu4. Liquor obtained when the fermentation is

over, when the dregs are entirel y separated (L. 18A);
spirits that have settled;
Tsun1. To offer with both hands, the wine,

to the manes. By extension, to honour, h igh, noble.
See L. 46 E. The scribes replaced by .—
Tien4. Spirits for the libations, placed upon a

.small table tL. 29 K ) ; to offer libations. The
scribes often contracted into It forms the
compound
Cheng1. Name of a city.
LESSON 42
About the two primitives ssu2 and chiung3.
First series: ssu4.

Ssu4. Four. N u m e r i c a l sign. Even n u m b e r , w h i c h is
easily divided into two halves. The old f o r m graphically
represents the d i v i si o n nf into two halves. —
Phonetic series 1 0.
Liu 4 . Six. The even number, also easily divisible,

that comes after four. marked with a dot. Note
that in the other simpl e ev en numbers, the divisibility
is also indicated; two; eight,
P'i3. Half of a whole. The whole is represented by

. A little more than the h a l f of was kopt, so
that the character is still recognisab le;
That w hic h, be ing j o i n e d wit h
its like , forms a pair, a m a t c h See the c o m p o u n d
L 73 B
Second series: chiung3.

Chiung3. A window; By extension,
light; Compare L 40 D, and L
41 G. The modern form is to be distinguished from
L. 15 C. It forms the compounds
Meng2. A liliaceous plant, Fritillaria Thunbergii. A

phonetic complex.
Ming2. Brightness, to illustrate. The moon

sbining through the window;
Li-ssu read instead of hence
sun a n d moon, light. — Phonetic series 384.
It forms
Meng 2 . Note in the first place that the radical is not

. as the modern character might induce one to
believe; it is blood;
To clear up an obscure affair, by
swearing, in the old wa y, up on a vessel full of blood.
Meng2. To bud, to germinate, to open, to appear in

the light; See
L 78 B.
LESSON 43
The eight following Lessons, 43 to 50, treat about the character representing the
human hand. Among the modifications introduced in the modern writing, there
were none more deplorable, than the replacing of those very expressive charac-
ters, by unrecognisable abbreviations.
In the old writing, the hand is represented in s i x different ways:
The right hand The right hand

in profile. L. 43 seq. prone. L. 49.
The l e f t h a n d Both bands

in profile. L 46 raised. L. 47.
The h a n d Both h a n d s
facing. L 48. hanging L. 50.
A Note. The use of a compound, instead of the primitive, is frequent in these

series, in order to make easier the distinction between the numerous derivatives
from hand. See p. 16, aote 1.
First series:
Yu4. The right h a n d. The Glose explains that the
fingers are reduced to three, for the sake of
simplification; It is found
in a great n u m b e r of compounds. — It is th e 29th
radical.
Chih 1 . Bough, branch. The right h a n d holding a

bough. The old form represents the hand separating
t he bough from the stem;
— It is the 65th radical. — Phonetic
series 45.
P'u1. To tap; The

right hand holding a rod. Compare L. 43 G. The
engravers inve nted t h e m o d e r n form . — It is th e
66th radical of characters relat ing to strokes and
motions. Note t h e two followin g compounds
M u 4 S h e p h e r d , to feed. The
man who superintends, has
oversight of cattle;
Chiao1. To teach. The master

armed with a rod, acting
upon his disciple. See L.
89 H.
Fan3. To t a r n over, inversion. The m o t i o n of

the band t urn i ng over;
Chi2. To reach, to seize. A h a n d seizing a

man; See L. 19 D. — Phone-
tic series 40.
Fu4. Father, considered as the e h i e f a n d instructor

of his family. Composed of hand a n d a stick;
Compare
L. 43 D. — It is t h e 88th radical. Phonetic series 60
P'i2. To flay; skin. The hand that flays;

The left stroke, represents tbe skin;
the stroke above th e hand may represent tbe knife.
These two strokes are a special primitive. — It is the
107th radical of characters relating to skins. Phonetic
Chia3. False, borrowed; To have
two skins, a double skin, a borrowed skin over
one's true skin. The modern character reproduces
the ancient one. — Phonetic series 427.
Nan3, nien 3 . T h in s k in. It is an abbreviation of

Not to be confounded w it h fu2, L. 55 C. It forms
3
nan , to blush. Turning red of the thin skin
that covers the cheeks.
Second series:
K In the modern writin g, the stroke of is su p p r esse d, when it coincides

with a stroke in t h e same d i r e c t i o n , coining down f r o m the, top of the character.
In this case, there remains b u t fiom . In the a n c i e n t wr iti ng, these characters
are made l i k e those of t h e f i r s t series.
Chang4. A l i n e o f t e n s p a n s (See L. 32 F). A
hand and ten; —
Phonetic series 13.
Shih3. A n n a l i s t , scribe, liter ate. A h a n d grasping
the f o u n t a i n- p e n (pag e 7 ) ;
It forms
Li*. Those among the litera-
ti, who were (L. 2 G) set
over the instruction and admi-
nistration of the
people ;
— See L. 44 H.
Chueh2. To divide, to partake;

A hand holding one h a lf of a bilateral
object, which was divided into two halves. K'ang-hsi
wrongly classified this character under , the 37th
radical. — Phonetic series 53.
Third series: Multiples of

Yu3. Friend, friendship. The character represents the
right hands of two friends, acting in the same
direction; for, says the Glose, true friends are those
who cooperate;
Compare L. 46 C.
Jao2. Three hands picking herbs; to gather;
It is an ancient form of L. 46 G The hand
represented thrice signifies activity. It forms
Sang1. The mulberry, the
tree, the leaves of which are
plucked to feed the silkworms;
—
Cho4. To sew; This character

has nothing in common with the hand. It is a
primitive that represents the stitches encroaching
upon one another. Compare (L. 57 B). - Phonetic
series 341.
LESSON 44.
A In this Lesson, we sh all examine some characters in w hich the hand
kept almost its ancient form in the modern writing. The ancient forms of these
characters resemble those of the last Lesson. Do not confound the h a n d , with
the 58th radical
Ch'ou 3 . A hand bound. To bind, to tie u p ;
Chia-chieh, a cyclical
character. Sometimes, in composition, it means the
hand (L. 43 A). — Phonetic series 50. It forms.
Hsiu1. To be forced to offer
a sheep in expiation, as a re-
paration for wrong. Hence, to
feel ashamed, to blush.
3
Yin . A magistrate, to govern. A hand that exerts
a u t ho r i t y ;
It forms i1, a proper Dame; and
Ghun1. A prince;
See, p. 9, for the story and

the Interpretation of this character. — Phonetic series
267. But ts'ang1 is not derived from . See L. 26
M, under
Nieh4. A hand writing upon — a surface. In the
ancient form, hand writing upon a tablet,
whose top o n l y is figured.
Yu4. A more explicit form. Hand writing — a l i n e

on a lahlet. The line is horizontal, because it was im-
possible to truce a vertical one (p. 18,8). The modern
writing-brush is written , because its handle is
made of hamboo. — It is the 129th radical. See its
important derivatives, L, 169.
Tai4. To reach, to seize, to hold. A hand that seizes

a tail ; when running, one seizes from behind ;
For contracted, see L. 100. Compare ch'iu2,

L. 45 K. See, also (L. 102 B) k'ang 1 , that has no-
thing iu common with . -~ It is the 171th radical.
Chieh2. Result, success. The hand having

reached its end, ceases from ac tin g. See
L. 112, and L. 78. — Phonetic series 330 It forms
Ch'i 1 . Wile. —This form is a relatively modern one;

(L 67) a w o m a n who holds a broom or a
duster. For, says The Glose, the woman must take care
of th e household. Compare (below K). — A more
ancient form gives: daughter, an d price (L. 111
B). The price paid to the parents, for their daughter,
by the husband. — Phonetic series 326.
Shih 4 To serve. Chia-chieh any affair. Hand acting

with fidelity, is a false interpretatio n. This
character has nothing to do wit h L. 43 M.
It re-
presents the hand of a son invitin g the soul
of his ancestor. See page 370.
Ping 3 . Sheaf of grain hold by a hand, to bind

in sheaves, to hold;
Chien1. A han d t h a t binds up into sheaves two

(several) stalks of grain. By extension, to join se-
veral together, a whole. Note the contraction of the
two in the modern form. — Phonetic series 519.
Hui4. A broom, hundle of branches held in a

See L 97 B. K'ang-hsi wrongly
classified this character under the 58th radical. —
Hsueh 3 . Snow; ra i n
solidified, t h a t m a y he swept
away;
The
scribes contracted into
Chou3. A duster, mode w i t h a cloth, fixed by the

m i d d l e to a h a n d l e . I n v e n t e d in t h e 2 1 t h C e n t u r y B.
C., a c c o r d i n g lo th e Glose., it is s t i l l used in o u r days.
A hand, t h e h a n d l e , a n d a double
cloth
h a n g i n g . Compare t h e b o t t o m of L. 24 Q. — Pho-
netic, series 343. It f o r m s
Fu4. A married w o m a n , w i f e ;
A woman with a duster, indicating

her household duties. The ancients, says, t h e Glose, gave to this character the
sound of fu, to remind the wife that she must be f u , obedient to her husband.
1
Compare ch'i , above G.
Kui 1 . The ar ri val of t h e br i de at her husband's
bouse, where she w i l l slay as a wife ( contracted);
Later on was a d d e d as
a phonetic. Chuan-
chu, to b elo ng to, to depend u p o n ; the maried woman belonging to a new f amil y,
being submitted to a new authority.
C h i n 1 To dust A h a n d holding a duster

(above K) Pleonastic composition (two ). The
scribes invented the modern form. — P honetic series
261. The compound ch'in 4 . to encroach u p o n t h e
neighbour's ground, is
explained thus: to act g r a d u a l l y and discretely, as with a dusting-brush,
thus gaining on one's neighbour's ground;
LESSON 45
A About five d e ri v a l i v e s f r o m , t h a t arc of a special interest, on a c c o u n t

of the series derived from t h e m . These are:
First scries
Tsun4.The Chinese i n c h. The clot represents th e place
on t h e w r i s t w h e r e the puls e is felt, w hi c h pl a c e is an
inch d i st a n t f r o m the h a n d ; hence the meaning i n c h ;
By extension, measure, rule. In composition,

is o f t e n w r i t t e n instead o f . ; see L. 43 A. — It is
the .41th radical. Phonetic series 32. It forms
Fu 4 . To give A h a n d t h a t gives up some, object

to a m a n : — Phonetic
series 420. it forms
Fu3 Building where t h e
records, the litle-deeds of do-
nations, the diplomas, were
kept; By extension, t r i b u n al , palace.—
Shou3. A m a n d a r i n , a p r e f e c t ; the m a n , w h o , in hi s
t r i b u n a l , a p p l i e s the law.
By extension, to observe,
to keep. — Phonetic series 237.
Te2. To acquire, to obtain;

To lay one's hand on the thing one
had in view The compound is now used instead.
— Phonetic series 397. Sometimes is used as an
abbreviation of , e.g. for nai4; it is a licen-
ce. Note the, contraction of the modern character.
Hsun2. To wind, to unravel treads with

the hands and the ; the latter probably represen-
ting an instrument used for the winding.
The old character
represented the unravelling of threads by two hands
holding combs. By extension, to examine, to invesli-
gate (the winding requires attention); length, duration (as of a thread winded ).
The c h a r a c t e r was altered by the scribes. There are different chia-chieh. — Pho-
netic series 686.
Chou3. The fore-arm, the elbow;

The fleshy part above the wrist.
4
Chou . The crupper of a saddle; The
preceding contracted, is supposed to be the phon etic.
Now
T'ao3. To rule by one's words; to chide
Second series:
Ch'a1. To cross, to interlace. The a n c i e n t character
represented t h e two hands i n t e r l a c e d . In t h e modern
character, the l e f t h a n d is represented by
By extension,
gearings, toothed wheels, etc. — Phonetic series 12.
Third series.:
Chao3. Claws; Hand or paw with
points; It forms
Tsao2. Flea. The insect that

irritates men, says the Glose.
— Pho netic series 570.
Fourth series:
Shu2. A glutinous grain, rice or millet ;
The idea of glutinousness is represented
by the hand , that separates three agglutinated
grains. The ancient charater represented the plant.—
Sha1. To decapitate;
The cutting (39 B) of the ear, upon a stalk of
rice, sorghum or millet. The ancient forms represent:
on the top, the hand after th e cutting ; at the bottom,
the stalk beheaded. To behead a man is now said
sha1, (L. 22 D) representing the sword's stroke.
Note that the modern scribes, leaving off the dot on the
top of , write etc., which gives the phonetic
6 strokes, instead of 7, and makes one mistake for
(L. 119). It is a licence. K'ang-hsi numbered 6
strokes in , 7 in , then
6 again in- , etc. It is an inconsistency.
Fifth, series:
Ch'iu2. To search for, to ask, to implore. According
to the Glose, the primitive composition and meaning
of this character would be l i k e those of (L. 44 E);
; to seize, or to
hold by the tail
contracted (L. 100 B). The meaning, to beg, to pray, would come from
sacrifice of a b ull for impetration, as under the Chow Dynasty. Perhaps, in this
sacrifice, the offerer held by its tail the offered b u l l . — It seems rather that the
primitive sense, was , to offer hairs (L 100) of the victim, with prayers, as
was done in the ancient sacrifices. K'ang-hi wrongly classified under wa-
ter. — Phonetic series 263.
LESSON 46
A The first Series of this Lesson treats about the left hand . In the modern
writing, on the top of the compounds, it becomes ; af the b otto m, it becomes
, etc. It is never written (See LL. 44 and 135 H).
The second Series treats about some compounds, in which the right hand
placed on the top, became also in the modern writing. In their ancient form,
those compounds are made just like those given in the LL. 43, 44, 45.
First series: for

Tso3. The left hand; Was soon
replaced by
Tso3. Properly, the help given by the le ft hand

to the right, its action;
Gh'a4. Variance, and consequently, aberration,

failure. Two h a n d s opposite. W h i l e the l ef t h a n d is
act i n g, offering some object, t h e r i g h t one does not
move, does n o t receive, remai ns hanging. Compare 43
P, 47 B, 47 Y, 50 A, etc.. The tracing of the h a n g i n g
right h a n d bei ng too difficult with the modern writing-
brush, the co m position of t h i s character was modified
as follows; left h a n d , m a k i n g two with the
right one, not agreeing with it, f o r s a k e n by the right
that (L 18 E) remains h a n g i n g , instead of helping
the l e ft ;
Finally, a foolish scribe wrote instead of , and
Li-ssu adopted. Conclusion : has nothing in com-
mon, either with , or w i t h (L, 103). — Phonetic
series 506.
To4. To b u i l d a (L. 86) l i n e of c o n t r a v a l l a t i o n ,
terraces, to besiege, a f o r t i f i e d t o w n , according to t h e
Chinese ways; represents t h e action of the besiegers;
twice repealed, me ans t h e i r great n u m b e r ; left,
means that their action is the inverse, the contrary
to the action of t h e besieged ; By extension,
to d e s t r o y . It forms
To4. S u i 2 M e a t c u t up.
One of the two was
replaced by the radical (L. 65).
It forms, contracted i n t o in
t h e modern writing, the phon etic
series 480. The phonetic compl ex
sui2, to follow,
forms the phonetic
series 759.
PI 4 . O r di n a r y , vulgar. This
m e a n i n g is chuan-chu from
the primitive meaning ;
This ch ar acte r represents an ancient
drinking vase provided with a h a n d l e on t h e l e f t side (a p r i m i t i v e distinct from
(L. 152), and which was held wit h the left hand. How came t h is character to mean
common, v u l g a r ? There were, says t h e Glose, two w i n e vessels, the tsun1 a n d
1 1 1
the pi . The tsun was used for the sacrifices, t h e pi was used every day. Later
on, the two characters were taken in the abstract sense for noble and vulgar,
a n d the vases were written tsun1 a n d pi1 ;
Second series: for

Yu4. It me a ns now, the right h a n d (chia-chieh for
L 43 B), the right side. The primitive meaning
was. to put in the mouth; to help the mouth,
as the Glose says; which is a proof that the ancient
Chinese used the right hand to eat;
Hence, to help. Compare L. 46
13. _ Phonetic series 172.
Jao 2 . Pr i mit i ve sense, to pick, eatable herbs,

in order to eat t he m; Compare L. 43
Q. — Jao- is now (chia-chi eh) an impor tant conjunc-
tion, if, as, etc. See the compound L 10 D.
Yu3. Primitive meaning: the phases of' the moon

, its m o n t h l y darkening, as if a h an d covered it;
Or, a c c o r d i n g to oth ers,
ecl ipse of the. moon, the interpretation being the
same. The following interpretation: eclipse of the
s u n , the moon placing the hand before it,
is rejected by t h e com-
3
mentators. — Yu means no w (chia-chieh) lo be, to
have. — Phonetic series 250.
H u i 1 Ashes, fire that can be h an d l e d ; or

p er h a p s that which remains of the fire that was
covered, smothered;
Kung2 The a r m ; See L. 38 H. —

Phonetic series 69.
Pu4. Linen, cloth. In this character, is not ,but

fu (L. 43 G) contracted, phonetic. See L. 35 G. —
LESSON 47.
A About the two hands. The simplification of this character, in the modern
writing, made many compounds quite unintelligible. See the examples given
below, and you may verify the remark. Any signs are good to replace ;
etc.
Kung3. The two hands joine d and held up, as when
presenting a thing:
It is the 55th radical.
First series.
Tsun 1 . To ofter a w i n e vessel t hat was held with
both hands;
T he scribe s changed into . See, L. 40 E, the
o r i g i n of t h e modern chuan-chu, noble, high, eminent.
P i n g 1 . Arms, soldiers; Two

h a n d s br andishing an axe (L. 128).
C h i e h 4 . To d a u n t , to forbid with threats;

Two hands h o l d i n g a hal ber d (L. 71) —
L u n g 4 , neng 4 . Two h a n d s playing with a

jade ball (L. 83); To
h a n d l e , to make. — Phonetic series 290.
Hsuan. To calculate. It has nothing in common with
lung 4. It is a different writing of , below G, the
representation of the abacus being instead of
Chu4. To heap up, to hoard up, to prepare. The

is contracted into .Two hands heaping up
cowries ( L. 161), the money of the ancients;
— Phonetic series
347.
Hsuan4 To calculate, to plan. It has n o t h i n g in

common with chu4;
Two hands manipulating the Chinese abacus (a
primitive) made of bamboo. Compare above F. —
Phonetic series 780, the radical being placed at the
bottom, etc.
Etymological Lessons 47. 131
4
Pi en . Hat ; On the
tup, t h e hat, a p r i m i t i v e form. At the bottom, two
hands, th e r i t u a l r e q u i r i n g both hands to be used in
covering or uncovering oneself. The form is u
m o d e r n contraction. — Phonetic series 78.
Yen3, To cover,
T
o join the hands, in
order to cover something; —
Second series.
In the modern writing, the hands are often mixed up with the object which
they hold. Among these compounds, that are now unrecognisable, some are very
important. The two following, J and K, are to be carefully distinguished.
Cheng4. Fire that can be handled, embers,
live coal, lit. grain of fire;
Compare , L. 46 I. It forms
Gheng4. To c a u l k the seams

of a boat ( for L 66); or
rather, to curve with fire
planks to build a h u l l . — Phonetic, series 511, in
which the radic al is inserted at the bottom of
etc. — From the year B. C. 221, was used (chia-
chieh) to write the personal pronoun chen by which
the E m p e r o r designated h i m s e l f .
Chuan4. To pick a n d sort (L. 123) with the

hands, to choose the best. The top Is not
(L. 12 2). — Phonetic series 191, in which the ra-
dical is placed at the bottom, etc. Note the
derivative
Chuan4. A deed sealed L.
55 B), a roll, a scroll, a section
or division of a work; is
phonetic. — Phonetic series 350.
Third series:
This is another series formed hy the hands mixed up with the object which
they hold. Though the object is not the same in the ancient characters, the
modern contraction is the same. The radical is at the bottom.
Peng4. To hold up (or to receive) respectfully in both
hands, as required by the ritual;
Note that at the bottom,
has only two transversal strokes, as in the ancient
character (L. 48). says the Glose, represents the
action of presenting something, while the two
hands represent the ritual reverence. —. Phonetic
series 354.
Tsou4. To i n f o r m , a m e m o r a n d u m . To present one's
Self (L. 60 V) before a superior, a n d to offer
to hi m one's advice; The (L. 78 A) is
symbolic, — P hon et i c series 482.
Ch'ung 1 . To b ark the g r a i n by p o u n d i n g it.

Two h a n d s t h a t raise up the pestle
(L. 130), above the mortal (L. 139);
According to the Glose, the. g u i l t y women were
co nd emn ed to this hard work. Not to be conf ounded
with , below P. — Phonetic series 606. The
composition of the next is analogous.
Ch'in 2 . A k i n d of rice, cul-
tivated in the. Wei valley; then
the name of this valley, an d las-
t l y of the Ch'in Dynasty. The
character represents the
barking of thi s rice. — Phonetic series 522.
Tai 4 A man, who struggles, in water;

flooded river, inundation. Hence the derived notion,
vast, w i de -s pr ea di n g. The modern character is a
strange contraction.
Ch'un 1 . Spring. Here the m od er n has a quite

d ifferent meaning from th at of the preceding charact ers.
Outburst of the. plants , u n d e r the influence of
the s u n , at the b e g i n n i n g of the year. See L. 79
A. — Phonetic series 436.
Fourth scries. O t h e r m o d e r n c o n t r a c t i o n s of
Kung 4 Generally, all, altogether. Action in common
, symbolised, in the old character; by four
hands joined together, and in the more, recent form,
by twenty pairs of hands;
See L. 74 C. — Phonetic series 225.
Note: L. 22 D, has nothing in common with

The same may be said of the two following
characters, R a n d S
I4. To disagree, discord, variance, difference, hetero-
dox. Two hands , thrust aside the earnest
money, from t h e s mall table, upon which it was
l ai d d o w n ; the parties do not want to conclude, they
disagree. Compare t he agreement, L. 40 C. —
Pao4. i n s o l a t i o n , e x p o su r e to the s u n ; to s p r e a d
out the grain . w h e n the su n is risen . By
e x t e n si o n , a n y intense, violent action or influence. —
P h o n e t i c series 809.
F i f t h series. Other m o d e r n contractions of

Sai1 To wall i n , to block u p , to sh u t u p . An empty
pl ac e is filed w it h bricks, or other materials,
t h a t ar e i n t r o d u c e d by the hands. It is now written
. — P h o n e t i c series 530. The top of the compounds,
w h i c h now resembles the top of the derivatives f r o m
( b e l o w U), was different from them in the old
writing.
H a n 2 . Cold;
A poor m a n , who tries to
protect h i m s e l f from frost, (L. 17 A), in his
shelter, by b u r y i n g himself in straw. — Phonetic
series 530, in w h i c h the top is the s ame as in the de-
rivatives from sai1 ( a b o v e T) ; gives room to the
radical, v.g.
Gh'ien5 To go lame;
S i x t h series. Other modern contractions of

Ch'eng2. To aid, to second; a deputy, a minister
Two hands holding a , the official
sceptre, to mean the min i st er (See L. 55 A, B). A
mou ntain represents the pri n ce who is assisted; for,
says the Glose, m o u n t a i n means eminence, dignity.
In the modern character, flattened was changed
into —. It forms the phonetic, compound
Cheng1. To steam, to boil;
— Phonetic series
510. Note also
Chin 3 . The symbolical wedding
cup, two halves of a same gourd.
Ch'eng2. To
present,
Sec (above L), the composition and meaning of
w h i c h are n e a r l y identical; instead of , there is
representing any object whatever.
S e v e n t h series: In the two f o l l o w i n g c h a ra c t e r s, represents t h e claws of

a scorpion.
Ch'ai4. A scorpion represented by its claws, head
and tail; The legs being added, this
charact er
became
Wan4. Scorpion ; This character now means
chia-chieh a myriad. See the Introduction, p. 11, and
L. 23 H. Phonetic series 765.
Eighth series: the hands diverging.
P'an1. To discard. Gesture of a man w h o exerts

h i m s e l f to separate, to repel obstacles, on the right
an d on the le ft. The modern abbre-
v i a t i o n is an u n h a p p y one. It forms
Fan2. Hedge, tr ellis, obtacle, to stop;
The hands try ing in vain to separate the
interlaced branches of a hedge ( L. 39 L). —
Phonetic series 801, in which the radical is added at
the bottom, , etc.
LESSON 48.
About , a special form of the hand.
Shou3. is the hand seen half face;

is the
hand (palm) seen f u l l f a c e ; The, small
in the, ancient form, represents the lines of the
h a n d . Now or . — It is t h e 64t h r a d i c a l of
characters r e l a t i n g to the h a n d . See L. 11 E, a n d
note the following,
Shih1. To lose, to let fall f r o m the hand;

See L. 9 A. The a n -
ci en t c h a r a c t e r is h a r d l y r e c o g n i s a b l e in i t s m o d e r n
form. — Phonetic series 155.
K'an4. To look at, to re ga r d c a r e f u l l y . A h a n d

covering an eye; For, says
the Glose, in o r d e r to see well, o n e sh a d e s t h e eye
with the hand, that stops t he rays of the s u n ;
Compare
L. 37 F.
Che2. She2. To c u t , to b r e a k , to burst ; A

hand holding an axe ;
This is a mistake of Li-ssu. The old character r e p r e-
sented an axe. and the two parts of a c u t
branch; — Phonetic series 252.
Pai4. To honour, to reverence. Two hands that are

held down; See .an
ancient form of , L. 5 B.
LESSON 49
About the hand, not raised up, but prone.
Chao3. The right hand, prone, leaning on the palm

By extension, paw, claw; It
is the 87th radical. Phonetic series 39. On accaund of
its meaning, in the compounds, the n o r m a l position
of is on the top of the c o m p o u n d : : Ull,
contracted form in the modern w riting.
Ts'ai3. To pluck, w i t h the tip of the fingers, upon

a tree, a /lower or a f r u i t ;
Now . — Phonetic series 402.
Lueh4. To draw, to stretch between fingers;

Two hands a n d ; — re-
presents t h e stretching. Compare below D, E. — Pho-
n e t i c series 292,
C heng 1 . To p u l l in different directions; to q u a rr el ,

to light. Two h a n d s , and the primitive (L. 8)
t h a t m e a n s , to p u l l ;
The Glose e x p l a i n s that p u l l i n g brings quarrels
P'iao3. To pass an object downwards, from one's

own hand, to another's;
it forms
Shou4. To gi v e or to receive, from hand to hand, to

confine i n t o a recipent;
Therefore is t h a t w h i c h rem ains
from L. 66. One may follow, in t h e
ancient
characters, the successive, alterations of this element.
The ch aracter represents a lading ; a h and , on the
bank, delivers the goods; another , in the boat,
receives a n d stows them away. The mo dern abstract
meanings, to receive, to endure, are chuan-chu. —
Phonetic series 39'2. Note t h a t ai4 (L. 99 F) has
n o t h i n g in c o m m o n w i t h
Yuan2. A traction eq u al on both sides; action

a nd reaction, (L. 115 B contracted) annulling
eac h ot her; eq uilibri um, pause, halt. — Phonetic
series 505.
Y in 3 . To enjo y the result of the work of one's

h ands of one's toil, of t h at which
one has
gathered; a life secure a n d free from care;
It forms , peace of
heart, t h e man who has what he needs, a n d who
desires n o t hi n g else; now . — Phonetic series 794.
Weil. Female mo nke y , (Compare L.

23 E). One on the, top, a n d two others mingled at
the bottom ; be cause, says the Glose, among all the
animals, t he f emale monkey is the most prone to claw ;
The m i d d le is intended to represent
the. body of the. fema le monkey. This body is compo-
sed of man ( o n account of the resemblance), and
of a coarse representation of t h e breasts (to signify
the female). This last element is a primitive (See
L 67 0) — That is all pure f u n . The a n c i e n t
charac ter represented a
hand carding textile fibres. — Now chuan-chu to do, chia-chieh to be; for, in
order to, etc. Note the modern usual abbre via tion. — Phonetic series 717.
Yin 4 . A se al , to seal, to p r in t. A ha n d , bolding a

piece of jade , the seal of office. (L. 55 B; L. 47 V, W),
and using it downwards;
In the modern character, the two
elements, instead of overlying each other, are in
juxtaposition, which is illogical. — The following is
inverted.
I4. The. contrary idea: stamp, pressure, to compress

(positive-negative, c o m p a r e L 30 C);
The hand
added further, is a redundancy of radicals. Then
lost one stroke,
LESSON 50.
About the two hands lowered, the i n v e r t of , L. 47
Chui2 Hands lowered, giving or ta king downwards;

There are numerous compounds.
Note that The mo d e r n writers and engravers often
draw , which makes the compounds unintelligible,
and changes the nu mber of strokes.
Kuan 4 To wash o n e s hands. W ate r poured

upon the hands, over a vessel;
F i r s t series: and its derivatives.

Shen 1 . A n c i e nt f or m: two hands e x t e n d i n g a rope;
idea of extension, of expansion. Later on, the rope
straightened by the scribes was interpreted as being
a man standing, who girds himself with both hands;
The
oldest forms were primitives, figuring the alternate
expansion of the two n a t u r a l powers. — Phonetic se-
ries 153. It forms the following.
Tien4. Lightning, thunderbolt, the expansion (dis-

charg e) towards the earth, of a .stormy cloud,
la the modern character, the l i n e is curved towards
t he right, in order to take less room. The Glose
explains the nature of a thunderbolt as follows:
The ch'i4
yang 2 , the male power, rushing on the earth, lights
with the ch'i4 yin1, the female power, which gives
b i r t h to the lightning. Thus the Chinese, twenty
c e n t u r i e s before F r a n k l i n .
Yen 3 . A m a n ( L. 60) who stretches his legs and

covers a stri de's length; by extension, to r o ve r ;
— Phonetic scries 418.
I4. To stretch , to p u l l in a direction;

See L. 8 A. Now . — Phonetic
series 213.
Yiu2. To stretch , to p u l l in another direction;

See L. 8 B Now . —
Ch'en2. Name of a place. The fi r s t C a p i t a l , the first

seat ot a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of China, u n d e r Fu-hsi (See our
Textes Hisloriques, p. 19). From L. 119, c u t t i n g
down of trees; L. 86, building walls; exerci-
sing authority. The vertical lines of and of are
joined. Derived notions of antiquity, of a long duration,
to dispose, to fit up, etc. It has n o t h i n g in common
with , L. 120 K. Compare L. 12 0.
Second series: and its d e r i v a t i v e s
Yu2. To lift up. many hands drawing or pushing;

It forms compounds,
in which the radical is inserted on the top, between
the two ; v.g.
Yu2. A heavy car (L. 167), a roller drawn or

pushed with much trouble.
Yu3 To give. See and the analysis of . L. 5*

H. — Phonetic series 768, in which the radical is added
at the bottom, between the two ; v.g.
Chu3. To raise;
Hsing1. To lift up , several

men acting toge-
ther; Not to he
confounded with the derivatives of (L. 151) , etc.
Chuan-chu, animation, success, the results of coope-
ratio n a n d concord; to be in d e m a n d , fashionabl e .
Third series: and its derivatives
Hsiao2 To learn. Was explained L. 39 1. When the

hands of the master act
downwards, th e
darkness that covers the mi nd of the disc i pl e
is dispelled. — Phonetic series 733. giving
place to the radical.
Fourth series: and its derivatives.

Yao 1 . This compound represents a head and two
hands. It means sometimes, head and hands; and
sometimes, head and shoulders, the bust. It forms
compounds that are important, but unrecognisable in
the modem form, on account of the fusion of different
elements.
Yao1. The loins, t h e waist;

A hea d . t he two hands , t ha t
s u r r o u n d a wom an' s figure. women t a k i n g more care of
t h e i r waist th a n m e n . T he a n c i e n t forms represented
a h u m a n face, a n d two h a n d s g i r d i n g t h e w a i st ;
To
m e a n , loins, waist, t h i s c h a r a c t e r is n o w w ri t t e n
The a n c i e n t cha ract er n o w m e a n s chia-chieh, to w a n t ,
to ne e d, to a sk for, etc. — P h o n e t i c series 493.
P'iao 4. I gn i s fat u u s (vul g o phantom-fire)

The Chinese f e a r t h e m . On t h e top , t h e bust of t h e
hobgoblin. At t h e b ot t o m , the fla me t h a t takes the
place of t h e body's l o w e r p a r t In t h e m i d d l e , the
waist. The m o d e r n m e a n i n g s of t h i s character, a
warrant, a b i l l , a r e c h ua n- c h u ( t h i n g s t h a t a re f eared).
— Phonetic, series (642. K'ang-hsi who m i g h t have
rightly cl a ssi fi ed under , placed it un de r ,
w h i c h is a m i s t a k e . B u t I b i s is th e worst insta nce, a n d
shows how a l l his classifications a r e arbitrary a nd
wit h o ut foundation: instead of classifying under
. as he d i d f o r , be classified it u n d e r (113th
r a d i c a l ) , w i t h w h i c h it has n o t h i n g in common, I h e
c h a r a c t e r at t h e b o t t o m bei n g (86th ra dic a l).
C h ' i e n 1 To rise by c l i m b i n g u p . The bead and

fo ur bands. The idea is probably taken from
t h e m o n k e y s ( q u a d r u m a n a ) . By e x t e n s i o n , to rise up,
to m a k e h e a d w a y , p r o m o t i o n . The m o d e r n fo rm was
a d d e d w i t h an official s e a l , wh i c h m e a n s p r o m o t i o n
in t h e h i e r a r c h y , t h e seal b e i n g t h e badge Of the r a n k .
Now , to be p r o m o t e d . See L. "25 I , t he
Immortal s, t he m e n who rose above the h u m a n
cond ition.
Nung 2 The h u s b a n d m a n ; A head
two h a nd s . and t h e b r e a k ot t h e day c o n t r a c -
ted g i v i n g place to . The o i a n who w o r k s f r o m
early da wn: a l l f i e l d - w o r k be ing d one very early in
hot countries — P h o n e t i c series 751.
Note: has nothing in common with ch'u1 L. 51 B, li3 L 97 B, ts'ao2

L. 120 K. Neither of the last two are derived from
Etymological Lessons.. 51. 52. 141
LESSON 51.
About two primitives, which were united on account of their resemblance in the
old writing, fang1 and ch'u1.
First series: fang1.
Fang 1 . The p r i m i t i v e wooden vessel, a log h o llow ed

out; The ch arac ter is written
h o r i z o n t a l l y . By extension, chest, t r u n k , box. —It is
the 22th radical. To be distinguished from the 23th
r a d i c a l (L. 10 B ) ; the, two are much a lik e. It forms.
C h i a n g 4 . The primiti ve art, t h e first ha n dicraft,

w h i c h consisted in h o l l o w i n g the wood w i t h an
ax e, to m a k e the vessels; carpentry;
a
c a r p e n t e r ; then, by extension, craft, art, in general.
Second series: ch'u1.
Ch'u 1 . Represents a piece of wood t h a t is bent. It

was later on replaced by fang 1 ( a b o v e A) raised up.
By extension, curved, c ro oked, oblique, not straight. —
Phoneti c series 190. But li3 L. 97 B, nung2
2
L. 50 Q, ts'ao L. 120 K, are not d e ri v e d from
LESSON 52
About the primitive
Tao1. Edge-tool, knife, sword; The

h a n d l e is curved, to take less room. The u p per hook
belongs to the handle, the lower hook is the edge. See
page 365 the primitive instrument, of silex, fixed into
a curved handle of wood. — Note the contracted form
of this character, when it is placed on the side. It is the
18th radical of characters relating to cutting, etc.
This character is not found in the old dictionaries.

It is considered as a different writing of
It Is read tiao1, and means, perverse,
caballing.
J e n . Edged weapons, the edge, sharp, pointed:

The character represents a
sword wi t h a dot on the blade, to i n d i c at e t h e place
where the i n s t r u m e n t cuts. — Phonetic series 21.
It forms
Jen3. To bear, to sustain;
From
heart and a cutting weapon. The
heart wounded.
Liang2 Cutting weapon f i x e d in t h e notch it

m a d e , a c t i o n of a c u t t i n g w e a p o n ;
It is f o u n d in
Liang2. P r i m i t i v e l y , a narrow
— foot-bridge, made w i t h two
trees placed over a brook
Later on, a tree, harked
a n d planed, placed ove r a
brook. Then, by extension, a
beam, a sleeper. It forms by
substituting to ,
the character liang 2 , sorghum.
Chao4. P ri m i ti v e m e a n i n g , , to j u d g e accor-
d i n g to the Chinese way, viz. to chide a n d to
make some a m p utati o n. Compare the similar
composition of a n d , L. 39 E. By extension, to
cite, to sen d for, to call. — Phone tic series 105
Lieh 4 . To div ide seriatim, to arrange, to place

according to r a n k or r u l e ;
See L. 12 F. — Phonetic series 228.
Tsai2. Law, rule to be, observed; a n d the penalties

of old, fines a n d mu ti la ti on s;
C h u a n - c h u , c o n se qu en tl y . — P h o n e t i c series 4 8 1 ,
Tsei2. In its modern form, this character m i g h t be

taken for a derivative of (L. 71 0). This is not so.
It is composed of a halberd, a sword,
cowries, To plunder with arms in h a n d ;
robbery; a bandit. It derives not from
Etymological Lessons. 52. 53 143
Li*. To cut the corn ; reaping-hook; hence,
sharp, acute; Cbuan-chu, the
harvest, the acquisition of the year; hence, gain»,
profit, interest on money. — An old form was composed
of , and ( L. 101) representing the motion of the
sickle. In t he corresponding modern form, lost
one stroke, as it may be seen above,. — The, two f o r m s are found in the com-
pounds, the old one being used spec iall y when is placed on the top of the
compound, as in This last character is composed of and ,
the 202th radical. The of the radical, and of the phonetic, are mingled toge-
ther. — Phonetic series 288.
See L. 18 B, L. 16 B, etc.
Do not mistake for , the contracted, e.g. in . See the whole Lesson 28.—
However has somet ime s, but seldom, this form. See L. 55 G.
repeated three times is found in

Li4. .Nephelium li-chih ,
the fruit so dear to
t he Chinese. The. sound li4 (L. 53) induced the
scribes to write , th us m aking one more wrong
character.
LESSON 53.
About the primitiv e

Li4. Sinew; by extension, strength;
The lop of the m iddle-line (the sinew) is curved, to
take less room. The two side-lines a nd the transversal
s troke represent the fibrous sheath. — It is the 19th
radical of characters relating to effort of any kind. It
forms
Lueh3. I n f i r m , feeble; from strength and few:
Nan2. The man, by opposition to the woman, the

male. The one who exerts his strength in the work
of the field, the woman being busy at home;
Compare L. 135 C.
Chia1. To add the

sinews to the month,
violence to persuasion; By
extension, to add to, to increase, to insist, to inflict,
See L. i'O E; L. 38 F; L. 90 A.
Hsieh2. Ac ti o n in common, represented by the union

of the strength of three persons; union, concord,
cooperation; Compare
L. 47 Q. — Phonetic series 20t It forms
Hsieh2. Union, ten persons, i. e. a multitude,
joining their efforts; See
L. 24.
Hsieh2. The sides of the chest Perfect cooperation
of the ribs;
LESSON 54.
In the first part of this Lesson, a particular form of the primitive (L. 25)
will be studied. The second part is dev o te d to the primitives the
compounds of which resemble those of in the. modern writing.
First part.
P a o 1 . A man who bends to enfold an object;
To wrap up, to envelop,
to contain; a bundle, a whole. — It is the 20th radical
of characters relating to wrapping and enclosing.
Note that in a few modern characters, is written
like ( 1 4 t h radical); vg. (L. 167 C), (L. 69 G),
etc. The following compounds form important groups.
Pao1. Actual meaning: to wrap up, to contain, in

general. Primitive meaning: gestation, the foetus
inwrapped in the womb;
Compare
L. 30 B. — Phonetic series 145.
T'ao2. A furnace for

burning (L. 130C)
earthen ware;
Chu2. A bandful, to grasp. Primitive meaning: the
q u a n t i t y of grains that can he grasped by a
hand; Now
Yun2. To divide a whole , into parts supposed

t o be equal; uniform repartition; regularity, equality;
— Phonetic series
98. It is contracted in the two following
Hsun 2 . A period of ten days; —

Hung 1 . The noise of a crowd;

It seems rather that these two characters are derived

directly from , a n d not
from contracted. — Hsun2: a whole , a period of ten days. — Hung1: a whole
, a u n i o n of voices.
See L. 38 D; L. 10 G; L. 54 G; !. 17 G, etc.
Second series:
C h i u 1 . A p r i m i t i v e , i n t e n d e d to represent the tangle
of creeping plants; By
extension, c u r v e d, crooked, entangled. — Phonetic
series 5. In the modern writing, is sometimes re-
placed by e.g. for ; it is a licence. From ,
a n d not f r o m , comes
Kou1. Curved, crooked, hook;

The form is a modern abbreviation;
is also read
Chu4. A sentence; because, in the Chinese composi-
tions, the end of each sentence, the pause, is indicated,
when it is so, by a hook, which is the equivalent
of the. European punctuation ;
Phonetic series 131, in which are found the two

sounds kou and chu. (L. 32 F) has nothing in
common with
Note: The following, chi 4 , conies from , a n d not from . It must be
carefully distinguished from kou3 ( under the 140th radical ).
Chi 4 . To restrain one's self, self-possession,

deferential reserve. Etymologically, to restrain
one's mouth, and to stand quiet (L. 103 C);
It forms
4
Ching . Deferential behaviour,
reverence, reserve, modesty
in t h e presence of the
a u t h o r i t y ( t h e h a n d h o l d i n g the rod, L. 43 D). —
P h o ne t ic series 192.
Pei 4 . Pi4. To prepare, to make
r e a d y a l l t h e t h in g s necessary,
with mode sty. This is m e a n t
for women, on w h o m devolve the
preparations, the care of the
h o u s e h o l d . The is contracted,
g i v i n g room to . Now . The engravers
strangely altered t h i s character. Some specimens
of t h e i r sk ilf u ln e s s m a y be seen her e:
Shao2 A p r i m i t i v e r ep re se nt in g a k i n d of spoon,
t h a t was used to d r a w u p ; — (L. 1, 4 ° ) represents
the contents; — Phonetic
series 27. It f o r m s
Yu 3 . T h e f u l l spoon., with an — i n d e x meaning t h a t

it is b e i n g e m p t i e d ( c o m p a r e L. 1, 5°). To give ( t h e
c o n t e n t s) ; This character became
intricate
in course of time. T h e two h a n d s of the receiver
were first a d ded (L. 4 7 ) . Then, on t h e top, t h e two
hands of t h e g i v e r (L. 50). U n d e r this last form,
makes the phonetic series 768, the radical being
added at the bottom. See L. 50 J.
3
Shu . A primitive, that has nothing in common,
either with , or w i t h . It represents a silk-worm
mo ving on. On t h e top , t h e h ead. The c u r v e d l i n e
represents the body that b end s a n d stretches. At the
bottom (L . 110), radical, was added later o n ;
Shu2. The. tail (L. 100 B), t h a t wriggle; at the

extremity of the body. By extension, appendix,
to stick to (as the tail to t h e hody), to d ep en d from. —
LESSON 55
About three primitives ch'ing1, han 3 , pa1.

