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Contents
1. Vector algebra
• Addition, Subtraction, & Multiplication of Vectors.
2. Orthogonal coordinate system
• Cartesian, cylindrical, & spherical coordinates.
3. Vector calculus
• Differentiation and integration of vectors; line,
surface and volume integrals; “del” operator,
gradient, divergence, and curl operations.
Vector Analysis 2
Vector Addition and Subtraction
• A vector A can be written as:
– A=aAA
– Where A is the magnitude of A and has the
unit and dimension.
– A=|A|
– aA is a dimensionless unit vector with a unity
magnitude having the direction of A.
– aA=A / |A| = A / A A=|A|
A=aAA
Vector Analysis 3
Vector Addition and Subtraction
• Two vectors A and B can be added in two
ways. C=A+B
– Parallelogram rule C
B
A
Vector Analysis 4
Vector Addition and Subtraction
• Vector addition obeys the commutative
and associative laws
– Commutative law
• A+B=B+A
– Associative law
• A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
Vector Analysis 5
Vector Addition and Subtraction
• Vector subtraction is defined in following
way:
A – B = A + (-B)
Where –B has the same magnitude as B but
the direction is opposite to that of B.
-B = (-aB)B B
-B A-B
Vector Analysis 6
Product of Vectors
• Multiplication of a vector A by a scalar k
changes only the magnitude of A by a
factor k.
B
kA = aA (kA)
θAB
A
• Scalar or Dot Product:
A . B = AB cos θAB BcosθAB A
Vector Analysis 7
Product of Vectors
A . A = A2
A=√A.A
– Commutative law
A.B=B.A
– Distributive law
A . (B + C) = A . B + A . C
Vector Analysis 8
Product of Vectors
• Vector or Cross Product
AxB
A x B = an|AB sin θAB|
B
BsinθAB
a θAB
– Cross Product is not commutative n A
BxA=-AxB
– Cross Product obeys the distributive law
A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C
– Cross Product is not associative
A x (B x C) = (A x B) x C
Vector Analysis 9
Product of Vectors
• Product of Three Vectors
– Scalar Triple Product
A . (B x C) = B . (C x A) = C . (A x B)
A . (B x C) = -A . (C x B)
= -B . (A x C)
= -C . (B x A)
Vector Analysis 10
Product of Vectors
Magnitude is equal
BxC
to volume of the
parallelepiped formed θ2
A
by vectors A, B, and C. θ1
C
B
Base area is |B x C| = |BC sin θ1|
Height is |A cos θ2|
Hence the volume is |ABC sin θ1 cos θ2|
Vector Analysis 11
Product of Vectors
• Vector Triple Product
Back-cab rule
A x (B x C) = B(A . C) – C(A . B)
A|| B(A|| . C)
C
B
θ2
θ1 -C(A|| . B)
A┴
aD D
A = A|| + A┴
A┴ x (B x C) = 0 as both are parallel.
We are left with D = A|| x (B x C)
Vector Analysis 12
Product of Vectors
– Figure shows the plane containing B, C, A||.
– D also lies in the same plane and is normal to A||.
– Magnitude of (B x C) is BC sin (θ1 – θ2).
– Magnitude of A|| x (B x C) is A||BC sin (θ1 – θ2).
D = D . aD = A||BC sin (θ1 – θ2)
= (B sin θ1)(A||C cos θ2) - (C sin θ2) (A||B cos θ1)
= [B(A|| . C) – C(A|| . B)] . AD
– It is not guaranteed that quantity inside the brackets is
equal to D; as it may contain a vector that is normal to
D; ie parallel to A||. Hence
Vector Analysis 13
Product of Vectors
B(A|| . C) – C(A|| . B) = D + kA||
Multiplying both sides by A||; we get
(A|| . B)(A|| . C) – (A|| . C)(A|| . B) = A||. D + kA||2
0 = A||. D + kA||2
Since A||. D = 0 ( as D is normal to A||), so k = 0
Hence
D = B(A|| . C) – C(A|| . B)
This proves the Back-Cab rule.
