GROUND CONTROL

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Longwall mining activities alter the exsisting ground stress field, this changed stress field is
known as induced stress. Extraction of coal by longwall mining induces a redistribution of
stresses causing the rocks near the mining excavation to accomodate a redistributed load.
Effective and efficient longwall mining is dictated by the magnitude and orientation of the
major and dominant stress present at the mine site. In Australia, the dominant stress
component is horizontal stress. The figure opposite shows the stress concentration occurring
around the extracted area. Thus it is important to mine the panel as near as possible to parallel
with the high horizontal stress direction. The level of stress concentration increases as the
angle between the direction of mining and the direction of the major horizontal stress
increases. In general the loads occuring on the retreating facing are not uniform. The
magnitude of the stress varies along the length of the face and is maximum at the centre of
the face.
Topics that will be covered in this module are:

 Abutment Pressures
 Optimal Direction
 Support Capacity
 Gateroad Support
 Chain Pillar Design
 Ground Subsidence
 Instrumentation
 Mining in Difficult Conditions


ABUTMENT PRESSURES
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In the diagram opposite, mining of a longwall panel results in the formation of front and side
abutment pressures. The peak of the front abutment pressures can occur 1 to 3 metres ahead
of the face and the extent of the front abutment pressures can be up to 50 metres and more
ahead of the face. Similarly, side (flank) abutment pressures occur on the adjacent barrier
pillars as shown. The new stress ditribution resulting from the excavation is particularly
important if it is likely to cause excessive ground deformation, contributing to difficult
mining operation environments. In order to estimate the stress distribution, various emperical
and other estimation methods are used, refer to the list of references for further reading.

OPTIMAL MINING DIRECTION

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Lateral stress is thought to be generated by techtonic plate movements. The magnitude of
lateral stress undergound is proportional to rock stiffness since the stress is induced by
constant lateral dispalcement. Since the stress can not pass through the openinigs, it will
concentrate around them.
The optimal direction of drivage of a roadway is parallel to the direction of the major
principal stress as shown in the above diagram. If the mine roadways are driven at a high
angle to major principal lateral stress direction, both roof and floor will suffer significant
damage. Reduction of the angle will generally reduce the magnitude of the lateral stress
concentrations and thus improve roadway conditions.

CHAIN PILLAR DESIGN

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The diagram opposite shows a typical longwall panel with a single row of rectangular chain
pillars. Chain pillars can be either square, rectangular or in some case diamond in shape.
They can also be in a single or double row configuration. In Australia a single line of
rectangular chain pillars is the most common.
The intersections of gateroads and cut throughs are areas which require increased roof
support beacuse of the large areas of exposed roof as well as increased roof stresses at these
locations. An increased frequency of intersections along a gateroad will increase the
possibilty of strata control difficulties.
Chain pillars carry minimal additional loading until the extraction of the adjacent longwall
panels. The strata load from above the extracted longwall panel is transferred from the
longwall panel to the adjacent chain pillar(s), this is shown in the diagram below. Once the
second adjacent longwall panel has been extracted, the chain pillars are subjected to
extremely high strata loads. In most situations the pillars will collapse after the second
longwall panel has been extracted. This reduces the irregularity of subsidence at the surface.
The strength of a square or rectangular pillar can be determined from the following formula:

where:
p = pillar width (m)
m = pillar height (m)
NB: For Australian conditions a coefficient of 7.4 is used in place of 7.2
The load that is transferred onto a pillar is calculated by a simple emperical formula, the
equation varies depending on the type of pillars and subsidence method being used:

 Single Line of square chain pillars

 Double line of square chain pillars
 Single line of rectangular chain pillars
 Double line of rectangular chain pillars
For rectangular chain pillars, if the width of one side of the pillar is greater than twice the
width of the other side then the effective width method must be employed to calculate the
strength of the pillar.

SINGLE SQUARE CHAIN DESIGN

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The load transferred from the adjacent goaf areas is dependent upon the depth of
cover to satisfy subsidence compatibilty.
For sub-critical subsidence conditions the following expression is used to calculate the
load supported by a pillar:

for w/h < 2 tan f

Where :
w = width of longwall face (m)
h = depth below surface (m)
g = average density of overburden (kg/m3)
f = average angle of shear (o)
p = pillar width (m)
B = bord (heading) width (m)
For critical and super critical mining subsidence situations, the goaf load trinagle will
reach the surface boundary, for this situation the load on the pillar equation becomes,

for w/h >= 2 tan f

The respective average pillar stress for these two conditions are given by:

for w/h < 2 tan f

for w/h >= 2 tan f
Worked Example
A single line of square chain pillars separate two longwall panels. A 2.8m thick coal
seam is being mined at a depth of 400 metres below the surface and the longwall face
is 170 metres wide. Given that:
Average angle of shear f = 31˚
Width of the roadways/bords = 5.5 m
Overburden density g = 2500 kg/m3
Calculate the following:
The size of the pillars
Factor of Safety of the pillars when both sides of the pillars have been mined
Solution
Data given:
w = 170 metres
h = 400 metres
f = 31˚
b = 5.5 metres
g = 2.5 tonnes/m3
m = 2.8 metres
p = ? metres
1. Calculate the size of the pillars which complies to the CMRA
The CMRA recommends that the width of a pillar should be estimated as 1/10 of the
depth.
Therefore,
Pillar width = 1/10 x 400
= 40 x 40 metres.
2. Factor of Safety of the pillars when the panels on both sides of the pillars have
been mined.
w/h = 170/400
= 0.425
2 tan 31˚ = 1.20
Therefore, w/h < 2 tan f, thus it is sub-critical subsidence.
Pillar Strength = [ 7.4 x (40)0.46 ] / [ (2.8)0.66 ]
= 20.467 Mpa
Load on the Pillar = 9.81 x 2.5[(40+170).400 – (1702cot31˚)/4].(40 + 5.5)/402
= 50.197 MPa
FOS of the pillar = Load on the Pillar / Pillar Strength
= 20.467 / 50.197
= 0.4
For a factor of safety of less than 1.0 a pillar is likely to collapse, therefore this pillar will
collapse after the longwall has passed on both sides of the pillar.

DOUBLE SQUARE CHAIN PILLARS

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The only physical changes from a single line of square chain pillars is that the efffective
width of the chain pillar support area becomes (2p + B) and the load is borne by two pillars
of a plan area 2p2. The respective average pillar stresses for this situation are:

for w/h < 2tan f

for w/h >= 2tan f

Where :
w = width of longwall face (m)
h = depth below surface (m)
g = average density of overburden (kg/m3)
f = average angle of shear (o)
p = pillar width (m)
B = bord (heading) width (m)
SINGLE RECTANGULAR CHAIN
PILLARS
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Rectangular chain pillars are employed extensively and frequently in preference to square
pillars in view of less junctions being formed during development. The average pillar stress
is given by:

for w/h < 2 tan f

for w/h >= 2 tan f

Where :
w = width of longwall face (m)
h = depth below surface (m)
g = average density of overburden (kg/m3)
f = average angle of shear (o)
p = pillar width (m)
L = pillar length (m)
B = bord (heading) width (m)

DOUBLE RECTANGULAR CHAIN

PILLARS
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for w/h < 2 tan f

for w/h >= 2 tan f