First series: ch'ing 1 .
Ch'ing 1 . In a n c i e n t t i m e s the E m p e r o e , when

investing the feudatories or officials, h a n d e d o v e r to
t h e m o n e h a l f ot a piece of wood or of j a d e d i v e r s e l y
c u t o u t ; t h e o t h e r h a l f was u sed to m a k e t h e proof, as
the m odern c o u n t e r f o i l The t w o pieces gathered are
the ch'ing 1 . We s h a l l see f u r t h e r (L 55 B, I)
and , the. two ha lves, l e f t and right... When they
a p p e a r e d before t h e E m p e r o r , or when t h e y h e l d t h e
f u n c t i o n s of t h e i r office, t h e feudatories or officials
had this k i n d of sc e p tr e in t h e i r h a n d s It was u s e d
also as a seal. — It forms
Ch'ing 2 . This character first meant the feasts

(L. 26 M) of the. court, the high personages at tending,
ranged in. two opposite rows. By exten sion , minis-
ters, high offici als
Note: The modern form is not s y m m etr ic al, because t h e w r i t i n g - b r u s h

cannot trace, the left h a l f against the grain. Note also that many symmetrical
representations, absolutely different in the old writing, nowadays ressemble
ch'ing1. K'ang-hsi classified them u n d e r .These are nang2, L. 26 G;
mao3, L. 129 L); luan3, L. 108 D; yu3, L. 129 E.
Chieh2. The right h a l f par t of , t h e one commit-

ted to the f u n c t i o n a r y , t h a t was used by h i m as a
badge a n d as a seal; , By extension,
d i g n i t y , a ut h o rity, rul e, j u st measure, p r i n t ; part of
a whole, segment, f r a g m e n t . — See L. 26 M; L. 64 D;
L. 47 V, W; L. 49 I. It is t h e 26tb ra d i c a l .
Note t h e three different w r i t i n g s of the modern
form. The first must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m , a con-
tracted form of t h e 16 3 t h a n d 170th radicals — The seco nd f o r m is h a r d l y recogni-
sable from th e cursive form of han3 (L. 55 K); as w e l l as f r o m chi s (L. 84),
i 3 ( L . 85 B), ssu 4 (L. 85 A ) . K'ang-hsi did n ot succeed in di st inguishing
t h e m ; he c o u n t e d sometimes two strokes, a n d at o t h e r s t h r e e strokes. —
The t h i r d form is to be d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m pa1 (L 55 L ) . — In a l l t h i s series,
it is q u i t e impossible, w i t h o u t re c urri n g to t h e old forms, to k n o w exactly whi ch
e l e m e n t is used.
Fu2. The h a n d holding a sceptre; to impose

one's authority; It forms
f u 2 , to steer a boat (L. 66 C ) ; a n d pao4, to
3
repress bandits (L. 102 G). But nan is not derived
f r o m ; see L. 43 ,J.
C h i h 1 . A vessel t h a t was u ed, in t h e feasts, for

pouring wine with measure;
The t o p t h a t res sembles L. 30 A. is intended to
r e p r e s e n t the vessel, a k i n d of sip h o n.
2
FEI. Fleshy , m u s c u l a r , j u s t as m u c h as it is
proper, for t h e sacrifices, for t h e tab le. The just
measure of flesh ;
She4. The b l u s h of the h u m a n face, a m a r k

of t h e passions. By extens ion, colour, passion, lust.
See t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s g i v e n L. 28 D. — It is the 139th
rad ical. The following' is not d e ri v e d from
Chueh2. To cut (L. 52) a thr e ad (L. 92), in

pieces;
To cut, to cease, to leave, to renounce, etc. See the
ancient form L. 90 E Has nothing in common with
the last
Two , with which the scribes made two
(L. 87), are f o u n d in
Hsuan4-. To elect, to choose.

Two seals of officials, placed
upon a table. (L. 70), to be
c o m m i t t e d to those who were
elected, c h osen. Later on, t h e
two hands were added to
mean the awarding, the investiture. In the modern character, and joined
together, gave , which h a s n o t h i n g in common w i t h k u n g 4 (L 47 Q);
This character is seldom Seen well w ri t t e n — Pho-
netic series 535.
T he l e f t h a l f of (L. 55 A ) ; It is
f o u n d in i4, t h a t m e a n s , p r i n t i n g of t h e seal.
See the explanation given L. 49 I.
Second series: han3.

Ha n 3 . To b u d, to p u t f o r t h b u d s , to bloorn. A
p r i m i ti v e , representing t h e effort of t h e blooming, of
the springing up .
Note the m oder n form, identical with the second f orm
of (L. 55 B ) ; hence c o n f u s i o n s . — Phonetic series
6. Note the following compounds, in which there
remains something of t h e p r i m i t i v e idea of ,
external manifestation of an i nterior force, expansion,
eruption.
Fan4. To rush l i k e a dog. To invade, to offend.

Compare L. 37 B. In the symbolism of characters,
the dog p lays a con siderable, though not creditable
part.
Han2. To withdraw the lolled tongue, and

hold it in the mouth. Compare L. 102 C. By
extension, to endure in silence. Note
the awful modern abbreviation, which became usual.—
Yung3. Blooming , opening of flowers; yung4

(L. 109 B) is p h o n e t i c ; — Phonetic
series 320. It forms yung 3 , bravery, cxercice of
the manly vigour.
Yu2. To shoot branches, boughs.

Not to be confounded with p'in2
(L. 58 C).
Third series: pa.

Pa1. A k i n d of boa, large and short, f o u n d in the
Southern Provincos, in Ssu-ch'uan an d elsewhe-
re. Its flesh is eat en ( ), a n d its s kin is used to
cover the guitars. The character represenls t h e boa ra ised on its t a i l ;
Compare L 108 A. Not to he con fo un d ed with th e third form of (L. 55
B). — Phonetic series 76. Note the c o m p o u n d pa1, a guit ar made from a boa-
skin ( L . 83 B).
LESSON 56.
About the primitive

Pu5, po3. To d i v i n e by l o o k i n g at the cracks in a
tortoise-shell as the heat d evelops them. The charac-
ter represents two cracks, one be ing longitudinal,
and the othor transversal;
— It is t h e 25th radical. P h o n e t i c
series 9. It frorns
Chan 1 . To ask about some enterprise, by singeing

a tortoise s h e l l ; d i v i n a t i o n ;
r N o t to be c o n f o u n d e d
with chi 1 , m a d e w i t h the same e l e m e n t s ; and
s y n o n y m . — P h o n e t i c series 104
Cheng 1 . The salary of a fortune-teller; a sum of

cowries given to I he mm who singes the shell;
The answer
received was considered as most certain, most firm, a n d most immutable, hence
the derived meanings : i mmu tability, constancy, perseverauce in purpose generally,
and specially in the. purpose of keeping continence ;
Chao4. N u m e r o u s c r a c k s on a tortoise-shell ;
In the middle, in its ancient form ; on
each side, two other crac ks; the first left crack is
c o n f o u n d e d with the vertical stroke of . By exten-
sion, an o m en, a num ber. now a m i l l i o n - — Phonetic
series 178.
Kua4 T h e diagrams of the I Ching, the Book

of M utatio ns. It seems that, in the beginning, the
shell was first used to find th e hexagram which
might resolve the pen ding difficulty. Later on, people
had recourse, for that purpose, to the m i l f o i l stalks
The is n o t kui 1 L. 81 B, b u t represents an hexagram.
Wai4. Composed of the e ve ni n g, a n d to

divine; When
t h e she ll was consulted a b o u t the m e a ni n g of a dr eam
one. hart d u r i n g the n i g h t , t h e d i v i n a t i o n o u g h t to t a k e
place in the mo rning, or
d u r i n g the day, in any case before the e v e ni n g. A f t e r sunset, the d i v i n a t i o n
was no longer ad rem, b ei n g o u t s i d e t h e ritual limits. Hence the chuan-chu m e a n i n g
of this i m p o r t a n t character, outside, out of.
Note: Like a l l the characters s i m p l e and easy to write, is used by the scribes
as an a rb i t r a r y a b b r e vi at i o n for the most different ele m ents. It represents a bi rd
in ( a n c i e n t f o r m ) L. 41 D; t h e a n t e n n a e of an insect L. 23 G; the p e d u n c l e
ot a f r u i t L. 41 E; a rod L. 43 I). - Note also that has n o t h i n g in common
w i t h ; it is a m o d e r n c o n t r a c t i o n of L 47 H. — K'ang-hsi w r o n g l y place d
severa l among those a b b r e v i a t i o n s u n d e r the 25th radical.
LESSON 57.
About two primitives. and
First part:
T i n g 4 . A nail (head and tack). It is now written
Tin g 4 , to n a i l ;
Is used, on account of its simplicity, as
a numeral sign, for u n i t y , and f o r other different chia-
c hieh. - Phonetic series
11. — It forms the important compounds t'ing 2 , L. 75 B; a n d ch'eng 2 , L.
71 M. But ning2(L. 36 C) comes from (L. 58 A ) , a n d n o t f r o m . Item,
(L. 63 B) has nothing in common with
Second part:
Chu4. Storehouse, to warehouse. It is now written
. The old character
shows the storehouse, we ll dosed on all sides. The

m o d e r n c h a r a c t e r is a nonsense. Compare t h e
primitive (L.43 R) — P h o n e t i c series 116,
LESSON 58
About the partial primitive , a n d its derivatives.

First series:
C h'iao 3 D i f f i c u l t y on effort of the respiration,
so bbing, h i c c u p , t h e b r e a t h fighting against an —
o bstacle. See L. 1, 3°.
P h o n e t i c series 3. It forms
Hao4 To l a m e n t , to h o w l ; t he mouth uttering

shrieks; - Phonetic
Hao4. To call, to cry.
The s trong voiced tiger enters into different
compounds that mean, cries, roars. It forms t'ao1,
covetousness;
Pin 2 . To make out one's motives with cries

a n d noise; to quarrel, to reproof;
See L. 151. Not to be confounded
with yu2, L. 55 K. — Phonetic series 300.
Hsi1. A sigh, a sound used to indicate a pause in

the music, in th e verses, in the sentences; a k i n d of
phonetic punctuation;
It forms
Hu 1 . A sigh that passe the caesura, the pause. A par-

ticle of varied uses, interrogative, expletive, euphonic,
etc.
It forms
Hui The roaring of the
tiger. To cry, to call for. —
Second series:
Yu2. The breath having overcome the — obstacle,
spreads — in liberty. A particle of transition, a
preposition; t alk, show;
Phonetic
series 38, u n d e r its two forms. It makes
P'ing2. Compare w i t h L. 58 D; the top is

different. is composed of a n d of (L. 18)
placed between the two t op lines, an d reinforcing
the idea of free expans ion on both sides, on all
sides. The modern meaning, plane, even, is derived
from the last idea; there is no more obstacle;
K'ua1. Vanity , boasting; a ma n who makes a

show of himse lf. — Phonetic series 221.
Yu2. Invocations to obtain rain. — Phonetic

series 662.
Third series: (L. 58 A) inverted
Ho1. A synonym of
It is now obsolete. It forms the important
compound
K'o3. To s end forth a breathing of approbation.

To express one's satisfaction. To be willing, to permit,
to consent, to a d mire ;
— Phonetic series 130. It form the following
2
Ch'i . Extraordinary, surpri sing, strange; that which
impels men to utte r exclamations of surprise
and admir ation; — Phonetic series
328.
Ko1. It is repeated twice; To
sing Expression of satisfaction. The primitive
singing consisted probably of a succession of cadenced
exclamations of joy. This c haracter became (chia-
chieb) the appellative of an elder brother;
See p. 11.
Note: Other compounds of and L. 30 D; L. 36 C; L. 13 F;
L. 123 F; L. 135 F. — But L. 102 D, has n o t h i n g in common wi t h . Item
L. 1 D, does not come from
LESSON 59.
About the p r i m i t i v e a n d its derivatives,

First series:
Han4. A c l i f f which projects, a stiff slope;
On the top, the s u m mi t ; on the l e f t side, the slope.
in composition, the accessories
which should be
represented on the clilf, are placed at the bottom, to make the compound smaller.
This character represents two notions. I. If the top is considered, it suggests t h e
Idea of an elevated place near an abyss, dangerous, exposed to the view. 2. If the
side is considered, it suggests the idea of a slide, of a fal l. — It is the 27th radical.
Y'eh 2 . Sleep of a mountain, covered

with
e a r t h ; rising g r o u n d . — P h o n e t i c series 413.
Yuan2. A sprint; t h a t gushes out f r o m ahill

It is n o w w r i t t e n sp r ing , w h i l e is used in t h e
extended m e a n i n g of principle, origin, For
, see, L. 125 F. In th e p r i m i t i v e character, there
were th r e e . — P h o n e t i c series 588
Shih 2 . A piece of rock f a l l e n down or t a k e n

down from a c l i l f , rough-stone, shingle, p e b b le , stone;
Note t h e alteration of in t h e modern
writing. — It is t h e 112th radical of characters rela-
ti n g to stones. — Phonetic series 156.
Chai3- A m a n who, w h i l e c l i m b i n g up a
stiff
slope, bends forward. By extension, inclined, slanting,
sloping; It forms chai4: the sun,
leaning towards the horizon.— Inverted, becomes
Wan2. A man who t u mb l e s down on a stiff slope,

rolling down. By extension, round, pellet, pill;
Yao4. Visible f r o m afar, as a tree (L. 78) over a

rock, standing out in relief against the sky;
4
Nan . Stiff slope of a high mo untain (L. 80).
4
It forms t'an , charcoal, which is made in the
mountains, so cragged that wood cannot he taken
away from them.
Wei3. A man (L 28), watchi ng upon a rock,

looking afar; It
forms
Wei2. A m a n , upon a rock, w h o restrains

(L. 55 B) his motions, who takes care not to f a l l ; a
perilous situation, danger, fear;
Chan1. Verbose, t a t t li n g ; to scatter i m p r u d e n t l y

one's words (L. 73 C) w h i c h is dangerous;
Hou2. In this character, has q u i t e another

meaning. It represents a target a n d a m a n . An
arrow (L. 131) is fixed in the target. The sh o o t i n g
at a target was used in a n t i q u i t y , for the election of
feudatories and officials. The. precision in shooting
was supposed to represent the uprightness of the
heart, and vice-versa. Hence the derived meaning, aristocracy. Note the alteration
of the character in the modern writing. The on the top became ; beca-
me or ; was u n i m p a i r e d . — Phonetic series 444. In t h e c o m p o u n d ,
the of was contracted into a small vertical stroke.
Note: L 129 A, is u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h ; a n d so is , L. 61 [•'.
Second series:
Yen 3 . Comp a re the h ut , L. 36 A. is h a l f of a
hut, a shed, a shop. — it is t h e 53th radical. See
L. 24 M, etc. It forms
K'u4. A shed for the chariots (L. 167); out-house,

shop;
Note: keng1, k'ang1, fang2, yung1, are not

d erived from
Se
e
L. 102 B. — Item lu4, L. 136.
156 Etymological Lessons, 60.
LESSON 6O.
About the primitive and its derivatives. ln the ancient writing, has two
forms, for which we reserve two distinct series.
First series: the Drst form.
Ta4 A primitive. A grown up man standing (body,
legs and arms); By extension, chuan-chu,
the stature of an a d u l t (by opposition to the child's
stature), great, tall; But in composition,
means a man, and not great. — It is the 37th radical
of miscellaneous characters. It forms
Yin1. To confine a man

Compare , L. 25 B. It is n o w obsolete in that
sense, b u t is much used in the chnan-chu meanings,
cause, reason, argument; that with which one confines,
one catches one's opponent. — Phonetic series 249.
T'ien1. The heavens, the — firmament which is over

men;
See
L. 1 C. It forms the phonetic complexes
Tien3. To outrage;
(L. 107). —Phonetic
series 389
T'un1. To gulp down.
(L. 72).
1s. The men armed with bows

; the prim i tive
inhabitants, barbarians, borderers of the Eastern Sea,
inhabitants of the South-West countries;
Compare shan» L. 13 B; chia1 L. 27 F;
L. 88 B; L. 39 0; , L 10 I.
Sui 1 . Bird spreading its wings to fly, as the man
stretches o u t his arms in the character
It is DOW obsolete, but
forms the important compounds.
To2. Chuan-chu, the modern m e a n i n g is: to take by
violence, to seize, to carry off. Primitive meaning: to
apprehend with the hand, a bird that flies,
that is free. The for is a modern substitution.
See L. 43 A.
Fen4. Chuan-chu, the mo dern meaning is: to excite,

to arouse, to exert one's strength. The primitive
meaning is: a bird flying upwards o v e r t h e
fields;
T'ao'. To advance, to move forward, to prosper

rapidly, as the man who has past his tenth
year. Speedy growing. By extension, to enter, to go
in gladly; See tsou4, L. 47 SI. It
forms
Kao1. Growing ; light, f u l l day; clearness
Note the
m o d e r n a l t e r e d forms
Second series: the second f o r m .

Ta4. Primitive sense: a man standing (head, a r m s
an d legs; compare L. 60 A ) ;
It forms the important following compounds
Li 4 . A man st an di n g on t h e — ground (L. 1, 2°).

To stand;
- It is the 117 h radical of characters
relating to position a n d posture. Phonetic series 134.
See t h e t h i r d series, below L. It forms
Wei4. The place upon which
a man stands straight;
position, dignity, person;
Yu1. Sun risen. Light, day

I 4 . In its ancient form, thi s character belongs to the

first series. Its modern form i nduced to place it in the
second. The primitiv e meaning is, the sides. A
standing man, whose sides are indicated by two
lines or dots; By extension, a contact,
conjunction, and, also, etc. — Phonetic series 214.
It forms
Yeh4. What is done by men,
when the night comes; to lie
down on the right side, in order
to sleep Now, by extension,
the night. The modern
f o r m of t he c h a r a c t e r is a q u a i n t i n v e n t i o n of the
scribes. — P h o n e t i c series 415.
Fu1. A g r o w n up m a n , wit h a p i n in his h a ir ,

to s h o w t h a t he is of a g e : the v i r i l e c a p is n o t r e pr e -
sented ;
— P h o n e t i c series 59.
Yang1. A m a n in t h e m i d d l e of t h e space
(L. 34 A). M i d d l e , centre. There a r e d i f f e r e n t chia-
chieh — Phonetic
series 168
Third series: M u l t i p l e s of a n d of . Note t h e modern contractions a n d

confusions.
Ping*. Two or several men (L. 60 H) standing
si de by side; together, successio n, etc.;
Note the modem deformation.
It forms
P'u3. Succession of the

days, course of times, indefinite
duration; then, by extension,
generality, universality , ubiquity. — Phonetic series
754.
T'i*. Succession in
a
prefixed order, after a list (L. 159);
then, by extension, substitution,
permutation, in the place of, instead of. The sil ly scribes
changed the two into two , and into
Pan4. Two men keeping together;

It is f o u n d in
Nien3. Imperial car, drawn

by men. It forms the phonetic
complex nien3, to drive
away, to cast out.
Fourth series: In some modern characters, on the lop of the compound

is written ; v.g.
Ch'ih4 Composed of and (L. 126), both being

contracted in the modern form;
The human lire, bl ushing through anger. By
extension, red colour. — It is the 155th radical. See
nan3 (L. 43 J), to blush through shame.
T'a4. A man , who feeds flocks; It

forms
Taz To lead forward (L.

112 E) flocks. By extension, a
large space in which one moves
at ease, as the sleppes,
; open way,
to attain, to prosper, etc. — Phonetic series 76t.
P Note; Do not mistake for a c ertain cover, similar to the first ancient
form of , which is also written in the modern writing, e.g. in , etc. See
L. 38 F, G.
LESSON 61.
About t h e different m o d i f i c a t i o ns of (L. 6O): w i t h an

appendix on t h e p r i m i t i v e
First series: chai3.
Chai3. A ma n who bows the head behind. It is
f o u n d in
Wu2. A man who bows t h e
head behind, to cry louder;
to vociferate;
It became an important proper name. — Phonetic
series 315. Note the strange alteration of the r nordern
chara ct er.
Second series: yao1.

Yao1 A m a n who b e n d s t h e h ead f o r w a r d , in o r d e r
to r u n , to j u m p , to m a r c h . By e x te n s io n , to le an, to
to i n c l i n e , to h a n g , to rock, to sh ake. — Phonetic,
ser ies 92. On t h e to p of t h e co mpound s, so m eti me s
becomes in t h e modern w r i t i n g (as , L. 60,
4
f o u r t h s erie s), e.g. in hsing L. 102, a n d tsou3
2 4
L. 112, ch'iao L. 75 B. — Note hsiao , to l a u g h .
Etymologically, bamboos rocked by th e w i n d ;
The sp a sm o d i c m o t i o n of t h e b e l l y , when a t a t Chinese

is la ughin g.
Third series: wang 1 .

Wang1 A man who puts his weight on his
ri ght l eg , to m a k e an effort, a spring;
It is often written
, or (a p h o n e t i c bei ng added). — It is the 43th
radical. It m u s t be distinguished from yu
(L. I34 C). It forms
Wu2. A man who exerts h i m s e l f against an
obstacle, without surmounting it, unsuccessful ly,
in v a i n By exte nsion, negation, not, no. — It is th e
7 1th radical, a fictitious one, for the whole series
belongs to chi4, L. 99 E.
Fourth series: chiao1.

Chiao 1 A man who crosses his legs, who
entwin es between his legs; To
join, to u n i t e , to have intercourse, etc. — Phonetic
series 183.
Fifth series: k'ang4.

K'ang 4 . A man who puts his weight on both legs,
stretched apart, to make an effort;
Compare L. 61 C. The upper part of the body is
shortened, to represent that it is the lower part that
acts. Derived meani ngs: exaggerate firmness,
destination, rebellio n. — I'honetic series 67.
Appendix. wen2 has nothing in com mon w i t h

Wen2 A primitive. Lines that intercross, veins,
wr inkles, ripples; sketch, literary, genteel, elegant;
— It is the 67th radical of a few characters
rel ating to ornamentation. Phonetic series 88. It forms
Lin4. The wrinkles of an emaciated man, who

does not eat enough; parsimony, stinginess.
Ch'ien 2 The w rink les caused by terror, in the

pre sence of a tiger; reverential awe. It is
oft en
wrongly written
Wen2. A whole of intricate, lines. To the thick li nes

, are added finer lines (L. 62). It forms
Yen4. A collection of lines still more intricate; ,

and that has nothing in common with hart4
L. 59 A. The wrinkles of the old men's face. By
ex tension, a venerable, person or a ppearance. —
Ch'an3. The wri n kles formed on the body

consequent upon child-birth . Fecundity, to bear,
to produce. — Phonetic series 592.
LESSON 62.
About the primitive , and its derivatives.

First series:
Shan1. Hair, feathers, lines, etc.

— It is the 59th radical of characters alluding to
stripes. Phonetic series 26. It forms
Hsu1. Beard. The

h
a ir on the chin, beneath
the head (L. 160 C );
Now Men, in China, only allow the ir
beards to grow, when the time has come f o r t h e m to govern their f a m i l y , to be a
master over it. Hence the extended m ea ni ngs: necessary, requisite, appointed
time, etc.
The two following compoun ds, often confounded in the modern writing, are to
be carefully distinguished :
Chen3. Hair of a man, says the Glose;
Shan 1 . A w i n g (L 22 A) provided with feathers;

F l a p p i n g , v i b r a t i o n . It f o r m s
Shen1. Ts'an1. The three
starsin the m id dle of Orio n . They
are represented by three , of
which is the modern abbre-
viation. The lower part represents
the rays emitted.
Compare
L. 79 F. — Phonetic series 652,
under its modern form
Second series. Multipl es of a n d of . The Chinese

philologists consider,
as derivatives from , the two following, D and E. It seems rather as if there were
two other ways of representing a pair of wings, analogous to
Jao4. Slender, fragile, weak. The wings of a young
bird, with their first feathers; The
skeleton of the wings resembles two bows, L. 87.
The two wings are represented as torn out; the crook
on the top represents the
extremity by which they were united to the body; in the modern writing, the
crook at the bottom replaces one of the strokes of . — Phonetic series 540.
Yu3. Another representation ot a pair of wings with

fe athers; — I! is the 124th radical of
the characters relating to plumes and feathers.
Ph onetic series 251. It forms m a n y important com-
p o u n d s We saw L 18 C; L 34 J ; note also
Liao4. To flutter, to rise while flying;

Ti2. A pheasant,
— Phonetic series 791. See t'iao4 and
ti2, L 78 E.
H si 4 . To gather the wings ; union, ha r mony ;

— Phonetic series
681.
Shan4 The two sections of a folding- door

(L . 129);
LESSON 63.
About the primitive

Ch'ih4. To take a step forward w i t h t h e l e f t foo t;
. By exlension, in composition: to walk. — It
is t h e 60th radical of characters relatin g to w a l k i n g .
See the d e r i v a t i v e i4, L 22 D.
Inverted, gives
4
Ch'u . To fi ni sh the step, by br i n gi n g forward the
right foot; It has
nothing in common with ting4, L. 57 A.
Both together, they form

H s i n g 2 . To m ar ch , composed of one step w ith
the left foot, joined to one step w i t h the right; to
slep; — It
is t he 144th radical of characters relating to motion.
The phonetic is inserted in the middle; e.g.
etc.
Yin3. It is lengthened, to represent long strides ;
— It is t h e 54th
radical. To be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e 162th radical ,
composed of and (See L. 112 E ) .
LESSON 64.
About the three primitives, hsi4, yueh4, feng 4 , p'eng2.
First series: hsi4.

Hsi 4 . The evening, the be g i n n i n g o f n i g h t ; represented
by t h e moon e m e r g i n g on t h e horizon, t h e lower p a r t
of the moon being s t i l l invisible. Compare t h e a n c ie n t
form of , w i t h t h a t of (L. 64 G ) ; t h e latter
has one stroke m o r e ;
— It is t h e 36th r a dica l a n d forms
M in g 3 . The na me, t h e personal a p p e l l a t i v e of a

man, from month a n d e v e ni n g ,
because, at
dusk, it is necessary to g i v e one's n a m e to be k n o w n ;
Sun1. An evening meal, supper;
Yuan1. Decency, (L. 55 B) modesty d u r i n g

night. It is not decent to lie like a
corpse, says Confucius. Good behaviour, good hearing,
Compare L. 60
1. — Phonetic series 174. It forms
Wan3. Jn the house,
good b e h a v io u r. To c o m p l y with
t h e demands of others; hence
the derived meaning, to bend.
— Phonetic series 407,
To1. Two . meaning symbolically, reduplication,

multiplication, multitude, many. The old character
(two nights) was used chia-chieh in this sense, on
account of its simplicity; Compare 72 L, and
147 F note. - Phonetic series 239. It forms
I 2 . Idea of the good ordering of all the objects

c ontained in ;\ house, between the roof and the
ground. The unique is supposed to
be
contracted. By extension, tit, right, harmonions,
proper;
— A more simple explanation is at
h a n d : in the house, to spread out, in good or-
der, the mats and bed cover for night. Regular
s tir at night. We are indebted to the scribes for ,
the modern form. Compare pei4, L. 54 G.
Other derivatives from : see wai4, L . 5 6 F ;
yeh 4 ,L. 60I; hsu4, L. 11 G, meng4, L. 158 F; etc.
Second series: yueh4.
Yueh4. The moon's crescent, completely visible

(c ompare hsi4, L. 64 A ) ;
— It is the 74th radica l of characters relating to
the. moon. It forms
Hsien3. From door and moon; the moon-

light streaming in through the crackles of the door
Interstice, idle, empty, leisure, and other chuan-chu;
The modern scribes
often write incorrectly . Phonetic series 684.
Other derivatives fro m : see yu3, L 46 H;

ming2, L. 42 C; sho4,
L. 102 D; wang 1 , L. 81 G; etc. B u t chao1 does not come from ; see
L. 117 D.
Third series . Has n o thing in common with yueh4.
The ancient character, a primitive, represents the f a i l

of the fabulous and felicitous bird Feng 4 , the
phoenix; by extension, the phoenix complete. Was the
phoenix called P'eng in certain Provinces, or was the p'eng2 another auspicious
2
bird? We do not know. Anyhow, two new characters were made: feng4, the
2
phoenix; and p'eng a monstrous bird, like the rakh or roc of Arabian story
166 Etymological Lessons. 64 65.
(according to European definitions).— From that time, is no more read feng4,

2
and docs not mean p h o e n i x It is read p'eng , a n d means, friend, friendship; for,
says the Glose, when the phoenix flies, it draws all other birds a f t e r it, by sym-
palhy; hence the idea of affection, friendship, association;
— Phonetic se-
ries 387. B u t does not come from ; see L. 156 H.
LESSON 65.
A b o u t the p ar tial p r i m i t i v e . See , L. 17, G, H, I, J . Note also that, in its

contracted form is e a sily c o n f o u n d e d w i t h yueh4 ( t h e m o o n , L. 64
G),
and with for chou1 (boat, L. 66 A ) .
J u 4 . J o u 4 . Pieces of d r y m e a t gat here d in

bundle; ; meal smoke-dried in the old
f a s h i o n ; n o w , m e a t in g e n e r a l . See L. 17 G. — it is
the 130th radical of a large group of characters relating
to m e a t a n d f o o d . See L. 39 J, L, 18 J, L.
94 E. L. 46 D, L. 13 I, L l 2 2 C, etc. Note
chin1, the sinews; the parts of the flesh , elastic
l i k e bamboo . t h a t give strength;
Chou4. Compare t h e com position of t h i s c h a r a c t e r

w i t h t h a t of , L. 18 J. Flesh c o m i n g from its
principle; posterity, offspring. Do not c o n f o u n d this
character w i t h hel met, L. 34 J. The mo der n forms
are identical; t h e ancient ones differ.
K'en3. The flesh , by opp o sitio n to the skeleton,

( L. 118 A) The top of was a l r e a d y missing in the
hsiao-chuan w r i t i n g . The m o d e r n scribes replaced it
by a , which is a nonsense, k'en3 havin g nothing
in common w i t h (L 112 A ) ;
The flesh
being soft and flexible relatively to the hones that are
tough an d rigid, hence the derived meanings, to model
one's self, to yield, to follow, to be easy tempered, to
be inclined, prone to. — Phonetic series 367, under
its modern form.
4
I . The antique dance. The panlomimists dancing
on two ranks, hack-to-back (contracted into )o
Now It
forms hsieh4, which the scribes changed into
Resting of dancers after the dance; they re
ceived then small gifts. Hence the extended meaning,
of small value, of little importance, insignificant.
Yuan 4 . Larvae fleshy without skeleton, that can

double themselves up, like mosquito and ephemera
larvae, that swarm in summer, even in the wells;
Chien 1 . Shoulder; In
the
ancient characters, represents the whole of the
p ectoral and the scapulary muscles, the line that
springs from them representing the arm. In the
m odern character, the shoulder-blade is outlined. The
s cribes strangely contracted it into . It is uncon-
nected with L. 129 See L. 75 K.
J a n 2 . Meat of dog (L. 134);

It forms
Yen4. To be satiat ed; To be glutted

(c hanged by the scribes int o ), with meat of
dog. This satiely seems to have been the ideal one. It
w ent, in an ancient form, till belching took place
(L . 85 C). By extension, disgust, aversion. It is now
replaced in this sense, by the compound yen4,
re presenting the retreat from eating. Phonetic series
793.
Jan3. To roast flesh of dog By extension,

to roast, to burn, to l ight. It is now also used, chia-
chieh, as a conjunction, an adverbial particle, etc. -
Chi 4 . Oblation, sacrifice;

Offering of meat , t h a t bring s down
th e influences from heaven (L. 3 D) — Phonetic
series 595. — There is an analogous composition in teng1 (a vase in which
4 4
meat is offered). B u t wang is derived from yueh , moon, and not
from jou4. See L. 81 A.
LESSON 66.
1
About the primitive chou . Us contracted form is to he distinguished from
yueh4, L. 64; a n d from. jou 4 , L 65.
C h o u 1 . C an o e , vessel, b o at of a n y sort. The first
canoes, says the Glose, were trunks of trees hollowed
out;
It represents a k i n d of
canoe, st r a i g h t e n e d , to t a k e less room. Turned up
how, deck p r o p p e d up by a pivot t h a t represents the
i n t e r n a l wood-work; an o ar on front, a h e l m behind
t h e boat, w h i c h is opened, to mean t h a t t h e h e l m
goes b e y o n d . — It is t h e 137th radical of characters
r e l a t i n g to vessels. It forms
P a n 1 . To m a k e a boat move a l o n g , by repeated

s t r o k e s of t h e o a r (L. 22 B ) ;
The action of t h e oars
must he equal a n d regular; hence, the derived
meanings, regular way, manner, equally. Do not
c o n f o u n d t hi s character w i t h ch'uan2, boat, L. 18
E. — Phonetic series 555.
Fu2 To govern (L. 55 C) a boat, that obeys;

Chuan-chu,
to obey, to yield to; m o u r n i n g clothes as coarse as the
clothes of sailors, clothes in general, etc. K'ang-hsi
incorrectly classified , as well as (L. 47 J),
u n d e r t h e 74 th radical , the moon.
Ch'ien2. To advance, forward, before, formerly, etc.

A boat advancing towards the harbour, where it
will stop. The modern character, is a strange
i n v e n t i o n of a scribe;
Other chara cters d e r i v e d f r o m L. 47 J ; , L. 2 E; , L. 14 F;
L. 49 E; , L. 117 D.
LESSON 67.
About the primitive nu3.
First series: and its multiples.

Nu3. A girl, , The character hsiao-chuan
is already a cursive modification of the ancient
character, t h a t was uneasy to write, on account of
the. perfectly symmetrical lines. The right part was
altered. —The ancient character represented the ritual
bearing of the Chinese women, the arms hanging
down, a n d crossed over the body. The head was not
represented. The shoulders, arms, chest and legs were
o utlined. Compare L. 67 0. — tt is the 38th radical of
characters relating to women. When meaning thou,
you, and are mere chia-chieh, adaptation of a
sound.
Hao3. Hao4. What is good, what one loves:

wife and children. By extension, good, to love;
Nu2. Female slave. Women under the hand

of a master; a guilty woman, condemned to pound
the rice (see L. 47 N).

2
Ju . To speak like a woman, with a womanly
skill, in conformity with the circumstances, and the
dispositions of the man one desires to wheedle.
Extended meaning, as, like, according to.
Ch'ieh4. Daughter of a culprit, reduced to servitude,
according to the old way; by extension, a concubine;
(L. 102 E), —
T'o3. Security, tranquillity. When the hand ia
firmly placed upon women;
— Phonetic series 306. It forms sui1,
a thread that attaches, that makes sure.
Nan1. Good order, peace. When the women are
well enclosed in the house;
Yen4. Visit during the day, to the gyne-

cium; siesta, mid-day nap;
It forms yen4, recreation, feast, banquet; and the
phonetic c o m p o u n d
Yen3. To hide;
(L. 10 B), — Phoneti
s
eries 495. Other derivatives from ; see
ch'i1, L. 44 G; yao1, L. 50 N; etc.
Chien1. Quarrelling, mutual slandering. For, says
the Glose, not without melan choly, two women cannot
be on good terms;
Chien1. Amours a n d i ntrigues among and with

women; traitorous, for, says the Glose, a man who
debauches women, is a t r ait or to his fellow-men;
Second series: wu2. A series is reserved to t h i s derivative from

because it forms a group. Note the m alf or m a t ion of the modern character.
Wu2. A woman pl a c e d u n d e r luck and key — (L. I,
3 ) f o r m i s b e h a v i o u r . Prison of t h e guilty women.
Each palace had a p l a c e reserved for that purpose.
The persons t h u s confined were utterly unemployed,
and saw nobody. Hence t h e derived meanings, to
avoid, to abstain, inutility, nothingness;
— It is t he 80th radical.
Ai3. A man (24 C)
who behaves badly;
contined, or
w o r t h to be so: a d e b a uc h e e ;
Tu2. The poisonous vegetabl es t ha t grow here

a n d there, a n d t h a t must be avoided; poison,
venom ;
Lou2. Woman confined, enclosed in the

prison of the gy n eciu m ; for ever idle; useless, etc;
—
Shu3. Shu4. Formerly, it
meant to govern the con-
f i n e d women. Now, it means, to
count, a n u m b e r ; — Pbonetic series 812.
Etymological Lessons. 67. 68, 171
Third series: mu3. It is another derivative from , forming a group.
Mu3. A woman who has become a mother. This is

represented by the addi tion of two breasts to the
character . She suckles a child, says the Glose;
Idea of
fecundity, of multiplication . — Phonetic series 139. It
forms
Mei3. Grass (L. 78), prolific;
The actual meaning of this character,
every, each, is cbia-chieh. — Phonetic series 294. It
forms.
Fan2. Luxuriant vegetation, the plants twis-
ting into a tangle; Now ,
on account of a mistake made by the scribes, says the
Glose;
Yu1. See L. 94 F.
LESSON 68.
About the primitive chi4. An a p pe n di x is reserved for a few analogous forms.

In the modern writing, has different forms and is easily mistaken for the
hand (L. 44).
First series; chui4 and hu4.

Chi 4 . A primitive. It is intended to represent a boar's
Or a hog s snout; The representation,
wich is lifted up, is very rough. The top stroke
represents the nose flattened. The bottom stroke re-
presents the neck. The left stroke is a boar's tusk, the
point being forward. — The hoar and the hog played
a very important part in the Chinese hunting and
cattle-breeding, therefore they gave birth to many
characters. — It is the 58th radical of characters,
mostly relating to swine. It is unconnected with the
following.
Hu 4 . A primitive. Represents the twisting of two or

several strands, to make a rope;
By extension, reciprocity, relation, connection,
communication.
Second series: Derivatives from chi4.
Chih4. Boar , wounded by an (131 A) arrow,

under the neck, between the two (27 I, note 1)
fore-legs; killed at the hunting.
12. Offerings to the manes of ancestors;
A boar's
head, grain, silk, the whole being offered with
the hands,
I4. Boar, a bristle-

covered animal. The head, the
bristles, the hind-legs and tail.
Compare
L. 23 C; It forms
Wei4. Hui4. This character, utterly altered in the

modern writing, first meant, the hedgehog, the snout
of which resembles the hog's;
The animal is specified by (ancient form, L. 122 C) the stomach,
on account of its extraordinary voracity. In t h e modern character, on the top
; then the two long bristles of the third ancient form; then for the
ancient form of ; lastly for the hind-legs and tail of . To mean hedgehog,
the character is now written ; while hui4 is used chuan-chu to mean
collection. The idea is taken from the collection of sharp points t h a t cover the
back of a hedgenog.
Appendix. According to their modern writing, t h e f o u r following compounds

seemingly come from ; but the two first ones are certainly not derived from it.
Lu4. To behead, to trim and to bark a tree (the stump
being upright). On t h e top, an axe of a special form,
the haft of which bends to the right; its action;
t h e tree — beheaded; four small strokes represent
the branches and the bark cut. Now . — Phonetic
series 461. — The ancient character simply represented
the cutting off the trunk, the branches falling on
both sides, and the shreds of the bark torn out.
Compare L. 45 J.
Mei4. A modification of the preceding The axe's

handle is not represented. Ancient form: a head of
(L. 40 C) upon a trunk cut down. Now Spirit
of a
dead free; supposed, to be malignant;
The two following characters, of identical composition,

head, and body of a hog, have probably been
fabricated in two different centres (see page 7).
They differ only by one stroke, the head being
separated in the first, a n d joined with the rest in the
latter.
Sh ih 3. Pig. The, scribes write it, as the following,
in its derivative li3, bristle-covered larvae that eat
away the tissues a n d the books.
T'uan3. Usual meaning, pig's bristles. Derived

m eaning, commentaries, accessories to the text as the
bristles are accessory to the pig. — Phonetic series 577.
LESSON 69.
About the primitive shin3. An appendix will treat abont hai4 and hsiang4.
Shih 3 . Boar, hog. The head is replaced by a line;

on the left side, the belly a n d the paws; on the right
side, the hack and the tail ;
It has many compounds, e. g.
chu2, to drive or push out pigs, to expel in
general. — It is the 152th radical of characters mostly
referring to swine.
Hun4. Inclosure of pigs, a sty, a privy: the
pigs in Chirm eating fecal matters; — Phonetic
series 538.
Chia1. Human dwelling, says the Glose. By

extension, family.
The pigs live around the houses of the
Chinese countrymen, and even enter in them, as well
as the dogs. The street-cleaning and privy-emptying
are left to these two animals. — Phonetic series 516.
Chu4. To fight with rage, as a boar that defends
it self against a tiger;
— Phonetic, series 731.
T un 2 . A s u c k i n g pig. It was offered in some sacri-

lices, henre the ancient form, a pig, the
flesh of w h i c h is ottered. Compare chi4,
L. 65 H.
Sui 2 . To partake (18) the pigs, in bands, in

flocks: It forms
Sui 2 . A band of pigs marching,

following th eir lender; hence, to
f ol l ow in general; —
Tui4. Troops; garrison that
guards th e walls. It forms the
phonetic compound chui4, to
fall,
Cho2. A pig h a v i n g two feet tr a mm ell ed ;

— Phonetic series 340
It forms
Chung3. Tumulus, knoll, tomb, chia-chieh of an

ancient character used in hunting;
Compare L 34 I. the com position of
w hich is
similar — Phoneti c series 527.
1*. Boar that attacks (L. 102 E);

Bravery, heroism. In this
sense, the compound i4 is now used.
Shih3 and T uan3. See L. 68 H, I.