A|| . C = A . C and A|| . B = A . B
Vector Analysis 14
Division of Vectors
• Division of Vectors is not defined
• Expressions such as k/A and B/A are
meaningless.
Vector Analysis 15
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• We need position of the source and the location
of this point in coordinate system to determine
the Electric Field at a certain point in space.
• In three dimensional space a point can be
located as the intersection of three surfaces u1,
u2, u3.
• If these three surfaces are perpendicular to one
another; we have the Orthogonal Coordinate
System.
Vector Analysis 16
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• Let au1, au2, and au3 be the unit vectors called the
Base Vectors in the three coordinate system;
then in a general right handed, orthogonal,
curvilinear coordinate system:
• au1 x au2 = au3,
• au2 x au3 = au1,
• au3 x au1 = au2.
• Above three equations are not all independent,
as the specification of one automatically implies
the other two
Vector Analysis 17
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• au1 . au2 = au2 . au3 = au3 . au1 = 0
• Magnitude of vector A is
• A = |A| = (Au12+Au22+Au32)1/2.
Vector Analysis 18
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• EXAMPLE:
– Given three vectors A, B, and C, obtain the
expressions of:
(a) A . B (b) A x B (c) C . (A x B) in the
orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system
(u1,u2,u3).
Vector Analysis 19
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• SOLUTION:
A = au1Au1 + au2Au2 + au3Au3
B = au1Bu1 + au2Bu2 + au3Bu3
C = au1Cu1 + au2Cu2 + au3Cu3
Vector Analysis 20
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
b) A x B = (au1Au1 + au2Au2 + au3Au3) x (au1Bu1 +
au2Bu2 + au3Bu3)
= au1(Au2Bu3 – Au3Bu2) + au2(Au3Bu1 – Au1Bu3)
+ au3(Au1Bu2 – Au2Bu1)
au1 au2 au3
= Au1 Au2 Au3
Bu1 Bu2 Bu3
Vector Analysis 21
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
c) C . (A x B)
= Cu1(Au2Bu3 – Au3Bu2) + Cu2(Au3Bu1 – Au1Bu3)
+ Cu3(Au1Bu2 – Au2Bu1)
Cu1 Cu2 Cu3
= Au1 Au2 Au3
Bu1 Bu2 Bu3
Vector Analysis 22
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• Differential change in length corresponds to the
change in one of the coordinates and a factor is
needed for such a change.
dli = hi dui, (i = 1, 2, or 3)
Where hi is called metric coefficient and may
itself be a function of ui
• e.g: In a two coordinate system (u1, u2) = (r, Ø) a
differential change dØ (=du2) in Ø (=u2)
corresponds to a differential length change dl2 =
rdØ (h2 = r = u1) in the aØ (=au2) direction.
Vector Analysis 23
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• A directed differential length change in an
arbitrary direction can be written as vector
sum of component length changes;
dl = au1 dl1 + au2 dl2 + au3 dl3
dl = au1 (h1 du1) + au2 (h2 du2) + au3 (h3 du3)
Magnitude of dl is
dl = [(dl1)2 + (dl2)2 + (dl3)2]1/2
= [(h1 du1)2 + (h2 du2)2 + (h3 du3)2]1/2
Vector Analysis 24
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• The differential volume formed by differential
coordinate changes du1, du2, and du3 in
directions au1, au2, and au3 respectively is (dl1
dl2 dl3), or
dv = h1h2h3 du1du2du3
Vector Analysis 26
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• In general orthogonal curvilinear
coordinate system the differential area ds1
normal to the unit vector au1 is:
• ds1 = dl2 dl3
• ds1 = h2h3du2du3
• Similarly differential areas normal to
vectors au2 and au3 are respectively
• ds2 = h1h3du1du3
• ds3 = h1h2du1du2
Vector Analysis 27
Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• Main orthogonal coordinate systems are:
Vector Analysis 28
Cartesian Coordinates
• (u1, u2, u3) = (x, y, z) z=z1 plane
• Point P(x1, y1, z1) is
Intersection of three
y=y1 plane
Planes x = x1, y = y1,
z = z1
Base vectors are ax,
ay, az in the
respective Directions. X=x1 plane
Vector Analysis 29
Cartesian Coordinates
• Base vectors satisfy following relations:
ax x ay = az,
ay x az = ax,
az x ax = ay.
