OBJECTIVES

- To study the magnitude response and phase responses of some basic bilinear transfer functions.

THEORY
Electronic filters are analog circuits which perform signal processing functions, specifically to remove
unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance wanted ones, or both. Electronic filters
can be either passive or active.

The main distinction between active and passive filters is that active filters contain active components in
combination with the passive components i.e an op amp together with resistors, capacitors and
inductors. Passive filters in contrast only contain passive elements i.e resistors, capacitors and inductors.

The op amp is one of the basic building blocks of linear design. In its classic form it consists of two input
terminals, one of which inverts the phase of the signal, the other preserves the phase, and an output
terminal. The standard symbol for the op amp is as shown below. The figure has not included DC biasing
which is paramount for the op amp to function properly.
An ideal Op Amp has the following characteristics:
- Infinite Differential Gain
- Zero Common Mode Gain
- Zero Offset Voltage
- Zero Bias Current
- Infinite Bandwidth
- Infinite Impedance
- Zero Bias Current
- Respond to Differential Voltages
- Do Not Respond to Common Mode Voltages
- Zero output impedance
Though these characteristics are not fully realized, the practical op amp comes very close to the ideal
characteristics. For example in an ideal Op amp the input impedance in open loop configuration is about
10MΩ, whereas the output impedance is about 75Ω. The bias current is about 80nA. It can therefore be
said that the practical amplifier almost resembles the ideal one.

It can be deduced from the information given above that the type of filter design that is required for
amplification is the active type. Passive filters do not amplify the signals at the input. A disadvantage
however of active filters is that they add harmonics to the input signal fed into the op amp.

In the experiment done at the lab we used passive filters to investigate the different characteristics of
high pass and low pass filters.

APPARATUS
1. Signal generator.
2. Oscilloscope
3. Capacitor 22nF
4. Resistor 10kΩ

PROCEDURE
PART 1

The components listed above were arranged as shown in the schematic shown below:
 The signal generator was then adjusted to give a 5 volts peak to peak at a frequency of 1 KHz.

The input and output voltages were then read from the oscilloscope. The magnitude of the transfer was
then calculated and the gain calculated.

From the information the phase angle was calculated.

The frequency of the signal generator was then set at 10 Hz and figures recorded. The frequency was
then increased in uneven steps till 100KHz and the corresponding values recorded.

PART II

In part II of the experiment, the resistor and the capacitor were interchanged.

After the interchange the same procedure was followed.

RESULTS
The results from Part I of the experiment are as tabulated below:

FREQUENCY 10 20 50 100 500 1000 2000 5000 10000 20000 50000

V1 (volts) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
v2 (volts) 0.1 0.4 0.8 1.4 2.8 4 4.5 4.8 4.9 5 5
time
difference
(ms) 8.5 5.1 2.4 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.02 0.004 0.001 0 0
Ɵ(ῳ)
(degrees) 30.6 36.72 43.2 21.6 72 36 14.4 7.2 3.6 0 0
|T| 0.02 0.08 0.16 0.28 0.56 0.8 0.9 0.96 0.98 1 1
A = 20
log|T| -33.979 -21.938 -15.917 -11.056 -5.0362 -1.938 -0.9151 -0.3545 -0.1754 0 0

The results from part II of the experiment are as tabulated below

FREQUENCY 50 100 200 500 1000 2000 5000 10000

V1 (volts) 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5
v2 (volts) 5 5 4.9 4 3 1.6 0.8 0.4
time difference
(ms) 0 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.15 0.08 0.04 0.02
Ɵ(ῳ) (degrees) 0 7.2 14.4 36 54 57.6 72 72
|T| 1 1 0.8 0.6 0.32 0.16 0.08
A = 20 log|T| 0 0 -1.9382 -4.4369 -9.897 -15.917 -21.938

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
PART I

Below is a circuit schematic similar to that provided during the experiment followed by simulation
results obtained using multism that helped in analysis of the results.
Fig showing the schematic used

Fig showing the output(red) plotted with input(blue) at 50Hz

Fig showing variation of input and output at 500Hz.

Fig showing variation of input and output at 5KHz.

Fig showing the output variation with the input at 10KHz.

It can was seen from the wave forms obtained from the experiment and the simulation as well, that as
the frequency of the input increased, the amplitude of the output also increased such that it closely
resembled the input at high frequencies.

Also, the phase difference of the wave forms decreased as the frequency of the input increased.

From the observations it was deduced that the filter in question was indeed a high pass filter. At low
frequencies the input signal is attenuated while at high frequency negligible attenuation takes place.

Below is a graph of the experimental values juxtaposed with the theoretical values expected. The
theoretical values are obtained by use of the transfer function of the circuit.
Figure showing the practical and ideal frequency response of a high pass filter.

Figure showing ideal and practical phase response of a high pass RC filter.

PART II
Below is a circuit schematic similar to that provided during the experiment (the resistor and capacitor
interchanged from the first experiment) followed by simulation results obtained using multism that
helped in analysis of the results.

Fig showing the schematic used.

Fig showing the variation of the input(blue) and the output (red) at 50Hz.
Fig showing variation of input and output at 500Hz.

Fig showing variation of input and output at 5Hz.

Fig showing variation of input and output at 10 KHz.

It can was seen from the wave forms obtained from the experiment and the simulation as well, that as
the frequency of the input increased, the amplitude of the output decreased. At very high frequency
the signal was attenuated so much that an output of zero was registered.

The phase difference of the wave forms increased with increase in frequency of the input signal.

The above observations are synonymous with the low pass filter. At high frequencies the input signal is
attenuated while at low frequency negligible attenuation takes place.

Below is a graph of the experimental values imposed with the calculated theoretical values. The
theoretical values are obtained by use of the transfer function of the circuit.
Fig showing the graphical result of values of low pass filter

Figure showing the ideal and practical phase response of a low- pass filter.