1
Pin . A flock of pigs; two being taken for a
multitude. It forms
Pin1. A district in the mountains of
Shensi, where boars formerly abounded.
Hsien3. To b u r n brush-wood, in order to drive out
the boars.
Appendix: hai4 and hsiang4.

Hai4. The hog (L. 69 A), with one stroke added
to the tail; It is used, in the
horary cycle, to designate the time 9 to 11 p. m.. This
time, says the Glose, is the most propitious for the
conception. Hence numer ous different figures, that
represent two persons, sometimes a man and a woman
(L 670), under heaven (L. 2 G ) , that is to say,
cooperating with the producti ve action of heaven, by
begetting chidren. — Phonetic series 197.
Hsiang4. Elephant. A primi tive, representing the

characteristic parts of this a n i m al - On the top, the
t r u n k ; then a bow representing the tusks. The legs
and tail look l i k e those of th e pig.
— Phonetic
series 683.
LESSON 70
About two primitives, chi2 and chi 1 . The latter is to be distinguished from
4
wu (L. 29 K ) ; as well as f r o m or at the bottom (LL. 18 a n d 47).
Chi2. Sieve, riddle. It represents t he object;
Chi 2 . Prop, stool;

Both being combined form
Ch'i2. Sieve placed upon its support;

The old utensil being no longer used,
the character has become chia-chieh a demonstrative
pronoun; — Phonetic series 327.
Chi» is found in L. 156C; L. 41 G; L. 40 C; L. 55 H.
LESSON 71.
About the primitive i4. Special series are reserved for the important derivative
1
ko , and its numerous family.
First series: i4.

I4. Primitive Some see, in th is figure, a hook driven
in t h e w a l l , to suspend objects; others see an arrow
w i t h a t h r e a d ; others, see in it a fish or pin that
was used to count, to mark, to order, to decide. —Note
for the understanding of this Lesson, that the ancient
weapons were varied. Each one had its own repre-
sentation. Later on, m a n y of them disappeared, and
the ir characters were used for other purposes. It is the
56th radical, and forms
Tai4. Order of succession, substitution, of men,

and by extension, of things ; instead of, in place of;
Phonetic series 161, N o t to be confounded with fa1,

L. 71 G.
Shi h 4 . Work done after indications, after a

patter n ; a m o d e l, to i mitate; — Phonetic
series 236.
Erh4. Two pins, two. There is an old analogous

form for one. It forms
Erh4. Profit; a second sum
(L. 161) added to the first, to
the capital;
It is now use.d for
security in accounts,
instead of t h at may he easily changed into or
. — Phonetic series 674.
Pi. A t h i n g certain, de c id ed. An arrow or a fish

that divides , that solves a doubt, a dilemma;
See L. 18 G.
K'ang-hsi erron eously classified this character under
the heart. — Phonetic series 148.
Note t h a t does n o t come from . See below K.
Second series: kuo1.

K u o 1 . A k i n d of halherd, formerly much used. A
hook or crescent on t he top, then a cross-bar, and a
halter hanging; — It is the
62th radical of words relating to spears and arms. It
forms
Fa1 To destroy, to cut down. A man who receives
from behind a stroke with a halberd;
— Phonetic series 195, To be dist inguished
from tai4, L. 71 B.
Ts'ai2. At t he bottom, . On the top, the p h o n e t i c

ts'ai2 (L. 96), co ntr acte d int o in the modern
writing. To w o un d w i t h weapons;
. — Phonetic series 2it.
Ch'ien 1 . See L. 27 B.
Chih 4 . The a n c i e n t chiefs or officials. They held a

weapon, when they made known their (L. 73
E, contracted) will to t h e i r people
Note the combination of the
bottom stroke of , w i t h the horizontal stroke of ,
which gives one stroke less to the phonetic series 671.
Yu4. A p r i m i t i v e ap p an ag e, a post, a centre; t h e —

land that a landlord defended with the weapons
of his m e n ; represents his residence, castle or
Town ; the li mi ts are not i ndicated, because there were
none;
Huo4. Extended meaning of the preceding, an

indeterminate person, whose name is not given,
known o n ly to be from such a principality; a vague
determination. — Phonetic series 364. It forms
Kuo3. An estate, well defined
a n d surrounded w i t h marks, as
they were la ter on. Extended
meaning , a state, a country;
—
Po4. Anarchy, revolution. When the fiefs are upset ;
one being straight up, the other upside down;
Wu3. The army, soldiers. The lances that

stop the hostile incursions, thus allowing the people
to prosper, says the Glose;
Note that, in the modern character, by a singular
exception, the of was placed on the top of the
compound.— Phonetic series 410.
Third series. Characters derived f r o m a n d easily confounded.
Yueh4. A halberd with a hook;

Wu4. H a l b e r d with a crescent;
See below P, th e series derive d from
it. It forms the phonetic complex
Mao4. Flourishing, blooming;
On its side, contracted forms

2
Ch'eng . To grow, to prosper, to a t t a i n , to e n d ;
(L. 57 ) is phonetic;
— P h o n e t i c series 179. is a b b r e v i a t e d in t h e
modern writing
Shu 4 . The men armed with lances, who
defend the frontiers;
See the derivative , 90 D.
J u n g 2 Arms in general, war. From arms for the

offensive, and (L. 152) armour for the defensive;
the latter character is reduced to two strokes in the
modern writing; —
Hsu1. To attack, to wound, to kill. A halberd
and a wound;
It forms
Mieh4. To extinguish; to destroy the fire;

This character is now written
Wei1. Fear; the awe felt by women menaced

with death; By
extension, a stern composure, an exterior that inspires
awe; dignity, majesty.
Hsien2. To bite; to wound with the mouth;
The modern meaning,
all, together, is
chia-chieh for or .—
Kan3. Heart bitten by a
passion, an emotion. — Phonetic
series 740.
Sui4. Jupiter, the planet that
indicated whether an attack was to be made, or
not. See L 71 P, L 112 G The is broken up, a
h a lf being on the top, a half at the bottom. — The ancients had also, for the com-
pulation of time, a cycle of twelve years based u p o n the revolution of Jupiter.
Hence, later on, the extended an d adapted meaning, a period of twelve months,
a solar year;
Note that is a modern a n d wrong form.— Phonetic
series 760.
Fourth series: doubled, in opposite directions; o8.

O2. Ngo2. Two weapons in conflict, two rights
that oppose one another, my r ight, a n d , by extension,
my Ego, my own person; personal pronoun, 1, me.
This character being uneasy to write, was soon
changed into .— Phonetic series 297. It forms
I4. Harmony, good und erstanding (L. 103), peace
restored after a conflict; convention concluded
after a disagreement, restoring concord and giving
satisfaction to the interested parties. Hence all the derived
meanings of this
important character,; the bottom of an affair, trut h , right; conventional, just,
equitable, proper, etc. Compare L 73 D, a n d L 54 G. — Phonetic series
737. It forms
Hsi 1 . The imprecations
(L. 53 D) that accompanied the
conclusion of a treaty. They
were made u p o n immolated
animals. Hence the ex-
tended meaning, victi m ; now . Phonetic series 830.
Filth series: doubled, in the same direction; chien1.

Ghien1. To exterminate, to destroy. The common
work of two (many) halberds; —
LESSON 72
About the primitive k'ou3, and its multiples
First series: simple.

K'ou3. It represents the mo u t h . M o u t h , entrance.
— His the 30th radical. Pho-
netic series 23. — This primitive is found in many
co m p ou nd s. Let us recall L. 24 F; L. 60 C;
L. 18 E; L 64 B; L. 2 D; etc It is to be
distinguished from wei2 L. 74, and f ro m other
p r i m i t i v e a nalogou s cha racters; L. 59 D; L.
90 F; L. 109 A; etc. Note th e derivatives
C h i h 3 . B u t , however. The Glose e x p l a i n s this particle

as follows: When a sentence is o v e r , t h e b r e a t h issnes
f r o m the m o u t h , in two puffs, t h a t co n ne c t what
follows w i t h w h a t precedes. B u t w h a t follows is w r i tt e n below, in the vertical
Ch i n e se lines, therefore t h e two strokes are t u r n e d d o w n w a r d s .. . A l l t h e particles
are i n t o n a t i o n s or finals, r a t h e r m u s i c a l t h a n significative, an i n t e r p u a c t u a t i o n
t h a t is read; — Phonetic, series 11 1 ,
Fei4. Fr o m dog a n d mouth The hark of the

dog; to howl;
(L. 134).
Ch'ui 4 . From mouth and to puff; to blo w,

to grumble.
(L. 99).
Second series: doubled,

Hsuan1. C l a m o u r s Two m o uth s expressing t h e
i n t e n s i t y of the actio n of the mouth ;
K'u1. To lam e n t. To wail, as w i t h m a n y mouths,
a f t e r the dogs m a n n e r ;
It forms
1
Sang F u n e r a l s. To w a i l , as dogs , over a
dead b o d y ; See L. 10 H. —
These two characters v i v i d l y depict the Chinese t h i n g
that they mean.
Chu1. Repeated cries to call the hens; is

phonetic.
Ghia 3 . Large cup, with a cover; a hanap pas-

sing round, a l l m o u t h s d r i n k i n g out of t h e same.
Tan1. To assault somebody, w i th cries a n d a

pitchfork (L. l04). Compare L 72 F. — The pri-
mitive meaning of this c h a r a c t e r Is obsolete. It now
means, single, thin , a check, a bill, only, etc These
are mere chia-chieh. — Phonetic series 705 It has
n ot h in g ia common with
T'o2. A crocodile, whose s k i n was used for making

droms; It represents the mons-
ter. The top part resembles L. 23 1. For the bot-
tom, see L. 108 C. It is unconnected with tan1
( ) 4 To accuse somebody w i t h great cries. Two

m o u t h s , and (L. 102 D) to attack;
Mot
e
t h e m o d e r n form i m a g i n e d by the scribes. — Double
p h o n e t i c series 470, u n d e r its t w o forms.
Y e n 2 , Cries that i n sp ir e awe. See L. 141 H.

Severe, st e r n , majestic. — Phonetic series 858.
Nang2. Cries , and agilatioh, that accompany

the execution of a common work ; cooperation,
working in common. Here again, the Chinese at work
are well described. By extension, big disorder;
See LL 39 B, 39 G,
82 A. In the. modern form, was changed into ,
by a fancy of some, scribe. It forms
Ilsian g 1 . Composed of the last and of clothes,

L. 16 A. To disrobe, in order to plough, or to work, or
to h e l p others. To work, to cooperate, to help. Note
the modern contraction. — Phonetic series 831.
Nang2 A satchel, a recip ient (L 74 A), in which

are, or m a y be enclosed p ell-mell any objects
whatever; a bag, a sack. — Phonetic series 854.
Ch'ien 1 . Meeting, together. Men gathered

who chat. See L. 14 A and E — Phonetic series 726.
Kuan4. The heron Bird with a crest (L. 103

C), a n d clamorous. — Phonetic series 841.
Note: chou4 L. 29 D, a n d shou4 L 23 I, are not

derived f r o m
Third series: repeated th ree times in the same line,

Ling 2 . Noise of voices; The two
following characters are no t derived from , though
they have a f igur e of the same kind
Yao4. A P an dean flute. The three represent the

holes of the pipes uni t e d together in a straight
row. See L 14 H — It is the 244th radical. Phonetic
series 835.
Ling2. Falling of rain in big drops;

Formerly, it made a p honetic series, in which
is now written the compound
Ling2 To offer to hea ven jade (L. 83 A ) , or

certain dances (L. 27 E), in order to get rain
Compare L. 58 H. It was t he first t hi ng asked from
the magicians a n d sorcerers, by a people whose life
depended upon rain. By ex tension, spiritual, myste-
rious, s upe r na t ura l power or effect, transcendent,
marvellou s. — Phonetic series 853.
Sub-series: repealed three times in a pyrarnidical form,

P'in3. Disposition by order a nd degrees, graphically
represented by the dispo sition of three elements,
taken for a multitude. is used as a sign and has no
meaning.
Yen2. Rock s scattered upon a mountain. The
three are used as signs and have no meaning.
Ch'u1. To dispose, to stow away things in a

box ; By extension, lodging,
place, site; — Phonetic series 607.
But, in the two f o ll ow in g characters, the three mean

mouths.
N ieh 1 . Three mouths j oined by lines. To be
yen2, above. To cabal, to plot;
d i s t i n g u i s h ed from
Now nieh 1 , a mouth
t h a t pour s its words into three ears.
Tsao 4 . S i n g i n g of the birds on trees;

— Phonetic series
764.
Fourth series: repeated lour times,

Ch'i1. Many mouths, clamours; —
F o u r m o u t h s may be seen in d i f f e r e n t characters, e.g.
Ch'i 4 . The vessels for t h e mouths, used for

eating. In the mi d d l e , a dog t h a t cleans them. It
was not very refined, therefore (work, utensil)
was substituted for ; b u t this form was not admitted
by the critics. A very old form shows a h a n d a n d
three pots. The p rimitiv e m eaning was probably,
earthenware, clay vessels, made by the potter. By
extension, any utensil.
Hsiao4. A m a n w i t h four mouths. To vociferate,

to clamour;
Yin2 An officer with four mouths. To speak loud;
Chiao4. Union of several mouths. Cries, appeals

( L . 54 F).
O4 A modern form of . See L. 72 F. — Phonetic
series 470.
LESSON 73.
About three derivatives of yueh1, kan1, yen2, that form important

series.
First series: yueh1.
Yueh1. To speak, to tell. The mouth that exhales

a breath, a word ;
Sometimes, by deriv ation; exhalation, emana-
tion. — It is the 73th rad ic a l. In the compounds,
is to be accurate l y distinguished, from jih4 L.
143, a n d from mao4 L. 34 J, which is written
by the modern scribes. — Note a more ancient and
more evolved form of : t h e b reath f o r m i n g like a
v ol ut e of v a p o u r before the mo uth, as when condensed
in winter. See L. 76 K
Ho 2. A stranger , a beggar, who speaks, in

o r d e r to ask his way or to b eg By extension, to ask,
w h e i e ? w h y ? how? See L 10 G. — Phonetic series 443.
Ch'ang 1 E m a n a t i o n , sw arming, u n d e r th e
sun's heat ( L 143); by extensi on, prosperity, splen-
d o u r , glory. — The ol d forms f i g u r e sun and
moon, light a n d l i f e . — Phonetic series 322.
Ta2. Flow of words (L 125). — Phonetic

series 395.
Ts'ao2. Judges P r i m i t i v e ly two worthies who sat

and pronounced judgment in the East halls.
See L. 120 K. Note the u g l y modern contraction. —
See LL. 26 D; 40 D.
1
Second series: kan .
Kan 1 . Sweetness of so m e thing held in the
m o u t h ( L . 1, 4°); good, sweet; by extension, satis-
faction, affection;
— It is the 99(h radical of few characters
r e l a t i n g to sweetness. Phon etic series 129 It forms
M u 3 . The t hi n g sweet to the taste, the f r u i t s
that grow on trees;
It is used now, by a mere con ventional chia-chieh,
to mean, a certain person whose name is unknown,
or respect or c a u ti on forbids to use, mu-jen;
Shen4 In the more ancient form, what was
agreeable to the taste. In the more modern form,
affection for the being th at makes the pair
(s exual) See L. 42 A. This affection being very great,
says the Glose, hence the extended m eaning, superla-
tive, very, extremely, excessive.

H s i a n g 1 Savour or odour agreeable, of the
( c o nt r act ed , L. 121 I) fermented grain, of t h e arack;
By
extension, fragrant, odoriferous. — It is the 186th
radical.
Chih 3 . Formerly, the tongue (L, 102 C), in

contact w i t h a sweet thing — (L. 1 4 0 ). Now
sweet; is t he pho netic (L. 26 K). By extension,
edict of t h e Emperor lhat is supposed to be couched in
sweet words — Phonetic series 185.
Tien 1 . Sweet to the tongue; it is f r o m this

phonetic contracted, that are derived, in the phonetic
series 227 , the compounds in ien. See L. 102 C.
Yen4. Satiated. Glutted with the meat of a

dog. See L. 65 G. In the modern character,
became , as in and above. It forms yen4,
L. 65 G.
Third series: yen2.

Yen2. To speak, to tell; speech, word. Words issuing
(L. 102 E) from the mouth. The sounds of the
heart , says the Glose; — It is the 149th
radical of characters re lating to speech. It forms
Chi 4 . To compute, to c a lc ulate. To know how to

enunciate the numbers till ten, i.e. all the num-
bers. See L. 24 B.
T'ao3. To rule by one's words; to chide;

See L. 45 B.
Hsin 4 . Sinceri t y; the q u a l i t y that the words of

every man should have. Faith, truthfulness, the
effect produc e d upon a man by the words of
another. See L. 25 H
Hsuan4. To go here a n d there , wh ile offering

a n d praising one's goods, as t h e pedlars
do. To
praise up one's self
Luan4 See L. 92 D.
Shang 1 . See L. 15 D.
Fourth series: doubled

Ching 4 . Primitively, words against words,
dispute, Then t he two men
(L 29 A) were added;
Lastly, the scribes contracted this character into ,
and K'ang-hsi wrongly classified it under the 117th
radical . Not to be confounded with L. 97 I.
Shan 4 . Harm ony, good u nderstanding (L. 103),

peace made again after an altercation By extension,
a menity, pleasantness, sweetness, good, well;
Compare L. 71 Q.
This character being uneasy to trace, the scribes
altered It in a strange way. — Phonetic series 702.
Fifth series: yin1. A series is reserved to this derivative of , on account

of its important compounds.
Y i n 1 . Utterance of a — sound. A sound, tone,

phonation, modulation;
Compare the composition of kan1 and chih3, L. 73 B —
Chang 1 . A strain in music , or an essay in

literature, perfect (ten representing the finishing,
the perfection); -- Phonetic
Kan* Music . t h a t ruled t h e

evolutions of the dan cers in
ancient times (see and L.
31 E). It forms, by adding the
radical
Kan 4 . Kung 4 . The gra-

tification (L. 1 6 1 ) given to the
musicians. Com pare L. 65 D.
The scribes changed into , therefore this cha-
racter is now written — Phonetic series 850.
Ching 4 . Limits, boundaries; where the languages

or dialects of men change By extension, end;
K'ang-hsi who took for his
1 8 0 t h radical, arbitrarily classified under .—
I4. The intention of the man who speaks, manifested

by the sounds he utters; By extension, the
meaning, the signification that the intelligence of
the hearer perceives in the words of the speaker;
Phonetic series 739. It became, by contraction, in

the compound
Chih4. Officer. See L 71 I. —

Note: In the phonetic series 739, are enclosed some derivatives of another
compound, which the scribes confounded w i t h
I4. Pleasure, cheerfulness, caused by a word, that

hit the point (L. 109);
is divided, a h a l f being on the top, a half at
the bottom; is in the middle. With at the bottom,
we have a compound
which is also written It meant, pleasure. This sense became obsolete, and the
character now means 100.000. It is written Compare L. 47 X. — Conclusion: in
modern characters, the series is u n i f o r m ; written in ancient characters, it is de-
composed into two distinct series.
LESSON 74.
About t h e p r i m i t i v e wei2. See L. 76,
Wei2. A r o u n d , a c i r c u m f e r e n c e , an inclosure, to
co n t ain; — It is t he 31th radical of
characters relating to enclosure s. To be distinguished
from the 30th radical , m o u t h Different compounds
of wei2 were already explained. Let us recall
Yuan4. Larvae without skeleton, th»t can bend in

round . See L. 65 E.
Yuan2. Cowries of a round form. See L,

161 B.
She4. Dwelling made with walls. See L. 14 C.
Ts'ang1. A granary to keep the provisions.

See L 26 M.
Ch'iu 2 . A m a n i m p ri s o n e d See L 25 B.
Yi n 1 . A man enclosed, k n o w i n g not what to say.

See L. 60 B
Hun4. A sty for pigs. See L. 69 B

3
Lo . Penning, cattle-breeding, fattening. To catch
and inclose an a n i m a l in a pen, in order, later
on, to get its flesh; See LL. 10 E,
ti E, 65 A. The scribes changed into . —
Phonetic series 747, the radical being inserted at the
bottom, betveen and
Lei2. A sheep that needs to be

fattened.
Lean, feeble, meagre.
Ying 2 . To feed one's purse ( cowries). To gain at

a game, or in doing commerce. Is phonetic contracted
in the compounds in ing of the phonetic series 747.
I4. Seat of the government's

authority
(L. 55 B). Capital of a district, of a lief. Walled city;
— It is the 163th
radical of characters denoting towns. Let us recall
the compounds
Y u n g 1 . The moat ar ound a city L 12 G.
Y u n g 1 The wagtail, the bird that likes the

moats. L 12 G.
Note: straight or turned, when abbreviated, becomes on the right,

on the left. Hence t he following
Y u n g 1 . The wa g ta il , as ab ove; is for , is for

Hsiang 1 . The country, the s pace between the cities

and , where the grains are growing See
L. 26 M — Phonetic series 682.
Lastly, in the next, is reduced to (L. 55 B).
Hsiang 4 . Composed of (L 47 Q) and of two ,

later on reduced to one, and th en to . What is of
a common use in the cities , i.e. the streets,
the paths;
LESSON 75.
About several series derived from wei2, viz. etc , that are
important and difficult.
First series: shu4.

Shu4. To bind, to tie, to inclose a tree, taken
here as meaning any object;
Su4, Sou4. To clear the throat,
to cough; (L. 99)
Chien 3 . To select; to choose

in a bundle
previously opened;
Not to be c o n f o u n d e d with the compounds of ,
L. 40 D. — Phonetic series 429,
This is a s i n g u l a r compound, that forms an interesting

series. It is composed of , with a second
greater, inserted h a l f w a y up the tree The r adical, or
sometimes the phonetic, is introduced in this frame.
The general idea of t h i s now obsolete character was,
a recipient, a case, a bag, placed hi gh, out of reach. The
scribes altered it in many ways. The large is ge-
n e r a l l y reduced to , a n d the foot of t h e tree to
. Some compounds are given here :
Kao1. Quiver, a case for arrows; is phonetic.
T'o2. A bag; , stone, represents the contents See

the ancient character above. It forms
Tu4. Worms in cases, books or clothes, moths,

book-worms.
Nang2. A sack. Explained L 72 H. — Phonetic series

854.
The philologists attribute also to this compound, taken in the sense of euclosure,
the Intricate forms of K'un3. See below, the different writings of this character. It
means the path in the shape of a , which cuts the square yards of the
Chinese palaces, giving in the angles four spaces, planted with flowers;
The first ancient form graphically represented this idea, which was
darkened by successive additions. The contractions were made by the scribes. Not
to be confounded with hu2, L. 38 G. It has nothing in common with ya4,
L. 82 H.
Second series: kao1.

Kao1. A kind of pavilion , raised upon a
substructure; represents the hall in this
under
building; An elevated place;
high, lofty, eminent. — It forms the 189th radical.
Phonetic series 544. When it is variously contracted,
or overturned, or when its strokes are mingled, it
forms the singular following series.
T'ing 2 . The phonetic ting1 (L. 57 A) replaced the

at the bottom. In the modern writing, became
. Pavilion, terrace; —
Phonetic scries 479.
Po4. An old city, (L. 33 B) root of the Shang

dynasty, built upon a height.
Hao2. An a n g r y boar (L. 69) bristling u p ;

contracted is phonetic. Extended meanings, bravery;
compare L. 69 D. I L.. or bristles, a ha ir, a n y t h i n g
v e r y m i n u t e . Hence the modern form , w h ic h is
not classical ( mao2, hair, L. 100) — Recently t h e
character has been adapted to the porcupine, com-
mon in the West of China. It is supposed to be very
brave, and to shoot out its quills, like arrows. — Pho-
netic series 777.
Ch'iao2. In this character, it was the top of

that disappeared, to make room for yao1, L 61 B;
Something
high, a tree for instance, the top of which bends
down, overhangs. — Phonetic series 670 K'ang-hsi
wrongly classified this character under the mouth.
192 Etymological Lessons 75
2
T'ai . A high place, a lofty lerroce, a look-out. Here
is reduced to and . The of t h e bottom
was replaced by , L 133 which means t h a t the
birds alight there. The on the top, is replaced by
L 79, which indicates the summit, as in L. 59
F.
By extension, any elevated place, staging, tower,
ob servato ry. — Phonetic series 790.
Third series: ching1, derived from

1
C h i n g . It is , t h e bottom p a rt of which is
replaced by a pivot (L. 6 A ) ; idea of loftiness, of
central ity. The capital or metropolis, centre of th e
Empire. The
scribes altered the bottom in the modern character.
It is u n c o n n e c t e d w i t h — P h on e ti c series 336. It
forms
4
Chiu Admiration (L 134 C), before something
e x a l t e d . By e x t e n s i o n , to go towards, to follo w,
consequently.
3
Ching . The sun very high; brightness; a vista,
3
a prospect. Forms ying , shade caused by an
object, intercepting light. — Another e x p l a n a t i o n :
the sun at the, capital Prognostics given by it
about t h e affairs of the Empire, state of things,
ci rcums tance s — Phonetic series 672.
4
Liang . The men of the capital,
more
enlightened than those of the provinces, advisors to
the Government, etc. By extension, clear, illumined.
The actual form is relatively modern.
Fourth series: hsiang3; modern form derived from

D Before studying 1hts series, th at was specially distorted by the scribes, let us
n o t e — 1.That is an arbitrary abbreviation of , which has nothing in common
with L. 94 — 2. That the scribes used the same as an abbreviation of two
2 1
compounds of ch'un and kuo (below E and H), that form series, if therefore
the group is gathered, one gets a m i x t u r e of yang, un, wu, uo, etc. This
phonetic confusion betrays a p r i m i t i v e d iver sity of characters which cannot be
distinguished in the modern writing, b ut is manifest in the ancient forms.
Hsiang 3 . To offer a g i f t to a superior (

contracted); represents the object offered; it is a
modern primitive, distinct from yueh1 L. 73, and
4
from jih L. 143. —
The a n c i e n t f o r m was composed of t w o abbreviated,
o n e b e i n g str a ig h t, the o t h e r i n v e r t e d ; one offering,
the o t h e r r e c e i v i n g ; Hence
two meanings; to treat with favour ( n o w heng1),
or to enjoy t h e favour received ( n o w hsiang3).
C o m p a re L 75 G. — P h o n e t i c series 274 a n d 359; the
latter is almost completely attributed to the com-
p o u n d s Ch'un 2 a n d huo 1 , below E, H.
Fu2. A b u n d a n c e . According to some interpreters, this

character is composed of gifts received, a n d of
t h a t d i v i d e s in f o u r parts , this division im plying
t h a t a l l t h e corners are f i l l e d ;
— A more a nc ie n t e xpla na tion,
t h o u g h less c o m m o n l y a d m i t t e d , seems to be t h e t r u e
one. A c c or di n g to this, t h e character means
( c o n t r a c t e d ) , t h e h e a p i n g up of t h e productions of t h e
f i e l d s , goods of t h e e a r t h A b u n d a n c e , prosperity,
Then the c h a r a c t e r is derived directly from , and
not f r o m . — Note the modern d ef or m at i o n, a n d the
compounds fu4, bouses filled, wealth;
fu 2 , a
transcendent influence that brings luck;
Ch'un2. A l a m b grown up, big and. nice enough

to be offered as a present:
— Is altered into , as it was explained above D —
Shu2. To take (L. 11 E) a
lamb
acceptable, to be
roasted; Note the
compound shu2, shon2, the lamb roasted ( L.
126); by extension, well cooked, ripe. — Phonetic
series 644. Now is used chia-chieh, as an interro-
gative pronoun.
Tun1. Meek-minded, honest,
simple as a lamb, that is
beaten a n d does not cry; to
bear, to beat, etc. — Phonetic series
715.
Liang2 The evolution of t his character parallelled

the evolution of Chinese moral philosophy. Primitively
the gift (as in L. 75 D), the capital gift, the
nature heavenly received. In t he second aucient cha-
racter, t h e coming down from heaven of the gift, is
shown graphically (school of Meng-tzu, good nature).
In the third ancient character, good and evil
(school of Tung chung-shu). Fi nally, the gift has been
lost (school of Li-ssu a nd Hsun-tzu, bad nature). —
Anyhow, the primitive m e a ni n g has been preserved:
, original qualities, nature, natural, inborn, good.
The actual character is an arbitrary contraction. See
L. 26 0. — Phonetic series 289. It forms
Lang2. Name of an old city. Chia-chieh, a title. —

Liang2. Measure, weight, to measure, to weigh.

Composed of (L. 120 K) weight, natural; the
weight of things according with their nature. Note the
contractions. It has nothin g in common either with
L. 149 D, or with L. 143 B. It forms liang2,
rations, food, provisions; the quantity of grains
required for food.
inverted, and contracted, forms
Hou 4 . Liberality, generosity. The reverse of ,

L 75 D. The inferior receives a gift ;
It is now w ritt en
H o u 4 . Liberality, generosity. The represents the
coming down of the gift, f r o m upwards. By extension,
thick, large ( q u a l i t i e s of a generous gift). The modern
character is an a r b i t r a r y abbreviation.
T'an2. A b u n d a n c e of s a l t ( L . 41 D); salting,

pickling; by extension, different macerations; various
chia-chieh. After many contractions, t h e bottom of the
c h a r a c t e r became . — Phonetic series 706.
Fifth series: kuo, derived from

Kuo1 Walls, fortifications The fence (L 74)
simple, or d o u b l e d ( L . 76) of the ancient cities,
w i t h two ( f o u r ) doors opposite, each surmounted with
a look-out. The is contracted. For th e
mod ern a b b r e v i a t i o n , see the note, L 75 D. —
Kuo 1 . Walls ( c i t y ) ; it is
now used f o r t he last character.
Fu4 This character is derived from kuo1 (above,

the second anci en t form, wit h a simple ), taken in
the sense of city, place. The t u r n e d up was
replaced by the radical (L. 31 B), to march, to go.
To go in a city, to market. By extension, to go where
one already o f t e n went, to return for a second time,
reiteration, repetitiou, etc.
Note the absurd modern contraction. —
Fu4. A sy n o n y m of the last; it
is now used for the simple form;
See
below J.
Note. We incidently treat here about an important compound, li3, shoes,

to walk; it is seemingly derived from , but in reality, it has no connection
whatever with that character. Its story is thus given: primitively it was
Li3. The boats (L. 66), that men put their

feet in (L. 112). In fact, the ancient shoes of Chinese
much resembled a small boat;
Then (L. 63), to walk, was substituted for feet;
and a man (L. 32) for . Later on, the character
was increased with , to march (L. 3} C); this was
a mere redundancy. Lastly the scribes contracted
and int o , t he bottom of the character thus
becoming identical to fu4 (L. 75 I).
Finally,
this c o m p o u n d became like a radical of shoes,
Chi4, clog. Chu4, shoe Hsueh1, boot Chiao1, shoe.

being replaced by different phonetics. For in st a n ce :
Sixth series: k'o1, derived from
K'o1- To overcome, to prevail over, to repress, to

subdue, etc. The top part is contracted, that
means, pressure from upwards, a weight that hangs
heavily. Some say, the bottom is (L 65 F) shoulder, contracted. A load that
weighs heavy upon the shoulders;
The lo w er part seems rather to be a primitive, repre sen t ing
th e idea of b e n d i n g u n d e r a load Note that, a m o n g t h e three compounds
k'o1, to be a bl e of s u p p o r t i n g, of mastering, t h e first is the right o ne,
though it is now used the least; To have the strength
of supp o rting, of subduing.
does not come from . See L. 97 I.

Etymological Lesions 76. 197
LESSON 76.
The first series of this Lesson is about , which is wei2 L.74, doubled. The
2
secoud series is about the primitive hui , that is often written by the mo-
dern scribes. To be distinguished from the series chiung3, L. 34 B.
First series:
Wei2. Hui2. Double fence (see kuo1, L. 75 H); a
vase hermetically closed. It forms very important
radical compounds, but no phonetic compounds. Those
lhat are sometimes attributed to it, belong to ,
below G.
Lin3. A depot, to put in (L. 15) the grains;

It is now written
and forms
Lin3. A depot for grains, a storehouse;

distribution of grain to the poor; gift, favour. —
Phonetic series 746. Note t h a t
Ping 3 , is a modern character, that is not
found in the ancient dictionaries; to let
know to the authorities the poor that must
be (contracted) helped; to warn, to
inform.
T'an2. G r a n a r y that may be examined at the

(L. 143 B) day's light; all the grain that must be
there, is really there; sincerity, honesty. — Phonetic
series 762.
She4. Grains enclosed in a grange. When

one has grains, he does not spoil them; thrift,
parsimony. See L 13 C. In the modern character, the
bottom of , and the top of , are mingled together.
Pei3. Pi3. To have a small heap of grains , an

overplus t h a t cannot be received in the granary.
S uperabundant, a n d hence, not precious. It forms
Pi3. Vulgar, low (extended meaning of the
simple character). Primitively, the small
garrisons on th e barbarian borders;
T'u2. The plans to be made to order one's granary,

when there are too many grains to be received
therein. By extension, to plan, to scheme, to calculate,
l ong for, etc.
There are four in this character.
Second series:
Hui 2. Image of an object (clouds, volutes of the
smoke) t h a t turns, that rolls, that revolves;
Abstract notion of revolviug, of return. The scribes
often write (L. 76 A). — Phonetic series 211.
It forms
Hsuan 1 . To make a complete revolution, either

on ones self, or through a nd through, or from one
end to the other. See L. 2 D E F. To revolve, to
go through, completely. — Phonetic series 207. The
modern scribes changed into .
It forms
Hsuan1. A palace;
— Phonetic
series 449.
Mu2. To dive, while t u r n i n g on one's self, in

order to get something u n d e r water,
the head
being below;
By extension, to disappear, to be no more. —
Phonetic series 72. The modern scribes changed
into
The p r i m i t i v e is found also, more or less modified, in the old f o r m of yun2

cloud (L. 93 A); in an old form of yueh1 (L. 73 A ) ; in the old form of lei2
(L. 93 D), thunder rolling above the fields.
LESSON 77.
About the primitive ko*.

Ko4. A twig of bamboo, with a knot, and the whorl
of pending branches inserted in the knot;
It is now written , or . B y extension, an
article. Specificative of unities. Let us recall the
compound
Chih1. The hand, breaking a bamboo sprig

between two knots; or, in the more modern form,
the hand holding a bamboo sprig. A branch, a twig,
to hold. — It is the 65th radical. Phonetic series 45.
Chu2. Bamboo, the twigs of which are not raised

up, but drooping; It is now
written . Contracted form . — It is the 118th
radical of characters mostly referring to the many
kinds or articles of bamboo. It is phonetic in some
characters, e.g.
Chu4. A multitude of bamboos. The common name

of India in Buddhist books.
Chu2. A kind of rude harp, composed of thirteen
strings that were struck with hammers. It forms
Tu3. To advance. Firm, resolute.
LESSON 78.
About the primitive and its multiples. The complete series of the compounds
derived from this important element will be treated in the L. 73.
First series: simple.
Ch'e4. A plant that sprouts from its grain; the
minimum of a plant; at the bottom, the root; on the
top, the culm; on each side, one leaf;
it is often used as a symbol, either to
represent any object
(L. 44 H), or to mark a point (L. 59 F). — It is the 45th radical of characters
mostiy referring to springing plants. In the modern writing, the scribes disfigured
this element in the most fanciful ways. See, for instance,
L. 44 H, etc.
T'ao1. To hold. A hand holding an object;
1
Forms t'ao , a bow-case, a
scabbard, etc.
Ch'en3 An insect that crawls (L. 110), the
head being raised ( beak and feelers). There are
unimportant compounds. Not to be confounded with
ch'ih1, L. 79 B.
Second series: repeated horizontally.
Ts'ao 3 . Plants with herbaceous stems. The

repetition means their multiplicity;
— it is the 140th radical of c haracters
relating to plants. Modern contracted form . The
scribes c o n t r a c t e d in the, same way a few very different
elements, e.g. in L 23 H; in L. 54 G; etc.
Third series: repeated vertically, not united.
Che3, she 2 To c u t , to break; An a x e ,

and the two stumps of a branch cut. It is now
written . See L. 48 D. — Phonetic series 252.
Ch'u2 Grass bound in .sheaves (L. 54);
By extension,
vulgar, of s ma ll va lue , as the grass. Compare L. 44 I. --
Fourth s eri e s: repeated v e r t i c a l l y , united.
Ch'u 4 . Springing of p l a n t s ; the small p l a n t . (L.

78 A) formed a. second pair of leaves, and thrusts it-
self out; To issue,
to go out, to spring from, to manifest, and other
chuan-chu. It is often disfigured by the scribes, so
t h a t it beco mes , etc.. — Phonetic series 147. It forms
Ch'u1 is tail c o n t r a c te d (L. 100 B). To go

away , the tail lowering;
By e x t e n s i o n , depression, grievance, bent down.
Compare li4, L. 1 29 A. — Phonetic series 348.
Nao2. To go out in order to saunter ( L. 117

A): Now By
extension, excessive relaxation, pride, insolence. —
Phonetic series 638 The scribes contracted into
4
Mai . To sell. This part of business (L 161 D)
which consists in exporting goods; to sell them;
The scribes
contracted into . Note that mai4 does not
form phonetic compounds; t h e phonetic series in
has a n o t h e r origin. See L. 79 J.
Pao4. To spread the grain, in order to d r y it,

when the sun is rising. Sec L. 47 S. The modern
contraction is a strange one, — Phonetic series 809.
Sui 4 . Unpropitious transcendent emanation.

Bad omen, noxious influence; Not to be
confounded with ch'ung2, to revere.
T'iao4. To sell grain ; a n d its correlative
Ti2. To buy grain ; (L. 62 G) is phonetic...
to go out; to enter.
Fifth series: repeated three times, a n d contracted

Hui3. Vegetables, plants in general; the three
representing the multitude;
, The modern form is to be dist inguished
from thirty, derived from , L. 24 N. It forms
Pen4. A man (L.

60) who w a l k s in the grass.
To stride, In the ancient
character, there
is for (L. 61 B). —
Fen4. Ornaments, Shells

and plants. These were the first motives of
decoration, being easier to be traced than others. See
L. 35 G. — Phonetic series 732.
Sixth series: quadrupled

Mang3. High plants, luxuriant vegelation;
Note the modern abbreviation.
In the compounds, the added part is inserted between
the on the top. and the at the bottom, the
latter being often changed by the scribes into
etc.
202 Etymological Lessons 78. 79.
Mang3. A hound frisking about in the

thickets. A kind of greyhound;
Mo*. The sun fading away at the horizon, in the

plants. Sunset; now . By extension, to disappear,
to be no more, negation. — Phonetic series 637, in
which the radical is often placed at the bottom,
between the two down strokes of the lower ,
changed int o ;eg. , , etc.
Tsang*. The ancient bur i al; to tie — a corpse in

a bundle of grass. See L. 28 H. The tie — has disap-
peared from the modern character.
Han 2 . Cold. A man who tries To protect himself

against cold . in a shelter, by burying h i m s e l f in
straw. See L 47 U. — Phonetic series 530.
LESSON 79.
This Lesson, one of the most intricate, is reserved for the important series that are
derived from (L. 73), viz.: etc.
First series: t'un2.

T'un2. The underground germ ination. The two coty-
ledons part from each other; the curved line represents
the struggles of the young plant in order to take
root; the plumula rises above the — earth, and is
brought to light;
By
extension, the difficult beginning of an establishment, a foundation, a village, a
camp. — Phonetic series 85. It forms
Ch'un1. Spring. Germination and pullulation of

plants, by the effects of the sun. — Phonetic
series 436. The modern character is another strange
alteration made by the scribes.
Second series: chih.