• Position vector to point P P(x1, y1, z1) is:
OP = axx1 + ayy1 + azz1.
• A vector A can be written as:
A = axAx + ayAy + azAz.
Vector Analysis 30
Cartesian Coordinates
• The dot product of two vectors A and B is:
A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz
• The cross product of A and B is:
AxB=
ax(AyBz-AzBy) + ay(AzBx-AxBz) + az(AxBy-AyBx)
ax ay az
= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
Vector Analysis 31
Cartesian Coordinates
• Since x, y, and z are lengths so all three matric
coefficients are unity ie, h1 = h2 = h3 = 1. The
expressions for differential length, differential
area, and differential volume are:
dl = axdx + aydy + azdz.
dsx = dydz,
dsy = dxdz,
dsz = dxdy.
dv = dxdydz
Vector Analysis 32
Cartesian Coordinates
y
o
dx
dy
x
A differential volume in Cartesian Coordinates
Vector Analysis 33
Cartesian Coordinates
Vector Analysis 34
Cartesian Coordinates
• EXAMPLE: Given A = ax5 – ay2 + az, find
the expression of a unit vector B such
that:
a) B||A
b) B┴A, if B lies in the xy-plane.
• SOLUTION:
– Let B = axBx + ayBy + azBz. We know that
– B = (Bx2 + By2 + Bz2)1/2 = 1
Vector Analysis 35
Cartesian Coordinates
a) B||A requires B x A = 0, hence we have
-2Bz – By = 0,
Bx – 5Bz = 0,
5By + 2Bx = 0.
Solving above equations along with magnitude
equation; we get:
Bx = 5/√30, By = -2/√30, Bz = 1/√30
Therefore
B = (ax5 – ay2 + az)/√30
Vector Analysis 36
Cartesian Coordinates
b) B┴A requires B . A = 0, hence we
have 5Bx – 2By = 0.
Bz = 0, since B lies in the xy-plane
Solution of above equation along with
magnitude equation yields:
Bx = 2/√29, By = 5/√29
Hence
B = (ax2 + ay5)/√29
Vector Analysis 37
Cartesian Coordinates
• EXAMPLE:
– (a) Write the expression of the vector going
from point P1(1,3,2) to point P2(3,-2,4) in
Cartesian coordinates.
– (b) What is the length of this line?
• SOLUTION:
Vector Analysis 38
Cartesian Coordinates
From Figure, we see P2(3,-2,4) z
cylindrical surface r1 az
r=r1, a half plane aØ
ar
containing the z axis
and making an angle o z1
x1
Ø=Ø1 with the xz-r=r1 cylinder y1
y
plane, and a plane Ø1
Vector Analysis 41
Cylindrical Coordinates
ar ar 1, ar ar 0,
a a 1, a a 0,
a z a z 1, a z a z 0,
ar a 0,
a a z 0,
a z ar 0,
Vector Analysis 42
Cylindrical Coordinates
• A vector in cylindrical coordinates is
written as:
A = arAr + aØAØ + azAz
• Dot and cross product of two vectors in
cylindrical coordinates follow the equations
as discussed on slides 20,21.
• Two of the coordinats, r and z (u1 and u3)
are lengths; hence h1 = h3 = 1.
Vector Analysis 43
Cylindrical Coordinates
• However Ø is an angle requiring a metric
co-efficient h2 = r to convert dØ to dl2.
• General expression for a differential length
in cylindrical coordinates is then:
dl = ardr + aØrdØ + azdz
• Expressions for differential areas and
differential volume are:
dsr = r dØ dz,
Vector Analysis 44
Cylindrical Coordinates
• dsØ = dr dz,
• dsz = r dr dØ,
• dv = r dr dØ dz.