Chih 1 . A small p l a n t ascending from the —
ground; to grow; idea of development, of progress, of
continuity; It is now
used (chia-chieh) as the sign of the genitive, as an
expletive, etc. Not to he confounded
2
with fa , L. 112 K. In the modern compounds,
either has its ancient form, or is contracted into ,
or otherwise. Note the derivatives
Ch'ih1. A scarab, large black beetle, boring

through — the hard soil, coming to light. Chuan-chu,
clumsy, stupid. Compare ch'en3, L. 78 A. — Phonetic
series 520.
Shih2. The time, succession of the annual

sprouting periods of plants, under the action of the
sun; compare L. 24 D, L. 79 A. Constancy, Later on,
the character was erroneously connected with —
Ssu4. Court, temple. The place where the law or the

rule are applied, in a constant manner;
Chih4. The will; a purpose that is fixed, that

develops itself; The heart
is, according to the Chinese, the seat of the intellect
and of the will. — Phonetic series 260.
Hsien1 To advance; to progress with one's
feet (L 29); —
Phonetic series 202. Repeated in
Shen1. To advance, to present one's
self, in order to give one'sadvice. It forms
Tsan4. To pay a visit in

order to give an advice;
presents offered, or, more pro-
bably, received;
— Phonetic series
849.
Shih4. A market. The grass grown place

(L . 34 A ) , where one gets what one is in need of
(L. 19 E)... instead of , the down
stroke
being mingled with the horizontal stroke of Compare L 14 C. The
modern form is not to be confounded, either with fa4 (L 35 B), or with
fei4 (L. 79 G). It forms shih4, the kaki (phonetic complex); and nao4
(logical aggregate), to wrangle as on the ma rket, to quarrel, to scold, etc.
inverted forms
Tsa1. To go r o u n d ; to perform a circuit or entire
revolution; as which turned on its axis;
In the modern times, this cha-
racter was changed by the scribes into ;
is found in shin1, L. 86 B; an d in wei4, to escort,

a different writing of
, in which replacing the of the phonetic , means perhaps the return,
while means the going.
Sub-series and combined wi t h t'u8 (L 8 l ) forms

Wang3. Luxuriant vegetation, that sprouts from
the earth, here a n d there; rambling, wandering;
Note.
In its modern contracted forms, wang3 might be
confounded w i t h chu3, master, L. 83 D; a n d with
2
wang , king, L 83 C. In the first case, the sound
prevents a n y mistake. In the second case, the dis-
tinction is not easy, the two phonetics being
homophonous. See phonetic series 87 and 115. Note
the derivatives
Wang3 To stray, to go away;
K'uang2. A mad dog that roves;

— P h o n e t i c series 285
K u a n g 1 A regular assemblage. It is supposed to

rome from (L 51 A ) , and already contracted in
the writing hsiao-chuan. It seems rather that is a
primitive, representirig a regular ordering. Compare
hsuan4, L. 47 F. — Phonetic series 223.
Sub-series , another combination of with t'u3, (L. 81).
Feng1. Fields and meadows , under the

authority of a feudatory; an appanage, a domain,
a tenure;
This explanation seems to be erroneous.
The ancient character first represented a tree upon
a tumulus; , the authority, was added later on.
It is composed like , in which was also added
later on. A knoll surmounted with a tree, represented
the Imperial possession of the land. A similar knoll,
but smaller, was erected in the fief granted by the
Emperor to a feudatory. Symbol of the jurisdiction ;
fictitious principle of propitions influences; etc. By
extension, to raise a tumulus, to invest a noble, to
appoint to office, to seal, to close, etc. The modern
forms are contracted. Nothing in common with
(L. 81 D). — Phonetic series 440,
Third series: sheng, often contracted into
Sheng1. A plant that grows more and more. A

whorl WHS added to L. 79 B;
By extension, to bear, to spring, to live, to grow. — It
is the 100th radical. Phonetic series 154. Note the
derivatives
Ch'ing 1 . Green. The hue of growing plants,

the light green of sprouting plants;
But (L. 115 D) means red! Was the inventor
of a Daltonian? — It is the 174th radical. Phonetic
series 337.
Hsing1 The stars; the quintessence of sublimated

mailer, that ascended and crystallised into stars;
The three top elements
of the anci ent character are a primitive, representing
the stars. The modern character is a contraction of
the same. — Phonetic series 447.
Ch'an3. The signs of parturition. See L. 61

F. — Phonetic series 592.
Luny2. Prosperity, abundance. What descends
(contracted) from heaven; what is produced on
earth; all goods. See L. 31 F.
Tu2 The noxious weeds that grow everywhere,
and that must be avoided. Poison, venom. See
L. 67 M.
Su4. This character does not mean to rise from the
dead, but to change (L. 41 A) one's existence,
in the Taoist or Buddhist sense.
Hsing4. The natural disposition, temper, spirit, the
qualities and propensities; the heart of a man, at
his birth.
Hsing4. The place where the dan-chiefs of old,
were born from a woman
impregnated by
heaven. They were surnamed after that plac e; hence
the extended meaning, family surname.
Sheng 1 . A multitude, a great number of beings.
combined with (L 18) forms the two series 4 and 5.
Fourth series. fei4.

Fei4. The branching plants, that do not stand,
but creep, .and whose bough's-multiply indef i nitely;
by extension, multiplication, fibres;
— Phonetic series 57 The
modern f o r m is to be distingu ished from shih4,
L. 34 D. and from fu4, L. 35 B... Fei4 is, sometimes,
used also under the contracted forms and . Note
the derivatives
Po4. The multiplication, the human procreation (

child, L. 94). — Phonetic series 30t.
So3. Fibres (L. 92) of the plants; to tie up; a

cord. — Phonetic series 565.
Nan2. The South. Regions in which the luxuriant

(L. 102 F) vegetation expands everywhere. The
country of lianas. — Phonetic series 468.
Tzu3. A stop — (L. t. 3°), in the development

of vegetation. To stop. The modern form was invented
by the scribes;
Fifth series: p'an4.

P'an4. To strip he m p and divide the fibres from
the stalk;
The modern form is to be distinguished from mu4,
2 4
tree, L 119; a n d from shu , L. 45 J. P'an ( a n d
4
not mu ) is the radical in hsi3, hemp. It forms
P'ai4. Textile fibres Not to be confounded with

lin2, that comes from mu1, L. 119 L. It forms
Ma2- Prepared hempen tow, k e pt u n d e r a shelter

(L. 59 I). — It is the 200th radical. Phonetic series
634 It forms
Mei 2 . Bad tow, (L. 170),
had; negation.
San4. Striking of the fibres, to dissociate them;

to separate; It forms
San*. To strike meat and
to reduce it into filaments, in the
Chinese way; The
modern form contracted Is now
used for the last; to scatter, to
separate, to disperse, to break
up, etc. — Phonetic series 701.
Sixth series. In4. From and (L. 60).

4
Lu . Mushroom. A plant that stands as a
man; The is con-
tracted. It forms
Ch'iu 4 . The tadpoles that swarm like mushrooms.

Hence the p h o n e t i c c o m p o u n d
Tsao4 A stove for cooking; — In these

intricate characters, is often contracted into ,
to give room. See L. 108 C.
Mu4. A benevolent look; is phonetic. Friend-

liness. Now , lu4 (below) being the phonetic.
It forms
Yu4. To chaffer; to haggle about
the price in friendly
terms. is
contracted into ,
so th at the modern form of this character is identical
to mai4, to sell, L. 78 E. — Phonetic series 817.
Lu4. Earth, soil, a mound;

I4 To cultivate the ground;

See
L. 11 E. — Phonetic series 619.
The following is considered as a derivative from

contracted:
Ling 2 To stumble, to knock against an

obslacle; a tum ulus, a hillock. — Phoneiic series 378.
For these two forms, see L. 165 B
LESSON 80.
1
About the primitive shan .
Shan1. Mountain. On the top, three rocks;
— It is the 46th radical of charac-
ters relating to hills. Phoneiic series 25. — This
character is to be distinguished from certain modern
contractions, e.g. L. 164 B, L. 165 B, etc. See
L. 25 I, hsien1, the genii, the men who dwell
on the mountains. Sometimes a symmetrical pho-
netic is introduced in the radical , e .g. L 90 D,
L. 69 J.
Note the development of the image in the following

Yao4. The highest peaks of mountains (4, then 5),
where the Emperors worshipped when visiting their
empire (Textes Historiques, p. 32). The ancient
character represents the rows superposed; the modern
character is a fanciful deformation made by the
scribes;
It is used also chia-chieh, as a
term of respect.
LESSON 81.
About the primitive t'u3, and its multiples. A special series is reserved for
ting3.
First series: t'u3.

T'u3. E arth, soil, ground. The earth t h a t produces
a l l things. The top line re presents the surface, the
soil; the down line represents the subsoil, the rock;
It is the 32th. radical of characters r e l a t i ng to earth.

Phonetic series 32.
— See L. 38 C; L27 D; L. 79 E, F; etc.
Note the f o l l o w i n g
K u a i 4 . To clear l a n d , changing
t hus his
appearance; new, strange;
Forms kuai*, moral
singularity; singularity in general;
N i e h 1 . Clay exposed to the sun. Hence

clay watered, t h e n h a r d en i n g when exposed to t h e
sun. To mould earthenware, bricks, etc. — Pho-
neti c series 296.
Nieh1. ( m i s t a k e n for the prec ed ent)

H ui 3 . The primitive mortar to pound rice, a hole
dug in the hard soil, or perhaps a hollow brick.
Hence
Hui 3 . To pound (L. 22 D) in the mortar, to
grind to dust. Cbuan-chu, to destroy utterly. —
is a vicious form. — Phonetic series 735.
Note: t'u3 is to be distinguished from (L. 60) or

(L. 61) on the top
of etc; and from or (L. 79) on the top of etc.
In composition, t'u3 is ord ina ri ly at the bottom, or on th e left side of the
compound.
Second series: Multiples of
K u i 1 . Lands; Appanages of the

ancient feuda tories. By extension, the different
sceptres given to nobles by the Emperor, when they
were invested with their fief. — Phonetic series 224.
For that is not derived from , see. L. 79 E.
Yao2 Earth heaped u p ;

It forms
Yao2. Knoll, mound. From earth heaped up on a

high base;
Name of the celebrated Emperor Yao2 (22 Centuries
B. C.). — Phonetic series 719.
Third series: t'ing2, composed of and
T'ing2. A man standing on the ground;

Compare L. 60 H.
To be distinguished from jen2 (L. 82 C). It forms
Yin2. Idea of encroachment, of usurpation, of outrage,

of violence;
Lit, while standing on one's
rights, to encroach on another's rights. The compound
yin2, that is DOW
used to mean lewdness in general, is in that meaning chia-chieh for rape.
2
T'ing . To go to the court, to stand at one's
place, for an imperial audience:
The Emperor sat on his throne before the inner door, the
ministers were standing in two lines, on the left and the right side, in the court-
yard. Each of them held in his hands the sceptre, sign of his dignity. See LL. 55
A, B; 85 F; 81 G. — Phonetic series 305.
Ch'en2. A minister who, when standing at his

place, bows down profoundly. See ( L . 82 F).
Forms, by adding moon (L. 6* G), the quaint
compound
Wang4. A solemn imperial audience The ministers
reflecting the splendour of the Emperor, as the moon
reflects the light of the sun;
Forms
by substituting to :
Wang4. This character has two different meanings. —
1. The f u l l of the moon, after which the moon
decreases. — 2. To look at, or forward, or towards, to
desire; in this sense, it is cbia-chieh for the last.
Ch'eng2. To speak . w h i l e standing at one's

place; to notify, to lay before a superior. — Phonetic
Sheng4. Those who listened to and understood

the advices giv en, a n d therefore became wise;
wise, perfect;
Tieh4. Notification made with menaces (L. 71

F). It became by the redundant addition of
contracted into
Tieh4. Hence the phonetic complex t'ieh, iron,
Other derivatives of explained elsewhere: L. 12

H; L. i) 0; L. 120 K.
LESSON 82.
About the primitive kung1, and its important derivatives, jen2, chu4,
2 4
ch'en , ya . Two other primitives, i2, and t'ou3, will be incidentally
explained.
First series: and its multiples.

Kung 1 . It represents the ancient square. By exten-
sion, work, skill, labour, any ornament requiring
skill. For, says the Glose, the square gives the shape
to all things; it forms the right angle that forms the
squares, that form the circles, etc. In an ancient form,
represents the parallel lines traced with the
square;
— It is the 48th radical.
Phonetic series 24.
Different compounds of were explained elsewhere. See L 27 E; L. 49 G;

L. 46 B; L. 71 G; L 11 F. But is not derived from it. Note the
following:
K u n g 1 . A work that requires (L. 53 A)
strength, and therefore meritorious; work done,
achievements, merit ;
Hsia ng 4 The nape, The part behind

the head, on which the loads are carried (L. 160),
Kung4. Cowries paid for a work done; salary,

contributions, taxes; (L. 161).
K'ung 1 . Artificial excavation (L. 37);acavern,

a bale, an opening, empty: — Phonetic
Scries 372.
Cha n 3 Symmetrical and intricate ordering or

drawing, for which the square was much used;
It forms
Chan3 Gowns (L. 16) embroidered with orna-
ments, worn by the ladies at the court. Contracted in
3
Chan . The skirt of t h a t gown, the train which
unrolls itself from the lower part of the body;
By extension, to open out, to unroll, to
expand, to exhibit Now The modern contraction
was made by the scribes. — Phonetic series 508.
Sai1. To fill or s tu f f a hole, to stop u p , to obstruct.

Two hands pile up bricks or other materials, in
an
opening:
Now — Phonetic series 350.
Second series: jen2.

Jen2. Not to be confounded witd t'ing2, L. 81 D.
A man (as in I . 50 C) who carries a load;
the Chinese carrying bamboo pole with a load hanging
at each end. The figure is couched, to take less place;
see page 18-8 A loan, a burden; to bear, to e nd ure,
etc. This character was used to mean the n int h of the
ten stems in the cycle, and the compound was
made to replace it
— Phonetic-series 66.
4
Jen . A b u r d e n , a charge, to bear, etc. It is used
for . The tone was changed: —
Third series. chu.

Chu4. A greater square ( L 82 A ) , for longer
measures, either agrari an or others. It had a handle
or a tie, to be handled. Now . By extension, big. —
Ch'u2. A d r a i n . a canal, a place for water to run

into; It comes from , a kind of
wooden
square or level, used to make the aqueducts. There
are different chia-chieh.
Fourth series: ch'en2.
Ch'en2. Minister, attendant on a prince. The

character, straightened in modern wr iting (see page
18-8), represents the minister prostrate before his
master; — It is the
131th radical It forms
Huan4. Minister at the palace; an official,

1
an eunuch. Compare kuan , L. 86 C.
Tsang1. Compliance, the virtue of the ministers.

Phonetic (LL. 127 B, 71 F). There are different
chia-chieh — Phonetic series 792.
Chien1. To have hold of one's men ; firm,

solid; Now . — Phonetic series
332.
Wo4. To resalute kindly the saluting minister;
It forms
Lin9. To treat k i n d l y the different classes of

officials (L. 75). By extension, to be condescending,
amicable;
Chien1. To bend over a f u l l vase (L. 157), to

see its contents. To examine carefully, to watch over;
places u n d e r watch, as an office, a bureau, a prison,
etc. — Note how, in the modern
character, the contracted received between its two
strokes, the of dislocated. In the compounds,
when a radical is added at the bottom, placed on
the top, on the right side, becomes ; see the fol-
lowing lan3. — Phonetic series 772. Compare L. 41 D.
Lan3. To examine carefully, to
consider;
— Phonetic series
852.
The derivatives of are to be distinguished from those of the primitive
I2. This character, a straightened figure (page 18-8),
rudely represents the. face and projecting chin;
Compare L. 41 B. — Phonetic series 279. See
L. 85 A.
Fifth series: ya4.

Ya4. A work deformed; ugly, as a hunchback.
The vertical line is doubled, to show a deformation
in different directions. The meaning second, derived
from , is chia-chieh. — Phonetic
O4 Wu4. The moral evil, defor-
mation of the heart (o4),
and the repulsion which it causes
(wu 4 ); to detest, to hate.
Note: in the modern writing, several characters contain a that has no
relation whatever with the ya4 of this Lesson; e.g. L 38 G, L. 75 A. Item,
the next primitive has nothing in common with
T'ou3 A wine vessel, prob ably wooden made;

Is f o u n d in
Cho2 To cut, to scoop out: The

scribes wr ite . which is a wrong form.
Tou4. To quar rel (L. 11 I ).
LESSON 83.
About the primitive yu4, jade; and incidently, about the analogous characters
2 3
wang and chu .
First series: yu4, often written
Yu4. The half-translucid minerals, milky or coloured,
as jade and others, of which the Chinese are so fond;
They ascribe to it different effects, and
make with it articles worn at the girdle. The character
represents three pieces of
jade threaded;
The addition of a dot is modern, and made in order
to distinguish yu4 from wang2. — It is the 95th radical of characters relating to
gems It is found in many compounds, e.g. lung4, neng1, to handle an
object made with jade , L. 4 7 F.
doubled, forms thy next two:
1
Pan . Veined (L. 61 F), like certain nice
stones.
1
Pan . Division of charges, of offices. The middle is
(L. 52) in the sense of (L. 1 8 ) to divide.
The two are two jade sceptres, signs of dignities.
L. 55 H.
2
Ch'in . Harpsichord of soniferous stones, hanging
from a string. See Textes Historiques, p. 82 (one
stone). The ancient character represents two stones,
and the suspension string (a prim itive ). Compare L. 17 F —
The following cha-
2
racters are said to he derived from ch'in (radical contracted; the phonetic is at
4 4 2 1
the bottom): ch'in , she , p'i , pa , etc., different kinds of citharas
or harpsichords.
Second series: wang2.

2
Wang . A king; the man who connects
heaven, earth and man. See L 3 B, where this
c h a ra c t e r was fully explained. - Phonetic scries 87.
It forms
2
Huang . Originally, it meant the three most
renowned rulers of antiquity, Fu-hsi,
Shen-nung, Huang-ti; those who were
kings, in the beginning (a contraction of L.
159)
It was used to designate the modern
Emperors, from the year 221 B.C See Textes Histori-
qttef, p. 209. The gives this definition: «light
of the Empire».
Compare with the definition of , below D.
4 4
Yun . Lun . Intercalary moon, supplementary.
Two explanations of this character are given. — 1.
Formerly, in the plenary andience at the Court, when
the moon was intercalary, the Emperor sat at the door
, not iu his ordinary
place; — 2. Once , every three years, a
moon must be intercalated; is phonetic;
In that case, is not derived from , but directly
from L. 3, ar-
Etymological Lessons. 83 84. 91?
Third series: chu3.

Chu3. A lamp-stand w i t h the flame rising. By
extension, a man who spreads light, a lord, a master.
See L. 4 B, where this character was f u l l y explained.
Note. Do n o t confound w i t h the derivatives of a n d of , those of L. 79
D; , , etc This is more easily said t h a n done.
LESSON 84.
About the primitive chi3, to be distinguished from i2, a n d from ssu4,

L. 85.
Chi3. The a n c i e n t character represented the threads
of the weft, on the weaving-loom. On the top, two
threads transversal, one thread longitudinal; at the
bottom, the thread in the shuttle. The character was
simplified later on.
When
was chosen, on ac-
count of its simplicity, to become a cyclical character (the sixth of the ten stems),
it was replaced by . It means also, chia-chieh, a person, one's self, 1, myself;
— It is the 49th radical. Phonetic series 14 Note the compounds:
Chi4 Used for the last; to sort threads. By
extension, arrangement, disposition,
set, succession.
Chi4. To tell the succession of facts, either by
speaking, or by writing.
Ch'i3. To rise; te put one's self in motion
Fei1. Women secured for one's own seif;

The secondary wives or
concubines of an emperor. Its original meaning, to
match, to suit, was given to the next.
P'ei4 The wine drunk at the wedding-feast
(contracted). See L. 47 V. To pair, to mate, marriage.
Chi4. The series of events or times that are kept
in memory ; death of great men, of parents;
, anniversary day of the death. By extension,
because on such days, music, spirits, meat, etc. were
avoided, the character meant, to shun, to abstain
from. — Phonetic series 256.
Note. The derivatives of chi3 are often scarcely distinguishable from those
of ssu4 a n d i 3 (L. 85), when these are wrongly shaped; as well as from
those of (for L 55), as in . K'ang-hsi wrongly classified this character
under chi3. On their side, the scribes commonly maltreated those series, as may he
seen by the characters given above.
LESSON 85.
About two primitives, ssu1 and i3, to be distinguished from chi3, L. 84.
K'ang-hsi gathered under the 49th radical , all those heterogeneous elements.
First series: ssu4.

Ssu4. The figure of an embryo, a foetus See pao1,
L. 54 B. — In the maternal womb, the child is or
; at birth, or L. 94 E, F; when swaddled,
L. 94 A; when it begins to walk, 29 B. — Ssu4
is used as a cyclical character. — Phonetic series 28.
Note the derivatives
Ssu4. Sacrifice
See L. 3 D
P. The ch i n; (L. 82 G), It forms
Hsi1. Bright, splendid, glorious.
Second series: i3.

I3. This very ancient character is supposed to
represent the exhalation of the breath, the virtue that
emanates from any object, its action, its use. By
extension, use till exhaustion, to terminate, to decline,
to have done with, to be no more, passed;
Compare L. 73 A, and L. 76 G.
Note: is uniform in the ancient writing. IN the

modern writing, it is written by the scribes In four
different ways, and that we shall
explain successively
C 1. written , e.g.
I2. To extract from a thing all t h a t can be

extracted from it, then, to stop, to finish.
Kai3. To treat a person or a Ihing ( w i t h hand

and rod), so that amendment is produced; to
change, to alter, to reform, to correct.
D 2. written , e.g.
Ssu4. Plough-beam a n d h a n d l e ; the wood that
fertilizes the fields. It is unconnected with L.
86 B.
E 3. written in the following series. (Note that is

used as an abbre-
viation for three other primitives, L.L. 38 E, 38 H, 89 A; hence an easy confusion).
I2. The mouth exhaling a breath. By extension,

to speak in or der to make one's s elf k n o w n ; I, one's
self; It is used as an arbitrary
abbre viation of
t'ai2 (L. 75 B). — Phonetic series 127.
Yun3. To manifest one's consent, one's approbation.

A man who says yes. See L. 29 E. — Phonetic
series 99. Forms the phonetic complex
Tsun1. To walk dignity — Phonetic series with
311.
Mou3. To low, to bellow. An ox that exhales its

breath;
See L. 132. — Phonetic series 231.
I3. A final particle denoting that one has finished

to speak; The dart (L. 131)
means that the action is ended, fixed, as when the
arrow has hit the mark. Compare L. 71 E. — Phonetic
series 880.
Neng2. Here represents the roaring of the angry
bear, that st ands up ready for a fight ( the fleshy
body, two claws). See L 27 J.— Phonetic series 554.
F 4. writteu. By, with, to use, by means of;

K'ang-hsi counts
five strokes for this character, that really has four only. — Phonetic series 65.
It forms
Ssu4. A man who has the same virtue as

another. By extension, equivalent,
like, similar, to resemble in general
LESSON 86.
About two primitives, t h a t really form o n l y one, because they differ o n l y by plus
or m i n u s strokes of the same k i n d ; fu4, and tui1.
First series: fu4, now
Fu4. Compare L. 59 A. Declivity with successive

rows superposed. The steps are placed u n d e r , so
that the compounds may not be too large. In the first
ancient form, the three small rounds represents forest
on the top. The scribes invented the modern a rbit rary
abbreviations By extension, big earthworks, embank-
ments, dams. — It Is the 170th radical and dis-
tinguished from the I63th radical (also contracted
into ), by the fact that is on t he left side in
the Series 170, while it is on the right side in the
Series 163 Note the two d eri vatives, yin1, the
2
shady side of a hill ( Nor th); and yang , the sunny
side of a h i l l (South). It is now used to mean the
dual powers, day and night, life and death, male and
frmale, etc.
Second series: tui1.
Tui 1 . A lighter declivity; two steps only. By exten-
sion, ramparts, city, troops that keep it, a legion. The
lost its in some modern compounds; it is then
to be distinguished from i3 (L. 85 D). — Phonetic
series 245. Note the derivatives
Shuai4 To lead a legion; a general;

The (L. 35 A) is the guidon of the
commander. Compare the following
Shih1. It is — the first banner, that staid at

the capilal; the guards, whose commander was com-
rnander-in-chief, the one above the others. Hence, by
extension, capital, army, multitude, master, etc. —
The old forms are made of a primitive that means
waving, and tsa1 (L. 79 C) that means rol ling. A
waving and r ollin g mass; the people or the army. —
Chui1 Legion in march ; to pursue.

— Phonetic series 526
Nieh 4 . A plant that grows on a declivity.

Compare L. 59 F Notion of visibility, of notoriety.
It forms
Nieh4. Evil deed, sin; scandal; (L. 102 H),

This character not being easy to write, the scribes
replaced it by the derivative contracted ( properly
hsieh1, hsueh1). in the phonetic compound , son
of sin, child born in adultery. The
admitted the change.
Kui 1 The arrival of the bride in her husband's

family, to which she will belong as a wife
(contracted). See L. 44 K. The is a modern
phonetic redundancy.
Kuan1. Primitive meaning, the residence of a
mandarin who presides over a city, the hall of the
city, ( is the modern abbreviation) By
extension, the mandarin, the government. — Phonetic
series 370.
LESSON 87.
About the primitive kung1, and incidentally about the primitives fu4 and
4
ti . that resemble it in the modern writing.
First series: kung1.

Kung 1 . It represents a Chinese bow, with its handle
in the middle; The ancient
forms represent t h e bow be nt or vibrating. — It is
the 57th radical. We ha ve seen it already, in
L. 28 H, L. 60 D, etc. For , see L 90 L, L.
110 B. Note the following
Yin 3 . To d r aw thestrin g of the bow;
Chuan-chu, to attract, to
lead, to induce, to seduce. — Phonetic series 93.
Ch'iang2. Muscular strength. To have the strength

to bend a kind of bow, the resistance of which is
equal to the resistance of two ordinary bows. In the
military competitions, such exercises took place.
Note 1. The bows were kept by pairs, fixed upon a s t i f f piece of wood, in a
sheath. Hence it comes that, sometimes, in composition, two mean a pair, or
that which makes the pair, a second ; as in
Pi4. Auxiliary, minister. See L. 41 B.
Note 2. In the following, the scribes f a n c if u l l y wrote for

another thing.
Jao4. Feeble, fragile, slender. Wings of a young
bird. See L. 62 D.
Li1. A caldron (L. 155) steaming (the two side-
lines undulating represent the steam).
Chou1. Rice water or gruel; grain that boils in a
caldron. This last character is now contracted into
•
Etymological Lessons. 87.88. 223
C The bow is kept horizontally, in the following, as it is natural, to shoot
a bird that flies above th« bowman.
Tsun4. To shoot a bird on the wing;

is a wrong form of tsun4.
is a wrong abbreviation of hsi1, L. 15 C.
Second series. fu4. Primitive.

Fu4. To act against an obstacle. Two divergent rods
which one seeks to tie together;
Opposition, prohibition, negation. —
Phonetic series 121
Third series. ti4. Primitive.

Ti4. A thread that is wound on a spool, having
a catch on the top, and a winch at the bottom.
Primitive instrument, reel and bobbin. Compare
L. 102 B. — Chuan-chu, succession of brothers, elder,
younger; succession; younger brothers;
Note. tzu3 that Is like ti4, has nothing in common with it, nor with
See L. 79 G.
LESSON 88.
About the partial primitive , and incidentally about ,
First series. pai2.

Pai2. The sun (L. 143) that just appears. This
meaning is represented by a small point (primitive)
on the top of the sun. The dawn, when the Eastern
sky becomes white . Clear, white, bright, etc.
We saw already in the compounds L. 29 C;

L. 18 L; L. 60 F, etc. Note the following:
Pai2. From cloth, and while. See mien2,

L 92 B. — Phonetic series 386.
Pai3. One hundred; ,

One hundred is the — unity of hundreds;
is phonetic. Other commentators, judging from an
ancie nt writing, consider as a contracted (L.
159); hut m ea ning the beginning, the interpretation
is the same. It is to be noted that all the great unities
of the Chinese numeration, hundred, thousand,
myriad, are designated by borrowed characters. See
24 D, 17 X. — Phonetic series 233. It is repeated in
shih4, abundance, wealth A man with
one
hundred u n d e r each a r m ;
Second series, yao4, lao4, a special p a rti a l p r i m i t i v e .

Yao4 It represents a wooden support on which
a drum and bells are hung. Therefore is
not pai2, a n d is not yao1
(L. 90). — The orches-
trion of old Yao4, music in general. When read lao4, it means the effect produced
by music, pleasure, joy. Phonetic series 815
LESSON 89.
About the primitive ssu1. See the Note, below B. Compare LL. 90, 91, 92.
Ssu1. A cocoon. It represents a silkworm that coils
Itself up, and shuts itself in its cocoon. By extension,
selfish, to care o n l y for one's self, separation, private,
particular; —
It is the conventional 28th radical. The following
compound replaced in the modern writing
Ssu1. Etymological meaning, my share of
grains. By extension, private, personal, partial, selfish;
— Note also
4
Ch'uan . To calculate (L. 47 G) one's own
advantage (at the others' expense). To embezzle, to
assume, to usurp.
B Note. The scribes used as an abbreviation for three
other primitives
(LL. 38 E, 38 H, and 85 E), which makes four in a ll; hence an easy confusion
between them. Further, the scribes still use arbitra rily for other intricate
characters, in which case is an abbreviation, and not a primitive. Note the
following
Lei3. To build a wall. L. 149 E.
Shen1. Orion. L. 62 G.
Gh'i2. A regular assemblage. L. 174.
LESSON 90.
About doubled , and its multiples; incidentally about
First series. yao1.

Yao1. The lightest thread, as it is obtained by the
simultaneous winding of two cocoons. By extension,
thread, slender, tender, — It is the 52th
radical. Note the compounds
Ma1, mo1. Vegetable fibre (L. 79 H). It is

now used, by convention, as an interrogative particle.
Yu4. Young, slender, who has very slender

tendons. Not to be confounded with huan4, false,
L. 95 B. — Phonetic series 171.
Hou4. To march (63 A), while stretching a

thread behind. The is a radical redundancy added
later on. By extension, to follow, behind, posterior,
after.
Luan4. An embroiled thread, that is disentangled

by two hands (L. 34 A) means separation;
Confusion, disorder. Note the
alteration of the modern character. It forms
Luan4. A synonym of the last; representing the
thread that is drawn , is a radical redundancy.
Ts'u2. To clear one's self from a sin (L. 102 H);
to excuse one's self;
Yin4. A line of posterity, heirs, generation Trans-
mission of the ( L. 65) ancestors' substance, that
is divided into branches. The continuous succes-
sion, in a family, of one generation after another;
Second series. doubled.

Yu1. It is the m e a n i n g of reinforced. Very
slender, almost invisible;
It forms
Yu 1 . The most shady recesses in the hills
(L. 80);
Chi1. A guard of soldiers on the frontiers (shu4,

L 25 D), who are attentive to the least movement,
to the smallest event. Hence the derived meanings,
to examine into, subtle, hidden, small, a few;
are derived from contracted. See L. 92 F, G.
Third series. quadrupled. In

Chueh2. To cut short a thread, to interrupt, to
sunder, to break off, to cease. Four threads cut
short, divided by the two ;
This ancient character was
replaced, when the writing-brush was invented, by
chueh2, that is synonym; to cut a thread
in pieces. See L. 55 G. It forms
Tuan4. To cut, to break off, to interrupt;

From an axe, and to cut, The ancient
character could not be traced with the writing-
brush; it was therefore written chi4 in the modern
writing, hence instead of which is graphically
wrong. Note the modern junction of the two
Chi 4 . It means the contrary of chueh2, because it

is chueh2 inverted. Later on, the was added, which
was quite useless. To connect as wi th threads; a l i n e
of succession;
Appendix. lu3, almost similar to in its ancient form.

3
Lu . The spinal vertebrae. A primitive character
that represents the body of two vertebrae, and the
disk that joins them; or rather, two spinal apophysises,
with the ligament between them.
By extension, tones in music, on account of their
succession. — Phonetic series 291. It forms
Kung1. To bend, to bow one's body , so that

the spinal apophysises stand out along the rachis.
Later on, replaced , the meaning remaining
the same; to bend one's body . By extension,
body, person. — It forms ch'iung2, to be at bay,
exhausted, driven into a corner ( cavern); misery;
limits, end.
Note. The in the following characters are probably primitives unconnected

with
Yung1. An old form of . Moats of a city

(two walls or buildings). L. 12 G.
Ying1. Encampment, a primitive settlement. In the

more ancient form, there are two (several) tents or
huts, In the modern form, there are huts with a fence,
and two fires, for the kitchen, or to frighten away
the wild beasts. By extension, to measure, to scheme,
to regulate. Compare 34 B, 126 F.
Kung1. A big building. Several rooms under the

same roof. This character is used to designate the
Imperial private residence, from the Ch'in2 Dynasty.
Now, in and , it is written and not
LESSON 91.
About two compounds of (L. 90), and' , that form important series.
2
First series. hsuan .
Hsuan2. To put (L. 15) the thread in the
dye; dyed thread; green colour (later on, the black
one, on account of certain Taoist theories). Under the
Ch'ing Dynasty, the of was suppressed,
because this was the personal name of the Emperor
K'ang-hsi. An ancient form was composed of
thread (L. 92), and of two points that mean the
dyeing; — It is the 96th radical.
Phonetic
serins 124. — In composition, means, either green,
or a siring (probably because the thread was dyed
by big hanks). Note the derivatives
Hsien2. The, string of a bow . Stringed instru-

ments in general. is altered, as stated above.
Ch'u4. Hsu4. The fields (L. 149) green,

covered with grass; meadows, pastur e-land s where the
cattle graze. Hence two meanings, a n d two sounds:
ch'u4 cattle; hsu4 to feed.
— Phonetic
series 525.
Ch'ien 1 . To h a ul along an ox by a rope ;

represents the traction or the resistance;
Shuai 4 . It represents a net with a frame, such as

birds are snared with, and a rope by meaas of
which the trap is made to fall. By extension, to draw,
to lead, to follow; together (the birds taken); suddenly
(the falling of the net). — Phonetic series 646.
Second series. ch'uan1.
Ch'uan1. Some commentators say that this character

is a contraction of and ; it seems unlikely, "lt
is an ox led by a ring passed through the nose», says
the Glose; why then is this ring marked at the
tail? More seemingly, the transversal piece fixed behind
the horns represents the yoke or the collar of the ox,
and the one trace passing under the animal is the
primitive harness; extremity curved to diminish the
length. By extension, to attach, to draw, traction,
resistance, to master. — It forms
Chuan1. A writing tablet that was worn attached

to the wrist; — Phonetic
series 605, that must be distinguished from the series
fu1 528.
Hui4. It has two meanings: to let one's self be

willingly attracted; kind, compliant: what wins
the hearts; benevolence. — Phonetic series 689.
Yuan2. A long robe with a trail, that hinders

and slakens the walk; length, hesitation. Here
lost its middle-part a n d is gone through by the cover
of . — Phonetic series 587. It forms
Huan2. Eyes (L. 158)
anxious, and gait hesitating;
fear, trouble, strait. The modern
form is contracted. — Phonetic
series 734. See L. 16 L.
T'i4. Traction interrupted by a resistance;

Compare L. 91
C. The modern character is a contraction. K'ang-hsi
wrongly classified it under . — It forms
T'i4. Sneezing. A victory won against the obstruction
of the nose (or of the mouth, a different
writing);
LESSON 92.
About the partial primitive , and its derivatives. See again the whole series,
after ssu1, LL. 89, 90, 91, 92. The textile matters, chiefly the silk, interested
the Chinese from the remotest a n t i q u i ty ; hence the importance given to these
elements in their writing.
First series. mi4.
Mi4. A strong t h r e a d ; The bottom of
this character (a p ri mit i v e) represents the twisting of
several small threads i nt o a big one (L. 90 A). — It is
the 120th radical of characters relating to textile
matters or tissues.
We saw t h a t e l e m e n t in L. 40 A ; L. 55 G;
L. 17 E; L. 13 H; L. 79 G; L. 67 P; L.
39 0; L. 35 M; etc.
Hsi 1 . Drawing out of the thread. Primitively, a
hand drawing out threads . Later on, the action
of drawing out a t hread. By extension, thread, line,
succession, rel atio n, to tie again, to fasten;
The
compound is used instead now. N o t e the derived
f o l l o w i n g radicals
Mien2. Fibres raw (L. 88 A), raw floss. It is
contracted phouetic in mien2, cotton; and in
2
mien , the cotton plant. These are modern characters.
See phonetic series 386.
Sun1. A grandson, posterity. The connecting line
of the offspring;
— Phonetic series 569. It is phonetic
contracted in kun3, big fish.
Yu2. Succession, seq uel, causality, relation;
Winding of the effects
from a cause; moral threads.
Hsien4. Hsuan2. The chief-town of a district, hsien4,
where the executions take place, and where are hung,
upside down, the (L. 12 N) heads of the men
beheaded because they committed crimes. By
extension, hsuan2, to bi nd, to suspend, to be suspen-
ded. Now, the compound , to be in suspense
morally, is also used for the simple ia the sense, to
hang, to be suspended,
Hsi1. Primitively, the guilty women condemned to

spinning and weaving in the official prisons,
It is explained thus: persons (L. 60), working
(L. 49) the thread (contracted). It seems rather that
is a corruption of the
bottom of , and that the primitive composition was , a spinster. This
punishment having ceased, this character's meaning was altered, and it became
an interrogative particle, what? how? why? — Phonetic series 533.
Second series. ssu1.

Ssu1. The silk-threads, that the silk-worms are
supposed to spit out;
By extension, according to the compound, thread,
link, intricacy, etc. Note the following derivatives
often contracted:
P'ei4. The two reins of a bridle passed in the
mouth of the animal that draws a car;
Luan4. Primitively, a hand busy in disentangling

three threads, the common main stem of which
is contracted into Intri-
cacy. This action of disentangling any intricate
matter, when d one in common, leads to impatience
and quarrelli ng, hence the character became later on
, increased with ; general meaning, disorder,
quarrelling, trouble, discord;
Hsien3. Two silk threads exposed to the sunlight
, where they become visible;
By extension, to be visible, to appear, remar-
kable, evident, bright. Note the modern contraction
at the bottom of the character. — Phonetic series
778. It forms
Hsien3. A tuft that makes the head
conspicuous. It is
now used for , to appear. The latter is contracted in
Sbih1. A marsh, marshy, wet, humid;
water in which the earth appears; is
for ; the were suppressed, to give room
to
232 Etymological Lessons. 92. 93-
Tzu1. The velvety appearance made by the

herbs and grass on the surface of the earth; the
vegetation; Contrac-
tion of into Compare L. 91 B. This character
became obsolete in t hat sense, and is now used as a
demonstrative particle. — Phonetic series 579.
Kuan1. To weave. The two (contracted into )

represent the threads of the warp. The down strokes
(a primitive) represent the action of the shuttle, that
goes through and through, making the woof. Compare
L. 84 A. By extension, to join, to fix, transversal, etc.
It forms
Kuan1. The cross-bar of a gate, to shut u p ;
Lien2. To connect, to join, to link together.
LESSON 93.
About the primitive
Yun 2 . Clouds. The a n c i e n t form, t hat represents
vapours c url i ng a nd rising, is a primitive. The more
recent f o r m is composed of ( , L. 2 G ) the skies,
a n d of t h e same pr i m i t i v e . — P ho netic series 99.
Now the m e a n i n g clouds is give n to the following,
while means chia-chieh, to speak, to enumerate,
etc.
Yun2. Clouds;
When
the humid and warm vapours have reached the colder
regions, they are condensed there. Not a bad expla-
nation of the production of clouds.
Yin1. Cloudy weather;

Actually , there are clouds. See L.
14 P .
Clouds rolling over the fields; an ancient form of

storm, L. 149 F. Compare the old form of L.
73 A, L. 76 G, L. 85 B, etc.
LESSON 94.
About the important primitive straight, inverted.

3
First scries. tzu straight.
Tzu3. A new-born child, swathed u p ; it is the reason
why the legs are not visible, says the Glose;
In an ancient form, the
child has hair; By extension,
disciple; then, a sage, a teacher, because the ancient
Emperors, in order to honour them, call them
sons. — It is the 39th
radical of characters mostly relating to children.
Phonetic series 33. We saw already in L. 92 B;
L. 30 E; L. 39 H; L. 39 I; L. 79 G; etc.
Add the follo wing:
Tzu4. To bear and nurse; to have children in
one's house ; By extension, the compound
characters (by opposition to the simple figures),
begotten by the process of composition and
(see p. 10). The made by t h e ir authors gave
birth to the says the Glose.
K'ung3. The swallow (L. 9 B) which in China
rears its broods in the fissures a n d holes of the
Chinese mud houses; By exten-
sion, a hole, an orifice, an opening. Compare
L. 94 B.
Fu2. A man who swims . There is , a n d not
or , because the legs of the swimmer are
concealed by the water, as those of the child are
concealed by its long clothes. It is now written ,
which is a nonsensical compound;
Forms yu2, to float, 117 B.
Note its dissociation into and , on the both sides
of .
Li3. A prune, a plum-tree; the tree, the
children are fond of;
Chi4. Infant; The
most (contracted) delicate among the children ,
the youngest, the last. By extension, the last month
of each quarter of the year, that ends the season;
hence the derived meaning, season.
Pao3. A bird which spreads its wings to cover its

nest ; to hatch, to protect It is now written ,
that is to be distinguished from tai1, a modern
invention of the scribes. It forms
Pao3. To protect, to feed, to
keep safe, a man; —
Fu2. A hen-bird covering with her legs her

little ones; to hatch. — Phonetic
Ju3. The swallow (L. 9 B)
sitting on its nest. See L.
94 A. Now, in general, what is
required to rear the offspring of men, or the little
ones of animals: to feed, to suckle, etc.
This is another character, containing the elements of

fu2 and of pao3. The hen-bird covers her nest ,
with her legs, a n d her wings. It forms the
next two:
Pao3. Another way of writing
Pao1. A phonetic compound. Long robes such as

the Emperors give; favour, distinction. The scribes
altered this character in many fanciful ways,
, etc.
Luan2. To bear twins. Formerly, there were two

; then the scribes wrote but one; (L. 92 D)
represents the encumbering, the difficulty in the
bearing and rearing of twins.
Ch'uan1. Many sons. It forms
Ch'uan1. A numerous family filling the house;

By extension,
poverty, misery. See L. 32 G.
Second series. t'u2, which is inverted.

2
T'u . Birth of a child , the head forward, in the
most favourable conditions; hence the extended
meaning , a thing that goes on
fluently;
natural, regular, easy, fluent. The hairy form (compare
, above A), makes a special group (below F). Note
the derivatives
Ch'ung1. To feed, to rear a child, from its birth
till when it stands, and becomes a man.
By
extension, to fu lfil, to satiate, to carry out, perfect,
etc. See L 29 F. — Phonetic series 189.
Yu4. To satisfy, to feed a child (or an animal), so
that it becomes fleshy (L. 65), strong, fat. The
physical breeding. It forms
Che4 Education, both phy-
sical and moral. We know
that the rod is the instrument
used for the latter. Compare
L. 39 H. — Phonetic series 665.
T'u2. A synonym of , with the hair added;

— Phonetic series 312. Note the following
radical compounds:
Liu2. The flowing (natural and easy) of water.
There were primitively two , one on each side; the
scribes left out one of- them ;
Shu1. Birth of a child , the feet (L. 112 C)
coming forwards. See (L. 94 E). By extension,
unnatural, uneasy; anomaly, difference, distance, etc.
Yu4. Rise and growing of plants ( L. 67 P);
Hsi1. Sour, vinegar. Wine in a vase, in which

appear animalculse , the sign that the wine
turns into vinegar.
Ch'i4. To push aside, to cast away, to abandon. An.
ancient form represents two hands repulsing a new-
born. A more recent form represents two hands, armed
with a fork or a shovel, that throw away a new-born.
An allusion to the Chinese infanticide. This character
was used to name
Hou-chi, who was cast away
by his mother Chiang-yuan. See the Shih-Ching, Legge's edition, p. 465.
Third series. altered.
Chieh2. One-armed person;
Here it is the right arm that is taken off. The
symmetrical character in which the left arm was
taken away, existed formerly; it is now obsolete.
Liao3. A child without arms, mutilated;
This character, being very easy to write,
and of no use, had its
primitive meaning changed
into different arbitrary ones. It is now used specially to write the suffix liao3, so
frequent in the spoken language. Note the philological definition of the part it
plays in that case; ; emission of a sound, in order to
knot, to end a sentence.
LESSON 95.
About two primitives and , joined here together on account of their

resemblance in the modern writing.
First series. yu3.
Yu2. To pass from h a n d to hand, to hand down, t.o
give, communication, connexion;
The character represents the pa l m of two hands, one
of them giving, and the other re ceiving. The modern
form is not a credit to t he scribes. Compare
L, 54 H. Chia-chieh, I, we, myself. Phonetic series
96. It forms
Chu1. The shuttle of the weaver; the wood that

passes from one hand to the other. The second
form is to be distinguished from jou3, below C.
Shu1. To give out one's goods to the others
(L. 14 C). By extension, to unroll, to expand, at ease.
Yu1. An elephant that passes backwards

and forwards, that frolics. Derived meanings, indeci-
sion, uncertainty; to frolic; in advance, to prepare.
Hsu4. The East and West halls of the Chinese
houses, in which traditional instruction was given,
and where the transactions took place. These halls
were connected with the principal buildings; hence
the derived meaning, a series, order, preface to a book
in which the subjects are stated in order, etc.
Yeh3. In the primitive fiefs established in wild
regions, yeh3 was the intermediate zone between the
cleared centre, and the forest all around; the
zone where cultivation of the soil began. It was in
that zone, that the communications took place
with the barbarians. Later on, when the clearing of
forests was finished, the character became settle-
ments (L. 149 D), where the exchanges are made.
Actual meaning, the country, rustic, wild. Compare
L. 47 Z.
Huan4. Fraud, deceiving, false. It is inverted.

To give things differing from those expected, or to give
an empty hand, to deceive, to frustrate. The
frustration of the beggar's hopes is graphically
represented by inverted.
The modern abbreviation is absurd. Not to be
confounded with yu4, L. 90 A.
Second series. mao2.

Mao2. A kind of halberd, with a very long staff,
such as were used on chariots, to hook fighting men.
Compare L. 71 F. Chuan-chu, arms, wea-
pons sharp or cutting, a long and slender pole. — It is
the 110th radical. It forms
Ching 1 . The handle of a spear;

By extension, to pity, to spare. It represents
probably the warrior who surrenders, by offering the
handle of his spear.
Yu4. To pierce with a sharp instrument

(L. 15 C). — Phonetic series 720.
Jou2. A slender stem, flexible, elastic, pliant;

Mao4. Trees shooting forth branches, many

shoots, luxuriant, to strive. Forms mao4, moral
effort, to exert one's self, merit, glory.
4
Wu . To display one's skill in wielding arms.
Now , a radical redundancy, to exert ones
strength, one's talents, to strife after. — Phonetic
series 491.
LESSON 96.
About the primitive ts'ai2.

Ts'ai2. This character represents the stem of a
p l a n t forcing its way above t h e ground. (Compare ,
L. 79 A, B, F, etc). represents the stem;
on the lop, represents its branches; at the bottom,
— represents the g r o u n d ;
By extension, strength of e x p a n s i o n ,
natural activity, mental capacity, power, talents,
endowments or gifts; the substance of a thing.-—
Ts'ai2. Materials of which things are made
From wood and talent, the wood being the
first material worked by m en.
Ts'ai2. Property, precious things, wealth; the
cowries acquired by a man.
Ch'ai2. The wolf, au a n i m a l ( or ) very clever

, say the Chinese.
Ts'ai2. Skilfulness in wielding weapons (L.
71 F); to wound with weapons, to injure; ts'ai2 is also
a phonetic. — Phonetic series 241.
Pi4. To shut a door;
Here represents a system of bars to shut the
door. Compare L. 1 H.
4
Tsai . To exert one's activity on the earth;
presence in a place, manifested by one's activity.
By extension, to be in or at, to be present, to live, to
act; — The following is derived
from , the being substituted for
Ts'un2. To continue to be , present by one's
offspring. By extension, to maintain, to preserve, to
continue.
LESSON 97.
About the primitives feng1 and chieh4. Not to be confounded with
(L. 48), nor with (L. 100).
First series. feng1.
Feng1. Some philologists say that this character is
(L. 79 F), that strikes down its tap root;
The study of the compounds makes
this opinion improbable. is a primitive, represen-
ting a leafy bough. By extension, bush, brushwood,
hedge. It forms
Feng4 At the bottom a band, offering a
branch (a symbol for a ny object), while two hands
salute respectfully. Now the top part is strangely
alte red. To offer, to receive. See L. 47 L. — Phonetic
series 354.
Feng1. To walk in the brushwoods. By
extension, to meet oppositio n; to meet;
— Phonetic series 269. Now
Feng1. A s y n o n y m of the. last;

is a radical redundancy. To
meet with one, to come across,
Pang1. A fief, a country; the central city;

represents probably the bushy outskirts. — The scribes
often write this character
Sub-series. doubled. The ancient form has different

writings.
Feng1. Boughs, shoots, vitality,
prosperity,
abundance. It forms
Hui4. A broom. A band that holds a

bundle of
branches. See the explanation, and the derivative
L. 44 J. — Phonetic series 617.
4
Li . A vessel used in sacrificing;
(vessel, L. 165),
The top has nothing In common with (L. 5i B); it
is a cup (L. 38 E), in which is pricked a bunch of
green branches for decoration; symbol of plenty. —
Feng1. Prosperity, plenty. It seems that the ancient

character represents the Chinese threshing-floor, at
the harvest-time, as it still appears in our days. On
the ground — levelled, grains are heaped together,
and all around the corn-sheaves are ranged... In
the modern character, at the bottom, (L. 165)
represents a cup; on the top, represents boughs,
a symbol of plenty. The cup became . Idea of
greatness, of multitude; mou nta ins of grain, say the
philologists; It seems rather that
is a graphical difference of . — Phonetic series
839. It forms
Yea4. Prosperity, abundance. Radical redundancy,
for is a s y n o n y m of . See L. 38 G.
Yen4. The colour, t he appearance, the looking
of prosperity. Gracious, handsome. See L.28 D.
Second series. chieh4

Chieh 4 . The first m n e m o n i c way invented after the
knotted strings; the first writing, or rather the first
engraving. Notches c u t in a bamboo lath. By
extension, deed, document, record, proof;
It forms
4
Ch'i . To c u t a notch w i t h a knife, in a lath that
w i l l be used as a record, a d o c u m e n t , or a proof;
— Phonetic
Ch'i4. The title deeds of a
man;
A covenant, an agreement, a bond,
a contract, — Phonetic series 426.
Hsieh2. To measure before

making a contract; land-
measuring.
Hai4 To injure, to hurt, to damage; to speak,
to write, under a shelter, by stealth, against some-
body ; — Phonetic
series 529.
Etymological Lessons. 97. 98 241
Hsien4. To apply, in one's study, one's heart

and one's ten eyes, to the study of documents.
By extension, to draw up laws, a constitution, rules,
etc.
Lei3. A harrow. A piece of wood with dents,

says the Glose; The modern
form has one dent less. — It is the 127th radical of
characters pertaining to tillage.
Hai4. To be entangled in litigations. Compare

leng1, above A.
Ching1. It has nothing in common, either with

( L . 75 K), or with (L. 73 D). Two brothers
(L. 29 D) holding each one their sharing contract ;
mutual respect of rights; deference, good understan-
ding; The modern form is
contracted.
LESSON 98.
About two primitives, and , that are not connected together.
First series. ch'i4

Ch'i4. Curling vapours rising from the ground and
forming clouds above; Compare
the ancient form of clouds. (L. 93 A). The scribes
often contract this character into , that is now
used (chia-chieh for ) in order to mean, to beg. —
Ch'i4. Vapour ascending from boiling rice.

This character was practically substituted to the last.
It plays an important part in Chinese philosophy. —
3
Second series: tou .
Tou3. A measure of ten ladles or pints; a
peck; The ancient
forms represent a ladle and ten. The modern
forms are mutilated. — The scribes sometimes write
for , e.g. for ; it is a licence. — It forms
the 68th radical. Phonetic series 84. It forms
Liao4. To measure grain with a peck ;
Chuan-chu, grain, substance, to calculate.
K'o1. To measure corn with a peck;
By extension, a class, a rank; gradation, exa mination;
Each degree received a fixed quantity of grain.
Chia3. A h a n a p of the size of a peck, in order to
drink together.
Sheng1. A measure ot ton handfuls, a pint.

The modern forms are arbitrary contractions. Chia-
chieh and mean, to rise in office.
Cf.
above. — Phonetic, series 81.
LESSON 99
About the partial primitive , both straight and inverted.
First series. straight, ch'ien4.

Ch'ien4. To breathe. A man (L. 29) who breathes
. This latter element, a synonym of (L. 98 A),
says the Glose, somewhat differs graphically from it,
therefore is a special partial primitive;
By extension, to get
out of breath, to be exhausted, to owe money, defi-
ciency. — It is the 76th radical. Phonetic series 44.
It forms
Ch'ui1. To blow, to puff, to scold;
Ts'u4. Idea of succession represented by

two successive breathes, inspiration a n d expira-
tion; — Phonetic series 244.
4
Hsieu . The saliva that flows in the mouth,
when something good to eat is smelt. ;
To desire, to covet.
It forms
Hsien4. To covet; an overplus, an excess;

The is supposed to be contracted.
Tao4 A robber, to plunder; Those who
covet the goods of their neighbour;
K'uan3. Primitively, to blow against a malignant

influence , as the pagans still do, in order to
preserve from it either on'es self or others. By
extension, affection, care, etc. The scribes found out
many ways of writing this character. The third of
them is now classic, the last is unauthorised. Not to
be confounded with i2, L. 131 G.
Second series. inverted, chi4.
Chi4. To breathe into, to swallow. It is the reverse

of , composed also of and of , but inverted;
The second ancient form is a mere
abbreviation, not to be confounded with tsan1 (L. 26
D). — It is the 71th radical. See chi4 (L. 26 M) It
forms
Ai 4 . To swallow down in one's heart, to love,

to be fond of, kindness, favour. Now this character,
joined with , made , that has chia-chieh the same
meaning as the radical had before. Primitively it
meant, gracious gait; — Phonetic series 721.
LESSON 10O.
About the primitive mao2, both straight and inverted. Not to be. confounded
with (L 48)
First series. straight.

Mao2. Hair, fur, plumage; By
extension, feathers. It is the 82th radical of characters
relating to hair and feathers. Phonetic series 70. It
forms
Lao3. Old, to grow old, seventy years old. A man
whose hair transforms it.self, changes to
while. See L. 30 E. Note the contraction of the modern
character. — It is the 125th radical of a few characters
mostly relating to age.
Piao3. The o u t e r surface of garments. The first
garments were skins worn with the hair outside.
See L. 16 K. The modern form is contracted- — Phonetic
series 389.
Ts'ui 4 . from thrice repeated, to denote its
fineness. H a i r t h i c k a n d soft, line f u r s ;
— P h o n e t i c series 712.
Second series. inverted , in

I3. Wei3. The t ail of animals. From body and
t he h a i r at the lower part. In the modern recent
form, the, scribes wrote instead of . See L. 32 D.
It is often compressed , or contracted, reduced to
or to , in the compounds. It forms
Sui1. Niao4. Urine. From tail and water. See L.

32 E. The modern form is contracted.
Ch'u1. Oppression, vexation, curved. Composed of
and , L. 78 E. The modern form is contracted.
— P honetic series 348.
Hsi1. The Thibetan yak. os with a long hairy
tail. The tail of t h e y a k was nsed in old China to
make military standards. — Phonetic series 679.
Tai4. To hold by the tail (contracted into
, and altered in the modern form). See L. 44 E. —
It is the 171th radical. It forms (contracted into )
Tai4. To wink, to catch with the eyes, says
the Glose. This explanation seems im probable. The
character is composed of eye and of eyelashes.
The covering of the eye-ball by the eyelashes, could
not be represented in the elementary design. It forms
Huai2. To hide in one.'s

clothes, to carry in one's bosom.
L. 16 J. — Phonetic series 820.
Ch'iu2. It is explained like tai4, to hold by

the tail (contracted); to ask, to implore. See L. 45
K. It was a ltered in the modern writing, and wrongly
classified by K'ang-hsi under {L 125). — Phonetic
series 263. Compare lu4, L. 68 F.
LESSON 101.
About two primitives and
First series. wu4.
Wu4. Three pennons attached to a stick; a flag;
By extension, 1. Jerky motions, as that of
pennons agitated by the wind (L. 52 F); 1. A decree,
a prohibitio n, a defence, an order made to soldiers
with a flag; 3. Objects laciniated or foliated; sudden
rays. K'ang-hsi wrongly classified this primitive under
. — Phonetic series 90. It forms
Hu3. Jerking of the heart , emotion, surprise;
Wen3, To cut the throat; a knife, and the

blood that gushes out from the severed arteries of
the neck.
Wen3. The lips: strips (of flesh) that close the
mouth
H'u1. A small book made from strips of bamboo.
Wu4. A thing, a being, an article. An ox ; is a
mere phonetic. The oxen were the most valued things
in ancient times.
Yang2. The sun above the horizon, shooting
its rays; light, solar action, etc. — Phonetic series
492. Note the following phonetic complexes that
form series.
T'ang1. Water, infusion, hot decoction;

Shang1. To wound with an arrow;

(L. 131), In the compounds, is
reduced
to placed on the top of ; the radical is placed
on the, left side, instead of , e g etc. —
Second series. i4.

I4. It represents a lizard, probably the chameleon.
A primitive. On the top, the head; at the bottom, the
light feet of the reptile; By extension, alert,
easy, to change, to transform. — P honetic series 365.
LESSON 1O2.
About the primitive kan1, a n d I he i m p o r t a nt series derived from it. An

appendix will treat about the p r i m i t i v e tsao2.
First series. kan1,
Kan 1 . It represents a pestle. Compare L. 130. By
extension, to grind, to destroy; morally, to oppose,
to offend against; blunt arms, offence, injury, etc. —
It is th e 51th radical of a few unassorted characters.
Ch'a2. The pestle in the mortar (L. 139).

To pound, to pierce, to drive into or stick in. —
Han4. The torrid and destroying effect of the

sun ; drought, dryness.
1
Keng . To bark the rice by pounding it in a mortar.
This was the main daily domestic work among the
ancients. Compare L. 47 N.
K'ang1. To decorticate rice. Chuan-chu: 1.
The chaff detached from the pounded grain, now :
2. The repose that follows this hard work. — Phonetic
series 6S3. It has nothing in common with L.
44 E.
Jung1. Ordinary, common, as
the decortication of rice,
for every-day use. — Phonetic
series 621.
T'ang2. The words that
accompany the pounding of
rice; idle gossip, noisy wrangle. —
She2. The tongue stretched out of the mouth

Here represents the tongue, and is a partial special
prim itiv e, that is not derived from kan1, L. 102 A.
Compare, L. 55 K, han2, the tongue drawn back into
the mouth. Compare the ancient forms given here t.
The, tongue held out of the mouth she; 2, The tongue
retir ing i n t o the mouth; 3. The tongue enclosed in
the month han2. — It is the 135th radical. Note the
compound t'ien2 (L. 73 B); what is sweet to
the tongue; sweet.
Note: she2 does not form a phonetic series.
The one that is sometimes attributed to it (Cf. Gallery,
N° 262), belongs to the character kuo2 (L 114 C),
contracted by the scribes into , and often into
To add to the confusion, t'ien2 forms phonetic
complexes in which it is contracted into These
compounds may be found in the series 227, derived
from kuo2; they may be recognised by their sound
ien. Examples:
Tien2, from contracted. Huo2, from

Second series. I4, ni4.
I4. This character, says the Glose, is doubled

(though incompletely) to mean th at the attack was
repeated, because it met with resistance. Hence the
derived meanings, to attack., to resist, opposition,
obstacle. Now It forms
Ch'ih4. To attack a man in his house; to

expel, to turn out of the house, to scold, to strike or
cuff. Note the modern abbreviation, the only one used
now. — Phonetic series 112.
O4 To resist to somebody, to check him openly

with cries and scoldings. The scribes changed
into (L. 58 E), and this strange alteration was
commonly admitted. See L. 72 F. — Phonetic
series 470.
Shuo4. The new moon; when the moon being

opposite to the sun, refuses to receive its light ;
Chueh1. To have hiccup, suffocation, asthma, cough;

an obstacle that impedes breathing (L. 99). It
forms
Ch'ueh2. A steep acclivity (L. 59), the ascension

of which puts out of breath. This character lost
that meaning, and is now used as a demonstrative
pronoun; _ Phonetic series 673.
Hsing4. Fortunate, lucky. A man (L. 61 B,

written ), who gets, over opposition, who
triumphs over resistance;
— Phonetic series 361. Not to be con-
founded with nieh4, below G.
Third series. ch'ien2.
Ch'ien2. To offend (L. 102 A) a superior or

(L. 2 G); offence, fault, crime;
In the modern writing, on the top of different
compounds is reduced to , that must be distin-
guished from li4, L. 60 H. By extension, to attack,
to face, etc. It forms
Ch'ieh4. A guilty woman , or a culprit's

daughter enslaved according to the ancient custom;
See L. 67 E.
Now it means, a concubine, an accessory wife. —
T'ung2. The counterpart of the last. A boy, a lad

tinder 15 years, who became a slave for a great
crime committed by his parents. — Phonetic series
716.
I4 An angry boar that assumes the offensive ;

bravery. See
L. 69 H. — See also L. 73 C, and L. 15 G.
Fourth series jen3.
Jen3. This character is composed nearly as (L.

102 D). It is (L. 102 A) increased by one stroke.
The idea is that of an offence repeated or aggravated,
Derived meanings, relapse, recidivation,
obduracy. See nan2, L. 79 G. It forms the two
important sub-series nieh4 and hsin1 (below).
Sub-series. nieh4.
Nieh4. A man (L. 60) who committed a
crime; a criminal;
Not to be confounded w ith hsing4 (L. 102 D); both
are now written in the same way. Not to be. confounded
with t'a4 (L. 60 C). Note the derivatives
Chih2. To apprehend (L. 11 E) a criminal;

By extension,
to seize, to maintain, etc. — Phonetic series 601.
Pao4. To repress (L. 55 C) evil-doers;

By extension, to
denounce them, to state, to inform; hence the modern
meanings, a report, an announcement, a gazette.
I4. To keep a watchful eye (L. 158), over the

criminals; vigilance;
Yu3. A prison. The inclosure where criminals

are confined;
Chou1. To flog (L. 43 D) a criminal till he is

bleeding (L. 157). The scribes substituted to
, and suppressed the of ; then K'ang-hsi clas-
sified this character under
Chu2. To convict a criminal , in the Chinese way,

by d i n t of rattan strokes (L. 77 B), and of cries
(L. 54 E).
Sub-series hsin1.
Hsin1. Composed of and (ancient form or
L. 2 G); to offend one's superior; and
the consequence of it, chastisement, pain, bitterness;
The ends of the
first horizontal lines are generally turned up, the
scribes deeming is to be more gracious iu that way. —
It is the 160th radical. It forms
Tsai3. A criminal at the tribunal, judged and
chastised;
By extension, to govern, to judge, to
order the legal tortures, to slaughter. — Phonetic
series 574. — Tsai3 contracted in to is phonetic
3
in tzu , Roltlera japonica, a hard wood, instru-
ments for torturing were made of.
Pi4. The man who slates authoritatively

about the criminals (L. 55 B ;
Prince,
law, chastisement, etc. The scribes changed into
Chen4. The Chinese hazel, wood for the
criminals, because the rods were made of it. It is
phonetic in
Ch'in1. Those who are seen habitually; one's
self, one's kindred; by e xten sion, to love, to embrace;
It lost one stroke in the
junction. — Phonetic series 818.
Hsin 1 . To cut (L. 126) s mal l branches ( o f the
hazel); shoots of the year; henc e the meaning, recent,
new. Now fuel, wood cut for the fire, brush-wood.
N i e h 4 . Offence, sin For the phonetic, see L. 86 B.
The meaning is probably an offence visible,
evident, public.
Ts'u2. To rid of an accusation, to clear one's

self, to excuse one's self. See L. 90 B.
Hsi1. A contraction of hsi1, yak, L 100 B, now

commonly used, e.g. in chih 4 , etc.
Tsui 4 . To commit a crime ( L. 159);

It appears that some malicious literati substituted
thi s character to the of t h e i r enemy, t h e First
Emperor Ch'in-
shih-huang This Emperor
not over flattered to be called the «first si n n e r ", o rdered by an I m p e r i a l decree
that in future sin should be written , the a n c i e n t character becoming
taboe; This p r i m i t i v e l y meant a net
(L. 39 C); (L 170) being phoneti c.
Pien4. Two criminals impeaching each other;

It forms interes-
ting compounds in which the radical is inserted
between the two etc. — Phonetic
series 786.
Appendix. The primitive tsao2.

Tsao2. This character is unconnected with the
preceding ones, , etc. !t is a primitive representing
t he successive division and sub-division of a tree's
branches, the boughs, the twigs; Hence, arborisa-
tion, emanation, multitude, faggot, collection. It forms
Ych4. A tr ee crowned w i t h its foliage. The

moral foliage, the deeds of a m a n, the affairs upon
which he exerts his activity, a nd what the acquires by
his doings, viz. merits, goods, titles, etc.
P'u2. To g'ather with one's hands twigs , in

order to make with t h e m a faggot. — Phonetic series
700. The compound forms an unimportant
sub-series.
Ts'ung1. To gather bushes . A bushy place,

crowded; a collection, to collect. See L. 146 F.
Tui4 To confront, to compare, and, by extension, to

correspond to; To
apply a measure to the luxuriant vegetation of
the mouths, viz. to the t esti monies of men, to see
whether t hey agree or not. Compare the composition
of (L 73 C). To recall to his officials that one
must no t rely on every mouth's testimony, but
o nl y on the testimony of the sages, which alone
deserves to be examined, the Emperor Wen-
ti of the first Han4 changed by decree. into ,
thus making the modern character, which was contra-
cted by the scribes.
Chih3. Delicate leaves , embroidered upon

linen , is contracted ;
See L, 35 G. — It is the 204th radical.
Tsao2. To chisel, by delicate cuts, with a chisel,

in metal, so that designes of leaves and branches
be reproduced. C his elling in general. Compare (L.
81 A) to pound grain, to grind.
LESSON 1O3.
About the primitive yang2.

First series. and its multiples.
Yang2. A sheep seen from behind; the horns, the
head, the feet and the tail of a sheep. The tail is often
curtailed, to make room for a phonetic;
Idea of sweetness, of peace, of har-
mony. — It is the 123th radical. Phonetic series 248.
It forms
Ch'iang1. From men a n d sheep. Nomadic

shepherds living in the Western steppes; the Thibetans.
Mei3. A man resembling to the lamb, sweet,

gentle, good;
Kao1. A lamb that begins to walk. The feet

being already represented in , th ere is a radical
redundancy. By extension, the little ones of different
animals.
Chiang 1 . The clan (see L. 79 F) of the

Emperor Shen-nung; is phonetic.
Yang3 To nourish (L. 26 M ) ; is phonetic. —

Yang4. The unceasing flow of water. See L, 125

D; is phonetic. By extension, uniformity, model,
tediousness. — Phouetic series 659.
Hsien1. Composed of fish and sheep, the

two kinds of flesh that were eaten fresh by the
ancients, while they cured the other meats. By
extension, fresh (neither salted, nor dried, nor
smoked). — Phonetic series 832.
Keng1. A thick broth, soup. Composed of and

, a modern abbreviation invented by the scribes.
Prim itively, a lamb stewed on a caldron; on
both sides, the vapour that rises. See li1, L. 87 B. —
See again L. 60 0; L. 44 B; and L. 71
Q; L. 73 D. — See also L. 16 C, that is
unconnected with
Shan1. Three sheep, a flock of sheep. By exten-

sion, the rank odour of sheep or goats. It forms the
following.
Ch'an3. A sheep-fold;
(L. 32 G) By extension, crowd, press.
Second series. kuai1.

Kuai1. Horns of the ram. It is without the feet;
It figures in different compounds,
as a symbol; see L. 35 M, 54 G. The modern scribes
often change it into
Kuai1. Ramified (twice L. 18, d i v i s i o n ) ram's

horns ; odd, singular;
The modern character is a bsurd. It forms the two
phonetic compounds
Huan1. A big owl, th e Grand-duke, with

feather-horns, egrets;
Forms the three following characters
Chiu4. A sort of owl, (L. 139) is phonetic.

It now means, chia-chieh, old, worn out, formerly.
Huai2. Huo1. To seize ( a n owl) with the

hand. — Phonetic series 782.
Kuan4. The heron, a screeming bird with

an egret . — Phonetic series 841.
Kui2. A demon that wanders through the mountains.

It is said to have horns. This is a false interpreta-
tion resulting from the ill-formed modern character.
See the ancient form: a face of demon, two arms, a
belly, a tail, and two feet (L. 27 I, note 1).
Chi4 and Man2. See L. 35 M, L. 54 G.
Ya1. A fork, crooked. Now, appellative of girls, ya-

t'ou, on account of their two tufts of hair. — Some
interpreters consider as an abbreviation of the
ancient character a tree whose branches are
forked. It is the reason why it is given here.
LESSON 104.
About the primitive pan1.

Pan1. A sort of fork, or shovel, which it represents;
It was altered in
different ways by the modern scribes. It forms
Tan1. To assault a man with cries and a

fork. See L. 72 E. — Phonetic series 705.
Ch'i4. To repulse, to expulse. Two hands with

a shovel, casting a child away. See L. 94 G.
Note the modern alteration.
Feu4. The modern character is totally distorted. The

top is not , but (L. 123) Ordure, filth. Two
hands removing with a shovel the dung of
animals;
Pi2. This character represents two ancient instru-
ments: 1. A shovel u p o n which was ottered the meat
at the e n d of the sacrifice, hence the derived
meaning, to end, which is still used in o u r days; 2. A
racket with a net,
resembling the butterflies net, to catch small animals. This character has those
two meanings in very ancient texts. — Phonetic series 640.
Kou4.Some consider this characteras being composed
of two . one being straight, the other inverted,
while the stroke at the bottom was suppressed for
simplification's sake. This explanation seems to be far
fetched. Kou4 is a primitive,
whose straight and crossed lines represent g r aphi cally the timbers in the frame-
work of a house, as they interlock a n d cross each other; hence the idea of a
net-work, an ordering, a combination. This notion is hinted in the compounds,
, etc. — Phonetic series 546.
LESSON 105
About the primitive ko .

Ko2. The raw skin of a flayed sheep, as it is stretched
out. To skin. The fork in the middle is or a
sheep, contracted (L 103); the two horizon tal l ines
mean that the skin is stretched out, two hands or
scrapers working it. The second ancient character
is alrea dy contracted;
By extension, to skin an officer, to degrade
h i m from office wit h a line or a confiscation. — It is
the 177th radical. It forms
Pa4. Leather drenched by the rain, that

stretches out when it is drawn. It forms
Pa4. Lengthening of the moon , in the first

fortnight of the month; growing, prosperity. This
character was used to designate the feudal princes iu
ancient times; doable idea of growing in glory, and of
glory borrowed by them
from the Emperor, as the moon borrows its light from the sun. — Phonetic series
355.
Chi1. Trammels. Leather to t r a m m e l a horse
. In the primitive form, the leather was not
represented; represented the trammel p u t to the
feet of the horse, and the peg to tie it up. The leather
was added later on. Then was suppressed.
LESSON 106.
About several representations of animals or other beings, primitives either

complete or partial, gathered here on account of their resemblance.
First series. swelling on both sides, in

Ku3. A man (L 29) whose sides are swollen,
because he makes an effort;
Mien 3 . A man (L. 25) whose sides are swol-
len, whose legs are propped; to wake an effort to get
some good or to avoid some evil ;
Tou1. A k in d of helmet with appendixes on both
sides to cover the cheeks; a helmet, a cowl; mao4
(L. 29 C) represents a man, head a n d Iegs;
By extension, to cover,
to envelop. — Phonetic series 651.
Second series. t'u4, a hare or rabbit.

T'u1 It represents a hare when it is squatting, with
its t a i l perked up ; It forms
Yuan l . A h a r e u n d e r a covert , w hen ce it is

u n a b l e to r u n . Derived meaning s, to i n j u r e , to ill-use
w i t h o u t cause, griev an ce, oppression, the hare being
an inoffensive a n i m a l ;
See L. 34 H.
Mien3. The female of the hare, By extension,

to bear, by allusion to the fecundity of the doe-hare.
I 4 . A hare that runs away, By extension, to

live like a hare, to lead an idle and licentious life;
the hare being looked upon in China as the type of
profligacy, and very ill-reputed.
Third series. ch'ao4.

Ch'ao4. It represents some animal resembling the
hare; This character,
combined with (L 106 B), forms
Ch'an2. The n u m e r o u s tribe oi the rodents. — Pho-
netic series 828.
Fourth series. huan1.
Huan1. A sort of antelope; On
the lop, the horns (L. 103 C); represents the head;
at the bottom there are paws and a tail, which is often
omitted in the modern character. This was wrongly
classified by K'ang-hsi unde r vegetals. — It forms
K'uan1. Large, spacious, ample in the physical
sense; broad-mindedness, indulgence in the moral
sense. This idea may come from the width of the
paddocks reserved for the breeding of these animals.
LESSON 1O7.
About two primitives and , much a l i k e in t h e ancient writing.

1
First series. hsin .
Hsin 1 . It represents the heart;
On the top, the pericardium opened; in the middle,
the organ ; at the bottom, a summary delineation
of the aorta The extended meanings are very numerous.
There are modern abbreviations as here joined. — It
is the 61th radical of characters relating to the feelings.
Phonetic series 61.
Many derivatives from were already explained, e.g.
4 4 2
o , wu , L. 82 H; ning , L. 36 C; chi2,
4 2
L 19 D. nien , L. 14 N; te , L. 10 O; ssu1,
2
L. 40 A; etc. Let us recall here that pi (L. 18 G),
has nothing in common with — Note the following
multiple:
Jui3. The heart of the flowers; It is

now w r itte n
Second series. yeh*.

Yeh3. H represents an ancient utensil, either a
funnel or a rhyton; — Phonetic
series 37.
Note: The scribes introduced the most regrettable
confusion between the
derivatives of , and those of (L. 108). The Shuo-wen ascribes to :
and to etc. The cause of the confusion
was that was and is still sometimes written The was placed where
it was not required, and omitted where it was required; then the dictionaries set
down all those errors of orthography.
LESSON 108.
About the primitives and
To1. A snake (See L. 110) that stands on its tail,

distends its neck a n d darts its tongue out; It is
often written , and sometimes See L. 107 B,
note. — Phonetic series 165 and 126. — In the ancient
writing, the head of the two following is alike.
Kui 1 . A tortoise, which is described by the Glose as

an animal having its flesh inside and its bones outside;
The character represents the
head, the claws, the shel l and the tail A more ancient
character represented the tortoise-shell ornamented
w i t h stripes, and a summary delineation of the head
and of the tail. — It is the 213th radical, it forms
Chiu 1 . A contest (L. 11 I) settled by divination.

A singed tortoise-shell was formerly
used for
that pur pose. See L. 56.
Min 3 . The soft turtle. The character was then applied

to mean a tadpole; the head, the gills, and a tail
(L. 79 I). It is the 205th radical. Phonetic series
749.
Luan2. A primitive representing the ovaries and the

oviduct of the female, the testicles and cords of the
male.
Kuan1. Another primitive, and not an abbreviation

o f l u a n 3 . l t represents the shuttle, that passes and
repasses, inserting the transversal thread of the woof
between the longitudinal threads of the warp. See
L. 92 G.
LESSON 109.
About the prmitive ; about and its important series.
First series. chung1.

Chung1. The centre. Chung4. To hit the centre,
to attain. It represents a square target, pierced in its
centre by an arrow. Later on, the target was con-
tracted by the scribes and changed into a form some-
what like (L 72); but the primitive form is still
maintained in the series . To represent, in a design
without perspective, the perforation of the target, the
two extremities of the arrow were marked with a
sign, or the extremity that passed through was curved;
these are mere graphic tricks;
Different compounds of were explained elsewhere,
L. 16 E; L. 67
N; L. 73 E; etc. Compare L. 153. See also and L. 43 M. N.
Second series. yung4 a n d its derivatives.

Yung4. This character primitively represented the
bronze ex-voto offered to the Ancestors, placed in the
temple as a memorial for their offspring. Afterwards
it was given the shape of a bronze tripod The vessel
was used for the offerings to the Manes, hence chuan-
chu to use, usage. The offerings brought blessing,
hence chuan-chu aptitude, efficacity, utility, etc. —
It is the 101th radical of a lew incongruous characters.
Chou1. aptitude (the old form L. 19 E)

extending to every thing, general, univ ersal; hence the
derived meanings, propagation, universality; totality;
The scribes arbitrarily changed
into . — Phonetic series 342
Fu3. Aptitude for founding and governing a

family (L 43 G), the manhood. Then a definitive
appellation was taken by men. Hence the extended
meaning, I, myself. — Phonetic series 271. It forms
Fu1. The h a n d (for L. 45 B) of a grown up

man. Derived meanings, action, amplitude. — The
modern scribes imagined to write , and this faulty
wri ting became classical in the character fu 1 , to
spread out, to promulge. — Phouetic series 528. It
forms
P'u3. A wide expanse of water. By extension,

large, general, universal, etc. — Phonetic series 753.
See L. 55 K; L 102 B; L. 54 G; etc.
LESSON 110.
About the primitive , and its derivatives.
Hui 1 . A l l k i n d of crawling animals, snakes, worms,

etc.
Compare L. 108 A. — It is the 142th radical. See
L. 43 1, and L. 21 B. Note further
Ch'iang2. A bow (L. 87 A) that shoots its arrow

above several acres of land (L. 3 C), a strong bow.
By extension, stron g, good. This character being
difficult to write, was replaced by , a name of the
same sound which represents an in sect , Elater
the snapping beetle, that unbends like a bow when
it fell on its back; represents the insect, its
head, which was arbitrarily changed into by the
scribes. — Phouetic series 668.
K'un 1 . Insects that are numerous at certain times of

the year ( t w o to intimate the great number); e.g.
shih1, formerly fly, and now louce; chung1.
locusts; wen2, mosquitoes; li3, book-worms;
2
ts'an , silk-worms; etc.
2
Ch'ung . An ancient term for all crawling and
swarming animals, insects, etc. It is found in
Ku3. Chronic diseases, t h e etiology of which escapes

the Chinese, as tuberculosis, syphilis, etc. — Some
suppose that. worms corrode the interior of the
body;
— Others expl ain that these diseases are caused by the venom
of animals, swallowed with food and d r i n k Hence the dreadful fear of the Chinese
for the urine of the gecko (a lizard found in all the houses); also for rain-water
that has f i l t e r ed through a roof, because it is supposed to be soiled by the venom
of scorpions that live there; etc. This etymology seems to be the right one,
because it explains belter the word vessel; poison of the worms taken with
food;
—
Moreover, there are who say that the magicians make a poison slow and sure, by
grinding in a vessel different sorts of venimous worms. This seems to be
rather a legend.
LESSON 111.
About the primitive , and its compounds.
K'ui4. It represents an ancient recipient, either a

basket or a bag. Note the modern
abbreviation. It forms
K'ui 4 . Not mean, or cheap; a whole basket of

cowries; The ancient form is unexplai-
ned, It appears in the ancient character L.
44 G. It is perhaps an abbreviation of the last —
Ch'iea3. To carry soil in baskets, in order to

erect a wall, a dike, as it is still done in China (L. 86
B). It is phonetic in
Ch'ien3. To commission, to depute. — Phonetic

series 773.
LESSON 112.
About the primitive , and its important derivatives
First series, chih3, its compounds and multiples.
Chih 2 A coarse representation of a Toot, or of the

footprint; on the left side, the heels; on the right
side, the toes; on the top, the ankle;
Derived meanings, to march (the feet moving);
to halt, to stop (the feet being still), etc. — It is the
77th radical. Phonetic series 46. We saw the derivatives
L. 44 F; L. 44 K; L. 66 D. Add the following:
Ch'i4. A man rising on his heels;
Ts'u3. To t ur n one one's heels ( L. 26). Now

chia-chieh used as a demonstrative pronoun, this. —
Ch'en2. A firm gait, by posing well the foot

(L. 63 D); It forms
Yen2. A gait firm an

steady (L. 7 ) ;
Phonetic series
4
17. Not to be confounded
with the derivatives of below I.
quadrupled, two being straight, a n d two inverted (altered in the modern

writing), forms
Shih4. Rough, rugged. An irregular surface, that
obliges to many steps in different directions. The
modern contractions , now replace the ancient
form difficult to write.
Second series. tsu 4 .and shu2, both being composed of the foot,
increased with a symbol
Tsu4. A foot at rest. By extension, feet in general.
The stillness is represented by the closed . Compare
below C.
It is the 157th radical (two modern
forms). Phonetic series 310.
Shu2. Foot in motion, to turn. The motion is

represented by the open . Compare above B.
The
reading p'i3, in the sense of rolled up piece, is a
modern chuan-chu. — It is the 103th radical (two
modern forms). — It forms
Shu1. Birth , the feet coming first. Different

extended meanings. See L. 94 F.
Hsuan2. To turn on one's heels; (L, 117) is

phonetic. — Phonetic series 614.
Ch'u 3 . A woody land; is phonetic.
Hsu1. Gravy ; is phonetic. Phonetic series

448.
Tan4. The ball rolle d by the dung-beetle. By

extension, egg.
Third series. tsou3.

Tsou3. To march. A man who bends (L. 61 B)
to walk quickly and with hasty strides; to go, to travel,
to sail; — H is the
156th radical of characters relating to modes of going.
4
Fourth series. cho .
Cho4. To go step by step. It is composed of and
(L. 63 A), say some philologists. It seems more
probable that are three footprints. Not to be
confounded with (L. 63 D). — It is the 162th
radical of a large group of characters relating to
movements, e.g. chin4, to advance, t'ui4 to
move back, etc.
Note: In some modern characters, the scribes divide

; is placed on the
right side, underneath the phonetic; is placed on
the left side. K'ang-hsi
classified those characters under the 60th radical.
Examples:
T'u2. To go;
Ts'ung2. To follow;
Hsi3. To move one's abode. —

Fifth series.
inverted is not used alone, but forms, when
combined with straight, two important series. In
the first, G, th e two forms are superposed, a nd
inverted is now written (not to be confounded with
, nor with , L. 18 H, M). In the second, H, the
two forms placed in juxtaposition are now writte n
Pu4. A step, to take a step, to march; The

character represents the succession in the steps
(compare L. 63 C). By extension, the planets,
stars that move. H forms
She4. To step in water, to ford, to wade

over. Hence
Pin 2 . A man (L. 160) who wades throogh

water; uneasiness. In the ancient character, was
introduced between the two , to gain room, In the
modern character, was suppressed. — Phonetic
series 825.
266 Etymological Lessons: 112.
Chih4. To ascend step by step an acclivity

(L 86); It forms
chih1, merit, to promote.
Sui4 The planet Jupiter, that presided over

the wars. See L. 71 P. — Phonetic series 760.
Po4. Two in contrary directions; idea of two

feet; or of separation, divergence, letting loose. —
It is the 105th radical. Note the derivatives
P'o2. To stamp with the two feet, to trample.