Vector Analysis 45
Cylindrical Coordinates
• A vector given in cylindrical coordinates
i.e A = arAr + aØAØ + azAz
can be transformed into Cartesian coordinates ie
A = axAx + ayAy + azAz.
• Z component remains un-altered.
• To find Ax, we equate dot product of above both
expressions of A with ax. Thus:
Ax = A . ax = arAr . ax + aØAØ . ax
• az . ax = 0, hence Az disappears.
Vector Analysis 46
Cylindrical Coordinates
From figure:
ar . ax = cos Ø
aØ . ax = cos(π/2 + Ø)
= - sin Ø
Ax = Ar cos Ø – AØ sin Ø aØ
Similarly Ay = A . ay
= arAr . ay + aØAØ . ay ar
ar . ay = cos(π/2 - Ø)
= sin Ø
aØ . ay = cos Ø
Ay = Ar sin Ø + AØ cos Ø
Vector Analysis 47
Cylindrical Coordinates
ar cos sin 0 ax
a sin cos 0 ay
az 0 0 1 az
Vector Analysis 48
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Conversion Matrix is:
Ax cosØ -sinØ 0 Ar
Ay = sinØ cosØ 0 AØ
Az 0 0 1 Az
Ar cos sin 0 Ax
A sin cos
0 Ay
Az 0 0 1 Az
Vector Analysis 49
Cylindrical Coordinates
• Conversions formulas are:
Cartesian Cylindrical
x = r cos Ø r = √ x2 + y2
y = r sin Ø Ø= tan-1 y/x
z=z z=z
Vector Analysis 50
Cylindrical Coordinates
• EXAMPLE: The cylindrical coordinates of
an arbitrary point P in the z = 0 plane are
(r, Ø, 0). Find the unit vector that goes
from a point z = h on z-axis toward P.
• SOLUTION:
QP = OP – OQ
= (arr) – (azh)
aQP = QP/|QP|
= (1/√r2 + h2) (arr – azh)
Vector Analysis 51
Cylindrical Coordinates
• EXAMPLE: Express the vector
A = ar(3cosØ) – aØ2r + az5 in cartesian
coordinates:
Ax cosØ -sinØ 0 3cosØ
Ay = sinØ cosØ 0 -2r
Az 0 0 1 5
Vector Analysis 53
Spherical Coordinates
• (u1, u2, u3) = (R, θ, Ø)
• Point P(R1, θ1, Ø1) is the intersection of a
spherical surface centered at the origin
with a radius R=R1, a right circular cone
with it’s apex at the origin, it’s axis
coincides with the + z-axis and having a
half angle θ=θ1 and a half plane containing
the z axis and making an angle Ø=Ø1 with
the xz-plane.
Vector Analysis 54
Spherical Coordinates
Vector Analysis 55
Spherical Coordinates
• The base vector aR at P is radial from the
origin and is quite different from ar in
cylindrical coordinates, as the latter is
perpendicular to the z-axis. The base
vector aθ lies in the Ø=Ø1 plane and is
tangential to the spherical surface,
whereas the base vector aØ is the same as
in the cylindrical coordinates.
Vector Analysis 56
Spherical Coordinates
1
a a
1
R R
a a
1
a a
0
a a
0
R
a a
0
a a R
Vector Analysis 57
Spherical Coordinates
• For a right-handed system we have
aR x aθ = aØ,
aθ x aØ= aR,
aØ x aR = aθ
• Spherical coordinates are important for
problems involving point sources and
regions with spherical boundaries.
• Spherical coordinates are used in solving
antenna problems in the far field.
Vector Analysis 58
Spherical Coordinates
• A vector in spherical coordinates is written
as:
A = aRAR + aθAθ + aØAØ.
• Expressions for dot and cross products of
two vectors in spherical coordinates are
similar to those shown on slide 31.
• In spherical coordinates only R (u1) is a
length. The other two coordinates θ and Ø
(u2 and u3) are angles.