It is now a part of
Fa1. To shoot an arrow, and, by extension, any

expansion, any manifestation of a latent energy. The
m o d e r n form (to trample with a bow) is a non-
sense. In the ancient primitive character, there was
an arrow, instead of ; shooting of the
arrow by the bow. — Phonetic series 675.
Teng1. To ascend upon a pedestal, firstly

with one foot, then with the other. By extension,
to ascend, to go up, in general. — Phonetic series 708.
Kui3. The nicely disposed grass, on which the An-

cients poured the libations offered to the Manes; see
Graphics, page 362. This character, not easily written,
was replaced, in the days of Li-ssu, by plus ,
probably the primitive form of fa1 (above). The mo-
dern form has been arbitrarily mutilated by the
scribes. Now chia-chieh a cyclical character. — Pho-
netic series 458.
Sixth series. cheng4. A special series is reserved for this compound of

, on account of its important derivatives.
Cheng4. To be arrived and to stop at the —
line, at the limit, where one had to reach, without going
astray; By extension, correct,
straight, regular. — Phonetic series 107. It forms
Ting4. Order in the house, and, consequently,
tranquillity, peace;
By extension, fixed, certain, decided. — Phonetic
series 400.
Shih4. What was controlled at sun's light;

The Glose compares this
etymology with the etymology of chih3, L. 10 K.
Extended meanings, truthfulness, reality, existence. —
Phonetic series 476
Wai1. Deflected from the perpendicular, aslant; what

is not correct . This character is a modern one.
Fa2. It is t urned to the left. The inversion means

that one did not reach the line , the point
where one had to reach; a defect, to he in want of,
exhausted. The modern character is a fanciful
abbreviation that has nothing in common with
chih1 (L. 79 B). — Phonetic series 54.
Mien4. This character is considered by some philo-

logists as a derivative of . This is a mistake. It is a
primitive, representing a woman sitting; — is the
girdle; on the left, the seat; on the right, an apron
that hides the fore and lower part of the body. By
extension, to conceal, to hide, retreat, confinement,
screened, out of view. — Phonetic series 71, It forms
Ch'en2. From and . See L. 30 B.
Min1. The retreat in a house, the home, a

dwelling. It forms
Pin1. A present offered to a man received in

one's house By ex tension, a guest.
The scribes arbitrarily altered the primitive character
to the two forms here joined. — Phonetic series .787.
LESSON 113.
About the primitive
Chang3, to grow. Ch'ang2, long. The primitive

form indicates locks of hair so long that they must be
tied by a hand a nd a brooch (the fork on the
right); Later on, was added,
which made the composition of analogous to the
one of (L. 30 E); manhood, when the hair is long
By ex tension, long in time or distance. The modern
form is an arbitrary contraction. — It is the 163th
radical. Phonetic series 323. It forms
Pao1. Long locks (L. 62);

Ssu4, To expand to the utmost , to exhibit,

unrestrained. See L. 169.
T'ao4. A modern character. To suit what is of the

same height and length. Assortment, to unite,
etc.
LESSON 114.
About the two primitives and

Shih4. A floating plant, without roots, that famifles
and grows, like the nymphaeaceae so common in China,
Euryale ferox and others, that spring up from a
grain, float first, then fix themselves and acquire in a
short time a prodigious development. By extension,
development, multiplication; a wandering hord of
the primitive times, a clan, a family — It is the 83th
radical Phonetic series 82. It forms
Ti3. A development of the last. The floating plant
sprouls to the bottom — of water, to be fixed and
rooted there. By extension, bottom, foundation, to
sink down; — Phonetic series 163.
It forms
Hun1. Dusk, twilight; when the sun has plunged
below the horizon. The of was suppressed;
— Phonetic series 364. The
form is a wrong one.
Kuo2. A development of ti (above B), the root

boring in the bottom. It is phonetically contracted
( being suppressed) in
Kuo2. To put or to hold in one's mouth;

Note the modern abbreviations, specially the
last one, that is written in such a way that the
compounds of kuo2 cannot be distinguished from those
of she2. See note L.102 C. — Phonetic series 227.
Min2.The people, the mass, the common multitude.

Some philologists consider this character as a mu3
(mother, L. 67 0), with sprouts that represent the
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n ; people, t h e sons of w o m e n .
It is highly
probable that this interpretation is erroneous . Min2 is
a primitive, a creeping plant with sprouts, that is
proliferous (second ancient character, ) The
third ancient form, and the modern on e, are arbitrary
abbreviations. is therefore a character resembling
, and not a derivative from it. — Phonetic series 137.
LESSON 115.
About the three primitives
First series ching3.

Ching3. Primitively, it was designed to represent
eight square lots of fields, divided among eight families,
reserving the middle square for public use, and
digging a well in it. The well is represented by a dot;
Suc
h
was the custom in antiquity. See Textes Historiques, p. 25. The system was
abolished, and the character is now used to mean, a well. — Phonetic series 49.
It is phonetic in
Hsing 2 . Legal punish me nt ( a sword, L. 52),

which was arbitrarily written by the scribes . See
below B. — Phonetic series 204.
Second series. ch'ien2.

Ch'ien1. It represents two scales poised ;
Even, level, line, row, agreement.
Note the modern arb itrary contraction which, reducing
to four the six stroke s of this important phonetic, is
the cause, for studen ts of Chinese, of many fruitless
researches in the dic tionaries. — Phonetic series 184.
See above A. It forms.
Ping 1 . Two men who march side by side;

together, harmony, with, etc. ;
The remark made for the last is to he
made here also, the modern contracted form counting
six strokes, instead of eight. — Phonetic series 390.
K'ai1. It has nothing in common with . It is a

representative character. Two hands take away
the — bar t h a t closes a door ; to open. It is the
reverse of shuan1, to shut, that was ex plained
L. 1 H;
Third series. tan1.
Tan1. Cinnabar. It has nothing in common with

The crucible or stove of the alchimists, with
cinnabar in it. See L. 4 C. — Phonetic series 83. It
forms
Ch'ing1. Light green; the colour of the

sprouting plants (L. 79 F);
Note that the cinnabar is red.
It seems rather curious that the two complementary
colours, green and red, are here confounded
(daltonism?). An author explains seriously that the green plants, when burnt,
give a red fire — It is the 174th radical. Phonetic series 337.
is still found in t'ung2, scarlet red; and in chart1, a red banner (L. 117).
LESSON 116.
About the primitive

Jan3. The hair just growing on the. b o d y ;
It might be considered as inverted and doubled.
See L. 100, second series. The scribes now write
(nothing in common with L. 35 J). — Phonetic
series 128. It is phonetic in
Na4, na3. A ancient city and State in the West,

perhaps Tibet, whose inhabitants wore furs;
The scribes strangely alte-
red . This character lost its primitive meaning and
is now used as a demonstrative pronoun in the modern
spoken language. — Phonetic series 232.
So1. Clothes made of furs or straw, against

rain. It was explained, L. 16 D.
LESSON 117.
About the two primitives and , that resemble each other in the modern
writing, but that elymologically have nolhing in common.
First series fang1.

Fang1. It is supposed to represent two boats lashed
together, so that they make a ferry-boat, a pontoon,
a square barge; It seems rather difficult to
see this representation in the character. The ancient
forms represent the four regions of the space with
two dimensions, the earthly surface. By extension,
square, regular, correct, a ru le, etc. — It forms the
70th radical. But, with the e xception of two or three
of them, all the characters classified under this ficti-
tious radica l, belong to the p rimitive , below, B,
that is unconnected with . — Phonetic series 56.
P'ang2. The space with three dimensions; the limits

of that space, indicated by on the top, and two
side li nes. The ancient forms, as usually, aie more
expressive than the modern ones. By extension, border,
side, lateral. — Phonetic series 556.
Fang4. To lead , in the open space (steppe,

pasture-land), a drove; to feed. Compare L. 43 D.
By extension, to let go, to loosen, to open out, to lay
down, etc. It forms
Yao1. To shine; emit light;

— Phonetic series
766
Nao2. From and . See L. 78 E. — Phonetic

series 638.
Yen1, has nothing in common with . See L. 34 K.
Second series yen».
Yen3. First, long overhanging brandies. Later, the

mangrove, shooting, from its branches, roots that go
down and imp lan t themselves in the ground (right
side; lianse, the jungle. Idea of a being, hanging,
waving, covering, with many stalks, etc. This charac-
ter is unconnected with . Note its successive
alterations. — It forms nearly all the characters
attributed to the 70th radical . Note the following
compounds:
Hsuan2. To revolve, to move in an orbit, to do a

thing in tarn. Composed of foot (L. 112 C), and
motion. — Phonetic series 614.
Tsu2. A handle of arrows , fifty, says the Glose;

means the numerous slicks;
By extension, a multitude of beings of the same
kind , a family which traces its descent from one
ancestor, kindred relatives who are like a sheaf of
individuals; — Phonetic
series 654.
Shih1. To pour out at repeated times .pro-

bably something to drink; to bestow, to diffuse,
generosity; L. 107.
Yu2. Contraction of ; the waving motions of

the swimmer (L. 94 A ) ; to float, to swim. —
Lu3. A campment. Men encamping under the

branches of trees. By extension, men temporarily
stay ing in a place that is not their ordinary abode,
soldiers, merchants, travellers, emigrants, exiles.
Yu 2 . It has certainly nothing in common with It

is probably not an arbitrary contraction of wu1
(L. 138 D) It seems to be a modern sign, inv ente d
to be used as a particle expressing the rela tion that
exists between two terms of a proposition. It repre-
sents graphically the connection, (left side) between
two distinct terms. — Phonetic series 419.
Sub-series kan4. A sub-series is reserved for this derivative of , ou

account of its important compounds.
Kan4. The solar rays penetrating into the
jungle, draws up the yapours of the ground which, till
then, were checked (L. 1 I ) ;
The bottom of is suppressed, to give room to
Idea of evaporation, of a fog lifting up. — Phonetic
Ch'ien2. A radical redundancy of the last,
representing the vapours sent up. The proper room of
the vapours, says the Glose, is upwards; they en-
deavour to rise u p ; hence the meaning, cloudy

firmament ( a n d not light blue of the skies), heaven.
This character is
sometimes used for kan1, dry. It is a licence. In that
sense, the character is to be used, in which
(L. 102) means the-drying of the dampness.
Kan4. A rod very long: by extension, power,
capacity. The second form is more recent, and com-
monly used. It is an absurd phonetic redundancy,
the radical being suppressed;
Han4. To fly very high. Chia-chieh, for

pencil, in Han-lin, the Chinese
Academy of old.
Note: In the three following, was suppressed in the- modern form.

1
Chao . The rise of the sun a n d of the mist on
sea, seen from a boat; dawn. By extension, the
Imperial courts, so called because they were held in
early morning. In this sense, they pronounced ch'ao2.
Hence, the Imperial court, a dynasty, etc. — Phonetic
series 664.
Han2. A bascule ( L. 31 G, lo and fro) to raise

water.
Chl3. A lance very long.
LESSON 118

First series. kua3.
Kua3. A skeleton, skull and bones without flesh,

roughly shaped. By extension, to strip the flesh off, to
bone, to disarticulate, article, broken, etc.
See below B, . It forms
Kua3. A defect in the conformation of the bones
of the mouth ; a wry mouth with a palatal fissure.
Kuo4, from (L 112 F), to go
through. Phonetic series 742.
Ku2. Bones with flesh
around. Compare ,
whose composition is analogous, and which was
explained L. 65 C. — It is the 188th radical. Phonetic
series 547.
Ling4. It is borrowed as a symbol for arithmetic.
The modern sound and shape are conventional. The
primive form represented a bone extracted from the
skeleton, a fraction, a remainder, a surplus ;
It forms
2
Pieh . To divide, to distinguish,
difference. Composed of and
of a knife.
Second series. tai3.

Tai3. A primitive; bones fallen to pieces; what
remains definitively of a man's skeleton. The fourth
ancient form, relatively modern, is composed of
body, and of two strokes cut up by a third, to represent
the disjunction of the body's elements. By extension,
death, misfortune, evil, bad, to break to pieces, to
shatter, to grind, fragments, dust. — It is the 78th
radical. It forms
Sso3. To die; dissolution of
a man. See L. 26 H, and its
derivative tsang4, to bury, to
put a coffin i nto the ground, L 78
G. See also LL. 12
F and 52 D.
Ts'an2. To reduce into fragments, into dust. —

Ts'an4. Rice pounded ,
fine white oat-meal. By extension,
a meal, a feast, whiteness, purity.
Note. The two preceding and , placed on the

top of a compound, are written or , and form
the following compound:
Hsun4. A deep ravine (L. 18); represents the

erosion of the rocks or of the loess by waters;
— Forms by subs-
tituting eye (L. 158) to the of :
Jui4.Brightness a n d quickness
of visual perception, and, by
extension, of intellectual percep-
tion; shrewd, profound. The
eye penetrating to
the very bottom of the deep hollow;
Ho4. An artificial ravine, dug by men; a pit,

a canal. Compare above hsun4. Now
Ho1. A ditch, a canal; , L. 81, is a radical

redundancy.
LESSON 119.
About the primitive and its multiples.

4
First series. mu .
Mu4. It represents a tree, . On the top, the
branches; at the bottom, the roots; in the middle, the
trunk. By extension, wood. It is the 75th radical of
characters relating to trees. It forms
K'un4. Weariness, exhaustion that forces to stop

on the way, to sleep u n d e r a tree. The modern
form represents the same idea, b u t not so clearly;
a camping (L. 74) under a tree . — Phonetic
series 286
Hsiu1. To stop, to cease to march; A

man under a tree; Compare with the
preceding; the idea is the same. By extension, to
cease in general, in particular to cease to live with a
wife, to repudiate her. — Phonetic series 205.
1
Cha . A thin wooden tablet, anciently used for
writing , for information (L. 9 A). — Phonetic
series 101.
Ch'i1. Varnish, a substance that falls in drops from

the branches and the trunk of a tree;
The drops are a primitive. —
Nai4. Omens derived from trees. Compare

L. 119 M. This character lost its primitive meaning
and is now used as an interjection, alas I The second
modern form was invented by the scribes. See L. 99
D, the first form.
Chi2. Three birds (a great number) roosting on

a tree. By extension, an assembly, a meeting, a
market or fair; The
scribes
contracted the old character. It forms
Tsa2. Garments made

with variegated pieces stitched
together;
By extension, partico-
loured, streaked; a mixture of
colours or ingredients. The scribe:
placed the of under ,
then contracted the
two elements. Compare L. 16 M.
Nieh4. To shoot into the black of the target,

It is explained that is the support, and
the black of the target or bull's eye; because the
black is to the target what the nose ( L. 159) is to
the face, the central point. By extension, rules of
shooting; then, rule, law, in general.
Hsing1. The tree that produces apricots;

represents the fruits hanging from the tree. The
inverted character
Tai1, stupid, is modern. It is equivalent to

Hsien2. Threshold.
From wood, and door;
Jan3. To dye, to tinge. The dipping in the

infusion of wood of Gardenia tinctoria or Rubia
cordifolia, must be repeated nine times, says the
Glose; See L. 23 A.
Hsiao1. A bird of prey prospecting, on the top
of a tree ; the head alone appears, the feet are not
shaped. — The head of a criminal exposed on the
top of a slake.
Li3. A plum-tree. The tree , the children are
fond of ; Not to be confounded with
chi4
(L. 94 A).
Mei2. A stalk or stick in wood ; one of, each;
Mu4. To wash the hair; is phonetic. To cleanse

in general.
Yao4, music. Lao4, joy. Here represents the frame
on which the instruments are hung. See L. 88 C.
Second series. Multiples of

Lin2. A forest, a clump of trees. Two to indicate
many trees together, Not to be confounded
with p'ai4, L. 79 H. — Phonetic series 377.
Chin4. Bad omens derived from trees.
Compare L. 119 F. By extension, to prohibit, to warn
against, to forbid. — Phonetic series 727.
Ch'u3. A country planted with trees; (L.112 C)

is phonetic. Various chia-chieh. — Phonetic series
730.
Fen2. To set a forest on fire , in order either
to drive out the wild beasts or to prepare a clearing.
Hence, to burn, in general.
Fan4. The soughing of the wind through trees;
is phonetic. In the Hindu-Chinese literature, this
character is used to designate Brahma.
Etymological Lessons. 119.120. 279
Lan2. Greediness; a woman's vice, says the Glose;

is phonetic.
Fan2. A fence. See L. 39 L.
Mao4. A bushy forest. See L. 95 C.
Wu2. Clearing. See L. 10 I.

Shen 1 . A great number of trees, and by extension,
a great number in general.
Yu4. A park planted with trees. Now
LESSON 120.
About some compounds of (L. 119), that form important series.

Pen3. T r u n k, stump of a tree, across the l i n e —
t ha t denotes the earth;
Mo4. The top, the highest branches of a tree ;

end, extremity.
Wei4. A t a l l tree with its branches superposed;

The actual meanings of this character,
in the cycle a n d as a negation, are chia-chieh. —
Chih4. To cut a big tree

with a sharp instrument, an
axe or an adze. The ancient
form shows the notches. By ex-
tension, to work the wood, tc
make, to form, etc. The modern
character is corrupt.
Li2. A composition analogous to
t he preceding one. To cot down
a big tree; represents
its falling. — Phonetic series 627.
Chu1. Trees whose h e a r t is reddish, as cedar, th uj a,

etc. By extension, red. A tree ; in the middle
represents a cutting in the wood;
Lei3. A harrow. A wood with prongs. The

modern form lost one of the prongs. See L. 97 G. —
It is the 127th radical
Kuo2. The f r u i t of a tree, represented by on the

top of ; fruits in general. — Phonetic series 373.
Ch'ao2.A nest on a tree. See L. 12 O. On the tree

a nest, a n d on the nest, the feathers of the hatching
bird. — Phonetic series 594.
Ts'u 4 . Thorns. A thorny tree;

— P h o n e t i c series 243. It forms the i m p o r t a n t
following compounds and multiples:
Ts'u4. Primitively, torture; thorn and knife.

It is n o w used for . Not to be confounded with
la2, below 1.
Chai2. To chastise, to punish. A thorny rod and

a fine in money . Note the contraction of into
in the mod ern form. — Phonetic series 590.
Chi4. Thorny shrubs in general. The duplicated

represents the great number of thorns.
Tsao3. From thorn duplicated, referring to its

abundance of thorns; the jujube tree, very common
in China.
Ti4. The Emperor, the man who rules over the

Empire. The ancient character represents a man, clad
in long robes (compare the ancient form of L.
24 Q) and designated by , an old form of ,
superior. Then the scribes added two arms. Then
Li-ssu changed the bottom into . Lastly the
scribes contracted the character. Compare the series
, p. 9; tbe evolution is the same. — Phonetic series
478. It forms
Ti4. To control oue's mouth , to hold one's

tongue. Phonetic series 650, u n d e r its modern con-
tracted form To be distinguished from shang1,
L. 15 D.
Shu 4 . To encompass (L. 74) a tree , here

taken to mean a n y object; to tie; to knot. — Phonetic
Sou4. To cough. A tight

breath that becomes loose. —
Sung 3 . Reserve with fear. To

stand
before a su perior, as being bound with fear.
Ch'ih 4 . Government. A rod and

a
tie, the coercitive and legislative power.
La2. To cut the tie that

binds; to cut, in general. —
Lai4. To solve a difficulty
by giving money; to bribe in
a competition, or to buy in pro-
tection. Tbe is placed on the
top of — Phonetic
series 821,
Chien3. To partake a bundle, in order to

pick and cull. — Phonetic series 429. It forms
Lan2. A bar shutting a

door; is phonetic. — Pho-
netic series 833.
This compound (case, bag), increased with ,
was explained L. 75 A, with its derivatives.
Tung1. The sun appearing at the horizon. To

show that it is on a l evel with the horizon, it is
represented shi nin g under the top of the trees
that are at the h ori zon. Compare L. 88, a n d
L. 143 B; By extension, the East
whence light rises. — Phonetic series 405. It forms
Ts'ao2. Judges. There were two, in the ancient

t ribunals, sitting on the Eastern side (the place of
honour), and deciding (L. 73 A) the cases. The
modern contraction is an ar bitrary one;
Chung4. Composed, as ting 2 (L. 81 D), of

man and of earth; contracted is phonetic. The
man on the top, tries to rise, from the earth
at the bottom, an object in the. middle, which is •
represented by the phonetic. Hence the idea, heavy,
weight. This interpretation is certainly erroneous.
The ancient characters represent round or flat weights
piled up on a kind of support. — Phonetic series 437.
It forms the two following:
T'ung2. A slave boy; the counterpart of a slave girl

(L.102 E). Composed of acrime, (contracted)
grave, committed by the parents, and for which their
children were reduced to slavery;
Those slaves were forced
to live unmarried; hence the extended meanings, a
bachelor, a spinster, a virgin. — Phonetic series 716.
Liang2. The weight (contracted), (contrac-

t ed) special to some object. Weight, measure, in
general. See L. 75 F.
LESSON 121.
About the primitive

Ho2. Grain, corn, crops. The character represents
the plant (resembling L. 1 1 0 ) , ended on the top
by a pendent ripe ear; Derived idea of
uniformity, concord, the grains growing, waving,
ripening together; — It is
the 1 1 5 t h radical of characters relating to grains and
their uses. — See L. 53 B; L. 52 F ; [,. 98
B etc. Note the following compounds :
Ch'un1 A granary; the bundles of corn being

enclosed; — Phonetic series
351
Ch'iu 1 . The season when the grain is burned,

i. e. whitened, ripe; The autumn. —
S u 1 . To glean ears, is phonetic.

The modern sense, to revive, to rise from the dead, is
chia-chieh
Chih 4 . Grain still young and tender,

Young, delicate; is phonetic
Ho2 Tune of mouths, formerly of musical

pipes. Harmony, u n i o n ;
Wei3. The lot of woman who mast yield ;

By extension, to suffer, to serve. There are
different derived meanings. — Phonetic series 409.
T'u1. Bald. When the head of a man is like a

mowed down field.
Nien2. The year's harvest, the thousand stalks.

A year (L. 24 D). The modern chararcter is an absurd
contraction.
Shu3. The panicled millet , whose put in

water and fermented, produces spirits;
Hsiang 1 . The sweet odour
of millet when it ferments.
Sweet smell, or sweet to the
taste. See L. 73 B. The modern
character is astrangecontraction.
Ping3. A bundle ot corn held by a hand. To
uphold, to seize, to grasp in the hand. See L. 44 I. —
It forms
Chien1. Two bundles in the
hand. Union, together. See L.
44 L. — Phonetic series 519. It
forms
Lien2. The angled joint of
the roof and of the walls of a
house; a corner, a joint. —
Li4. Many ears ripening together; crops;
It is phonetic in
Li4 annual cycle, growing and ripening of the

crops. It forms
Li4. A (L 112 A) stop in the turn, the end of
a period past; to pass, a term ; Often .
contracted into by the scribes. — Phonetic series822.
Li4. The (L. 143) solar terms, calendar, time.
This character was used for the personal name of the
Emperor Ch'ien-lung, and consequently
was no
longer employ ed for common use. It was superseded
by
inverted, a pendent ear, to bow the head, is found
only in the following compound:
Chi1. To bow the head in order to examine. The
compound on the right side seems to be an error of
the scribes for (L. 30 E) The meaning should be
then, to shake the bead, like old men.
LESSON 122
About the primitive , straight and bent down.
First series. mi3 straight.

Mi3. Grains of different plants. The character repre-
sents four grains, that are separated by the thra-
shing;
— .See L. 68 D; L. 23 G, L. 78 E; L.
102 B; L. 41 E; L. 32 E; L 54 D; L. 87
B; L. 160 C; L. 81 A; etc.
T'iao4 To sell ( to being out) grain
Ti3. To buy ( to bring in) grain . In these two

characters, (L. 62 G is plionetic.
Second series. mi3 bent down.
Mi3. Grains. It forms
Wei4 The stomach which incloses the food

This viscer being fleshy, later on was added
(L. 65); then the scribes contracted into
— This series is unconnected with L. 41 D

(grains of salt, an analogous figure). — Phonetic
series 489.
Shih3. Vegetables that went through the

stomach; excreta, dung. This character is now written
(see L. 32 E).
Ch'ang4. Grains fermenting in a rase, and

a spoon to take the liquor out. It was explained L.
26 C. — It is the 192th radical.
LESSON 123.
• About the primitive

Pien4. The steps of a wild beast . The strokes
represent the print of the claws, and the points
the p r i n t of t h e soft parts. The examination of the
trail indicating the kind of an ima l, hence the extended
meaning, to discriminate, to p art , to sort out. The
excreta giving the same indica tion , means dung
in (L. 104 A). It is unconnected with L. 122. -
Hsi2. To get a perfect knowledge , by a thorough

investigation ; to comprehend in al l particulars.
Chuan3. To choose, to pick and cull with the

hands. The modern character is a contraction. See
L. 47 K, and below F. — Phonetic series 191.
Fan1. The tracks of a wild beast, print of the claws

and the sole of the foot;
Shen3. To e xam ine, to search, to get knowledge
by study. To investigate in one's house . _
Shih4. To clear up by an investigation, an

enquiry. (L..102 G);
By extension, to part from an accusation, to let out
from confinement, etc.
Nao4. The dark corners of a house, in which one

discerns the things only by groping;
. By extension, mysterious, obscure. —
Yueh4. A particle, a kind of interjection
(L. 58 E), that comes before the explanation of
an obscure matter. Often changed into
K'ang-hsi wrongly classified it under the radical
Etymological Lessons. 124.125 287
LESSON 124
About the primitive

Shu2. Beans. The primitive is thought to represent
the plant; two husks pending;.';
It forms
Shu2. The collecting of beans. This character

is obsolete in that sense, a n d is now used chia-chieh
to designate a father's younger brother, an uncle of
the same surname (vulgo shou2). — Phonetic series
393.
Ch'i1. It represents the m o w i n g of beans, with

a crooked sickle. It is now used chia-chieh to
mean the kindred. The idea may come from the boughs
of creeping plants. — Phonetic series 597.
LESSON 125
About different forms of the primitive . The p r i m i t i v e is incidentally

explained.
First series. shui3.
Shui3. Water. The central stroke represents a
brook, a rivulet, The four small strokes
represent the whirls of water. See. L. 12 A. Note the
modern contracted forms. — It is the 85th radical of
characters relating to water and streams. Different
derivatives were already explained; e.g. L. 17 B,
L. 18 M, L. 94 0, L. 47 0, L. 50 B, etc.
Note the following.
Ta2. Babbling words flowing like water. See

L. 73 A. — Phonetic series 895.
Yen3. Water that advances (L. 63 C), that

spreads out; overflowing, inundation;
It forms ch'ien1, a fault, an excess, licen-
tiousness; scandalous behaviour.
Fa1. Rule, law. By extension, model, pattern, means.

This character is a modern one. a n d its explanation is
too far reached: to make the morals smooth, as water is, by extirpating
vices; The ancient character was composed of
to adapt (L. 14 A) to righteousness (L. 112 I).
Second series. yn3.

Yu3. Rain. According to some, th e four points
represent the drops, — upper l i n e the skies, an d
the clouds. — Others e x p l a i n as it was said in th e
L. 1 B. — Others still explain: — the sky, the
regular falling ( L 35 H) of drops ( t h e f ou r points are
a special primitive). — An ancient form simply repre-
sented a shower of rain. — It is the 173th radical. It
forms
Lou4. Rain soaking t h r o u g h a roof (L. 32 G);

D ro p p in g .
Third series. that is bent down, in

Yuan1. A whirlpool, a gulf, an abyss The ancient
character represented water in a circle i.e.
whirling. A more recent form rep resen ts the water
bouncing between two banks. Now , a graphical
redundancy. It forms
Su4. Deferential fear of an official. — Modern form,

to write (L. 54 D) a report to a superior, as if
one would be on the b r in k of an abyss , that is,
with fear;
This idea commonly occurs in the classics;
— An ancient form meant,
to apply one's heart in writing reports and in
administering — Phonetic series 757.
4
I . It represents a vase, so full of water, that
it overflows. This circumstance is represented by the
fact that is over the vase and is hent down, thus
expressing its overflowing. By extension, addition,
profit, excess, overplus;
Fourth series. and

Yang3. The unceasing flow of water veins in the
earth, Abstracted
meaning, duration, perpetuity, but not eternity.
Graphically, this character is a variant of ; the
slender threads are substituted to the whirls. —
Yang4. It has the same meaning
as ; is phonetic. By exten-
sion, uniformity, model, pattern,
wearisomeness. See L. 103 A. —
P'ai4. Graphically, it is inverted. The idea is

analogou s; ramification of a stream;
Mai 4 . The blood running in the veins, the

pulse. The second form, from flesh and streams,
is more recent.
Ch'uan2. A spring gushing o ut from the ground,

and flowing in rills. A special primitive. In the middle,
the gush that bubbles up from the earth; on the top,
the water expanding; on the sides, the flowing. The
modern character is an arbitrary confection;
water pure.
It forms.
Yuan2. Any origin; a source. In the ancient form,
there were three springs gushing out from a
cliff. The scribes contracted it ftrst, then altered this
character in such a way that became . See L.
59 C. — Phonetic series 388.
LESSON 126.
About the primitive
First series. huo3.
Huo3. Fire. Ascending flames;
— It forms the 86th radical of a large group of
characters relating to heat. Note the modern contracted
form that is used in combination, at the bottom of
the compounds. See the compounds already explained,
L. 65 G, L. 74 P, L. 121 C, L. 46 I,
L. 59 G, L. 12 I, L. 119 O, etc. Note the
following:
Chih 4 . To roast flesh;

To cauterise, a moxa.
Chiao1. A roasted bird. Singed, shrunk, dried

up; melancholy, sadness. — Phonetic series 669.
Fan3. Pain in the head caused by heat;

Morally, heal in
the head, nervousness, disgust. See L. 160 C.
P'eng1. To roast; (L. 75 D) is phonetic.
Second series. contracted in the modern writing. The ancient forms are
like those of the first series. See L. 24 J, L. 32 B, L. 50 O, L. 47 J,
L. 41 A, etc. Note the following:
Shen1. The Chinese hearth, a small hole (L. 37)
under the caldron, in which the hand stirs the fire
Hence the derived meanings,
deep, profound, abstruse, etc. Note deep water;
to explore, to fathom. The scribes arbitrarily omitted
the upper dot of , and combined and into
Sou3. An old man. A man who reached the age

when he most make fire in his house;
Compare it with the last character,
and see how the ancient form was fancifully altered
by the scribes. — Phonetic series 567.
4
Ch'ih . The human fire (L. 60 N), the face
turning red and crimson on being angry. By extension,
natural carnation, red colour, etc. — It is the 155th
radical. — See nan3, L. 43 J. Note she4, amnesty,
pardon; the primitive sense was to strike the
culprit and make him ashamed, without ulterior
punishment. It forms che1, bite or sting of
venimous insects, that inflames the skin. Doubled
Ho4. Intense blushing, shame

and fear.
C Third series. The same dots that are used as an abbreviation of ,

are also used, specially in recent characters relating to animals, to represent:
1. The tail, e.g. fish (L. 142); swallow (L. 141).
2. The feet, e. g. horse (L 137); bird ( L . 138); monkey ( L. 49 H);
lamb (L. 103 A), etc. See L. 136 B, C.
3. is also used as an abbreviation of more intricate forms, e.g. L. 10 I;
L. 92 E; an arbitrary abbreviation of L. 45 J, etc.
Fourth series. doubled, yen 2 ,
Yen2. A rising (lame, fire, that blazes;

the important compounds :
Hei2 The soot let by the fire around the bole

through which the smoke escapes. Black colour. See
L. 40 D. — It is the 203th radical. Phonetic series 678.
Hsun1. Smoke, fumigation. A black smoke rising

from the fire. See L. 40 D. — Phonetic series 781.
Lin2. An ignis fatuus; flatmes t ha t are seen

hovering. (See L. 31 E). They rise, says the Glose,
. on old battlefields and proceed from t he blood of men
a n d horses ;
The scribes arbitrarily
contracted into . — Phonetic series 696.
Shun4. The Chinese convolvulus, that creeps

and covers the ground with its bloomi ng r eddish
flowers. The scribes strangely altered this charac-
ter. The phon etic ( L. 31 E) was added later on;
Name of a famous
ancient monarch who reigned about B. C 2042. —
Liao 3 . Sacrifice offered to Heaven, on the threshing-

floor, after the harvest; The
ancient forms represent the threshing-floor, the grains,
the strow The more recent form represents the straw
and the grains offered as a gift (L 75 D) to be
b u r n t ; b u r n t offering of firstlings. — Phonetic
series 695.
Fifth series.
Yen2. Many lamps. Compare (above D). It
forms.
Y i n g 2 The light of many lamps in a room

(L. 34 H)
This character forms a large group of com-
pounds in which the at the bottom gives room to
the radical. — Phonetic series 585. Note
Lao2. To toil at the lamp's light, during night;

to fag at, to exert one's self in an extraordinary manner;
to labour; — Phonetic series 694.
LESSON 127.
About the two primitives and , two halves of a

tree (L. 119) cut in the sense of its l en gth. It is queer
enough that, in composition, means, thin, feeble;
while means, thick, strong.
First series. p'ien4.
P'ien 4 . The right h a l f of a tree, a piece of wood;

bit, thin, feeble; — It is the 91th
radical.
Second series. ch'iang2.
Ch'iang 2 . The left h a l f of a tree, a piece of wood ;

a bed, a wooden st al l ; thick, strong;
— It is the 90th radical. Pho netic series 41. It
forms
C h u a n g 4 . A stout
man , or t h e man who

feigns to be so. It forms , men an d th ings of the
country. — Note the analogous characters: a
woman who gives herself airs, disguise; a dog that
blusters, to feign; to subduce strong enemies by
arms; the humble subjection of a minister (L. 82
E). Etc. — Phonetics series 265.
C h i a n g 4 . A strong hand that rules; a general,

to command.
Chiang4. To place meat u p o n a stall

The scribes blended this character w it h t h e last. —
These characters show the successive
development of the preceding: I. St all and
meat; 2 Stall, meat and salt; 3. St all, meat
a n d p r i n e (L. 41 G )
Chi2. To lie — on a bed ( note the successive

contractions ). Derived me anings, to be sick, sickness ;
urgent, pressing, as in a grave sickness ;
The scribes arbitrarily added a dot on the top. —
It is the 104th radical of a group of characters relating
to diseases.
Note: Joined to , forms a k ind of compound

radical, u n d e r which a phonetic is inserted. In the
ancient forms, is complete; in the modern ones,
the horizontal line was suppressed. For instance:
Wu4. To awake; is phonetic. The sleeping man
is lying in his house
Ch'in3 . To sleep; is phonetic.
Mei4. To sleep; is phonetic.
M i 3 . Drowsy; is phonetic. Etc.
Third series. and joined.
A prop. It is found in
Ting3. A tripod or an u r n . The third foot does not

appear, on account of the perspective. is not the
eye (L. 158), but it represents the vase. The tripods
and urns played an important part in the Chinese
antiquity. See Graphics page 361. — It is the 206th
radical.
LESSON 128.
About the primitve

Chin1. An axe, a hatchet; The
character is supposed to represent the instrument,
It means also a Chinese pound, the ancient weights
having, like moneys, the form of a hatchet's iron or

o
a hanger. It is the 69th radical. Phonetic series 48.
—
Different derivatives of were already
explained;
e.g. L. 47 D; L. 51 A; L. 48 D; L. 60
E.
Add the following:
Hsin1. A laughter (L.99) by jerks ; joy,

delightness.
Chan3. To cut in two, to sunder. Composed of

chariot, and of axe, It is a souvenir of
the
a nc i e n t char iots with scythes, says the Glose. More
probably the whirling of an axe brandished. —
Hsi1. To split wood , to divide;
—
Ssu1. To s p l i t wood with an axe; (L. 70 C)

represents, says the Glose, the basket in which the
splinters are gathered. The
modern use of this character as a demonstrative
pronoun, is chia-chieh —. Phonetic series 704.
Sho3. C h o p p i n g of a door ( L, 129 ). By

extension, a place, a spot, a building; a relative
pronoun.
Two axes. This character is obsolete. It is found in
Chih4. To fix or settle the price of a thing. By

extension, value, quality, substance, matter. —
Ch'ih4. To expel. It has nothing in common with

. It is an arbitrary abbreviation. See its etymology,
L. 102 D. — Phonetic series 112.
296 Etymological Lessons, 129.
LESSON 129.
A b o u t the prim itive
First series. hu4, and its compounds.
Hu4. One leaf of a door, the half of the character
men2 (below C); a shutter;
It represents the thing. By extension, house, family. —
It is the 63th radical. Phonetic series 63. — See
L. 62 I; L. 128 A; L. 156 D; etc. It forms
Li4. A dog surprised, that crouches under the

door to get out . By extension, wicked, to lose face;
Ku4. A sort of bird : is phonetic. The modern

meanings, to rent, to hire, are chia-chieh, says the,
Glose. It may be t h a t represented a sign-board
placed in front of bouses to let. — Phonetic series
692.
Hu4. Name of an ancient town and principality;

is phonetic. — Phonetic series 616.
Ch'i3. To open a door, so t h a t it is f u l l y opened

; to open. It forms
Ch'i3. The teaching of the mas-

ter, with his rod, opens
the mind of the disciple. To
explain, to make clear, to instruct. — Phonetic series
329, in which is replaced by a radical
O4. Misfortune, distress. The character represents the

slipping in through a narrow door;
The modern form completely
altered the old one, in which there is neither , nor
Chien1. Shoulder. It is unconnected with . It is a

special primitive, explained in the L. 65 F.
inverted is now obsolete. Bat in combination with
the straight form, it makes the three following
important series, C, D, E.
Second series. men2.

Men*. Two leaves of a door, face to face;
— It is
the 169th radical of characters relating to entrances.
Phonetic series 381. — Note a few compounds:
men4, sad, melancholy, a heart before a shut up
2
door; wen , an ear at the door, to hearken;
wen4, a mouth at the door, to inquire of or about;
shan3, to slip aside, in a door, to let another pass;
shuan1, to bar a door; k'ai1, to unbar a door;
hsien2, the moonlight streaming in through a
chink in a door, interstice; ch'uang2, a horse
crossing a door, impetuosity.
Min 3 . To condole (L. 61 F) w i th the mourners

at the front door; The Chinese
houses being very s mall, the visitors are received at
the door, when ther e is not a t'ing1, a reception
hall. By extension, compassion, pity.
Third series. mao.
Mao2. Two leaves of a door opened;

The modern form is a strange alteration. The
compounds of this series, and those of the following
and others, were all mingled. See ch'ing2, L. 55 A. —
Mao3. The constellation of the Pleiades; for

is phonetic.
Mao*. Business; From cowries, mo-

ney; is phonetic.
Note. ch'ing2 (L. 26 M) Is unconnected with
3
mao , as well as with lin3, (L. 129 E).
Fourth series. yn3.
Yu3. A closed door. The closing is represented by

the that joins the two leaves together (compare
above D). The modern abbreviation is quite incorrect;
It forms the following:
Liu2. To stop, to sojourn in a place (L. 149):

to deposit, to let; is phonetic; Phonetic
series 551.
Liu3. The willow ; is phonetic. The modern

scribes write . and t heir mistake was registrated by
the
Liu2 Composed of to cut, a n d a phonetic.

A ver y c o m m o n f a m i l y name.
LESSON 130.
A b o u t the two primitives and
First series. wu3.

Wu3. It represents a pestle; To hit, to
offend. Compare L. 57, and L. 102. — Phonetic
series 89. See and , to pound, L. 47 N. Note the
following compounds:
Wu3. Stiff in holding one's opinions,
obstinate; Here
represents
the action of offending, of shocking; is phonetic.
The second form is a modern one.
Hsieh4. To stop in the exercice of an office

(LL. 112 and 55), To lay down the seal, on account of
a fault. By extension, to lay aside, to unload, e.g.
a cart. It forms
Yu4. The art of driving, and, by extension, of ruling

over men. The modern character is an absurd
phonetic compound; to march. is phonetic.
The ancient character meant, to have the hand
over a horse;
Second series. fao3.
Fao3. Earthenware vessels in general;

A vessel with a cover. — It is the 121th
radical. It forms
Tao2. A furnace for burning pottery or

earthenware; —
Yao2 An earthenware vessel for cooking or keeping

meat. — Phonetic series 583.
Pao3. Precious, valuable, noble, respected. To have

jade , earthenware , cowries , in one's own
house ; such were the precious things among the
ancients, The secondand t hird forms
are modern
contractions. See page 364
Yu4. The offering of a vessel full of fragrant

wine ( L. 26 C); represents the decorations of this
vessel (L. 62); is probably used to keep apart the
numerous elements of this compound. It forms
Yu4. Thicket, brushwood. The preceding is phonetic;

th e radical is changed, (L. 119 L) instead of
By extension, obstruction, hindrance. The second form
is a modern arbitrary contraction.
LESSON 131.
About the primitive

Shih3.An arrow; On the top,
the point; at the bottom, the feathers, An
ancient form represents an arrow fixed in a man's
body (L. 32). Abstract meaning, an ac tion that came
to its end, appointed, determined, irrevocable, as
when the arrow is fixed in the target. See LL. 18 G,
an d 85 E. See also L. 59 H, L. 101 B, L. 165
A. — It is the 111t h radical. Note the following
compounds:
Chi2. A sudden sickness, as if one had been

struck by a dart Hence the two notions, sickness,
suddenness.
I4. A quiver, a case (L. 10 B ) for arrows;

It forms
I1. To take out an arrow from the quiver, in order

to shoot (L. 22 D). — Phonetic series 618. It forms
I1. Medicine as it was practiced by the wizards of old.

To sent arrows against the evil influences that
caused the sickness , and to give to the •
sick elixirs to revive them,
She4. To shoot an arrow against somebody;
In
a more recent form, used for the hand, was
substituted to . to the detriment of the meaning.
Chih1. The knowledge that makes a man able to

givean opinion upon a subject, with the rapidity
and precision of an arrow hitting the marks;
Etymological Lessons. 131, 132. 301
Kui1. Rule, to rule, right, straight, as it ought to he.
To have. the eye to something, in order to make it
straight as an arrow ; The
great resemblance of and of in the ancient
writing, gave birth to the false character , which
became usual. — Phonetic series 624.
I2, Doubt, to doubt. The modern signification is the

opposite of the ancient signification of this character,
w h i ch was confounded by the scribes with the next:
To miss the mark. an arrow that goes astray;

hesitation, doubt, uncertainty;
While primitively meant, to hit the
m a r k ; an arrow that slops in the target; certi-
tude, a settled matter. is a phonetic added later
on. — The modern character is an ill-formed contraction.
— Phonetic
series 783. Note that has nothing in common with
. See L. 99 I).
LESSON 132
About the primitive

N i u 2 . An o x , a cow, a b u l l . The o r i g i n a l c ha racter
represents the a n i m a l seen from b e h i n d ; the head,
the. horns, two legs a n d the t a i l ; etc. — It is the
93th radical of characters relating to bovine animals. —
Compare the sheep, L. 103. See again to bellow,
L. 85 E; a pa d d oc k for oxen, L. 17 F; to graze,
L. 43 D; to dr i v e by the halter, L. 91 C; the
yak, L. 100 A; an ox cut up, a half of it, L 18 D;
etc. Note the derivatives
M u 3 and P'in 3 . A b u l l a n d a cow; and are

t h e two halves of (L. 27 G ) . representing the pair.
Now, by extension, male and female of animals in
general. L. 26 I.
302 Etymological Lessons. i32. 133.
Kao4. To impeach, to indict; to do. with the mouth,
what is done by the, ox with its horns; to gore:
By e x t e n si o n , to tell of, to advi se of ,
etc. — P h o n e t i c series 282.
It is p h o n e t i c in
Tsao4. Pri mitive sense,
to arrive at, to reach,
extension, to construct, to build,
to create;
C The ox was the most v a l u a b l e t h i n g among the goods of the ancients,
hence the two following characters:
Wu4. A thing, matter, substance; the beings,
Because, says t h e Glose, the ox is the largest
of things is
phonetic.
C h i e n 4 . A n , one. The idea is represented by a

representative of t h e two nobler categories, a man
a n d an ox ;
LESSON 13».

First series. pu2.
Pu2. It represents a bird that rises, flapping the
wings, straight towards — the skies;
Compare L. 11 A,
B. It is now used, chia-chieh, as an adverb of negation ;
P'ei4 It represents a wast open space; a bird hovering
between heaven and earth;
Great, vast, unequalled. — Phonetic series 146.
3
Fao . Adverb of negation; the mouth saying
no: This character is a modern
one, for is taken in its chia-chieh meaning. —
T'ou4. To cut a speaker short by interrupting him in
his speech, as a dot, a denegation , or that puff
that is used in China to express one's contempt;
Note the modern
contraction, that is to be distinguished from (L. 73 E).
See also , L. 47 H. — Phonetic series 401.
Second series. chih4.
Chih4. It represents a bird that, bending up its
wings, darts down straight towards the earth.
By eiten-
sion, to go to, to arrive, to reach, etc. — It is the
133th radical. Phonetic series 186. It forms
Chih 4 . To go, to send, to make a person go or do,

etc; See L. 3t C. It forms
chih4, fine, delicate.
Tao4. To arrive at, to reach; is

phonetic. Forms tao3, to fall over, to prostrate; a
disjunctive particle, but, on the contrary.
Wu1. A house, a room in a house. The place where

one rests when he has got to. See L. 32 G,
where this character was fully explained. — Phonetic
series 490.
T'ai2 . A high open terrace, a turret upon which

birds alight. See L. 75 B. — Phonetic, series 790.
Shih 4 . A place of rest, a house, a dwelling. Its

composition is analogous to that of above; the
shelter where one stops and rests;
Chin4. To increase, to grow, to flourish. The

sun that appears on the. horizon, and birds that
alight in order to peck. When the s u n has appeared,
at daylight, all go to their business, each one gains
his ends, says the Book of Mutations;
The modern form is a contraction. Do

n o t confound another abbreviation , with p'u3,
L. 60 L. — Phonetic series 521.
LESSON 134
About the primitive
Ch'uan 3 . The character represents a dog;

According to tradition, Confucius found the
representation a very faithful one;
This induces to believe that the
dogs, in the times of the philosopher, were strange
animals. — It is the 94th radical. — See again L.
25 E; L. 65 G; L. 37 B; L. 72 C; L. 72 A;
L. 78 G; L. 23 I. Add to these:
Ch'ou 4 . A dog following the scent of a track

with its (L. 159) nose;
By extension, a
bad smell, stench, putridity. — Phonetic series 523.
Chueh 2 . A dog that stands up in the grass, to

look all around
Ti 2 . From dog and fire. Barbarians of the

N. W. regions. A race of dogs, says t h e Glose;
The fire indicates the havoc they
wrought. — The g e n u i n e e x p l a n a t i o n is; nomads
whose bivouacs ( camp-fires), were watched by
fierce dogs.
Hsien 4 . To offer in worship to the deceased

ancestors , the cooked flesh of a fat
dog;
dog, caldron,
This was the utmost of filial piety, the most palatable
of a l l offerings. General meaning, to present, to offer.
Compare L. 66 G.
Pa2. A dog led in a leash, by a string tied up

to a leg, according to the Chinese way;
Yin2. Two dogs that bite each other;

4
Yu . A litigation, a suit, Two dogs repre-
senting the two suitors, who revile each other,
who accuse each other; By
extension, a tribunal, a prison, a jail.
Ssu1. Judge. It represents the same idea. The

judge between the two suitors.
Yu2. A setter which sents the game, folds its ears;

Compare L. 134 A. By extension,
amazement, surprise, singular, extraordinary,
There are different chia-chieh. K'ang-hsi erroneously
classified this character under the 43lh radical . —
Phonetic series 95. It is found in the following
(modern form; while in the ancient character, there
was , above A ).
Mang2. A shaggy dog;

— Phonetic series "293.
LESSON 135.
About the primitive

Hu1. This character represents the tiger's strips:
— It is the 141th radical. — See again
L. 58 L), L. 69 D, L. 27 H, L. 40 A, etc.
Note the following compounds:
Hu3. The tiger, the king of wild beasts
says the Glose. It represents the tigers skin, and
its hind-legs on which it stands up like a man
when leaping; — Phonetic series 362 It forms
piao1, striped as a tiger's skin; See
also below G.
Lo3. To seize, to capture; L. 153,

To seize a n d to b i n d
; is phonetic.
Lu2. It is d e ri v e d from L. 150; is phonetic. A

vessel. In the more recent form, vessel is a radical
redundancy. There are different chia-chieh. —
Hsi4. An ancient earthenware vase in form of a

tiger; L..165 It forms hsi4,
comedy, game.
K'ui1. A bird not well determined; is phonetic.

It is phonetic in
K'ui1. To injure, to wrong, as by a pernicious
breath; a grievance, a deficiency;
(L. 58 E).
Ti1. A tiger in its cavern. Compare L. 23
H. — Phonetic, series 573.
Yao. Cruel, wild. A tiger which scratches a
m a n . The tiger's feet were replaced by its
claws. The disappeared from the modern character;
It forms yao4, malaria, a
p e r n i c i o u s fever.
LESSON 136.
First series. lu4.

Lu4. Antelope, gazelle, deer. On the top, the horns;
at th e bottom, the feet (L. 27 I, note 1); in the middle,
the body; — It
is the 198th radical. Phonetic series 633. It forms
Piao1. Roe. From ; (L. 50 0), contracted into

, is phonetic. — Phonetic series 810.
Ch'ing4. To congratulate. To go (L. 31 C) and

present to somebody, on a festive day, a deer's
skin with hearty wishes. This fur was the gift
commonly offered in ancient times;
Etymological Lessons. 136. 137. 138. 307
1
Yu . A h in d ; denotes the female; compare LL.
132 A and 26 I.
Li4. See L. 163.
Ch'en2. The dust raised by a band of stags.

There is now but one stag Dust in general.
Second series. ssu4.

. Ssu4. It represents an a n i m a l , either a
buffalo or a yak ;
Chai3. The philologists consider this

character as
being composed of the two preceding primitives, A
and B, contracted. The head of a lu4, and the tail of a
ssu4. Probably the elk. In the modern form, the head
of the lu4, was replaced by a small stroke, which is a
common way of doing.
LESSON 137.
About the primitive
Ma3. It represents the head, mane, legs an d tail of a

horse; — It is the 187th radical.
Phonetic series 552. Different compounds of this
p r i m i t i v e were explained elsewhere, e.g. L. 129 C;
L. 17 E, etc.
LESSON 138.
About the primitive
Niao3. It represents a bird with a long tail (compare

L. 168); — It is the
196th radical. - See again L. 22 B; L. 21 C.
Note ming2, singing of birds . Etc.
A contracted form of the last, w i t h o u t feet, in the

next two:
Tao3. Island. The tops of mo u n t a i n s , rocks that

emerge f r o m the sea, on which the sea-birds live.
Note that in the ancient form, is not contracted.
Hsiao1. A bird of prey waiting on the top of a

tree. See L 119 K. The head alone is seen; the legs
are concealed in the foliages; hence the contraction.
A n o t h er contracted form, without head, in the fol-

lowing characters:
Yeh2. A magpie. A special head (compare L. 29

B, L. 139 B). It is phonetic, in
Hsieh3. To set in order, to

arrange the objects in a house;
By extension
to set one's ideas in order, by writ-
ing; to write, to com pose;
Yen1. The pheasant A special head, that is not

(L, 112 I), Now, chia-chieh, an interrogative par-
ticle — Phonetic series 660.
Wu1. A crow, a raven, black; It differs f r o m

niao3, o n l y in this, that the stroke in the middle
which represents the eyes, is omitted. Perhaps be-
cause there is no contrast, between the black eyes of
the raven a n d its black feathers. — The second cha-
racter, yu2, is said, by some philologists, to be an
arbitrary contraction of the first. This interpretation is not well founded. Yu2 is
a relatively modern character, i n v e n t e d to be used as a particle denoting the
relation t h a t exists between the terms of a proposition; its use is a merely
grammatical one. It represents graphically the connexion (left side) between
two distinct terms. Anyhow, is unconnected with L. 117 C. — Pho-
netic series 582. Phonetic series 419.
LESSON 139.
About the primitive , and incidentally about
Chiu 4 . This character re.presents a mortar;

The first ones, says the Glose, were holes made in the
earth; hence the meanings, pit, large hole, in the
compounds. Later on, the mortar was made first of
wood, then later of metal. — It is the 134th radical.
See L. 47 N, L. 102 A, etc. Note:
Hsien 4 . A snare, a trap. A man who falls in a

pit; See L. 28.
B. — Phonetic series 360.
Yao3. To draw up with the hand, the contents

of a mortar; To draw up, to empty out. —
represents the head of certain animals, e.g. L.

29 B; L. 138 C; a n d
Shu3. Rat, rodents in general;
The head, the stiff whiskers, and the tail.
The ancient character represented the animal. — It is
the 208th radical. It forms ts'uan4, a rat in its
bole, to hide. See L. 37 C.
Lieh4. It was explained L. 40 B; it is , with

another head and stiffy hair.
LESSON 14O
About the primitive
Lung2. The dragon When it ascends to heaven a n d

flies, it rains; when it hides in the wells, there is a
drought. Vapours and clouds personified. The ancient
form is a representation sufficiently recognisable. The
modern form is explained thus; on the right,
(L. 11 A) contracted, the wings; on the left, at the
310 Etymological Lessons. 140. 141. 142.
bottom, (L 65 A) the body; on the top, is t h o n g h t to be (L. 120 K)

contracted, used as a phonetic; The last derivation
seems to be an artificial interpretation of a conventional abbreviation. — It is the
212th radical. Phonetic series 824. The characters of this series, the sound of
which is quite different, as hsi2, for instance, come from an ancient series
in , that was contracted by the scribes into
LESSON 141.
About the primitive
Yen4. It represents the swallow; the head, the

body, two wings expanded, the tail.
LESSON 142.
About the two p r i m i t i v e s , and
First series. yu2.
Yu2. Fish. The first ancient character furnishes a

faithful likeness. The two others are composed of a
sharp head, a scaly body, a n d a tail. See L. 17 K. —
It is the 195th radical of characters relating to names
and parts of fishes It forms
Lu3. Stupid, b l u n t ; (L. 159, contracted into )

the nose of a fish , without scent, — Phonetic
series 809.
Chi4. To cut open a fish . It forms chi4, a
proper name.
Yu4. To fish There were, in the ancient form, two
fishes denoting many, in the water.
Hsien1. The result of a fishing, many fishes.

3
Second series, chiao .
Chiao3. Horn.It is (the second ancient form),
the tail being left out, because, says the Glose, the
horns have much resemblance with the lanceolated
fishes. Or rather, it is simply a special primitive, that
represents a striate horn. — It is the 148th radical.
It forms
Tsui3. Egret ( h o r n ) of a heron and other birds;

(the sound was
3
changed), It is phonetic in tsui . bill, mouth.
Hu 2 . Chinese measure, holding ten pecks(L.98 B);

is phonetic (the sound being altered ).
Chieh3. To divide, to
undo, to solve. A bodkin
made from the horn of an
ox, and used to
untie; — Phonetic series 725.
Heng2. This character is of a recent formation. A big

piece of wood, a yoke fixed to the horns of oxen ;
is phonetic. A transversal piece, as a beam, etc.
LESSON 143
About the primitive

Jih 4 . It represents the sun; — It is the 72th
radical of characters relating to the sun and limes. —
Many compounds of this primitive were explained
elsewhere. See L. 73 A, L. 114 B , L 78 G,
L. 17 J, L. 60 L, L. 133 C, L 92 E,
L. 120 K, L. 112 I, L. 42 C, L. 47 P, L.
47 S, L. 34 G, etc. Note the following:
Tan4. The sun above a line, i.e. the horizon;

The morning, the dawn. See L,
76 D. — Phonetic series 162
Yao3. Darkness. The sun setting below the

trees,
Kao3. The sun shining over trees,

(L. 120 K) is between both. Therefore for the
progressive rising of the sun, we have the. fine series
Lastly
Hao4. The sun p o u r i n g down its rays u p o n
met; the sun at its he i g h t
The form , the s un in the skies, is of
a relatively modern f or m atio n . Compare L. 00 F.
Tsao3. The morning, early. Compare above C.

Here the guiding-mark is (L 152, contracted into
) a helmet, the height of a man with a h e l m e t ;
It is phonetic in
Ts'ao3. P r i mi ti v e l y a p la n t that was used to dye

in black. In that sense, the character in now written
or , arbitrary forms whose actual pronunciation
is tsao4; while became the generic name for
herbaceous plants, as is the n a m e for ligneous
plants.
Cho1. High, elevated. It is unconn ected with t h e

last. It represents a k i n d of mast surmounted with a ball
a n d a pendant, a decoration the Chinese are very
fond of. — Phonetic series 339.
Ching1. Luster, brightness. What is produced

by the three heavenly lights, sun moon
stars; See LL 62 C a n d 76 F. Note
the following:
Tieh3. Development of the character , which was

explained L 64 F. To dispose, to set objects in
order. The three. represent three objects a n d are
mere symbols (L. 149 F, note). By extension, to
redouble, to pile up, to fold up. The scribes first
changed into , a n d then invented the modern
character which was later on abbreviated in a strange
way.
Etymological lessons. 144 145. 146. 313
LESSON 144.
About the primitive , which formed the character

Ch'ou2. It represents the ploughing. To trace
furrows in the fields;
Curved lines, to lessen the figure. Now . It forms.
Chou2. To ask, in the Chinese way, by turning

and returning one's speach. This character is now
also written , which is a cause of confusion.
Chou2. Another, but unauthorised, variant of the last.

The modern scribes substituted to . Hence the
modern forms of the following.
Shou4. Longevity, long life. On the top, old, the

radical contracted (L. 100 A). At the bottom, the
preceding, as phonetic. The scribes altered this
character in different ways. — Phonetic series 788.
LESSON 145
About the primitive

Wa3. Tile. The Chinese roofs are made of rows
alternatively convex and concave, the curved tiles
c overing each o t h e r at the side, a n d being jointed
together with lime. Hence the form of the character:
a tile gets hooked with another; between both, — the
lime. By extension, a general n a m e for earthenware,
pottery, etc. — It. is the 98th radical of a few cha-
racters relating to earthenware.
LESSON 146
About the primitive

Erh3. The ear. I ntended to represent the pavilion of
t h e ear. It forms the 128th radical of a n a t u r a l group
of characters relating to hearing. Phonetic series 194.
— Diffe rent compounds were explained elsewhere, e.g.
. L. 10 O; L 81 H. Add the foll owing:
1
Ta . Great ears hanging like a hog's
or
s p a n i e l ' s ; hangling, dangling. This is a modern
character
Ch'ih1. From ear and heart, because the ear
reddens when a person is ashamed; to feel shame, to
blush, to redden.
Wen2 To learn any news by hearing at the
door. To hear, to learn, to smell.
Keng3. To feel fire in the ears, agitation
ardour, generosity. Compare L. 1 2 6 A.
Che1. lt is supposed To represent long flapping ears,

by the addition of an appendix.
Ch'i 1 To asperse, to blame one, which is done by

whispers in the ears;
—
Phonetic series 425
J u n g 2 The luxuriant growth of plants. is

g i v e n as an a b b r e v i a t i o n of a phonetic.
Yeh2. A final particle. It is said to he an arbitrary

contraction of (L. 1 4 7 B). — Phonetic series 4 1 4 .
Ch'u3. To lay hold on, to take, to seize. A hand

that holds an ear;
In
composition, to gather, to combine. — Phonetic series .
349. It forms
Chu 4 . To g at h er; It was explai-

ned L. 27 K.
Ts'ung1. Collection, to join; See

L. 102 I.
Tsui4 To scrape together;

See L. 34 J. — Phonetic series 711.
Etymological Lessons 146. 147. 315
4
Nieh . Composed of three ears, s h o wi n g one
ear coming close to two ears; to whisper, to plot, to
conspire; —
Phonetic series 842
H The following character is added as an appendix, because its modern con-

tracted form is like , though it has nothing in common w i t h it .
Kan 3 . To dare, h o l d , i n t r e p i d . . . On t h e l e f t , t h e b e a r
(I.. 27 J) whose paws were suppre ssed to g i v e room.
The modern scribes altered t h i s p r i m i t i v e . On t h e
r ight, a h a n d t h a t w h i p s a n d provokes t h e hear. —
P h o n e t i c series 622. It forms yen3, to a t t a c k a b e a r
in its cavern, w h i c h operation does not go w i t h o u t
On cries a n d ho wlin gs. Hence
Yen2. Derived m ea nin g, a severe i n j u n c t i o n of a

superior made, in t h e Chinese w a y , w i t h great cries. —
LESSON 147.
About the primit ive
Ya2. The canine teeth, hooks. The character re pre-

sents their m u t u a l j o i n t i n g ,
C o m p a r e LL. 54 F a n d 145 A. — It is t h e 9 2 t h r a d i c a l .
Phonetic series 91. — Different compounds of th is
p r i m i t i v e were e x p l a i n e d elsewhere, e g. L. 37 D.
Note
Hsieh2 . N a m e of an a nc ie nt city l y i n g in the East

of Shantung; is phonetic Now it means, i m p u r e ,
depraved, vicious (chia-chieh for , a soiled
g a r m e n t ) . The c h a r a c t e r y e h 2 (L. 146 E) used as
a particle, is given as a modern difference of
LESSON 148.
About the primitive
Shen l . The p ri m i t i v e m e a n i n g is, conception (
still means, to he p r e g n a n t ) . The character
represents a h u m a n body (L. 25), with a big belly
(a p a rt i a l primitive ), a n d a log moving forward to
keep the equilibrium; By extension, the body,
a person, a body's l i f e duration . — It is the 158th
radical of characters relating to the shapes of the
body. Different compounds were ex plaine d; e.g.
L. 131 D; L. 90 F; etc.
I 1 . It is inverted;
To t u r n
r o u n d . It forms
Yin 1 . The a n c i e n t dancers a n d pa ntom im e s, who made

their evolutions brandishing banners or feather-
brooms, a nd t u r n i n g their body in a l l directions;
By extension,
m o t i o n , a c t i v i t y , h i g h spir its , zeal. In t h i s sense, t h e
modern compound is n o w c o m m o n l y used.
LESSON 149.
About the primitive

T'ien2. Field, country. It represents a furrowed field ;
This character being simple and easy to write,
is often used, as a symbol, for an y object. — It forms the
102th radical of characters relating mostly to fields
and land. Phonetic series 161 — We saw the com-
pounds L. 91 B; L. 36 E; L. 60 E; L.53
C; L. l71. — But is substituted to an o t h e r
character in L. 104 A ; L 123 D; L. 10 A ;
L 150.
Miao2 Sprouts, vegetation at the surface of the
fields; — Phonetic
series 464..
Chi2. A man who goes and sees his fields,
who w or k s t h e m ; co n se qu e nt ly, t h e growing of t h e
p lants; It forms
chi2, corn, agriculture.
Li 3 . Composed of field and combined ;

The smallest hamlet, eight families culti-
vating a ching 3 (L 115). By extension, the side
of a ching3. the Chinese mile, now u s u a l l y measuring
1894 to En glish , or a b o ut 600 metres. — It is the 166th
Ch'an 2 . The distinct g r o u n d on w h i c h each
f a m i l y in t h e h a m l e t erected its dwelling : —
A shop, a s t a l l , an estate. — Ph onetic
series 795.
Chiang 1 . Fields separated one from another. It was
later on replaced by
Chiang1. P a r t i t i o n represented by t h r e e lines, That
divide two fields ; a li mit, a b o u n d a r y ;
— This character is now
replaced by , in which is a redundancy, a n d
represents the l a n d -m e a s u ri n g compass. — Phonetic
series 724.
Lei 2 . The fields, the country. — Phonetic series 803.

It f o r m s
Lei2. R a i n y clouds above the fields (L. 93);

storm, t h u n d e r . — Phonetic series 743.
Note: is o ft e n used as a symbol, to mean a

h e a p , an ord e r i n g of things.
Compare L. 72 L. For i n sta n c e in
Lei3. To b u i l d , by p i l i n g up pises.
Lei3. To j o i n in a series, to bi n d together many

objects. The m o d e r n f o r m is a contraction. —
Tieh 2 . To f o l d u p . It sh o uld be w ri tt e n . See L

143 G.
The scribes imagined, for rapidity's sake, to replace th e and piled up,
by or . For i n s t a n c e :
318 Etymological Lessons. 150. 151 152.
LESSON 150.
About the primitive

Tzu1. It represents a vase, e a r t h e n w a r e , p o t t e r y ;
It has n ot hi n g in common e i t h e r w i t h (L 119),
or w i t h (L. 12 E) The m oder n character is a
f a n c i f u l form i n ve nte d by t h e scribes. Not to he
confounded with tzu1, an u nc u lti v a ted field,
e x p l a i n e d L 12 I. P h o ne t ic series 406. It occurs, as
a radical, in a few compounds in which the modern
scribes, and K'ang-hsi, always write . For instance:
Lu2. A vessel. See L. 135 D.
LESSON 151.
About the p r i m i t i v e
Yu2. It represents t h e g e r m i n a t i o n of a f r u i t - s t o n e ,
of a large grain; r e p r e s e n t s t h e g r a i n , on t h e t o p
of w h i c h the. germ is c o m i n g u p ;
By extension, beginning, principle,
o ri g i n , starling p oi n t, cause, to produce, etc. —
Phonetic series 170. See its r a di ca l c o m p o u n d s yu2
2
(L. 55 K ) , and, p'in (L 58 C).
LESSON 152
About the primitive

Chia3. P r i m i t i v e sense, a h e l m e t . The character
represents a h el m e t u po n t w o strokes f i g u r i n g a t a ll
man, Later on, by extension,
f u l l a r m o u r ; lastly, any hard coverings, us the cara-
pace of turtles, the scales on crocodiles, etc. Different
chia-chieh, the first of the ten stems in the cycle, etc.
— Phonetic, series 109. See , the sun risen to the
height of a man wearing a helmet, L. 143 E. Compare
the ancient form of L. 125 F. It forms
Jung2. Defensive. arms and offensive weapons.
See L. 71 O. — Phonetic series 217.
Pi1. A d r i nki ng wase held with the left hand.
Chuan-chu, vulgar. See L. 46 E, where this character
was f u ll y explained. Here representing the vase, is
properly a special primitive that happens to resemble
to chia3, above A. — Phonetic series 388.
LESSON 153

Kuan4. To pierce, to string, to tie together different
objects. The primitive represents two objects (separa-
ted by the vortical line), two cowries strung together,
says the Glose (the horizontal line);
It forms
Kuan4. Long string of cowries . To pierce, to

string, to lie. Hence kuan4, usage, custom,
experience.
Shih 2 Primitive meaning, to have strings of cash

in one's house, to be really rich, and not in
appearance only. Hence the. actual chuan-chu
meaning, true, the same inside as it is outside,
massive, homogeneous, etc.
Lo3. To capture; to tie strongly; represents
the ferocity in capturing, and is also a phonetic. A
captive. See L. 135 C. Not to be confounded with
L. 53 C.
Ch'uan4. To string. The character is like , above

A. Two objects (not mouth) strung on a vertical
rod. Compare L 109 A. It forms
Huan 4 . A f f l i c t io n ; a heart pierced, a series

of troubles.
LESSON 154.
About the primitive , written by the modern writers or otherwise.

4
Tseng . It represents the cover of the, Chinese
caidron, used to stew bread etc. Now It is
found in
Ts'uan4 Chinese hearth. On the top, the cover

and its supports; then the masonry holding the
caldron; at the bottom, the hands pulling wood
in the fire; It is found
contracted in the following:
Hsin 4 . P r i mi t i v e l y , to sacrifice to the hearth;

Later on, bloody sacrifice, Cf. the
Li-Chi ;.BK IV, Sect. VI, par I I ; BK. XVIII,
Sect. IV, par. 33. — On the top contracted. In the
middle the offering, Al the bottom
phonetic. In order to shorten it, the scribes
imagined
LESSON 155.
About the primitive

Ko2. It represents a three-legged caldron
See page 386 — It is the 193th radical. Phonetic series
545. — Sec li1, L. 87 B; keng1, L. 103 A;
4
hsien , L. 134 A; etc.
LESSON 156.
First series. ch'ai3.

Ch'ai2. It represents an ancient book, written on
laths of bamboo, lied together, The scribes
imagined the modern form , which was wrongly
classified by K'ang-hsi u n d e . — Phonetic series
103. It forms
Shan1. To correct and expurge, which was done by

erasing with a knife what displeased in a book;,
It is from this character contracted, that are
derived the compounds ended in an, in the series
Tien3. The canonical books, Confucian Canonics,

Their excellence is graphically represented by the
fact that they are placed high on a stand, out
of respect; The modern
scribes kept something of the ancient form. —
Pien3. An inscription hung over a door;
By «tension,
flat, those inscriptions being written upon a tablet. —
Lun2. To gather texts to develop them. See

L 14 G. — Phonetic series 380.
Yao4. A collection of pipes , the holes of

which are put in a straight line on the top. See L. 14
H. — It is the 214th radical. Phonetic series 835.
Ssu4 To assert before judges one's titles

to a succession. To succeed, heir, etc. The
ancient character simply represented son, legal.
Second series k'uai3.

K'uai3 It represents the plaiting of a mat, by
interlacing the rushes. It forms
K'uai3. The hand plaits a mat with straw.

A family name. The modern scribes changed into
; not to be confounded with L 64 I
LESSON 157
About the primitive
Min 3 . It represents a vessel, porringer, plate;

- I t i s the 108th radical of
characters mostly relating to dishes. It is phonetic
(min, ming, meng) in the following:
Meng4. The eldest son. The first. — Phonetic

series 382.
Wen1. To feed a prisoner (L. 25 B); benevo-

lence, ch arit y; The
scribes i n v e n t e d th e second form. — Phonetic series
5 0. See. elsewhere, L. 169 D; I, 135 D; L.
125 C; L 19 B; L 38 G; L. 50 B; L.
110 D, etc.
Hsueh3. A vase f u l l — of blood. Blood. See L.

1 J. It forms L. 82 F. - It is the 143th radical of a
few chnracters relating to blood, under which K'ang-bsi
wrongly c lassified (L. 27 K). Phonetic series 208.
LESSON 158
About the primitive
Mu4. The h u m a n eye, Firstly the

socket w i t h the two eyelids a n d the p u p i l ; then the
p u p i l was suppressed; lastly the character was placed
straight in order to give room. — It is the 109th
radical of characters relating to the eye and vision.
See L. 48 C; L. 7 A; L. 34 J; and L. 10 K .
L; L. 118 D;
L. 37 F ; L. 26 L; etc.
See L. 16 L; L. 27 K; L. 10 O ; L. 97 F; L. 34 J, etc.
See L. 54 1, and L. 176.
First series. straight.

Hsiang 1 . To examine, to inspect; The
primitive meaning may have been, to watch from
behind a tree , or to open the eye in the woods
, in order not to be surprised by a foe or a wild
beast; The abstract m e a ni n g
of reciprocity, that gives to this character such an
extended use, is said to come from a kind of pun,
the two elements and being both pronounced
mu4. — Phonetic series 445. It forms
Shuang 1 . Hoar-frost; ,
Chien4. To look. An eye above, a man;

— It is the 147th radical
of characters relating to sight. Phonetic series 259.
Note the compounds:
Mi4 To look for something which is not seen

It is often contracted into
Te3. To apprehend, to take something which is

seen . Compare L. 45 E.
Hsing 3 To examine carefully, to try to understand;

Two explanations of this compound are
given. — I. In the first ancient form, is said to be
the eyebrows frowning so that the eye may see
distinctly, in which case, would be hut a variant
ot ( L. 7 A) — 2. The second ancient form gives,
to narrow the palpebral slit, to see better. —
Compare , L. 18 M. — By extension Sheng3, a
Province, the territory supervised by a governor.
Tun4. A shield, to shield. To cover one's self

totally, the eye observing the assailant through a
cross-shaped flssure;
—
Second series. bent.
Mu4. The eyes divergent (L. 103 G) that look

in different directions; squint, confused view ;
IN the following derivatives, is
bent in order to give room. In the whole series, the
modern scribes write instead of
Mieh4. The guardians of the frontiers (L. 71 N)

looking in all directions, so that their eyes become
heavy from fatigue Compare
(L. 90 D). — Phonetic series 808.
Meng4. Dimness of the view. On the top at the

bottom, to r u b one's eyes. It
forms t h e
compound
Meng4. The radical was
substituted to the of the last.
Dream, to dream; the confused
and dim visions seen during
night.
Third series. doubled, the two eyes.

Chu4. To open large a n d timid eyes, to regard with
reverent awe, apprehensive, fearful. Fear, circums-
pection. In the second form, more recent, the
heart was added to express the interior feelings. This
character is now commonly written
Ch'u2. Vigilance of the birds, that must

always watch for their life's preservation ; fear. —
Kuo4. The v a i n endeavours of
a bird to escape the hand by
which it wasseized; by extension,
to snap up, to catch; — Ph
netic series 851.
LESSON 159.

4
First series tzu .
Tzu4. It is t h ou g h t to resemble the nose;
— Extended meanings: 1. Self, I, my own,
personally; behaviour, to act, action; the nose being
the projecting part, and in some way the, characteristic
of the individual.. 2. Starting point, the origin,
beginning, evolution; the nose being, according to the
Chinese embryology, the starting point of the bodily
evolution. — The, successive alterations of this character
are the cause why it may be confounded with the
primitives L. 88, and LL. 143 and 73.
See L.40 C; L. 134 A; L. 119H; L. 34 K.
See L. 83 C; L. 2 7 I ; L.112 A; L.60 L;
etc. Add the following:
Hsi1. To breathe. According to the Chinese theory,
the ch'i4. of the heart is breathed out, while
4
the ch'i f r o m outside goes to the heart, through the
nose; — Phonetic
series 534.
Hsi 2 . The first ( contracted ) attempts to fly ,
made by a young bird; By
extension, to repeat the same act, to practice. —
Phonetic series 610:
Second series. che3.

Che3. This character, an important grammatical par-
tide, was invented to represent a connexion and a
succession between the members of a text. It represents
clearly enough what it means. On the top, two cros-
sed branches represent the members that came first;
represents the point where one stands, the starling
point for what follows; on the right, a descending
line, the continuation of the. discourse;
By extension, phrase, speech, document. — Compare
L. 138 D. — Phonetic series 422. It forms
Chu 1 . It is used, like the primitive, to separate
the phrases, and to express their mutual relations;
Chia-chieh, all, whole,
far
Shu3. To gather ( L. 39 C, a ne t) documents ;

to govern; a p u b l i c office. — Phonetic series 789.
Ch'e1. To brag. A m a n who spreads sentences.

By extension, prodigality, excess of all kind.
This is a modern character. A radical redundancy,

over . Two sounds and two meanings Chu4, to
expose, to manifest, to clear up. Chao2, a particle
used to indicate the moods and relations. It Is often
contracted into
Shu1. To write, a writing, a book. A writing-brush

t h a t writes sentences. The scribes altered
in a strange way.
LESSON 160.
About the primitive , with its developments

Shou3. The head; Compare with
the nose, ancient form, L. 159. It forms
Ka4. A very long spear to a i m at the heads of

massed enemies (L. 71 ).
Shou3. The head. It is the p r i m i t i v e with the

hair (L. 12). — It forms the 185th radical — Inverted,
it becomes
Hsiao1. The head of a criminal, hung up. The hair

is hanging down. The upper part is altered. See L. 12
N, and L. 92 B.
Tao3. To go ahead . A road, principle, doctri-

ne. To lead, to go. The progress of a speech, to speak.
Compare L, 169 B lu4 and chien4.
4
Mien . The face. A primitive indicating the front
of the head, the face;
The second modern form is an unauthorised
abbreviation. — It forms the 176th radical. Phonetic
series 466.
Yeh4. A man, head u p o n a body (L 29). The

meaning is often restricted to the head;
— It is the 181 th radical.
Different compounds were explained elsewhere, e.g.
L. 126 A; L. 62 B; L. 82 A; etc. Note also
Tien1. The top of the head; It is through

the fontanel, that the soul of the (L. 10 L) Taoist
contemplative goes out of the body, to rove about. —
Yu1. To suffer from the head and from the

heart; sadness, melancholy. It is phonetic in
Yu1. To go with troubles; sadness, melancholy.
See how the scribes altered the bottom of —
Shun4. To swim in a stream, the head

forwards; to follow the. current; docile, compliant,
agreeable;
Lei4. A species, a sort, a k i n d ; heads of
vegetals and animals, capita specierum.
Hsia 4 . A man who walks , his hands

hanging down. It is the thing done by the countrymen
in s u m m e r time when, the works being over, the
plants grow by themselves; hence the extended
m e a n i n g , summer. The modern character is a con-
traction. — This character was the first appellative
of the Chinese nation. On the; ancient bronzes, it is written (L. 112 B)
station, (L. 14 A) gathering of (L. 40 D) huts. Sedentary state after the
erratic period.
Kua3. Separation of the persons living in the

same house, of married persons; a widow, a person,
left alone, solitary; the regal We, Ourself. By extension,
partaking of goods, diminution, little.
LESSON 161
About the primitive
Pei4. A cowrie, a small shell used for money in

China in early feudal times. They were current
together with the coppers invented later on, till under
the Cb'in Dynasty (3d Century B C.); then the cowries
were left out;
The character represents the shell, and its propulsive apparatus. — It is the 154th
radical of characters relating to values and trade. Phonetic series 298.—Many
compounds (of this primitive, were explained elsewhere. Let us recall L. 52
E; L. 153 A; L120 H; L. 1 1 1 B; L. 130 D; L. 14 M; etc. Note
the following:
Pai4. Ruin; to ruin; to break, to crush one's
own fortune, or another's;
Yuan 2 . A cowrie round ; Round

in general. Compare L. 65 E. — Phonetic scries
586.
Chia3 Ku3. To buy. To cover (L 41 C) an

object with its value in cowries,
Mai3. To buy. To wrap up (L. 39 C) an object

with its value in cowries. — Phonetic
series 697.
Fu4. The self-sufficiency of a wealthy man

See L. 28 C.
Ying1. Cowries strung. A primitive form of the

following:
Ying 1 . A necklace made with cowries, ornament

of women in ancient limes;
By extension, an infant, a
babe, a suckling, still hanging to its mother's neck. —
Etymological Lessons. 162 163 164. 329
LESSON 162.
About the primitive

Kua 1 . It represents cucurbilaceous plants as
cucumber, melon, etc; The exterior strokes
represent the tendrils of melons; in the middle, a
fruit hanging;
— It is the 97th radical of characters
relating to the parts and sorts of gourds, etc. Phonetic
series.
Wa1. Hollow, to dig. From (L 37); Is

phonetic.
LESSON 163.
About the primitve

Li4. A primitive, representing two pendants; hence
the general notion of assortment, decoration, elegant,
graceful, ornamented, etc.
It forms only the following
compound:
Li 4 Antelopes, that live in droves (idea of assortment);

It is now used
chia-chieh, instead of the primitive, to mean, elegant,
graceful, bright. — Phonetic series 844.
LESSON 164.

2
First series erh .
Erh2. Two explanations of this character are given:
1. It represents the radicles of a plant spreading
in — the ground. Compare L. 15 A; L. 79 B.
The ground is represented by — ; ( ) is the
part growing out of the ground; is the p a r t of the
plant under the ground;
2. It represents the beard h a n g i n g from the
c h i n , u n d e r the — mouth (compare L. 41 B);
The second interpretation seems to be the
true one. The first came from the fact that the old shape of is like the bottom
part of (below B). As to the use of as a particle of transition, it is derived
from the notion of hanging from the chin. Compare L. 72 A. — It is the 126th
Juan3. The beard of a man ; hair long,
slender, not stiff. By extension, soft, weak. — Phonetic
series 456.
Shua3. A modern character. To play, as the Chinese
actors do, some with false beards, others dressed
like women.
Nai4 To take patience, to restrain one's self, by
playing with one's beard. This character is relati-
vely modern.
Second series. chuan1.

Chuan1. It represents a p l a n t that develops itself
above and under the. ground;
By extension,
stalks a n d roots. Sec above A. — Phonetic series 434.
The compounds of this series ended in uai, come from
the following contracted:
Ch'uai3 To measure with the
span how high a plant grew
up . To feel, to estimate.
Wei1. A man striking a plant (contracted

into ), to take away the fibres; to strip, to peel;
fibres, thin, slender, imperceptible;
It forms
Wei1. To walk slowly , stealthily, to compo-
sition, it is used in the sense of . It forms
Cheng1. To explain with
assurance (L. 81 D) the
threads of an affair. To testify,
to give testimony. — Phone-
tic series 796.
Hui1 . Slender thread

Etymological lessons. 164 165 331
4
Tuan . The left part of this character is an abbrevi-
ation of , the top alone straightened and defor-
med being kept; on the right, (L. 22 D). To strike
in order to reduce into fibres, as above C;
Hsu1. The rain necessary that the small plants

strike root. Here the top of was suppressed, the
bottom remaining. By extension, necessary, indis-
pensable. Phonetic series 779.
LESSON 165

4
First series tou .
Tou4 It represents a dish in w hich meat was served
up; In the ancient form, t h e
upper
did not exist, and a dot indicated the contents
of t h e vessel. — It is the 151th radical of characters
relating to vessels. Phonetic series 307. — See the
compounds, L 97 B; L. 135 E, etc. — B u t
L. 38 G, and L. 112 H, have another origin. It forms
T'ou2. The head. From L. 160 C; is phonetic.

Shu4 Vertical, straight. A vase standing solidly
(L 82 E) upright.
Tuan3. Short The character was made by compari-

son, says the Glose. To mean long, the hair
(L. 11 3) was chosen as an emblem; to mean short,
the two smallest utensils of the ancients were chosen,
an arrow, and the vase tou4,
Second series. chou1.

Chou1. A partial primitive. The bottom is not ,
the vase above A; hut it depicts the, ancient d r u m ,
with its skin, and the right hand straighte-
ned that strikes. By extension, music, feast, joy. It
forms
P'eng2. The so und of the d r u m ; represents

the strokes, or the isolated sounds ;
Hsi3. Joy; singing and music. There is no
feast without these; see L. 88 C. — Phonetic series
680.
Chia1. Good, excellent, delicious; a baud of

music; is phonetic (L. 53 D).
Ku3. A drum beaten by a hand holding a
drumstick (L 43 D); a radical redundancy. The mo-
dern scribes often write instead of ;
— It is the
207th radical.
Chu1. A composition analogous to t hat of ;a
hand (L. 45 B) beating a drum, It is
phonetic in the two following:
Shu4. A tree
Ch'u2. Cookery;
Ch'i3. It has nothing in common with L. 164 C.