Vector Analysis 59
Spherical Coordinates
Vector Analysis 60
Spherical Coordinates
• Metric coefficients h2=R and h3=R sinθ are
required to convert dθ and dØ into dl2 and
dl3 respectively.
• From equation on page 24 the general
expression for differential length is:
• dl = aR dR + aθR dθ + aØR sinθ dØ
Vector Analysis 61
Spherical Coordinates
• Differential areas and differential volume
resulting from differential changes dR, dθ,
dØ are:
• dsR = R2 sinθ dθ dØ,
• dsθ = R sinθ dR dØ,
• dsØ = R dR dθ,
• dv = R2 sinθ dR dθ dØ.
Vector Analysis 62
Spherical Coordinates
• A vector in spherical coordinates can be
transformed into Cartesian coordinates as:
x = R sinθ cosØ,
y = R sinθ sinØ,
z = R cosθ,
Vector Analysis 63
Spherical Coordinates
• Cartesian coordinates can be converted to
spherical coordinates as:
R = √x2 + y2 + z2,
θ = tan-1 √(x2 + y2)/z,
Ø = tan-1 y/x
Vector Analysis 64
Spherical Coordinates
aR a x sin cos , a a x sin ,
aR a y sin sin , a a y cos ,
aR a z cos , a a z 0,
a a x cos cos ,
a a y cos sin ,
a a z sin ,
aR sin cos sin sin cos a x
a cos cos cos sin sin a y
a sin cos 0 az
Vector Analysis 65
Spherical Coordinates
• Transformation of Vector
A AR aR A a A a ,
Ax A a x AR aR a x A a a x A a a x ,
AR sin cos A cos cos A sin .
Vector Analysis 66
Spherical Coordinates
Ax sin cos cos cos sin AR
Ay sin sin cos sin cos A
Az cos sin 0 A
Vector Analysis 67
Spherical Coordinates
• Example: The position of a point P in
spherical coordinates is (8, 120, 330).
Specify it’s location (a) in Cartesian
coordinates (b) in cylindrical coordinates.
Vector Analysis 68
Spherical Coordinates
• a) Let us use the equations on page 60.
• x = 8 sin120° cos330° = 6,
• y = 8 sin120° sin330° = -2√3,
• z = 8 cos120° = -4.
• Hence the location of point is P(6, -2√3, -4).
• And the position vector is:
• OP = ax6 – ay2√3 – az4.
Vector Analysis 69
Spherical Coordinates
• b) The cylindrical coordinates of point P
can be obtained by applying equations on
page: 48; but these can also be calculated
directly from the spherical coordinates by
using following equations:
– r = R sinθ,
– Ø = Ø,
– z = R cos θ.
• Hence we get the point P(4√3, 330, -4).
Vector Analysis 70
Spherical Coordinates
• Position vector in cylindrical coordinates is:
OP = ar4√3 – az4
• We note that position vector does not contain
Ø=330°; however exact direction of ar depends on
Ø.
• In spherical coordinates position vector contains
only one term:
OP = aR8.
• Here the direction of ar changes with the θ and Ø
coordinates of point P.
Vector Analysis 71
Spherical Coordinates
• Example: Convert the vector A = aRAR +
aθAθ + aØAØ into Cartesian coordinates.
• Solution: In this problem we want to write
A in the form of A = axAx + ayAy + azAz.
1) We assume that the expression of the given
vector A holds for all points of interest and
that all three given components AR, Aθ, and
AØ may be functions of coordinate variables.
2) At a given point AR, Aθ, and AØ will have
definite numerical values, but these values
Vector Analysis 72
Spherical Coordinates
that determine the direction of A will, in general, be
entirely different from the coordinate values of the
point.
• Taking dot product of A with ax, we get:
Ax = A . ax
= ARaR . ax + Aθaθ . ax + AØaØ . ax
• aR . ax, aθ . ax, and aØ . ax yield respectively, the
component of unit vectors aR, aθ, and aØ in the
direction of ax, we find from fig on page 57 and
equations on page 60:
Vector Analysis 73
Spherical Coordinates
• aR . ax = sinθ cosØ = x/√(x2 + y2 + z2)
• aθ . ax = cosθ cosØ = xz/ √((x2 + y2)
(x2 + y2 + z2))
• aØ . ax = - sinØ = -y/√(x2 + y2)
• Thus Ax = AR sinθ cosØ + Aθ cosθ cosØ
- AØ sinØ
• = ARx/√(x2 + y2 + z2) + Aθxz/√((x2 + y2)
(x2 + y2 + z2)) - AØy/√(x2 + y2)
Vector Analysis 74
Spherical Coordinates
• Similarly Ay = AR sinθ sinØ + Aθ cosθ sinØ
+ AØ cosØ
• = ARy/√(x2 + y2 + z2) + Aθyz/√((x2 + y2)
(x2 + y2 + z2)) + AØx/√(x2 + y2)
• AZ = AR cosθ + Aθ sinθ
= ARz/√(x2 + y2 + z2) - Aθ√(x2 + y2) /
√(x2 + y2 + z2))
Vector Analysis 75
Spherical Coordinates
• Example: Assuming that a cloud of
electrons confined in a region between two
spheres of radii 2 and 5 cm has a charge
density of -3x10-8 cos2Ø / R4 C/m3.
Vector Analysis 78
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
Vdl
C
Vector Analysis 79
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• In Cartesian coordinates Integral can be written
as:
Vdl V ( x, y, z)[a dx a dy a dz
C C
x y z
Vector Analysis 80
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Example: Evaluate the integral O r 2 dr, where
P
Vector Analysis 81
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Solution:
• a) Along the direct path OP
P 2 2 2
r dr ar r dr ar
2 2
O 0 3
2 2
( a x cos 45 a y sin 45)
3
2 2
ax a y
3 3
Vector Analysis 82
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Solution:
• b) Along the path OP1P
P P1 P
(x y )dr a y y dy a x ( x 1)dx
2 2 2 2
O O P1
1
1 31 1 3
a y y a x ( x x)
3 0 3 0
4 1
ax a y .
3 3
Vector Analysis 83
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Along the path OP2P
P P2 P
(x y )dr a x x dx a y ( y 1)dy
2 2 2 2
O O P2
1
1 31 1 3
ax x a y ( y y)
3 0 3 0
1 4
ax a y .
3 3
Vector Analysis 84
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
C
F dl
•Above is a line integral, in which integrand
represents the component of F along the path of
integration.
•If F is a force, the integral is work done by the
force in moving an object from a point P1 to P2
along a specified path C.
•If F is replaced by E, then the integral is work
done by electric field Vector
in moving
Analysis
a unit charge from
85
P1 to P2.
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Example: Given F ax xy a y 2 x , evaluate the
scalar line integral F dl , along the quarter
B
A
circle shown in figure.
Vector Analysis 86
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Solution:
• a) In Cartesian coordinates:
F dl xydx 2 xdy
x 2 y 2 9(0 x, y 3)
B 0 3
F dl x 9 x dx 2 9 y 2 dy
2
A 3 0
3
1 3 0
y
(9 x ) 2
2
y 9 y 2 9 sin 1
3 3 3
0
9(1 )
2
Vector Analysis 87
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Solution:
• b) In cylindrical coordinates:
Ar cos sin 0 Ax
A sin cos 0 Ay
Az 0 0 1 Az
Fr cos sin 0 xy
F sin cos 0 2 x
Fz 0 0 1 0
F ar ( xy cos 2 x sin ) a ( xy sin 2 x cos )
Vector Analysis 88
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Path of integration is along a quarter-circle of a
radius 3. There is no change in r or z along the
path (dr=0 and dz=0); hence equation dl = ardr +
aØrdØ + azdz simplifies to:
dl a 3d
F dl 3( xy sin 2 x cos ) d
B
F dl 3(9 sin 2 cos 6 cos 2 ) d
2
A 0
9(sin sin cos ) 0 2
3
9(1 ).
2
Vector Analysis 89
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
A ds
s
• This is a surface integral. It is actually a double
integral over two dimensions.
• The integral measures the flux of the vector field
A flowing through the area S.
• Vector differential surface element ds=ands has
a magnitude ds and the direction shown by an.
• The conventions for the +ve direction of ds are
as follows:
Vector Analysis 90
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• If the surface of integration S is a closed surface
enclosing a volume, then the +ve direction of an
is always is the outward direction.
• Positive direction of an depends on the location
of ds.
• Further closed surface integral requires a small
circle added over the integration sign.
A ds A a ds.
s s
n
Vector Analysis 91
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• If S is an open surface, the +ve direction of an
depends on the direction in which the perimeter
of the open surface is traversed.
• Acc to right hand rule if the fingers follows the
direction of travel around the perimeter then the
thumb points in the direction of +ve an.
• Again the +ve direction of an depends on the
location of ds.
Vector Analysis 92
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Example: Given F ar k1 r az k2 z , evaluate the
scalar surface integral s F ds over the surface
of a closed cylinder about the z-axis specified
by z=±3 and r=2.
•Solution: The specified
surface of integration is
that of closed cylinder as
shown. It has three
surfaces: The top face,
the bottom face, and the
side wall. Vector Analysis 93
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
F ds F a ds
s
n
F .a ds
n F .an ds F .an ds
topface bottomface sidewall
Vector Analysis 94
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• a) Top face z = 3, an = az,
F an k 2 z 3k 2 ,
ds rdrd ;
2 2
TopFace
F an ds
0 3k rdrd 12k
0
2 2
Vector Analysis 95
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• b) Bottom Face: z = -3, an = -az,
F an k 2 z 3k 2 ,
ds rdrd ;
2 2
BottomFace
F an ds
0 3k rdrd 12k
0
2 2
Vector Analysis 96
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• C) Side Wall r = 2, an = ar,
k1 k1
F an ,
r 2
ds rddz 2ddz;
3 2
SideWall
F an ds
3 0 k1ddz 12k1.
Vector Analysis 97
Integrals Containing Vector
Functions
• Therefore
F ds 12k
s
2 12k 2 12k1
12 (k1 2k 2 )
•This surface integral gives the net outward flux
of the vector F through the closed cylindrical
surface.
Vector Analysis 98
Gradient of a Scalar Field
• We encounter scalar and vector fields that are
functions of four variables: (t, u1, u2, u3).
• Method is required for describing the space rate
of change of a scalar field at a given time.
• Consider a scalar function of space coordinates
V(u1, u2, u3) which represents say, the
temperature distribution in a building, the altitude
of a mountainous terrain, or the electric potential
in a region
Vector Analysis 99
Gradient of a Scalar Field
• Magnitude of V depends on the position of the
point in space, but it may be constant along
certain lines or surfaces as shown in figure two
surfaces having constant magnitudes V1 and
V1+dV.
• Point P1 is on the surface V1; P2 is the
corresponding point on surface V1+dV along the
normal vector dn; and P3 is a point close to P2
along another vector dl ≠ dn.
E V az ( E z ) az E
z
frontface
A ds A frontface S frontface A frontface a x (yz )
x
Ax ( x , y , z )yz
2
Here the H.O.T contains the factors y,(y)2 , For the top and
bottom faces we have :
Az
[ ] A ds ( H .O.T ) xyz.
Topface Bottomface z ( x , y , z )
A ds 0
Frontface
3 3
F ds 4 k ( R2 R1)
S
( A) j (s j ) A dl
Cj
• For an arbitrary surface S, we can subdivide it
into many, say N, small differential areas. Figure
on next page shows such a scheme with Δsj as a
typical differential element
Vector Analysis 157
Stokes’s Theorem
• Left side of above equation is the flux of the
vector A through the area Δsj. Adding the
contributions of all differential areas to the flux,
we have:
N
lim s j 0 ( A) j (s j )
j 1
( A) ds
S
( A) ds A dl
S C
V dl dV 0
C C
A dl A dl
C1 C2
F V A.