Compare L 165 B. It is a n o t h e r drum t hat made the
pair, a n d which was beaten w ith the left hand.
This meaning is now obsolete. The character is used
as an interrogative particle. — Phonetic series 514.
Note tai1, stupefied, the effect of the music
upon dogs.
LESSON 166.
Chih4 A primitive. It represents a feline, a head

with wiskers, paws, backbone. Feline beasts, that are
characterised by their back long and supple, by their
undulating gait, e g. the cat, says the Glose. Compare
the characters L. 69; L. 137; L. 136. — It
is the 153th radical of characters relating to feline
beasts.
LESSON 167.
About the primitive

Ch'e1. Chu1. The ancient carriage The character
is straight, to give room; the axle; the two
wheels; the body of the carriage;
It means in composition, to roll along, to
revolve, to crush, etc. — It is the I59th radical of a
large group of characters relating to vehicles. See
L. 128 A; L. 59 I; L. 60 M; L. 92 D.
Note the following:
Lien2. Carriages in file Abstract notion of

connexion, succession; —
Ghun1. A legion of 4000 soldiers,

with cha-
riots; By extension,
an army.
See L. 54 A. — Phonetic series 438.
K u i 4 . The extremity of the axle, that projects

outwards in a l l Chinese chariots. This extremity
was formerly provided with a stopper to hold the
wheel, now replaced by a peg; It
forms
Chi1. To jostle and strike with the end of the

axles, as the Chinese cars often do;
Note: In the modern writing, became ; this

wrong writing passed current.
Ya4. To crush, to grind; the action of a wheel

(L. 9 A).
Hung1. R u m b l i n g, roaring, as the noise of m a n y

chariots.
LESSON 168
About the primitive

Chni 1 . It represents a b i r d w i t h a short tail (compare
L. 138 ); — It is the 172lh
radical. Phonetic series 344.
See L. 126 A; L 60 E; L. 39 D; L. 62 G;
L. 12 G; L 87 C; L 15 C; L 34 F ; L.
18 N; L 103 C; L. 72 .J; L. 158 G;
L. 119 G; etc. Note the f o l l o w i n g :
Shun3. A falcon held captive on the fist or on a

perch.
Shun 3 . A large river in Central China, mu ch

frequented by birds of passage. — It is phonetic in
Hui 4 . Formerly, a piece of f u r n i t u r e ( L. 51 A).

Now, chia-chieh for , t u r n i n g , confluence, a check,
etc. It forms k'uai3, to carry on the arm.
Chun 3 . Fixed, certain, to agree. This character is

unconnected with . Possibly an ancient target ;
is a contraction.
Wei2. To answer yes, to express one's assent;

is phonetic; It is phonetic in
Sui1. Formerly the name of an insect. Now a

conjunction, Though.
Wei2. To consider, to think on, care, sorrow;
It is phonetic in
Li2. At first it meant a net , a snare. It is now

used to mean, care, sorrow, misfortune; while is
used chia-chieh as an adverb, or a conjunction.
Ts'ui1. Very high, —
4
Chin . A band holding one bird, not the pair.
Hence the meaning, single, by itself; Compare
L. 103 C.
Shuang1 Two birds in the h a n d ; a couple,
a pair, doubled;
Ho3. The rain surprising birds, and forcing

them to seek shelter; The modern character
is a contraction. — Phonetic series 819.
Ch'ou 2 . Words exchanged belween two

parlies, altercation and its consequence, hatred,
enmity. The following character was formerly com posed
in the same way.
Shou4. To sell. Formerly the mouth, and two
the buyer and the seller. All kn o w the i mpor t an ce of
th e mouth in the Chinese markets. The m o d e r n
character is a contraction.
Y e n 4 . The w i l d goose; the birds d w e l l i n g on

crags, and which f l y in the, form of (a sharp angle):
N o t to be
confounded w i t h
Ying 1 . The falcon, now It is e xp lained thus: the

tame bird that serves to men;
In the ancient character, there
was (L. 127 C), quick, sudden. It is the general
name of birds of prey, eagles, cormorans, etc. —
Ying 1 . Ying4. To answer, to correspond, to do

what one feels is right a n d ought to be, etc. is
phonetic;
LESSON 169.
About the derivatives of (L. 44 D).

Nieh 4 . A hand writing upon a surface.
See L. 44 D. It forms
Yu4. To trace lines , to write. See L. 44 D. —

Pel 3 . A writing-brush, whose, handle is made of

bamboo.
I4 To exert one's self, to practise, as it must be done

to learn how to write and how to shoot (an old
form, L. 131 A ) .
Ssu4 To expound long , to display, indiscreet.
See L. 113 B.
Chao4. To place one's self near the window in
order to write. It is obsolete. It forms
Chao4. To push the window (the shutter) at
dawning, in order to write. By extension, to begin,
to undertake. Compare ch'i3, L. 129 A.
Lu4. A written regulation for the march ( L

63 A); a statute, a fixed law, an ordinance, tone;
Chien 4 . The composition is like the preceding's. To

write regulations for the march (L 63D), for
going on; to establish, to found, to determine, etc. —
Shu 1 . To write sentences ; a text, a book. See

L. 159 A. The modern character is a wrongly-formed
contraction.
Hua 4 . To trace with the writing-brush a

subject; to paint, to draw See L. 149 A. The scribes
added a frame to , from which they
first
suppressed one side, then two other sides; there
remains a — at the bottom of the modern character.
Chou4. The limits of time, during which it is

clear enough to write; the
day, the space
between two nights;
Compare the composition of the preceding.
1
Chin . A writing-brush that traces lines.
This character soon became obsolete, because it made
a double use with It forms, contracted into
the following phonetic compounds.
Chin1. A ford,
Chin4. Ashes that remain from a fire. Hence.
Chin4. Ashes that remain in a brazier, when the

fire is out; contracted became ;
By extension, ended, finished (the ashes being
the final result of the combustion ), an action that
went to its term, consummation, exhaustion. —
LESSON 17O.
Fei4. A special primitive with two sides, opposite

each other. Abstract notion of opposition, contradic-
tion, negation, wrong; no, not so;
Compare L . 2 7 G; a nd L. 127 D. — It is
the 175th radical. Phonetic series 353. Note the com-
pound
K'ao4. Primitively it meant to rebuke the
wrongs of others; it now means, to lean against, to
rely on. The meaning was changed, says the Glose; It
does not say why. See L. 132 B.
Chiu3. It represents the famous garlic with its

growing leaves; — It is the 179th radical. It
is found in
Ch'ien1. Wild garlic, See the phonetic,

L. 27 15. — Phonetic series 829.
Hsieh4. Shallot, From ; when it is

pounded, it makes a precious condiment. See
L. 118 C. The modern form is a contraction; was
suppressed.
LESSON 171.
About the derivatives of

Huang2. Yellow. The h u e of loess. Composed of
(L. 149), and of an old form of (L. 24 J), that are
mingled together;
See L. 24 L — It is the 201th radical. Phonetic
Kuang 3 . A large hall; is phonetic. By
extension, great, vast, wide,. — Phonetic
series 802.
Chin 3 . Yellow (contracted) earth ,

clay
potter's earth. The modern form is a contraction that
passed current;
Han4 Clay dried in the sun. Contracted into

, it forms the; phonetic, series 609. Note the following
sub-series:
Nan2. The slate in which arc the birds, when
the earth is dried and barren; famine, misery,
difficulty of living. — Phonetic series 847.
LESSON 172.
About the partial primitive
Yin2. Behaviour, gait, ritual politeness;
In a house, a man (a special primitive, stiff
bearing, on the top, a cap) pays salutations with both
hands. The modern character is a contraction. —
LESSON 173.
Ch'ing4. On th e right side, the well-known com-

pound, to strike. On the left, a primitive that
represents a sonorous silex, hanging from a frame;
See Textes Historiques, p. 82. Now Com-
pare L. 83 B. — Phonetic series 604.
Etymological Lessons. 174. 175 176. 339
LESSON 174.
About the primitive
Ch'i2. A whole, regular and perfect, harmony. The

idea comes from the even height of ears in a corn-
field; There is, in
this character, an intention of representing the
perspective. The. down stroke , says the Glose,
represents the. fore-ground; the upper stroke —
represents the back-ground. The ears are ascending
w h e n going towards the hack-ground. Three ears
represent a multitude. — It is Ihe 210th radical. Pho-
netic scries 771. Note the modern contraction. It forms
Chai1, abstinence; from a n d . In this charac-

ter, the two horizontal strokes of are mingled
together with those of , The m e a n i n g is, to r u l e
one's self, so that one may be fit to receive the
warnings of heaven.
LESSON 175.

Ch'ih3. The teeth. The ancient character was a
mere primitive, representing the teeth appearing in
an open m o u t h . In the more modern character, the
phonetic was added to the mouth with its two
ranges of teeth; — It is the
211th radical.
LESSON 176.

Chiao2. A vase for sacrifices, f u l l of aromatic
wine (L. 26 C), held by a hand. The upper part is
a cover. In the middle, the vessel, whose right des-
cending stroke has made room for Compare L. 46
E. The modern form is an arbitrary contraction ;
LESSON 177.
About two modern primitives, invented u n d e r the T'ang Dynasty.
Ka3. Convex. Wa1. Concave.
These characters do not require any explanation.

INDEX OF ALL THE USUAL GROUPS
analysed above
arranged according to the number of strokes.
The figures given refer to the Lessons, and the letters to the paragraphs.
7B 18 26 B
A
1 8A
2 29 A
19 A
1A 8B 2A 30
20 A
4A 9A 10 B D
2'2 A
6A 9B 12 D 33 A
23 A
6B 10 A 13A 34 A
24 A
6C 11 D 15 34 H
25 A
7A 12 A A 38 B
342 Usual Groups. 2, 3 strokes.
38 H 58 I 24 E 52 A 72 A
kung
85 E 59 A 24 H 54 H 74 A
i
89 A 86 A 26 A 54 H 77 A
ssu fu
39 A 74 C i 29 K 58 E 78 A
94 H
39 B 30 A 58 E 79 B
43 B 31 A 59 80 A
3
46 B 31 B E 81 A
3A
51 A 31 C 59 I 82 A
5A
52 A 31 D 60 A G 84 A
5B chi
52 A 32 A 61 A 85 A
10 E ssu
52 A 33 B 61 C 85 A
10 E i
53 A 34 I 62 A 87 A
11 B
54 A 35 A 63 A 90 A
12 E chin
54 F 35 H 63 B 90
12 E lian
55 g 63 D A
14 A 36 A
H 64 A 94 H
17 F 44 A
55 B chung 67 A 96 A
45 B
K 18 H 68 A 98 A
45 H
55 K 21 A 102 A
68 A
47 B
56 A 24 C 70 B 103 D
Usual Groups. 3, 4 strokes.
34
3
107 B 22 39 A 52 B 73 A
112 F D 39 G 54 E 76 1
125 A 24 42 A 55 B L 78 B
134 A H 42 A 55 C 79 A
24 N 43 C 55 H 35 B
fu
4 25 G 43 D 58 D 79 B
shi h
3D 26 D 43 E 59 E 79 G
fei
10 G 26 E 43 G 59 11 79 C
11 E 79 G
26 C 43 60
12 I 27 A O C 79 H
13 B 27 1 53 P 81 D
60 J
t'irig
13 I) 28 H 44 B 61 B 82 C
jen
14 K 29 E 44 C 61 C 79 D
wang
15 C 29 H 45 I 61 E 83 A
yu
18 B 30 D 47 B 61 F 83 C
wang
18 C 32 F 48 Y 64 G 83 D
yueh chu
18 F 33 B 48 II 65 A 85 E
ju
18 M 34 E 48 A 87 A
67 K
19 B 34 J 49 A 93 A
68 A
19 D 34 K 49 A 94 E
95 A 115 D 24 D 38 F
95 B 116 A
5 24 F 38 H
97 A 117 A 3D 24 0 40 E
97 C 118C 10 F 25 B 41 A
98 A 119 A 10 G 25 I 42 A
98 B 125 A 10 26 F 43 H
98 B 126 A G 27 G 43 J
99 126 A 14 I 27 II 43 M
A 127 A 14 I 27 H 45 C
99 E 127 B 15 B 28 E 45 J
100 A 128 A 16 A 28 H 46 B
101 A 129 A 17 F 29 D 46 G
107 A 129 A 18 D 29 J 47 H
109 A 130 A 18 E 30 C 48 B
112 A 132 A 18 G 32 B 49 I
112 E 133 A 18 32 C 50
112 K 134 A O 34 B C
112 L 134 C 18 O 35 C 52 C
114 A 143 A 19 37 A 53 D
115 A 147 A C 38 C 54 B
34
5
55 A 67 0 87 D 116 A 145 A
ch'ing
55 D 71 B 88 A 118 B 149 A
55 K 71 D 90 118 C 151 A
56 B 71 L A 118 D 152 A
56 F 71 M 91 A 119 D 153 A
57 I! 72 A 94 B 120 A 154 A
58 B 73 B 95 C 120 B 156 A
58 D 76 G 102 I) 120 C 156 A
58 F 78 A 102 F 121 A 157 A
58 I 78 E 103 C 125 A 158 A
59 D 79 C. 108 A 125 I) 158 A
59 F 79 F 108 A 127 C 162 A
50 G 79 I 108 E 129 A 169 A
60 F 81 A 109 B 129 D 177

inao
60 H 82 D 111 A 129 E 177
yu
60 83 A 112 129 E
yu
K 79 D C 131 A 6
wang
62 C 83 D 112 C 133 A 2E
chenn chu
62 C 85 B 112 H 134 A 10 C
shan
64 D 85 E 112 I 143 B 11 F
346 Usual Groups. 6 strokes.
11 26 I 38 D 49 I 65 C
G 26 K 38 D 50 F 65 D
12 F 26 K 38 F 50 G 66 A
12 J 26 L 39 C 51 A 67 B
12 J 26 M 40 A 51 B 67 D
12 L 27 K 40 C 52 D 67 0
12 M 28 D 40 D 53 B 67 I
14 29 F 41 B 53 E 69 K
B 30 C 41 C 54 E 70 A
15 B 30 E 41 D 56 D 71 C
16 A 30 E 43 N 58 G 71 G
17 B 31 B 43 Q 59 H 71 H
17 31 E 44 C 60 B 71 M
G
65 A 31 F 45 D 60 D 71 O
18 I
33 B 46 H 60 I 71 P
22 C
34 I 46 I 61 D 72 B
22 C
34 I 47 J 62 E 76 A
24 C
34 J 47 K 63 C 76 H
24 I
36 E 47 V 64 B 77 B
24 J
37 E 49 E 64 E 77 B
25 D
Usual Groups. 6, 7 strokes. 347
78 B 99 B 120 E 18 M
7
78 F 102 C 120 H 20 E
114
C 2C
79 B 122 A 23 B
102 D
11 F
79 B 122 B 25 F
102 E 60 H
11 G
79 D 124 A 26 L
103 A
12 C
81 B 125 E 26 M
106 A
82 C 130 12 F 27 D
110
C 12 H
82 E 27 E
A
133 B
85 C 13 B 27 F
111 A sha chia
135 A
85 E n 27 I
112 A 14
138 C
85 V C 28 J
114 C 148
138 C
86 B 14
114 C 29 C
139 E
87 B L
115 A 29 D
143 E
88 B 14 Q
115 B 29 E
146 A
90 15 C
115 B 29 H
147 B
D 16 B
116 B 30 B
148 B
92 A 17 C
117 B 30 E
157 D
96 17 F
118 A 32 F
159 A
D 17 H
118 C ch iao 34 I
164 A
96 18 E
348 Usual Groups. 7 strokes.
35 F 49 C 74 C 92 B 112 L
35 I 49 1 75 A 94 B 113 A
35 M 50 A 75 D 94 F 114 C
38 F 52 F 75 F 95 A 118B
39 A 53 C 75 G 97 A 118C
39 H 55 K 75 K 97 H 118 D
40 D 55 K 79 B 99 C 119 B
41 A 58 C 79 D 100 B 119 I
41 D 60 G 79 D 100 B 119 I
41 G 60 N 79 G 102 A 121 G
42 B 61 A 81 A 102 H 123 A
44 C 64 F 81 F 104 A 127 B
44 L 65 E 8t H 106 A 129 A
45 G 67 F 82 G 108 D 131 C
45 J 67 H 84 A 109 D 132 B
45 67 L 85 C 112 A 133 A
K 67 P 85 E 112 B 134 A
47 D 69 A 87 E 112 D 134 C
47 E 71 Q 89 A 112 E 135 B
47 F 73 C 90 112G 142 B
34
9
146 B 13 E 28 I 43 R 54 C
149 A 13 F 29 B 44 E 54 D
149 D 14 31 F 44 F 55 E
153 B C 32 A 44 G 59 H
156 B 14 G 32 C 44 H 55 K
156 H 14 1 34 I 44 1 56 E
158 C 14 N 35 E 44 K 58 I
160 A 14 P 35 I 45 C 59 B
161 A 14 T 36 B 45 E 60
165 A 16 K 36 E 46 E C
166 A 16 M 36 E 47 G 60 I
167 A 16 M 38 C 47 K 60 M
17 I 38 D 47 L 64 D
8 17 J 39 C 47 W 64 F
2D 18 C 39 C 49 B 64 1
10 C 18 G 39 J 49 D 65 C
10 K 20 C 40 C 49 E 65 F
11 C 21 D 41 B 50 E 65 G
12 K 24 F 42 C 50 G 66 C
13 C 27 B 43 D 52 F 67 E
69 G 82 A 103 C 124 143 C
70 82 E 106 B B 14 3
C 82 F 109 C 125 A C
71 J 82 H 112 A 125 B 143
71 K 83 B 112 I 125 B D
71 R 86 A 113 A 126 A 143 F
73 A 86 A 114 126 B 146 E
73 A 86 C B 126 D 146 F
74 C 88 A 115 1 27 II 150 A
75 C 91 K B 128 A 156 C
75 DEH 94 B 115 128 A 157 B
76 B 94 E D 128 A 163 A
78 E 99 F 117 A 128 168 A
78 100 B 117 C B 170 A
G 101 A 119 F 129 A
79 B 101 C 1I9 129 C 9

79 F 102 B L 131 E 1H
79 H 102 D I20 133 A 2F
79 K 102 G C 133 A 7A
79 K 103 A 120 133 11 A

Usual Groups. 9 strokes.
35
1
13 E 26D 40 C 55 H 73 B
13 E 26 M 41 A 56 C 73 B
13 I 26 M 41 D 59 H 73 D
14 F 27 I 41 E 59 H 73 E
14 F 29 H 41 60 H 75 A
16 C 31 B G 60 75 B
17 G 31 B 43 I K 75 C
17 H 31 G 45 G 60 L 75 D
18 M 32 46 D 60 75 D
19 B G 40 G O 75 E
19 D 34 J 46 I 61 F 75 G
20 F 34 J 47 M 66 D 75 I
cho
21 B u 47 P 67 H 76 H
65 B
23 D chou 48 C 67 J 78 A
35 K
23 E 48 E 68 K 78 F
37 B
24 49 F 68 F 79 E
37 D
B 50 G 69 F 79 F
37 F
24 F 50 N 71 P 79 G
38 D
24 M 52 E 71 P 81 A
38 G
24 54 E 72 K 81A
83 C 112 C 130 B 164 B 16 D
85 D 112 G 131 G 164 D 16 D
90 A 112 H 133 B 165 B 76 E
90 C 112 H 143 D 167 C 16 F
90 112 I 146 C 169 B 16 L
D 117 B 149 B 169 B 17 D
94 B 117 B 156 D 169 D 18 C
94 D 118 A 157 C 170 B 18 E
95 C 119 F 158 B 18 K
95 C 120 H 158 D 10 18 L
97 D 190 I 158 E 10 L 21 B
101 B 120 K 158 F 11 1 24 K
102 A 121 C 159 12 G 25 M
122 C B 12 J 25C
102 C
122 160 A 13 H 26 C
102 C
C 160 A 13 I 26 M
102 D
125 A 160 B 13 I 27 I
102 D
125 C 160 C 14 B 27 J
103 A
125 E 161 E 14 30 B
103 A
129 D 164 A C 30 E
Usual Groups. 10 strokes.
35
3
31 C 47 N 62 D 62 B 103 A
31 E 47 65 D 86 B 104 B
31 E O 66 86 B 106 B
34 F 47 T B 87 C 109 D
34 47 V 68 G 90 F 111 C
G
49 G 68 I 90 G 112 G
34 I
50 H 69 B 91 B 112 H
34 I
50 I 69 C 92 B 113 B
34 J
52 G 69 G 92 C 117 A
37 G
53 E 71 P 92 F 117 B
38 G
54 G 72 C 97 E 117 I)
40 C
54 G 75 B 98 A 118 A
41 D
55 H 75 D 100 C 119 H
41 E
55 K 78 D 102 B 121 I.
43 Q
58 I 79 B 102 D 125 C
44 I
59 C 79 B 102 I) 126 B
45 G
59 H 79 G 102 H 126 F
45 I
59 I 79 J 102 II 129 E
45 J
60 F 81 G 102 H 130 C
46
C 60 L 82 A 102 I 131 B
131 D 162 B 24 M 39 60
133 C 164 C 24 Q O E
134 A 165 E 26 J 40 61
135 G 167 D 26 M A F
135 168 G 26 M 40 62
H 26 M B C
137 A 11 26 N 40 D 62
138 B 10 D 27 A 41 B F
138 D 12 27 H 41 D 65
139 A O 27 K 44 B II
143 E 13 29 H 44 J 67
146 D C 31 B 44 J N
148 B 14 31 F 44 K 68
149 C M 32 B 45 J H
155 A 14 O 32 B 46 D 69
157 C 15 D 34 J 47 E
158 G 16 F 35 F N 69
159 A 17 E 35 M 47 E
159 B 18 L 36 E R 69
160 18 N 39 H 50 F
35
5
172 A
78 E 103 A 129 A 36 C
173 A
78 G 104 A 129 A 36 E
78 G 106A 131 C 36 F
79 H
12
106 D 131 F 38 G
10
79 K 110 B 132 B 38 G
81 G H
112 E 130 A 39 L
81 H 10 I
117 B 136 B 40 D
82 I 117 B 138 A 10 40 D
91 C 117 D 138 C O 41 B
91 D 119 E 142 A 13 C 41 E
91 F 120 C 142 B 13 F 41 G
92 G 120 H 146 H 14 42 C
95 A 120 H 149 F O 43 J
96 C 120 K 153 B 15 45 F
97 D 123 B 159 A C 46 D
99 D 124 C 167 B 17 E 47 C
101 B 125 B 168 F 23 F 47 U
102 B 126 A 169 C 23 G 49 H
102 B 127 B 171 B 26 D 55
102 G 128 A 171 B 26 M G

60 F 75 G 97 D 120 H 146 F
60 L 75 I 99 D 120 H 153 A
62 B 78 G 100 A 120 H 159 B
62 H 79 H 100 B 120 K 161 D
64 C 79 H 101 B 121 I 104 B
64 H 81 C 102 D 121 L 165 B
65 G 82 A 102 D 123 D 165 B
65 82 B 102 G 126 A 165 D
G 82 D 102 I 126 D 168 K
69 I 82 H 103 C 126 D 169 C
71 D 83 C 107 A 126 E 171 A
71 I 87 C 110 B 126 F
72 E 90 110 C 126 F
13
72 M B 111 B 128 A 12
73 D 90 112 H 129 A G
73 E D 112 H 129 C 14 D
75 B 91 G 115 129 D 14 E
75 C 92 C 130 B 16 G
75 C D 117 D 138 C 16 L
75 E 93 B 118 143 G 22 B
Usual Groups. 13, 14 strokes. 357
23 E 68 C 99 F 126 C 17 E
23 H 69 D 102 G 127 D 17 E
27 E 69 F 102 H 135 C 18 N
31 B 71 P 102 H 135 E 21 C
36 E 71 Q 102 I 136 C 23 F
39 I 72 L 108 C 139 B 27 K
42 C 73 E 109 D 14 2 B 31 E
46 D 74 B 117 A 142 B 34 I
47 F 75 A 117 149 E 35 L
50 D 76 C D 149 F 36 C
50 M 76 D 118 C 159 B 40 C
50 Q 76 E 119 M 161 C 40 D
52 E 78 F 119 N 164 C 47 0
54 G 81 A 121 E 165 C 49 G
54 H 81 H 121 K 167 D 62 G
54 I 81 H 122 C 168 K 65 G
59 H 92 E 123 F 68 E
60 L 95 C 123 F 14 69 J
60 97 B 125 C 3E 75 B
O 99 D 126 A 16 H 75 B
358 Usual Groups. 14, 15, 16 strokes.
76 F 13 23 H 88 C 165 D
1
78 G D 23 I 90 E 169 D
82 E 134 26 M 90 E 171 A
82 F B 27 J 91 I 175 A
92 E 135 F 34 D 92 R
97 I 144 B 34 K 103 A 16
102 H 144 B 34 K 121 M 16 J
102 J 156 H 36 E 123 D 17 E
103 C 158 F 37 F 128 B 39 I
111 C 159 B 40 A 129 E 50 B
112 A 160 A 47 B 136 A 50 J
112 L 161 F 47 S 136 A 50 K
112 L 164 E 47 X 138 C 72 H
117 D 165 B 47 142 A 72 M
118 D Z 149 D 79 H
118 D 15 52 F 149 F 86 B
120 100 60 M 153 A 92 B
G 11 C 67 N 158 F 92 E
126 B 14 75 E 160 C 97 F
126 F O 75 J 164 C 102 H

Usual Groups. 16-30 strokes. 359
112 G 71 Q 86B 79 H 105 B
120 I 72 K 97 B 92 D 149 F
121 D 82 F 102 H 103 A 176 A
121 L 86 13 103 B 160 C 10 O
135 D 90 G 108 B 160 C 72 H
140 A 92 B 110 D 163 B 92 D
141 A 103 A 119 G 171 B 94 C
142 B 104 A 146G 143 G
158 F 105 B 158 H 20 105 C
159 B 106 C 168 G 36 E 110 D
168 H 118 D 176 A 39 I 23 G
177 B 158 B 73 D 72 K
161 F 19 130 D 73 E
17 164 C 34 K 134 A 10
14 H 34 K 158 G 23 F
16 I 18 35 M 72 E
27 B 12 G 39 21 & 130 E
47 U 15 C D 54 I 130 E
50 I 34 C 68 D 79 I 194 B
62 C 72 J 72 G 82 F 154 B
Appendix. 361
OLD GRAPHIES.
Whensoever the ancient Chinese noblemen had been favoured by their princes,
or had experienced some kind of success or luck, they used to cast a bronze vase,
in memoriam. Symbols and Characters relating the fact, were moulded on the
interior side of the vase, which was placed in the ancestral temple of the family,
and served henceforth as a ritual vessel, when oblations and libations were of-
fered to the Manes. 0» the exterior side of the vase, the two eyes of the Ancestor,
were figured, looking at his sons and grandsons with benevolence. We are indebted
to these old bronze vases, for all the old Graphies we possess. Ancient Chinese
epigraphy on stone, is non-existent. Many fac-similes of vases and inscriptions are
to be found in the 4th French edition of this work, Caracteres Chinois, pages
361-452. In this English edition, the matter has been presented in a summary w a y.
Now take good notice of one thing, which uses to baffle novices in Chinese
epigraphy. In all modern books, the engravers have replaced the old obsolete
symbols which are not characters, by conuentional current characters chosen
because of their form, without reference to their meaning. To translate those signs,
would cause laughable blunders. For instance, instead of the symbol offering
of meat, they engrave the modern character father, because the old character
father resembled the symbol offering. — In the place of the poured
libation, they put a . — For the obsolete a distaff-load of textile fibres pre-
sented to the Manes, they put a . And so on. — Remember this, when reading
the modern transcriptions of the following old Graphies, which have all been
photographed from rare Chinese epigraphic repertories, such as
etc.
362 Old Graphies. First part. Symbols.
The most frequent of a l l Symbols, is a right h a n d offering , which is

neither a flame, nor incense, b u t the smell of the offered meat, ascending towards
the Ancestors.
Almost every time, beneath this symbol of offering meal, there is a sort of
tear, symbol of the poured down libation of wine. Instead of the falling wine, they
sometimes figure the splash of the wine having fallen on naked soil. This figure
is rare, because it was ritual custom to pour the libation on grass, spread out or tied
into a bundle, w hi c h was burne d a f t e r the ceremony was over. There are many
figures of this bundle of grass, sometimes graphically reduced to a , or , or
anything else.
Old Graphies. First part. Symbols. 363
Ordinarily the son offering to his father (and an-

cestors) is represented in an ethereal shape,
which figures his being raptured and transported
mentally in the presence of his Ancestors, by his
filial love and desire to please them. Sometimes
arms and legs of the son are figured.
The grandsons able to stand upright, are figured
beneath the son (their father) holding up their
hands in prayer. — The grandsons too young to stand upright, crawl
between the
legs of their father, oftentimes resembling frogs. — Sometimes the
grandson is
figured like the son, but holding a skein of yarn, symbol of the succession of
generations.
A added to the figure of a son or grandson, does not mean two. It is a sign
of plurality meaning «All of them, as many as there are».
Sometimes the son does not offer the smell of the cooked meat, but the raw
meat cut in slices, which are exposed on the shelves of a dresser. A libation of
wine is poured, as usual.
Besides the smell of meat and the libation of wine, three things are
presented at almost all solemn offerings. These are .
1 a box containing jade, cowries and pottery.
2 an amphora of wine, presented by two hands, with a ladle,
3 a distaff-load of textile fibres, with 2 or A hauds spinning.
The idea is very clear The Ancients offered to their deceased Ancestors, all
the things without which the living could not be; viz. valuables, money, vases,
stuff for clothes, wine. Analyse the three figures above...
The cowries, current money of old China, are offered strung up, often In
great quantities, as much as a man can carry with a pole. — In some texts, the
strings of cowries are figured in a compendious conventional form.
The offering of raw flesh is eventually figured by

the l i v i n g a ni m a l , and the flint knife or the prehi-
storic axe indicative of the killing of it.
When the animal is not figured, the mere knife
in the hand of the son, denotes that he has killed an
animal to be offered.
366 Old Graphies. First part Symbols.
Sometimes the offering of raw meat is figured by the skinned hide of the
victim fastened on a stake, accompanied by libations, etc.
The presence of the Ancestor to whom the offering is made, is ordinarily figured
by the heel of his foot; see Lesson 112 A. In modern Chinese, to say in presen-
ce of, is before the heels of. — Now we are able to interprete the
whole of the following two inscriptions... ( Left) In presence of my Ancestors, I
offer raw meat, a libation, wine and tow... (Right) In presence of my Ancestors,
1 the son holding the flint knife, offer raw meat, libations, precious things, wine
and tow.
Sometimes the offering is presented to a foot-

print, or to foot-prints of the deceased Ancestor.
Now-a-days, as of old, the Chinese try to discern the
foot-prints of the departed, on planks strewn over
with sand or ashes. See above four figures showing
the worship of foot-prints, In the first and second,
there is one; in the third, there are two of them.
In the fourth, the Ancestor has walked all around
the offering, sniffing its smell. In the fifth, the legs
of the Ancestor are visible. The frame which enclo-
ses three of these Graphies, will be explained on
page 368.
In some very rare cases, the Ancestor is figured standing, and the offering is
presented to him directly. See above.
Sometimes the presence of the Ancestor is figured by his two eyes looking
with benevolence at the offerings. As has been said on page 361, the benevolent
eyes of the Ancestor are figured on the outer side of all ancient sacrificial vessels,
staring at the offerers. Sometimes the two eyes are replaced by one triangle,
symbolising sight in abstracto.
The temple of the deceased Ancestor, or rather the sacred niche from whence
his transcendent influence is supposed to emanate, is figured by a frame, square
or rectangular, often with inward curved angles.
Ordinarily the temple, and the presence of the

Ancestor in the temple, are figured, either by a
balustrade separating the nave from the sanctuary;
or by the inlet to the sanctuary, a narrow pass
between two or four pillars. All the supplicants,
sons and grandsons, are standing in front of this
entrance, the spot where the offerings are presen-
ted. — Hereby an excellent figure of the balustrade.
In the sanctuary, the eyes of the Ancestor stare at
the hide of the slahghtered victim, expanded on two
slakes. In front of the entrance, raw meat and liba-
tion, as usual.
Some times, in a fit of rapture, the offering son is spiritually transported beyond
the balustrade and the pillars, into the sanctuary, unto the very presence of the
Ancestor. See above, on the left, the best figure Antiquity has bequeathed to us.
It dates from the 2d dynasty (circa B.C. 1500), and shows a raptured son knee-
ling in presence of his standing father... In the two other figures, the raptured son
carries cowries or meat (knife).
In some very rare but most precious figures, the

deceased Ancestor is represented diving, head,
foremost, from heavens above, towards the hand of
his offering son.
Sometimes the Ancestor is figured

by a ghostlike silhouette, with a single
eye, often surmounted by a triangle.
I call your attention to the second line
of the text reproduced beneath on the
right, in which you have firstly a fool-
print of the Ancestor, secondly his
ghostly shade.
Now we are able to understand all the Graphies on top of this page, and others
on the following pages...
Presentation of a new-born child, To the sight of his Ancestor.
Presentation of a new-born b tbe. the fontanelle of whose skull is not yet-
closed, in the temple, with a libation
Presentation of twins, with offerings a n d libation.
Presentation to the Ancestor, is his temple, of a pair of twins, brother and
sister, with offerings.
In the presence of the Ancestor, after libation, offering of jade wine and tow,
by the son, a grandson having recently been born.
Offering of a banner. In the. second figure, the

banner is offered, with a libation, to thank for the
apparition of a foot-print of the Ancestor, in the
temple.
Presentation of a new carriage... with offering of bleeding flesh on a stake, in

the first figure., with the ordinary offerings, in the second figure.
Bunches of wheat are offered, to thank for the

harvest.
To announce to the Ancestors, the fabrication or a how and arrows, launching

of a bark, building of a dwelling-house.
Offering to the mountains... to the clouds. — Invitation to the dragon to make

the clouds burst and rain pour down.
Old Graphies. Second part. Texts. 375
This bronze plate, dating probably from the 20th century B.C., is the oldest
specimen known of Chinese writing. It is not properly a text, b u t the enumeration
of all kinds of animals killed in a great hunting. The document reveals... 1 t h a t
the shape of the primitive characters differed greatly from t h a t of their derivati-
ves... 2 that the principle of composition of characters, was always the same, from
the beginning.
376 Old Graphies. Second part. Texts.
On the day i-ssu, in presence of the deceased grandfather, the widowed

grand mother (chief of the family) has offered, with wine etc., this bronze tripod,
to last ten thousand years. Hoping that innumerable sons and grandsons will
enjoy it for ever.
In the eighth month, on the first

auspicious day which was i-mao, the
duke committed solemnly to the
standard-bearers the new standards.
This tripod was cast to commemorate
the fact, and was presented before the tablet
of the Ancestor of the clan, with the
usual offerings... sons and grandsons
worshipping in front of the sanctuary.
On the d a y keng-shen, the new emperor Wu-

ting went to the eastern gale of the city, to salute
the rising sun. On the evening of the same day, he
ordered minister Hu to deliver five man-loads of
cowries, to be presented with the ordinary offerings,
as a token of gratitude for the prints of feet and
h a n d s of the deceased emperor Hsiao-i, which had
been noticed in the ancestral temple, five time»,
d u r i n g the 16 months of mourning. This vase was
cast and placed in the sanctuary, to commemorate
the fact. — B.C. 1273.
378 Old Oraphies. Second part. Texts.
The emperor being

about to wage war
against the marquis of
Hsu, the duke of Chou
requested me Ch'in (the
official conjurer) to ana-
ematise the rebels. So
I Ch'in made with my
hand the comminatory
gestures, and pronoun-
ced with my mouth the
imprecatory words. The-
refore the emperor gave
me hundred ingots of
copper ( o f six ounces
each) as a reward. I
Ch'in have employed the
imperial gift, to make
this vase, which I pre-
sent to my Ancestors,
with the ordinary offe-
rings, in memoriam.
Old Graphies. Second part Texts. 379
In the 9th month, the moon being f u ll, on the day chia-hsu, the, emperor
having worshipped at the ancestral temple, sat down in the h a l l in which the
archives were kept. The Grand-Director Nan-chuang having introduced U-chuan
of Lu, the emperor ordered first the attendant registrar to lake his tablets into his
hands, and then dictated his w i ll, as follows: « U-chuan, I invest thee with the
charge of inspector of Hu-fang. » — Having thus been honoured and favoured by
the Son of Heaven, I, their grandson U-chuan, have cast this u r n , to gladden my
glorious Ancestors. I hope it w i l l be the jewel of my descendants, for ever. — 9th
century B.C.
During the .3th year of his reign (probably B C 768), in the 3th month, the
moon beginning to wane, on the day hsin-yn, the emperor staying at the new
palace in the capital, feasted Chu, the chief of the Literati. During the banquet,
as he was in high spirits, the emperor proclaimed: «I give master Chu ten strings
of cowries. • . Chu fell on his knees and thanked. — Having thus been honoured
and rewarded by the Son of Heaven. I Chu offer this anaphora with a basin, to the
flrst Ancestor of ray race, and place them in the ancestral temple, to be the heredi-
tary treasure of my descendants.
During the fifth month (B.C. 675), on the auspi-

cious day ting-hai, the emperor being at the capital
Chou, received the spoils sent by count Pien and
others, after h a v i n g defeated the rebels south of the
river Huai. There was some fine copper among the
spoils. The emperor ordered it to be melted and cast,
into the form of th is tripod, to be a jewel of his
sons a n d grandsons for ever.
The emperor having received the

prime mandate, the great gift of Heaven
(imperial rank and dignity), on ascen-
ding the throne (B.C. 571) offers this
precious basin, to the Spirits of heaven
and earth, hoping they will prevent
internal wars... To last during ten
thousands of generations, for ever —
[Take notice of the fifth character in
the first line, the anthropomorphic
figure of Heaven.]
In the year chia yu (B.C. 567), the eighth month, on the day ping-yin, after
purification, the emperor went to the temple, performed the rites, and offered this
basin to propitiate the perspicacions Spirits. May the Spirits (of heaven and earth),
knowing the virtue of the emperor, give him peaceful days during ten thousand
years, and conserve him his imperial mandate for ever.
1 Chui belonging to the imperial clan, remember often with veneration and
compassion, my Ancestors who died in battle for the service of the emperor. The
Son of Heaven having bestowed great liberalities on me, 1 have cast in bronze and
offer now to them this vase tun, as a token of my filial piety. May they bestow on
me long life and durable prosperity... Made by me Chui, after the decease of
emperor Ling (B.C. 545), to be the jewel of my family. — [Note thrice the
anthropomorphic figure of Heaven. ]
This is a fragment of a long document contemporary with Confucius, which I

quote to show the shape of the characters in which the Confucian Canonies were
first written. After having witnessed those clumsy figures, I suppose you will be
rather lenient with the blunders committed by their interprelers. [See 4th French
edition, pages 442-449.]

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CHINESE CHARACTERS

THEIR ORIGIN, ETYMOLOGY, HISTORY,

by Dr. L. WIEGER, S.J.

Translated Into English by L. Davrout, S.J.

Second Edition, enlarged and revised

PARAGON BOOK REPRINT CORP., NEW YORK

Standard Booh Number: 486-21321-8

Manufactured in the United States of America

Towards the year B. C. 213, under the Emperor Ch'in-shih-huang

For instance, Series of the character chun, prince, through 45 centuries.

1. The primitive form, ku-wen. A

Six Categories of Characters.

Let us summarise the matter, with a few details and instances.

Second category. Indicative symbols. A figure that suggests the meaning;

Fifth category. Chuan-chu. Acceptation of the character in a meaning more

Example: picture of a fishing-net. By extension of the primitive sense, any

III. COMPOSITION AND DECOMPOSITION.

1. Use of a compound instead of a simple, as a radical. The same need

5. Phonetics mixed. — Under some numbers of the phonetic Lexicon, one

IV. CLASSIFICATION OF CHARACTERS.

1. Natural classification. — The first classifications were encyclopedias of

Ung. U, u, in, etc.

Ai, ei, e, i, ieh,

Eng ing, iung.

4. Phonetic classification, by sounds. — Basing himself upon thesystem

P Sh ien, an, nan.

5. The Tzu-hsiao-chu- yiii t hat will be occasionally

1. By radicals. The dictionary by radicals of K'ang-hsi was translated,

3. By sounds. Being given a system of figuration, the characters were classified

Use of the dictionaries. — To find a character the sound and meaning of

LIST OF THE 224 PRIMITIVES.

P'ieh1. Chiu1. Ju2. Po3.

Kung1. Chieh4. Shih4. Ho2.

About the pr im it i ve , a single stroke.

I1 represents the unity, pr in ci ple of numeration;

In composition, says t he Shuo-wen, — is most c o m m o n l y symbolic;

Firstly, w h e n w r i t t e n on top of [he c om p o u n d, — represents e i t h e r heaven, or

T'ien 1 . Heaven, the vast — e x t en t of space that is

Note that ( L . 60)

Placed abo ve them, heaven go-

Mo4. The outmost twigs, the — top of a tree;

Li4. To stand, to be erected. A man (L. 60) stand-

Pen3. The t r u n k of a tree. The part of a tree

Thirdly, — represents a barrier, a hindrance. Examples:

Shuan1 A beam — used to holt a door.

Ch'iao3. Difficulty in breathing, oppression;

line bent up represents the brealh that tries to

Fourthly, — represents something contained. Example:

Firstly, means two. Example:

Secondly, represents two terms, two extremes. Examples:

— Phonetic series 325.

See L. 66. — In the modern writing,

About , three strokes, and its derivatives.

represents bo un dary lines, limits, in

straightened , forms a part of

doubled forms hsuan4. It is believed that this

About the dot.

Chu5. A dot, a sign of punc tuation, etc. Formerly

is found in the. following characters:

Chu3 T h e i n f e r i o r p a r t re pr esents a l a m p , the. f l a m e

About two primitives, and

It represents an arow fixed in a target, in

1. replaced in many characters, for e xa m pl e: