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IAHR

Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

•
August 27 - 31, 1984

Proceedings Vol III

 10 order the proceedings, write to:

Dr. Joachim Schwarz

Ice Engineering Department

Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH

P.O. Box 60 09 29

D-2000 Hamburg 60

W-Germany

Telex: 2174 236

The copyright jor the individual papers is held by its authors. The authors are
responsible jor the content oj their papers.
 International Association for Hydraulic Research

Association Internationale de Recherches Hydrauliques

7th International Symposium on Ice

Hamburg

August 27-31, 1984

organized by

Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH

Hamburg, P.R. Germany

 wm Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamburg

Welcoming Speech

President of the Senate of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, Bur­
germeister Dr. v. Dohnanyi, dear guests from 18 different countries of
tHe world, meine Damen und Herren! On behalf of the Organizing Committee
of this Symposium and of the Hamburgische Schiffbau Versuchsanstalt, I
have the great honor of welcoming ' you to the 7th Symposium on Ice of the
International Association for Hydraulic Research.

In particular, welcome Burgermeister v. Dohnanyi, who has graciously

agreed to officially open this conference. I would like to take this
opportunity to thank you, Burgermeister v. Dohnanyi, for your interest in
our field of ice research which has been demonstrated by the financial
support given by the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg for the construc­
tion of our new ice testing facilities at HSVA and for this symposium.

As a further distinguished guest, I welcome, Miniterialrat Dr. Wilckens,

as the representative of the Ministry for Research and Technology of the
Federal Republic of Germany.

As additional distinguished guests, who will later on give short speeches

at this opening ceremony, I welcome:

Prof. Dr. Erich Plate, fror:; the Technical University Karlsruhe,

the current President of IAHR,

Prof.Dr. Torkild Carstens, from Norway, chairman of the Committee

on Ice Problems of IAHR,

Dr. Voss, of the German Marine Meteorological Office, representing

the World Meteorological Organization,

Prof.Dr. Hempel, director of the Alfred Wegner Institute for Polar

Research,

Prof. Dr. Per Bruun, from Norway, the Secretary Genera 1 of POAC
(Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions),
 Prof.Dr. Sack inger, of the University of Alaska, the current
President of POAC,

Dr. Robert Frederking, from the National Research Council of

Canada, representing the International Glaciological Society,

and last but not least, Prof. Bernard Michel, from Laval
University, in Quebec, who will present the opening lecture.

The present Symposium on Ice of the International Association for Hydrau­

lic Research is intended to follow up on the continuing tradition which
began in 1970 in Reykjavik: the fair, non commercialized scientifically
oriented discussions on ice problems occurring in lakes, rivers and also
Arctic waters. Many ice scientists who attend the IAHR Symposium on Ice
have established over the years close personal communication and even
friendship, which makes this symposium special. This good attitude should
be kept but not misused; our community is and should always be open for
young scientists to join in.

see many dear friends here and I am very proud at this moment that so
many came to this conference in Hamburg . I hope and wish that the tech­
nical discussions and personal communications and also the social program
will reward you for all your efforts in getting here. To you, I would
also like to express our gratitude for the support of our ice research in
Germany, without which, this conference probably would not have been
hosted in this country.

We have invited two honourable guests: Prof. Franz Nusser and

Dr . Heinrich Waas. Both of them have great merits in ice research. Prof.

Nusser was for years the head of the German Ice forecast Service at the

German Hydrographic Institute, and Dr . Waas, one of the initiators of the

ice engineering activities at the Hamburgische Schiffbau Versuchsanstalt.

Due to a painful but hopefully not serious illness, Dr . Waas is unfortun­

ately unable to attend this symposium, but Prof. Nusser is with us, which

I am very happy about.

And now, I would like to ask BUrgermeister Dr. v. Dohnanyi to present his

openning address.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Organizing Committee of the 7th IAHR International Symposium on Ice

wishes to thank its sponsor, the International Association for Hydraulic
Research its co-sponsors: the Bundesministerium fur Forschung und Techno­
logie; the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the Freie und Hansestadt
Hamburg, the International Glaciological Society and the World Meteorologi­
cal Organization for their financial support, without which the symposium
could not have been realized Special thanks go to the Hamburgische
Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH. for its generous support of the Organizing
Commitee and the social program of the symposium. Further, we would like
to thank the following companies for their contribution to making the social
program a success: Intering Hamburg, Jastram-Werke Hamburg, Thyssen
Nordseewerke Emden and the Vereinigte Tanklager und Transportmittel
Bremen (VTG/OSA).
LISTS OF PARTICIPANTS

Razek Abdelnour Randi Asvall

Arctec Canada Ltd. Norwegian Water Res. & Elec.
311 Legget Dr. P.O . Bo x 5091
Kanata, Ontario Majorsiua, Oslo 3
K2K 1Z8 Norway
Canada
David N. Baker
George R. Alger Melville Shipping Ltd.
Mich . Tech. University Esso Plaza, East Tower
Dept. of Civil Eng. 1900 425, 1st St. S.W.
Houghton, Michigan Calgary, Alberta
49931 Canada
USA
Spyros Be ltaos
Norman Allyn National Water . Research Inst.
Swan Wooster Engineering 867 Lakeshore Road
1190 Hornby St. P.O.Box 5050
Vancouver, B.C. Burlington, Onto L7R 4A6
V6Z 2H6 Canada
Canada
Lars Bengtsson
Gerd O. Andersson Division of Hydrology
Blohm + Voss AG Uppsala UniverSity
Hermann-Blohm-Str. 3 Vastra Agatan 24
2000 Hamburg 11 S-752 20 Uppsala
FR Germany Sweden
Makoto Arai Frank G. Bercha
Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Ind. 938 - 2nd Ave. N.W.
Yokohoma Research Institute Calgary, Alberta
1 Shin-Nakaara-cho T2N OE6
Isogo-ku, Yokohama Canada
Japan
Joachim Berger
Robert S. Arden IMPaC
94 Albertus Ave. Dammtorstr. 13
Toronto, Onto 2000 Hamburg 36
M4R IS7 FR Germany
Canada
Charles-Rene Bervas
Carl Argiroff Chantiers de l'Atlantique
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers B.P. 400 .
Planning Division 44608 Saint-Nazaire Cedex
P.O. Bo x 1027 France
Detroit, Michigan 48231
USA Dr. Lennart Billfalk
The Swedish State Power Board
George D. Ashton The Hydraulic Laboratory
Snow and Ice Branch S-810 71 Alvkarleby
Cold Regions Res.& Ing.Lab. Sweden
Hanover, New Hampshire 03755
USA Norbert Birke
Hamburgische Schiffbau­
Andrew Assur Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
U.S.Army Cold Regions Res. Bramfelder Strasse 164
Hanover, N.H. 03755 2000 Hamburg 60
USA FR Germany
Denis Blanchet Donald H. Champ
Dome Petroleum Ltd. Atmospheric Environment Service
400 - 5th Avenue 4905 Dufferin St.
S.W. Calgary, Alberta Downview, Ontario
T2P 2H8 M3H 5T4
Canada Canada
Cai Boie Andrew J. Child
Schiffko Schiffskonstruktion British Petroleum Co.
und -entwicklung GmbH. Br itann i cHouse
Stubbenhuk 10 Moor Lane
2000 Hamburg 11 London EC2Y 9BU
FR Germany England
Jack Bonmort Flemming Thunbo Christensen
Chantiers de L'Atlantique ISVA
B.P. 400 Technical University of Denmark
44608 Saint-Nazaire Cedex Building 115
France DK 2800 Lyngby
Denmark
Ro If Brahms
Vereinigtetankerlager Kenneth R. Croasdale
und Transportmittel GmbH 334, 40th Ave. S.W.
Bahnhofstrasse 28 - 31 Calgary, Alberta
2800 Bremen 1 T2S OX4
FR Germany Canada
Theodore Bratanow John Currier
Dept. of Mechanics Arco Oil and Gas Co.
The University of Wisconsin Attn : PRC!3075
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 53201 P.O. Box 2819
USA Dallas, TX 75221
USA
Per Bruun
Pres., POAC Conference Steven F. Daly
Norwegian Inst . of Technology Research Hyd. Eng.
Klaebuvegen 153, Trondheim USA CRREL
Norway Hanover, N.H. 03755
USA
Nei 1 Cannon
Thayer School of Engineering Kers i S. Davar
Dartmouth College Dept. of Civil Engineering
Hanover, NH 03755 University of New Brunswick
USA P.O. Box 4400
Fredericton, N.B.
Torkild Carstens Canada E3B 5A3
River & Harbour Laboratory
Norwegian Institute of Technology Albrecht De1ius
Klaebuveien 153 Schiffko Schiffskonstruktion
N-7000 Trondheim und -entwick1ung GmbH.
Norway Stubbenhuk 10
2000 Hamburg 11
FR Germany
Marc Drouin Jens S. Fabricius
SEBJ Danish Meteorological Institute
800 boul, de Maisonneuve est Lyngbyvj 100
Montreal, Que. DK-2100 Copenhagen OE
H2L 4M8 Denmark
Canada
Kathryn A. Forland
Edward N. Earle Thayer School of Engineering
Shell Development Co. Dartmouth College
P.O.Box 481 Hanover, NH 03755
Houston, Texas 77001 USA
USA
Guenther Frankenstein
Gerhard Engelke Chief, Ice Engineering
Technische Universitat Dresden USA CRREL, Research Br.
Bereich Wasserbau und P.O.Box 282
Technische Hydromechanik Hanover, N.H. 03755
Mommsenstrasse 13 USA
8027 Dresden
German Democratic Republic Robert Frederking
National Research
JUrgen Engelskirchen Council of Canada
Blohm + Voss AG Building Research
Hermann-Blohm-Str. 3 Ottawa, Onto KIA OR6
2000 Hamburg 11 Canada
FR Germany
Albert P. Free
Ernst Enkvist Arctec Inc.
Wartsila Arctic Research Center 9104 Red Branch Rd.
Kaanaantie 1 Columbia, MD 21045
00560 Helsinki USA
Finland
Ayres Freitas
Dietrich Enss Thyssen Nordseewerke Emden
Basedowstr. 12 P.O. Box 2351
2000 Hamburg 26 2970 Emden
FR Germany FR Germany
Robert Ettema Sigmundur Freysteinsson
Iowa Institute of VST hf Armuli 4
Hydraulic Research 105 Reykjavik
University of Iowa Iceland
Iowa City, Iowa 52242
USA Peter J. Fritz
McDermott Shipyards
Roger J. Evans P.O. Box 588
Coon &Assoc., Inc. Amelia, LA 70340
3625 Woodland Park Ave. N. USA
Seattle, WA 98103
USA Robert Gerard
University of Alberta
Karl-Ulrich Evers Dept. of Civil Eng.
Hamburgische Schiffbau­ Edmonton, Alberta5
Versuchsanstalt GmbH. T6G 2G7
Bramfelder Strasse 164 Canada
2000 Hamburg 60
FR Germany
Peter Gerchow Franz Ulrich Hausler
Hamburgische Schiffbau­ Hamburgische Schiffbau­
Versuchsanstalt G~bH. Versuchsanstalt GmbH .
Bramfelder Strasse 164 3ramfelder Strasse 164
2000 Hamburg 60 2000 Hamburg 60
FR Germany FR Germany
Eugene M. Gershunov Mr. Halden
Global Marine Dev. Inc. Intering
2302 Martin St. Stettiner Strasse 3
Irvine, Ca. 92715 2000 Hamburg-Norderstedt
USA FR Germany
Dougal Goodman Erik Hansen
BP Petroleum Dev. Norwegian Water Resources
Farburn Industrial Estate and Electricity Board
Dyce, Aberdeen P.O. Box 5091, Majorstua
Scot 1and 0301 Oslo 3
Norway
GUnter Grabe
TU Hamburg-~rburg Ralf Hansen
Eissendorferstr. 3R Hamburgische Schiffbfu­
2100 Hamburg 90 Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
FR Germany Bramfelder Strasse 164
2000 Hamb urg 60
Bruce Graham FR Germany
Arctec Canada Ltd.
16-6325, 11th Street S.E. D. Joy Hilrmon
Calgary, Alberta C-CORE
T2H 2L.6 Memorial University
Canada St. John"s, Nfld.
AlB 3X5
Jim D. Grass Canada
Ontario Hydro
700 University Ave. Raimund Haspel
Toronto, Ontario Dome Petroleum Ltd.
M5G 1X6 ?O. Box 200
Canada Calgary, Alberta T2P 2HS
Canada
Gudjon Gudmundsson
Almenna Verkfraedistofan H.F. Rene Hausser
Consulting Engineers Lab. d"Hydraulique Lasalle
Fe 11 Sr.1U 1i 26 0250 Rue St-Patrick
105 Reykjavik Lasalle, Que.
Iceland HSR 1RS
Canada
Antt i Haantera
Valmet Corp. Helsinki Shipyard Richard Hayes
P.O. Bo x 910 Ice Operations Division
SF-00101 Helsinki 10 US Coast Guard Headquarters
Finland 2100 - 2nd St. SW
Washington, DC 20593
USA
.-------~=;======~========~==========~-----.--

Torsten Heideman Ivar HO:'"jen

Wartsila Helsinki Shipyard Norwegian Hydrodynamic Lab.

Munkkisaarenkatu 2 F.O. Box 411B Valentinlzst

SF-00150 Helsinki 15 N-7001 Trondhei m
Finland Norway
Mr. Heierhoff flr. M. W. f-:oward
Wirtschaftsvereinigung BP
industrieller Meerestechnik Brittanic HOlise
Rof3str. 126/ 128 r~oor Lane
4000 DUsseldorf 30 London EC2Y 9BLI
FR Germany England
JUrgen Heinze Dav id H. Humphreys, LCDR ·
Ingenieurgemeinschaft uS Coast Guard
r~eeres techn i k + Seebau GmbH. 2111 Lang . Dr .
Millernt~rplatz 1 Crofton , MO 21114
2000 Hamburg 4 USA
FR Germany
Lasse Ilves
Jens-Holger Hellmann Helsinki Unicrsity of Technology
Hamburgische Schiffbau­ Ship Hydrodynamics Lab
Versuchsanstalt GmbH. SF- 02150 Espoo 15
Bramfelder Strasse 164 rinland
2000 Hamburg 60
FR Germany R. Grant Ingram
Oceanography -McGill University
Got th i1 f Hempe 1 3620 University St.
Alfred Wege~er InstitJ t Montrea l, H3A 282
fUr Polarforschung Canadd
Co lumbus Cen ter
2850 Bremerhaven Masanori Inoue
FR Germany Nippon Kokan K.K.
1-1 Manamiwatarida-cho.
Klaus Henning Kawasaki-ku . Kawasaki 210
Hapag Lloyd Transport & Service Japan
Am l3aumwall 7
Oberseehaus Hajime lt~
2000 Hamburg 11 Alfred Wegener lnstitut
FR Germany fUr Po 1arforsclwng
Columbus Center
Lutz Hoffmann 2850 Bremerhavcn
Hamburgische Schiffbau ­ FR Germany
Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
Bramfelder Strasse 164 Bogusla~ Jackowski
2000 Hamburg 60 Polish ACqdemy of Science
FR Germany Institute of Hydroengi nee ring
Cys tersaw 11
Juhani Hoikkanen 80/953 , Gdansk
Un iversity of Oulu Pcland
Oept. of Mech. Eng . .
90570 Oulu 57 Risto Jalonen
Finland Wartsila Arctic
Research Institute
Kaanaatie 1
Helsinki 56
Finland
Erkk i Jan tunen Teny Ke,np
Valmet Corp. Esso Resources Canada Ltd.
Helsin~i Shipyard 339 - 50th Ave. S.E.
P.O. Box 910 Calgary, Alberta
SF/00101 Helsinki 10 T2G 2B3
Finland Canada
Peter Jastram Andre'tI Ken dr i c k
Jastram-Werke German and Milne Inc. Suite 300
Postfach 30-0509 4999 ouest, St. Catherine
205 Hamburg 80 Westmount, Quebec
FR Germany H3Z 1T3
Canada
Hans-Ludwig Jessberger
Ruhr Universitat Gochum Arnold D. Kerr
Lehrstuhl fUr Grundbau und Bod. University of Delaware
Postfach 102148 Civil Engineering Dept.
4630 Bochum Newa rk, De 1al.are 19716
FR Germany USA
~r. Peter Jochmann Takamune Kitazawa
Hamburgische Schiffbau­ c/o Iowa Instiute of
Versuchsanstalt GmbH. Hydraulic Research
Bramfelder Strasse 16~ University of Iowa
2000 Hamburg 60 Iow~ City, Iowa 52242
FR Germany USA
Ian ,1. Jordaan Hans-Jorg Klehe
Det NorSke Veritas Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft
1110 10201 Southport Rd. S.W. Postfach 14 63 09
Calgary, Alberta 2300 Kiel 14
T2,j 4X9 FR Germany
Canada
Heinz Kohnen
Pasi Juhani Kaikkonen Alfred Wegener Institut
University of Oulu fUr Polarforschung
90570 Oulu 57 Columbus Center
Finland 2850 Bremerhaven
FR Germany
Edvigs V. Kanavin
1364 Hvalstad Konstatin Ko~kinowrachos
P.O. Box 29 Lehrgebiet Grundlagen der
Norway Meerestechnik der FWTH Aachen
Fiefschonsteinstr. 18
Zinovy Kane 5100 Aachen
Exxon International Co. FR Germany
220 Park Ave.
Florham Park, NJ 07932 ~lr.J. Ko 1odko
USA Polish Academy of Science
Institute of Hydroengineering
Pekka !(annari Cystersow 11
WARC 80-953 Gdansk
Kaanaantie 1 Poland
Helsinki 56
rin 1and
Panu Korri Peter Larsen
Rauma-Repola Oy Technische Universitat
Rauma Shipyard Karlsruhe
SF-26100 Rauma 10 Rehbock I~stitut fUr Wasserbau
Finland 7500 Karlsruhe 1
FR Germany
Timo Krankkala
University of Oulu Charles Lawrie
90570 Oulu 57 Canadian Coast Guard
Finland 5th Floor, Tower "A"
Place de Vi lle
Odo Krappinger Ottawa, KIA ON7
Hamburgische Schiffbau­ Canada
Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
Bramfelder Strasse 164 Yves Leber
2000 Hamburg 60 ETPM
FR Germany 33/35 rue d'Alsace
92531 Levallois Perret
John Kreider France
Arctec, Inc.
9104 Red 8ranch Rd. Reg.Oir. Leinweber
Columbia, MD 21045 Bundesministerium fUr Forschung
USA und Technologie
Referat 524
Yos hi mit su Kubo Postfach 20 07 06
CR. Eng. Lab Inc. 5300 Bonn 2
4-44-3, Minami-Ogikubo FR Germany
Suginami-ku
Tokyo Goran Liljestrom
Japan Gotaverken Arendal
P.O.Box 8733
Oll .i Laasanen S-402 75, Goteborg
National Board of Waters Sweden
Hydrological Office
P.O. Box 436 Eugen Lissunow
SF-OOlOl Helsinki 10 c/o USSR Consulat General
Finland Feenteich
2000 Hamburg
Branko Ladanyi FR German 'y
Centre d'Ingenierie Nordique
Ecole Poly technique Olaf Loken
C.P. 6079, SUCC. A Environmental Studies (IA~D)
Montreal, Que. H3C 3A7 10 Wellington Street
Canada Ottawa, Ont.
KIA OH4
Luc Lainey Canada
Laval in International Inc.
1130 ouest rue Sherbrooke Mauri Maattanen
Montreal, Que. University of Oulu
H3A 2R5 Dept. of Mech. Eng.
Canada Linnanmaa
90570 Oulu 57
Hans C. Langager Finland
Greenland Techn. Organization
Hauser Plads 20
OK-1127 Copenhagen K
Denmark
Marc Maes Lutz MUller
Det Norske Veritas Ltd. Germanischer Lloyd
1110, 1-0201 Southport Rd. SW Vorsetzen 32
Calgary, Alberta Postfach 11 16 06
T2W 4X9 2000 Hamburg 11
Canada FR Germany
Wojciech Majewski An dreas Mii 11 er
Polish Academy of Sciences Eidg. Techn. Hochschule ZUrich
Institut of Hydroengineering Inst. fur Hydromechanick und
Cys tersow 11 Wasserwi rt schaft
80-953, Gdansk CH-8093 ZuriCh-Honggerberg
Po 1and Switzerland
~1r. Mathies Esko Mustamaki
Germanischer Lloyd Wartsila Arctic Research Center
Vorsetzen 32 Oy Wartsila AB
Postfach 11 16 06 Kaanaantie 1
2000 Hamburg 11 Helsinki 56
FR Germany Finland
Vac11av ~latousek Volker W. Neth
11orseova 247 Gulf Canada Res. Inc.
109 00 Praha 10 Frontier Research Division
Czechoslovakia P.O.Box 130
Calgary, Alberta T2P 2H7
Istvan Mayer Car-ada
Vituki
Budapest, Kvassay J. ut Donald E. Nevel
H-1453 Budapest, Pf. 27 2809 S. Surrey Drive
Hungary Carrollton, TX 75006
USA
Hans ~leyer
Ruhrgas LNG Flussigerdgas Olli-Pekka Nordlund
Service GmbH Technical Res. Centre of Finland
Huttropstrasse 60 Lab. of Structural Eng.
4300 Essen 1 Betonimiehenkuja 3
FR Germany SF-02150 Espoo 15
Finland
Bernard Michel
Dep. de. Genie Civil Anita Nortala-Hoikkanen
Universite Laval University of Oulu
Ste-Foy, Quebec G1K 7P4 90570 Oulu
Canada Finland
Vladimir Mikhajlichenko Andrew C. Palmer
Ministry of Ocean Fleet Sir Winston Churchilllaan 366
Uliza Shdanova 1/4 2285 SJ Rijswijk '
103759 Mosco.i Netherlands
USSR
Jean-Pierre Patoine
Carl E. Morris The St. Lawrence Seaway Autority
c/o USCRREL P.O. Box 97
72 Lyme Road St. Lambert, Quebec
Hanover, MH 03755 J4P 3N7
USA Canada
Mannu Penttinen ClaJde Putot
Erkki Ltd. Consulting Eng. Institute d~ Petrole
Itatuulentie 1 B.P. 311
02100 Espoo 92506 Rueil Malmaison Cedex
Finland France
Slobodan Petkovic 8irgitti'. Raab
"Jaroslav Cerni" Swedish Meteorological
Beograd, Beli Pot ok and Hydrological Institute
Ul. Jaroslava Cernija 80 S-60176 Norikoping
Yugoslavia Sweden
Krystian Pilarczyk Erkk i Rank i
Rijkswaterstaat Wartsila Arctic
P.O. Box 20904 Research Institute
2500 EX Kaanaatie 1
The Hague Helsinki 56
Netherlands Finland
Prof. E. Pl ate Helge L. Rasmussen
Inst. fUr Wasserbau Statens Istjeneste
Universitat Karlsruhe Christianshavns Torv 2, 5. SAL
Postfach 6380 1410 Kobenhavn k
7500 Karlsruhe Denmark
FR Germany
Erk Reimnitz
Bruce D. Pratte US Dept. of Interior
Senior Research Office Geological Survey
Hydraulic Laboratory 345 Middlefield Rd., MS-99
National Research Council Menlo Park, CA 94025
Montreal Road, Ottawa, Onto USA
Canada
Kurt Reinicke
Simon J. Prinsenberg BEB Gewrkschaften B & E
Bedford Inst. of Oceanography Riethorst 12, Postfach 51 03 60
P.O. Box 1006 3000 Hannover 51
Dartmouth, N. S. FR Germany
B2Y 4A2
Canada Kai Riska
Tech. Research Centre
Berend Pruin of Finland, Ship Lab.
Schiffko Schiffskonstruction Tietotie 1
und -entwicklung GmbH 02150 Espoo
Stubbenhuk 10 Finland
20CO Hamburg 11
FR Germany William M. Sackinger
Assoc. Prof. of Engineering
Erkki Pulkkinen Geophysical Institute
University of Oulu Univ. of Alaska at Fairbanks
Dept. of Mech. Eng. 611 Elvey, AK 99701
90570 Oulu 57 USA
Finland
Masafumi Sakai
Taisei Corporation
25-1, Nishi-shinjuku
l-chome, Shinjuku-ku
Tokoyo, 160-91, Japan
Helrnut Salzrnann
Ingenieur Gemeinschaft
Meerestechnik + Seebau
Millerntorplatz 1
2000 Hamburg 4
FR Germany
Peter R. Sammonds
University College London
Geology Dept.
Gower St., London
Ii/C1E 61lT
England
Lennart Sandberg
Vattenfa 11
Trollhatte Canal Admin.
Box 3020
S-46103 Trollhattan
Sweden
Timothy J.O. Sanderson
British Petroleum Dev. Ltd.
Britann i cHouse
Moor Lane
London EC2Y 9BU
England
Jim Sandkvist
SSPA
P.O. Box 24001
S-AOO 22 Goteborg
Sweden
Takao Sasajima
Nagasaki Experimental Tank
Mits~bishi Heavy Ind. Ltd.
3-48 Bunkyo-Machi
Nagasaki 852
Japan
Ingo Sasse
Germanischer L1Jyd
Vorsetzen 32
Postfach 11 16 06
20000 Hamburg 11
FR Ger'llany
Stuart fl. Savage
McGi 11 University
Dept. OF Civil Eng.
81 7 Sherbrooke St. W.
Montreal, PQ, H3A 2K6
Canad d
Erland M. Schul son
Thayer School of Engineering
Dartmouth College
Hanover, Nfl 03755
USA
Lawrence A. Schultz
Arctec. Inc.
9104 Red Branch Rd.
Columbia, MD 21045
USA
Joachim Schwarz
Hamburgische Schiffbau­
Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
Bramfelder Strasse 164
2000 Hamburg 60
FR Germany
A. Patrick Selvadurai
Chairman, Dept. of Civil Ens.
Carleton University
Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6
Canada
Prof. Or. H.T. Shen
Clarkson University
Potsdam, ~Y 13676
USA
Kimmo Simomaa
Tech. Research Centre
of Finland
Metallimiehenkuja 8
SF / 02150 Espoo 15
Finland
Stig-Goran Sjolind
University of Oulu
Dept. of Mech. Eng.
90570 Oulu 57
Fin land
Devinder Sodhi
P.O.Box 282
CRREL
Hanover, ~.H. 03755
USA
Torkel Solve
Vattenfa11
Trollhatte Kanalverk
P.O. Box 3020
S-46103 Trollhatten
Sweden
Per-Erik Soras Svetlana Varga
Norwegian Hydrodynamic Lab IIJaros 1(lV Cerr. i 11
River and Harbour Lab. Beograd, Beli Potok
P.O. Sox 4118, Valentinlyst Ul. JaroslavJ Cernija 80
N-7001 Trondheim Yugoslavia
lIon~ay
Gunter Var-ges
Alzbeta Stacikov~ Thyssen ~!ordse,=we~ke Emden
Water Research Institute P.O. flax ?35~
Nabr. Arm. Gen. L. Svoboda 5 2970 Emden
81249 Bratislava FR GErmany
Czechoslovakia
Mr. Gen~gy Vasiliev
Klaus Str-ubing ~lnistry of River Fleet
Dcutsches ~ydrographjches ;nstitut 11 Gorky St.
Bernhard-Nocht-Strosse 78 103009 ~':oscnw
2000 Hamburg 4 USSR
~R Germany
Ken 'Jau<1rey
Juhani SukselJinen Vaudrey & {Isscci:ltes, [nco
VTT Skeppstekniska Lab. P.O. Box 725
Tietotie 1 San Luis Cbispo, CA
SF-02150 Esbo 15 USA 93406
Finland
Vitoon Viv~trat
Jean Claude Tatinclaux Brian Watt Ass~c. Inc.
liSA CRREL 15650 Greenbrial Plaza Dr.
Box 282, Lyme Road Su ite 260
Hanover, NH 03755 Houston, TX 7705C
US/~ USA
Garry ... TimeD Hinriel, Voss
Div. of Mech. Eng. Deutscher Wetterdienst
National Research Council Seewetteramt
Ottawa, Onto Bernhard-Nocht-Str. 76
KIA OR6 2000 I-'amburg Ii
Canada FR Germany
Rene Tinavli GUnter Waas
Ecole Poly technique Hochtief AGa
C.P. 6C79, Succ. "A" I'M. KTJ
Montreal, Que. Bockenheiner Landstr. 24
Canada H3C 3A7 6000 Frankfurt
FR Ger:nany
Vasiliy A. Tronin
USSR Ministry of River Fleet Yung-Shih Wang
Petrovka St. 3/6 Exxon Production Research ~ c.
Moscow P.O.Box 2189
USSR Houston, Texas 77001
USA
Per Tryde
Institute of Hydrodynamics ~ Friedrich 'Neiss
Hydraulic Engineering Gro5e Str. 5
Technical University of Denmark 207 Ahrensburg
B'Jilding 115 FR Germany
DK-2800 lyngby
Denmark
Kurt Wendel C. Allen Wort~ey
Schiffko Schiff3konstruktion University of Wisconsin-Extension
und -entwicklung GmbH. 432 North Lake Street
Stubbenhuk 1" Madison, WI 53706
2000 Hamburg 11 USA
FR Gerllany
Jln<iers Ygge
Egon Wessels GVA
Ha~burgische Schiffbau­ P.O. !lox 8732
Versuchsanstalt GmbH. 5-40275 Goteborg
Bramfelder Strasse 164 S\~eden
2000 Hamburg 60
FR Germany Dr. ". Zakrzew~ki
Polish Academy of Sciences
Siegfried \-Ieyh Institute of Oceanology
Hamburgische Schiffbau­ Sopot P.O. Box 68 Ph. 51 4971
Versuc~sanstalt GmbH. Pola.nd
Bramfelder Stra~se 164
2000 Hamburg 60 Lolij Zoj
FR Germany Ministry of Ocean Fleet
Uliza Shdancva 1/4
Min.Rat.Dr. Wilckens 103759 Moscow
Bundesministerium fUr Forschung USSR
una Tr.chnologie
Referilt 524 Igor A. Zotikov
Postfach 20 07 06 USSR Academy of Sciences
5300 Bonn 2 Institute of Geography
FR Germany Stcrmonetny 29
~loscoll' 109017
Konrad Wilke USSR
~.EG Telefunken
Steinhbft 9
2000 Hamburg 11
FR Germany
Gor~n Wilkma~
~'ADJl. ~
P.O. Box 132
SF-0015: Helsinki 15
Finland
F. Mary Williams
Arctic Vessel and
Marine Research Inst.
National Research Council
Ottawa, KIA OR6
Canada
Mitchell M. Winkler
Shell Cil Co.
P.O. Box 2099
Houston, TX 77001
USA
Li s t of Accompanying Person s

Mrs. Argiroff
Mrs. Virginia Ashton
Mrs. Nanna Carstens
Mr s. Anji Davar
Mr s. Monique Drouin
Mr s. Kirsten Siedenburg-Evers
Mr s. Ute Franken stein
Mrs. Ann Frederking
Mrs. Sigridur Freystein sson
Mr s. Pamela Gerard
Mrs. Sofy Gershun ov
Mr s . Goodman
Mr s . Gudmundsson
Mr s . Suzanne Hausser
Mrs. Barbel Hoffmann
Mrs. Kendrick
Mrs. Margareta Larsen
Mrs . Sheila Lawrie
Mr s. Aila Maatanen
Mrs. Mariette Michel
Mrs . Patoine
Mrs . Pratte
Mr s. Prin senberg
Mr s . Hella Sc hwarz
Ms. ln sa Sc hwa rz
Mrs. Hayley Shen
Mrs. Soras
Mrs. Liliane Tinawi
Mr s. Louise Tryde
Mr s . Peggi Vaudrey
Mrs. Vivitrat
Mrs. Betty Wang
Mrs. Weil3
Mrs . Ute Wessels
Mr. Williams
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Welcoming Speech
Acknowledgements
List ofParticipants

MECHANICAL PROPEKTIES OF ICE AND ICE COVERS

Pages
Coon, M.D. Failure criteria for sea ice and
Evans, R.l loads resulting from crushing 1
Gibson, DR

Pulkkinen, E. Finite element analysis for ice forces

during failure by crushing against structures 17

Park, C Hydraulic characteristics offrazil flocs -

Gerard, R. some preliminary experiments 27

Hellmann, l-R Basic investigations on mush ice 37

ICE FORMATION

Loasanen , 0. The effect of air temperature on the

duration oflake ice cover 57

ICE HYDRAULICS AND ICE CONTROL

DeckD Controlling river ice to alleviate

ice jam flooding 69

Lyapin, V.E. Feasibility ofice control below

Razgovorova, E.L. high-head hydro projects 77
Iregub, GA.
Shatalina, IN.

Ivanov, L. V. Investigation and development of

Vinogradov, E.S. ice protection equipment for port
Lupa, A.T. and ship repair yards with freezing
water area 89

TSang, G. Frazil concentration measurement

in the laboratory and in the field 99
 STRUCTURES IN ICE

Graham, BW.
Rubble-protected drilling systems
Potter, R.E.
developments 113
Wood, KN.

Comfort, G.

Arockiasamy, M
Response studies ofconcrete
Swamidas, A.S.1
shell panel models to simulated
Hamlyn, D.
bergy-bit impact 127
Munaswamy, K.

Blanchet, D.
Model for predicting global ice
Metge, M
loads on wide arctic offshore
structures during impacts ofsummer
multi-year ice floes 139

Hoikkanen, 1
Measurements and analysis ofice
pressure against a structure in
level ice and in pressure ridges 151

Conneau, A.
Ice-structure interaction:
lordaan, 1.1
A fundamental energy-based
Nessim, M
approach 161
Tomin, M

Kemp, T.S.
Grounded ice pads as drilling
bases in the Beaufort Sea 175

Frederking, R.MW.
Ice interaction with
Sayed,M
Adams Island, Winter 1982-83 187
W~/s, E.

Child, A.1

Bradford, D.

Wessels, E. Model test investigation of

ice forces on fIXed and floating
conical structures 203

Potter, R.E. Rubble protection - an alternative

Bruce, 1C for arctic exploration 221
Allyn, NEB
Aleinikov, SM Ice action on hydraulic
Lyapin, V.E structure slopes 237
Shmelyova, LA.
Kheisin, DE.

Karnovich, VN. Recommendations on the design

Sokolov, IN. ofloads on hydraulic structures
due to ice accumulations 249

ICE MODELLING

Nawwar,AM Segmented icebreaking ship model

Howard, D. testing technique development 255
Bayly, 1M

Abdelnour, R. Small scale tests ofsea

Graham, R bottom ice scouring 267

NAVIGATION IN ICE

Sasajima, T. Revised Version:

Mustamiiki, E. Ice-milling load encountered by a
controllable pitch propeller 281

Tunik, A.L. Dynamic ice loads on a ship 297

Ionov, RP. Theoretical studies of the redistribution

ofice resistance components depending
on the icebreaker hull shape and main
dimensions 315

Baker, DN. A new bow for M V. Arctic 325

Nishizaki, R.

Yerusalimski, A.V. Investigation of the effect of the

1S0y, L.G. hull plating roughness on the passabi/ity
ofship in ice 343
 INSTRUMENTATION IN ICE ENGINEERING

Pukki, 1 An instrument for recording ice

Simomaa, K loads in an offshore structure 353

DISCUSSIONS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE AND ICE COVERS

Forland, KA. Laboratory investigation ofthe kinetic

1l1tinclaux, l-C friction coefficient ofice
Discussion by: D.l Goodman; E. Enkvist; M Miiiittiinen 361

Schulson, EM The effect ofgrain size on the

Cannon, N.P. compressive strength of ice
Discussion by: T.1Q Sanderson,· A.P.S. Selvadurei,·
G. W. Timco; B Miche~· 1 Currier;
D.J. Goodman,· RMW. Frederking;
T. Carstens 363

Timco, o.w. A procedure to account for

Frederking, RM W. machine stiffness in uni-axial
compressive tests
Discussion by: F.D. Hayes 369

Nadreau, l-P' Creep ofsimulated pressure

Miche~ B ridge granular ice
Discussion by: D.l Goodman 371

Sjolind, S.-G. Viscoelastic buckling of beams

and plates on elastic foundation
Discussion by: D.S. Sodhi 373

Tinawi, RA. Behaviour ofsea ice plates under

Gagnon, L. long term loading
Discussion by: A. A&rur,· R.MW. Frederking;
A.D. Kerr; DE Neve~· G. Grabe;
D.S. Sodhi 375

Selvadurei, A.P'S. Flexure of a non-homogenous

floating ice sheet
Discussion by: A.D. Kerr 381
Coon, M.D. Failure criteria ofsea ice and loads
Evans, R.l resulting from crnshing
Gibson, DB.
Discussion by: D.l Goodman,' T.1Q Sanderson,'
R Ladany~' D.S. Sodh~' V. Vivatrat;
Y.s. Wang 383

Pulkkinen, E. Finite element analysis ofice

forces during failure by crnshing
against structures
Discussion by: T.1Q Sanderson,' 1 Cu"ier 389

Park, C Hydraulic characteristics offrazil

Gerard, R. flocs - some preliminary experiments
Discussion by: G.D. Ashton,' SF. Daly; V. MatouSek 391

Hellmann, l-H Basic investigations on mush ice

Discussion by: R. Ettema; Y.S. Wang;
R.Gerarri; R Ladanyi 395

ICE FORMATION

Daly, SF. The dynamics offrazil

Stolzenbach. K.D. ice formation
Discussion by: G.D. Ashton,' A. Mueller 399

Bengtsson, L. Forecasting snow and black ice

growth from temperature and precipitation
Discussion by: R.R Asva/~' R. Gerard;
G.D. Ashton,' G. Frankenstein,' .
R Larsen,' K. Striibing 401

MatouSek, V. Regularity of the freezing-up

of the water surface and heat
exchange between water body and
water surface
Discussion by: L. Bengtsson 405

Pilarczyk, K. W. Prediction ofice formation for

the Eastern Scheidt in the Netherlands
Discussion by: A. Assur,' L. Bengtsson,'
S. Daly; G. Frankenstein 409
Laasanen, O. The effect ofair temperature on the
duration oflake ice cover
Discussion by: R.P. Asva/~' DH Champ
E. Engelke; P. Larsen 413

ICE HYDRAULICS AND ICE CONTROL

Shen, HT. Field investigation of

Van de Valk, WA. St. Lawrence River hanging
ice dams
Discussion by: GD. Ashton,' R. Gerard 415

Majewsk~ W. Backwater profiles on hydro-electric

reservoir with ice cover
Discussion by: S. Beltaos; GD. Ashton,' E. Reimnitz 419

Billfalk, L. Strategic hydro power operation

at freeze-up reduces ice jamming
Discussion by: R. Hausser; R. Perham 421

Drouin, M The La Grande River afull scale

Hausser, R. ice hydraulics laboratory
Discussion by: T. Carstens; S. Beltaos;
L. Billfalk,' R Michel 425

Andersen, P.F. Ice management for Beaufort Sea

Allyn, N.F.R production harbours
Discussion by: GD. Ashton,' W.M Sackinger;
HT. Shen 429

MatouSek, V. 1jIpes ofice run and conditions

for their formation
Discussion by: R Miche~' L. Bengtsson,'
S.F. Daly 433

Yapa,PNDD. An unsteady flow model of

Shen, HT. river ice hydraulics
Discussion by: lC Tatinc/aux; GD. Ashton,'
W. Majewski 437

Chen, Z. Analysis ofcauses for floods

Sun,z. during ice run on the lower reaches
Wang, W. of the Yellow River
Discussion by: H .T. Shen,' R. Ettema 441
Alger, G.R. A procedure for calculating
Santeford, HS. river flow rate under an ice cover
Discussion by: 1C Tatinciaux; JL. Wuebben;
R. Gerard; V.R. Schneider; G.D. Ashton 443
ISang, G. Frazil concentration measurement
in the laboratory and in the field
Discussion by: B. Pratte; A. Mueller;
S. Daly; G.D. Ashton 451

STRUCTURES IN ICE

Morris, CE. Crushing ice forces on

Sodh~ DS. cylindrical structures
Discussion by: R.MW Frederking,' T.1Q Sanderson;
V. Vivatrat; R. Gerard; A. Parson 457

Miiiittiinen, M The effed ofstructural properties

on ice-induced self-excited vibrations
Discussion by: R. Gerard; DS. Sodhi 463

Jessberger, HL. Model tests and in situ behaviour

Bassler, K.-H. ofprestressed anchors in snow
and ice
Discussion by: R Landany~' RMW Frederking 467
Grass,lD Ice scour and ice ridging studies
in Lake Erie
Discussion by: T.1Q Sanderson,' R. Gerard;
DE Nevel; S. Beltaos 471

Kitam~ E Iceberg collision with semi-submersible

Fujishima, K drilling unit
Taguch~ Y.
Kawasak~ T.
Saka~ F.
Discussion by: RM.W Frederking,' R. Hayes 477

Wang, Y.S. Analysis and model tests of

pressure ridges failing against
conical structures
Discussion by: DS. Sodh~' 1R. Kreider,'
1 Currier 483

- - ­
Engelke, G. Ice formation and prevention
Jurgens, U on sub-zero cooled hydraulic
Leske, W structures
Discussion by: G. Frankenstein; 6. Starosofszky 493

Timco, G.W Model tests ofice forces on a wide

inclined plane
Discussion by: K.R. Croasdale,' RM W Frederking;
F.G. Bercha,' V. Vivatra~' E. Wessels 497

Thumbo Extraction ofpiles by repeated

Christensen, F. water-level fluctuations
Discussion by: CA. Wortley 501

Blanchet, D. Model for predicting global ice

Metge, M loads on wide arctic structures during
impacts ofsummer multiyear ice floes
Discussion by: K.R. Croasdale,' RMW Frederking 503

Hoikkanen, 1 Measurements and analysis ofice

pressure against a structure in level
ice and in pressure ridges
Discussion by: D Blanche~' M. Mtititttinen 509

Cormeau, A. lee-Structure interaction:

Jordaan, II A fundamental energy - based
Nessim, M approach
Tomin, M
Discussion by: Dl Goodman,' V. Vivatrat 511

Kemp, T.S. Grounded ice pads as drilling

bases in the Beaufort Sea
Discussion by: K.R. Croasdale,' RMW Frederking 513

Frederking, RMW Ice interaction with Adams Island,

Sayed, M Winter 1982 - 83
Wessels; E.
Child, A.l
Bradford, D
Discussion by: K.R. Croasdale,' T.S. Kemp;
T.1Q Sanderson,' DS. Sodh4'
E. Reimnitz; D Blanchet 517
W~els', E. Model test investigation ofice

forces on fIXEd and floating conical

structures

Discussion by: R. Abdelnour 525

Potter, R.E. Rubble protection - an alternative

Bruce, lC for arctic exploration

Allyn, N.F.R
Discussion by: T.S. Kemp; R. Haspel 527

Nadreau, lP. Ice properties in relation

Miche~ R to ice forces

Discussion by: F.U Hausler; E. Schuls'on,' A. A&rur 529

Timco, G. Ice forces on structures:

Physical modelling techniques
Discussion by: 1 Currier 531

Sanderson, T.lo. Theoretical and measured ice forces

on wide structures

Discussion by: D. Blanchet; R.MW Frederking 533

Sodh~ D.S. Forces associated with ice

Kovacs, A. pile-up and ride-up

Discussion by: WM Sackinger; E. Reimnitz;

V. Vivatrat; T.J.O. Sanderson,'

R. Abdelnour '535

Krankkala, T. Methods for determining ice forces

Moot/anen, M due to first - and multi-year ridges

Discussion by: V. Vivatrat 541

Sanderson, T.J.O. Thermal ice forces against

isolated structures

Discussion by: E. Reimnitz; K.R. Croasdale,'

D.S. Sodhi; MA. Maes 543

STATISTICS IN ICE ENGINEERING

Maes,MA. Probalistic analysis oficeberg

Jordaan, I.1 loads on offshore structures
Discussion by: 1 Currier 547
 ICE MODELLING

Ettema, R. Observations on the growth of

Mueller, A. urea ice on a small ice basin
Cook, A .G.
Discussion by: G.w. Timco 549

Enkvist, E. A fine grain model ice

Makinen, S.
Discussion by: D. Baker; Y.s. Wang; G.w. Timco 551

Schultz LA. Recent experience in conduding

Free, A.P. ice model tests using a synthetic
ice modelling material
Discussion by: G.w. Timco 555

Nawwar, AM Segmented icebreaking ship model

Howard, D. testing technique development
Bayly, 1M
Discussion by: E. Enkvis~' lC Tatinclaux;
KRisko 557

NAVIGATION IN ICE

Tronin, VA . Problems of river shipping in

Malinowsky, VA. ice-bound conditions
Sandakov, YA.
Discussion by: T. Heidemann,' A. Freitas; G. Valges 561

Beurket, R.T. Great lakes limited seaSon

AlgirofJ. C extension operation ofSault
Ste. Marie Locks, Michigan, USA.
Discussion by: T. Solve; R. Gerard,' G. Frankenstein 565

Sasajima, T. Ice-milling load encountered

Mustamiik~ E by a controllable pitch propeller
Discussion by: R. Abdelnour; K. Riska 569

Baker, D. A new bow for M.v. Arctic

Nishizp~ R.
Discussion by: lC Tatinclaux; M Mikhajlichenko 573

Yerusalimsky, A .V. Investigation ofthe effect of the

noY, L.G. hull plating roughness on the
possibility ofships in ice
Discussion by: lC Tatinclaux 577
 INSTRUMENTATION IN ICE ENGINEERING

Mayer, 1 Application ofsubsurface radar

Starosoiszky, 0. measurement ofice thickness
Discussion by: GD. Ashton,' R.P. Asval~'
HT. Shen,' R. Hayes 579

Cox, GE.N. Evaluation of biaxial ice stress sensor

Discussion by: R.MW. Frederking 585

Harmon, Dl An instrumented auger for vertical

Parson, RL. survey ofice 'hardness'
Discussion by: KR. Croasdale; E. Schuison;
F.U. Hausler 587

Landany~ R . A parametric study oflong-term

Murat,l-R. borehole dilatometer tests in ice
Huneault, P.
Discussion by: HL. Jessberger;
RMW. Frederking 591
MECHANICAL PROPEKI'IES OF ICE AND ICE COVERS

 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamhurg

FAILURE CRITERIA FOR SEA ICE

AND LOADS RESULTING FROM CRUSHING

M. D. Coon Coon and Associates, Inc. USA

R. J. Evans University of Washington USA
D. H. Gibson AMOCO Production Company USA

A proposed anisotropic failure criterion for sea ice is examined; failure is governed by
shear and is pressure sensitive at low pressure but independent of pressure at higher loads. The
criterion is shown to represent laboratory test data for uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial and plane strain
tests.
The failure criterion is applied to an isotropic ice sheet and is used to determine
indentation pressures for a rectangular indentor whose surface is normal to the plane of the ice
sheet. Four solutions are relevant, corresponding to in-plane and out-of-plane failure of both
Mohr-Coulomb and Tresca solids. Indentation pressures are found for various ice velocities,
structure diameters and ice thickness to illustrate the range of application of the solutions.
INTRODUCTION
Design of offshore Arctic structures is strongly dependent on local and global ice loads.
The loads of concern here are those due to ice crushing; these result from failure of ice which has
grown around and adhered to a structure or when ice fails against a' vertical or steeply sloped
structure.
Crushing failure loads are typically calculated using plasticity theory and this requires
knowledge of the failure criterion for sea ice. In this paper, a failure criterion is proposed which
is simple in form and which describes the essential observed features of sea ice failure .
In subsequent sections of this paper, the failure criterion is described and compared with
available test data. Strain rate and temperature dependence is also considered. Then, for
isotropic ice, the yield surface is used to obtain indentation loads and to show how failure modes
may change, depending on loading and environmental conditions .

PROPOSED FAILURE CRITERION

Projections of the proposed yield surface on normal stress-shear stress axes are shown in
Figure I. Essential features are a) the pressure (or normal stress) dependence which is present at
low normal stress but not for larger normal stress, and b) the material anisotropy. The lower
curve is for loading parallel to the C-axis. At low normal stress, behavior is that of a frictional or
Mohr-Coulomb material while, at higher normal stress, failure is controlled by a maximum
shearing stress like a Tresca material. Coulomb behavior is described by two para'meters, the
cohesion, c, and the angle of internal friction , <1>, while Tresca behavior is given only in terms of
maximum shearing stress, to-

perpendicular to the "e" axis

TO (po,pl

.
~.

....'"
~

s::;

para lIel to the "e" axis

normal ,tresk, (7'

Figure 1. Typ ical Yield Surface of Ice

2
 Figure 2 shows the projection of the
maximum shear criteria on the octahedral plane
..... ~ an isotropic (i.e., the plane whose normal is the mean stress) .
..... The effect of the anisotropy is to elongate the
'I hexagon in the direction of the principal stress
perpendicular to the C-axis. In Figure 2, 0 1 and
02 are principal stresses in the plane of the
C-axis, and 03 is the principal stress perpe ndicu­
lar to the C-axis.

Subsequently, the yield surface will be

used for both isotropic and anisotropic ice. First­
CTZ year sea ice will be assumed to have the C-axes
lying randomly in the plane of the ice sheet and
thus to be transversely isotropic; hence 03 is the
principal stress normal to the ice surface. Multi­
year ice is assumed to be composed of randomly
oriented ice blocks and, for large enough
specimens, to exhibit isotropy as indicated in
Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Isotropic and Anisotropic Yield Surface

AVAILABLE DATA
Experimental data is examined with regard to the proposed failure criterion. The manner
of plotting the data is generally different to that of the original authors.
Jones (1978) conducted triaxial compression tests on isotropic freshwater ice subjected to
large hydrostatic pressures. His tests were conducted at a strain rate of 5.4 X 10- 4 s -1 and at a
temperature of -I I. 5°C.

2 ...r
~ 'iii
Jones' results, using
Mohr's circle plots, are shown

stress, CT
-.
0; ~
0
t>
.c:
l-
on the shear stress-norma I
stress plane in Figure 3. It is
apparent that the material is
pressure sensitive in the first
two or three samples and then
Figure 3. Jones' Data
relatively pressure insensitive
as the total hydros tatic pres­
sures increase. The Mohr circle
representation shows less scatter than does the plot of confining pressure vs. yield stress used by
Jones.
Hausler (1981) carried out both uniaxial and multiax ial compression tests on saline
laboratory ice. These triaxial tests were set up so that independent stresses could be applied in
all three principal directions . We reviewed this data to find the differences between the stresses
in each principal direction (Table I) . If this d ifference was essentially the unconfined

3
compressive strength in that direction, then the ice was assumed to shear in the corresponding
plane. The stresses o[ and 02 are assumed to be across the longitudinal crystal axis and to
correspond to equal strengths.
As can be seen in Table I, t.ests number 12, 14, 16, and 22 are experimental cases which
cannot be resolved simply by Mohr's circles on eit.her axis. Case 16 is associated with the same
stress being applied in all directions without shear developing. Cases 12, 14, and 22 appear to be
mixed mode failure as a result of being near a corner on the yield surface and are plotted in both
planes of the yield surface.

Table I
Hausler's Data

Test In-Plane Out-of-Plane

Number
(Fig. 7 o[ °2 °3 °[-° 2 °3-°2 03 -o[
--­
and 8) (MPa) 2 2 2

1 0 0 10.05 0 5.03 0
2 2.06 0 0 1.03 0 1.03
3 3.72 0 12.49 ~ 4.36 6.22
4 3.46 0 6.30 .L.TI. 1.42 3.15
5 2.47 0 2.48 ill 0.01 1.24
6 2.10 0 0.73 1.05 0.69 0.37
7 2.73 0 1.84 1.365 0.45 0.92
8 3.46 1.19 0 ill 1.73 0.60
9 6.98 4.72 0 l..!1 3.49 2.36
10 9.36 9.40 0 -0.02 4.68 4.70
11 5.77 5.85 17.33 -0.04 5.78 5.74
12­ 10.36 5.39 15.73 2.49 2.69 U1
13 4.49 1.54 4.49 1.48 0 1.50
14­ 13 .20 12.50 18.54 0.35 2.67 3.20
15 8.65 5.83 8.65 ill 0 1.41
16­ 14.20 14.25 14.18 -0.03 0.01 0.04
17 3.74 1.28 1.26 ill 1.24 0.01
18 8.23 5.50 2.78 U1 2.73 1.36
19 17.12 17.07 5.79 0.03 5.67 5.64
20 5.45 1.86 3.65 1.80 0.09 0.89
21 8. 15 5.51 5.44 ill 1.36 0.04
22­ 11.62 11.63 7.73 -0.01­ 1.95 U.Q

Underlined entries indicate failure orientation, - i.ndicate mixed mode or undefined

failure orientation, all tabulated entries are the average of three tests by HAusler.

4
 Mohr's circles of the differences of the two principal stresses are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
These figures demonstrate the anisotropy of saline ice; in this case the strength along the crystal
axis is over three times greater than that across the crystal axis. The shear strength is relatively
independent of minor stresses in the other direction . Tests 4 through 8 show a range of stress
°
along the crystal axis, 3 , but the samples still all fail in the direction of the shear stress (° 1-0 2)/2.

Parallel to the "C"axis

...
.. ­
.;
..
~
0
0..
,
... -
Oi ::E
~
0
.c::
normal 51 ress, (j

Figure 4. Hausler's Data

~
~
Perpendicular to the lie" axis

Figure 5. Hausler's Data

Since 1981 the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory of the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers (CRREL) has been conducting a joint industry investigation on the
mechanical properties of multiyear sea ice. Uniaxial unconfined compression, tension, and
triaxial tests have been performed at two temperatures _5°, _20°C) and two nominal strain rates
(l0-s and 10-;) sec-I) for many samples (Table 2). The yield surfaces from Mohr circles of this data
is shown in Figures 6A through 6D and combined in Figure 7 for comparison. As may be seen
from Table 2, there is insufficient data for any particular stress condition to be statistically
signjficant; however, the data tends to support the proposed model.

5
 In Figures 6A through 6D, the Mohr circles for the laboratory tests represent all tests for
the particular strain-rate and temperature except for unia.x ial compression where only a few
representative tests were selected. The dotted lines correspond to the Coulomb portion of the
curve where there is insufficient data for reliable determination. The large scatter is not
surprising in view of the local anisotropy in and grain size diJTerence between the individual
blocks making up the multiyear ice.

1000 .
:::.
_0.
~

nor mol stress, (j

2000 t­
..
..

-;~
"'­.­
~

1000 1; _
.,
..
.c

1000 ~ ..
.. C1

Figure6C. CRRELTests(e = 1O-5sec -l,T = -20·C)

6
 .
1000 .;­

41
- "'
~:=
"'!;

Figure 60. CRREL Tests (e = 1O-5sec -I, T = _5°C)

Table 2
CRRELTriaxial Tests on Multiyear Ice
(Tension tests averaged together on plots 6A through 60 for clarity)

e = 1O-3sec -1 e = 1O-5sec -1
Axial Confining Axial Confining
Test Temperature Stress Pressure Test Temperature Stress Pressure
Number (OC) (psi) (psi) lNumber (OC) (psi) (psi)

1 -20 - 1520 0 21 -20 - 543 0

2 -20 - 1556 0 22 -20 - 258 0
3 -20 + 152 0 23 -20 + 189 0
4 -20 + 83 0 24 -20 + 125 0
5 -20 + 154 0 25 -20 + 164 0
6 -20 - 3329 - 1531 26 -20 + 124 0
7 -5 - 1373 0 27 -20 - 2212 - 1017
8 -5 - 1206 0 28 -20 - 1429 - 657
9
10
-5
-5
+
+
168
185
0
0
29
30
-20
-20
- 2527
- 2320
-- 1718
1578
11 -5 + 160 0 31 -5 - 167 0
12 -5 + 95 0 32 -5 - 97 0
13 -5 - 1991 - 916 33 -5 + 169 0
14 -5 - 1984 - 913 34 -5 + 142 0
15 -5 - 4940 - 2272 35 - 5 + 122 0
16 -5 - 2865 - 1318 36 -5 - 1148 - 528
17 -5 - 1474 - 678 37 -5 - 479 - 220
18 - 5 - 5774 - 3926 38 -5 - 1512 - 695
19 -5 - 3099 - 2107 39 -5 - 927 - 426
20 -5 - 2772 - 1885 40 -5 - 758 - 515
41 -5 - 602 - 409
42 -5 - 2535 - 1723
43 - 5 - 1197 - 814

Figure 7 summarizes Figures 6A through 60 and indicates the effect of temperature and
strain rate on the ultimate shear strength of the material and on the extent of the pressure­
sensitive region. For both strain rates, the main effect of temperature appears to be on the shear
limit for Tresca-type failure ; the effect on the Mohr-Coulomb behavior is slight. However, strain
rate sensitivity is very apparent; Tresca shear strength, internal friction angle and cohesion all
increase with increasing strain rate .

7
 ...
E = 10- 3 , temperature = - 20· C .;
\ 1000 WI
\ ~
~ ~ ...
WI

normal stress, IT

Figure 7. CRREL Tests (Summary)

Finally, this Mohr-Coulombl

Tresca theory permits a simple
interpretation of the work of
Frederking (1977) who ran con­
fined compression tests as shown
in Figure 8 as well as unconfined
compression tests in the plane of
the ice (C X)' He did not carry out
tests to determine C z but such
tests under comparable conditions
were run by Carter and Michel
(1971) . Both Tresca and Mohr-
Coulomb failure criteria predict
that
Figure 8. Frederking Plane Strain Tests

while the ratio between r/' po and Jl po is a measure of the anisotropy and is not related to any
pressure effects. .
For columnar ice, Frekerking found the average ratio of r/' po to oB ps to vary from
approximately 4.5 at a strain rate of 1O-7s- 1 to approximately 2.0 at lO-4s-1 (the tests were run
at a temperature of _10°C) . He also found Jl ps to be approximately equal to CX ' The tests by
Carter and Michel are consistent with equality between Cz
and r/' ps" For granular ice, he found
r/' ps' Jl po and C x to be approximately equal

When Ralston (1980) used a pressure-sensitive, anisotropic quadratic yield surface for
columnar ice and obtained the constants from in-plane and out-of-plane compression and tension
tests, the resu Iting yield criterion predicted the ratio of r/' ps to Cz to be over 2.

8
INDENTATION PRESSURE FOR AN ISOTROP[C ICE SHEET
As an application of the failure criterion described above , indentation pressures are
determined for a rectangular indentor whose surface is normal to the axis of the ice sheet. [t is
assumed that there is perfect contact between the indentor and the ice sheet and that the latter is
isotropic and semi-infinite in extent. Four cases are relevant here corresponding to both Tresca
and Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria and to both narrow indentors (the plane strain case) and
wider indentors where out-of-plane displacements occur. Of the four solutions, three are
available in the literature and one (the out-of-plane mechanism for a Mohr-Coulomb material) is
given here. For any indentor size the appropriate indentation pressure is the lowest of the four
solutions.
For very narrow indentors the state of stress tends to that of plane strain (in the plane of
the ice) and the indentation pressure, p, may be obtained from upper bound solutions by
Meyerhof (195\). For the Mohr-Coulomb criteria p depends on the material properties; for <!>
(angle of internal friction) of 40°,
p = 18.60 (1)
c

where0c is the unconfined compression strength .

An upper bound for a Tresca material is a special case of the above and gives (Prager and
Hodge, 1950
p = 2.570 c (2)

where Oc is the Tresca yield strength in compression.

Croasdale, Morganstern and Nuttall (1977) have considered the out-of-plane indentation
for a Tresca material. Their upper bound velocity field is shown in Figure 9 and leads to the
indentation pressure

(3)

Figure 9 . Failure Mechanism of Morganstern and Nuttall

9
where p can be minimized with respect to 8 (see Figure 9) but the corresponding value of 8
depends on tiD. An appro<imate upper bound is found by setting 8 = 45' for which

p = oJ I + 0.35 ~) (4)

A complete solution for out-of-plane indentation failure of a Mohr-Coulomb material has

not previousIy been given and is derived here. Some results of plasticity theory for Mohr­
Coulomb solids which will be used subsequently are (Drucker and Prager, 1952) as follows:
a) Because of the volume increase that accompanies shearing, the motion of one side of a
slip band relative to the other side is oblique to the tangent plane of the slip band and
makes an angle 4> with the direction of the band.
b) The work done at a slip surface per unit area is
eU p

where e is the cohesion and Up is the relative velocity component along the slip
surface.
c) 0c' e and 4> are related by

(5a)

Similarly the tensile strength, at, is given by

2c (5b)

The velocity field used is con­

sistent with that observed by Taylor
(1981) (see Figure 10) and is presented
in Figure 11. GEFH corresponds to the
upper surface of the sheet while AB lies
either on the bottom surface or on some

r~
FRONT VIEW
~==:~=T
~::'::'I=::'~
- :- ­
)
~
intermediate plane, in which case only
the upper portion of the failure
mechanism is shown and a similar
mechanism, reflected about this inter­
mediate plane, exists for the lower
A-'
portion of the sheet. The motion is also

t:=J
symmetric about the (X \, X 2) plane
where it bisects ABCDEF and thuB the
work done by rigid bodies BCFH and
""'" H ADEG is equal. Only BCFH will be
subsequently considered and its contri­
bution to the work done will be doubled.

Figure 10. Taylor's Observed Failure Mode

10
 Figure 11. Assumed Velocity Field

The rigid wedge ABCDEF is taken to be that for the infinitely wide indentor, hence

L CFB = (~ _ ~) = a (6)

Referring to Figure 16, let

(7)
LCBH= w
and let
(8)

-!- -!- -!­

be the velocity ofCBFH (L I , L2 and L3 are the unit basis vectors).
Requirement (a) (above) is used to lind relationships between VB' wand VA' and the
velocity of ABCDEF, as follows :
In view of requirement (a) and equation (6)

VA = V A [cos (~4 + 2~)I I + sin ( 4~ (9)

Let the other unit normal ofBFH, nBFH be given by

(10)

From t.he geometry of Figure II,

1
-co/aco/w
NI = N' N
(11)

where

(12)

11
 - ---

Applying requirement (a) to faces BFH and BCF and relating internal to external work
leads to :

(V1Nl + V/'2 + V~3) I (13)

where
p=a
C I1+-
D
h /an a sin a V 3
sin <I>
­
VA VA N 3

V1N 1 + V/'2 + V3 N 3 V3 (14)

= - - - - - - - - - - - = - - - - - - - - = sin <I>
[
V2 + V2 + v2j1
1 2 3 [ ( VI - VA sina Y+ ( V2 - V A coso. Y+ V~ r
The lowest upper bound for this mechanism is obtained by minimizing equati~n (13) with
respect to, say'" and V /V J .
As an illustration, the lowest upper bound has been found for two values of <1>. namely for
<I> = 40' (corresponding to a/aT = 4 .60) and for <I> = 25' (a/aT = 2.46).
For <I> = 40',

and
(15)

For <I> = 25',

and
(16)

Equation (13) can also be written as

p=ac(1 +el(<I»~) (17)

4
I I I I I where e 1 (<1» is the coefficient
of the correction term for hiD .
3
e1 is shown in Figure 12 for
friction angles between 10' and
60'.
el Z

If-

,
I
00 10 20 30 40 50 60
rI> (de~rees)

F igure 12 . Correction Coefficient

12
STRAIN RATE DEPENDENCE
Prior to showing an example of indentation pressure calculated from equations 0), (2), (4)
and (7), it is appropriate to discuss the method of calculating the strain rate from the far field ice
velocity.
For in-plane failure modes, the procedure suggested by Michel and Toussaint (977) will
be followed and the strain rate will be defined by
V
e, = 4D (18)

where V is the far -field ice velocity . Clearly this definition is somewhat arbitrary but does
represent in some way the average strain rate within the failure region . Such a definition is at
least consistent with the strain rate computed for unconfined compression tests .
By similar reasoning, the strain rate for out-of-plane failure mechanisms, which depends
on ice thickness rather than indentor width, is defined here as
(19)

such a definition has previously been suggested as being appropriate by Taylor (Ibid.).

APPLICATION - INDENTATION PRESSURE CALCULATIONS

Two examples appropriate to multiyear sea ice are calculated here. In calculating
indentation pressures, each of the equations 0), (2), (4), and (7) are used to find p and the lowest
value is taken as the design pressure.
The situation is shown schematically in Figure 13 where the equations consistent with ,
but not computed from , strength values of Table 3 are shown graphically. The purpose of this
figure is to show that for a given ice velocity, ice thickness, temperature and indentor diameter
appropriate values of Dc , 0c and <I> could be determined provided that their reference values at a
specific strain rate and temperature were known .
.
.
~

co
......

...... y _ ~uotjon (ll

\ \
\
\
\
~-
\ -_~uotion(2)

\
\
---
Equalion (4)
\
\

Equalion (17)

O/h
Figure 13. Pressure vs. Dl h for Different Failure Modes

13
 Table 3
Ice Properties

Strain psi psi psi psi

Ratec Temperature DC °T <I> c dc

10- 5 _5°C 130 140 20 1 100 1 480

10- 3 _5°C 1,290 150 52 220 1,300

10- 5 -20°C 400 150 27 120 800

10- 3 _20°C 1,540 130 57 1 220 1 1,800

Original data source was CRREL data from a joint industry study on multiyear ice
[Cox e! af (1984), Mellor e! af (1984)].

Subscript I indicates insufficient data for calculation of <I> and c exactly, these
numbers obtained by estimation.

Figure 13 thus might represent indentation pressures for a specific ice type (Le., grain size,
temperature, ice thickness, and velocity as a function of indentor width). Equations (1) and (2)
are valid for all Dlh ratios, their decrease with increasing D being due only to the corresponding
decrease in strain rate and decrease in strength of the ice.
What is apparent from Figure 3 is that for different ranges of Dlh, different failure modes
can govern. Thus for small Dlh values, equation (2) governs; for intermediate values, equation
(4) governs; while for very large indentor diameters, equation (17) applies.
In calculating specific values, only available data i.e., Table 3 will be used. Numerical
values obtained must obviously be interpreted in this light. It is apparent that, for the given
values or Dc and Dc, equation (1) for plane strain Mohr-Coulomb behavior will always give higher
values of p than will equation (2); equation (1), therefore, will not be considered subsequently.

EXAMPLE I
Let
v = 150reellhour, D = 1,000r..!, h = 10ree!, T= _20°C.

These data correspond to a wide structure and (multiyear) sea ice in typical Beaufort Sea
extreme near shore winter ice velocities. From equations (18) and (19),

e
o
=1 X 10-5 and e
1
= 1 X 10- 3
Then using Table 3 values of pare:

Equation (2): p = (800)(257) = 2060psi

Equation (4): p = (1800) (I + (35) ~)

1000
= 1810 psi

14
 Equation (17): p = (1540)(1 + (33)~)
1000
= 1590psi
Thus in this case p = 1,590 psi as given by out-of-plane Mohr-Coulomb crushing governs and
provides the design load.

EXAMPLE 2
Let
v = 350 feet/hour, D = 40 feel, h = 10 feet, T = - 20·C.
From equations (18) and (19)
• -4 • -3
eo = 6 X 10 ,ei = 2 .4 X 10

Rather than interpolate from the incomplete data in Table 3, strain rate values of 10-3 will
be used both in-plane and out-of-plane failures .
Then p values are given by :
Equation (2): p = (1800) (2 .57) = 4630 psi

Equation (4) : p = (1800) ( 1 + (.35) :~ ) = 1960 psi

Equation (17): p = (1540)( 1 + (3.3) :~) = 2850psi

Here out-of-plane crushing in the Tresca mode [Eqn. (4)) governs, illustrating the
phenomenon sketched in Figure 18. The case where, for small Dl h, equation (2) governs will not
be illustrated here .

CONCLUSIONS
The important features of the failure criterion discussed here are that it is pressure
dependent at lower stress levels but pressure independent at higher stresses; such a criterion,
together with anisotropy, appears to describe the essential features of ductile ice failure . Work to
develop more detailed aspects of the failure criterion is continuing.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors thank AMOCO Production Company for permission to publish this paper.

15
REfERENCES
Carter, D., and Michel, B. (1971), -Lois et mechanismes de l'apparant fracture fragile de la glace
de riviere et de lac,> Rapport S-22, Dept. de Genie Civil. Universite Laval.
Cox, G. F. N., Richter-Menge, J . A., Weeks, W. F., Mellor, M., and Bosworth, H. (1984), The
Mechanical Properties of Multiyear Sea Ice, Phase 1: Test Results. USA Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, CRREL Report 84 -9.
Croasdale, K. R, Morgenstern, N. R, and Nuttall, J . R (1977), "Indentation Tests to Investigate
Ice Pressures on Vertical Piers," Journal ofGlacwlogy, 19,81, pp. 301-311.
Drucker, D. C., and Prager, W. (I 952), "Soil Mechanics and Plastic Analysis or Limit Design,"
Q. Applied Math. 10, pp. 157-166.
Frederking, R (1977), "Plane ·Strain Compression Strength of Columnar-Grained and Granular
Sea Ice," Journal ofGlaciology, 18,80, pp. 505-516.
Hausler, F. U. (1981), "Multiaxial Compressive Strength Tests on Saline Ice with Brush-type
Loading Platens," IAHR International Symposium on Ice, Quebec.
Jones, S. F. (1978), "Triaxial Testing of Polycrystalline Ice," Third International Conference on
Permafrost, Edmonton , pp. 670-674.
Mellor, M. , Cox , G. F. N., and Bosworth , H. W. (t 984) , Mechanical Properties of Multiyear Sea
Ice : Testing Techniques. USA Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
CRREL Report 84-8.
Meyerhof, G. G. (1951), "The Ultimate Bearing Capacity of Foundations," Geotechnique, 2,
pp.301-302.
Michel, B., and Toussaint, N. (1977), "Mechanisms and Theory oflndentation ofIce Plates,"
Journal ofGlaciology, 19,81, pp. 285-300.
Prager, W., and Hodge, P . G., Jr . (1951), Theory ofPerfectly Plastic Solids, Wiley
Ralston, T . D. (t980), "Yield and Plastic Deformation in Ice Crushing Failure," Sea lee Processes
and Models, University of Washington Press, pp . 234-245 .
Taylor, T. P. (1981), "An Experimental Investigation of the Crushing Strength ofice," POAC 81,
pp. 332-345.

16
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984
I~ Hamburg

V
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF ICE FORCES DURING
FAILURE BY CRUSHING AGAINST STRUCTURES

Pulkkinen Erkki University of Oulu Finland

Researcher

Abs tract

The finite element method has been proven to be a very good calculation
method of ice forces. The stress field and appearing ice forces in a
continuous ice field during ice crushing against structures of different
shape can very easily be evaluated by the finite element method. A flat
ice sheet is discretized by three dimensional isoparametric elements or
by three dimensional isoparametric elements and infinite isoparametric
elements. water under ice can be taken into account as an elastic
foundation by interface surface elements. Ice is supposed to behave
visco-elasto-plastically and its material properties are supposed to be
ortotropic. Tsai-wu criterion is adopted in plastic analysis. The
contact section between structure and ice field has been taken into
account as free and stiff. The results have been compared with earlier
ones.

1. Introduction

In the finite element analysis of ice forces when an ice field is moving
against structures of different shape we must discretize the ice field and
possibly structure into appropriate elements. The cheapest way is to use
two dimensional plate elements but then the deformations of ice in the
vertical direction remain away. The next cheapest way is to use shell
elements but also then the deformations of ice in the vertical direction

17
are neglected. In addition if we want to take into account ice ridges
and other irregular features of ice, two dimensional and shell elements
are not suitable at all.

we can only use three dimensional elements and then we can describe the
geometry as well as possible. The description of material characteristics
of three dimensional elements is as easy as that of two dimensional or
shell elements. Drily weakness in the use of three dimensional elements is
the huge need of computer capacity when we perform the full analysis of
a materially and geometrically nonlinear problem.

When the ice field moves against structures we can best describe the
situation as a materially nonlinear problem. Geometrical nonlinearity
can be taken into consideration just after large plastic strains have
happened which due to either viscosity or plasticity. The materially and
geometrically nonlinear problems which demand very much runtime and large
computer resources can be moved into bigger and bigger and more and more
effective computers. This operation, however, does not succeed by all
who possibly would need for the evaluation of ice forces by large three
dimensional analysis based on the finite element method.

Another way which improves the ability of three dimensional element

analysis to compete is the reduction of the degrees of freedom. However,
we cannot reduce the degrees of freedom by any substructure technique
because then only the need of the space of computer memory decreases but
not yet runtime. We have to reduce only the number of elements and the
degrees of freedom.

When the ice field is moving against structures we do not know beforehand
how long we must discretize the ice field into elements and in which place
the situation returns steady . In generally we can evaluate that 10 - 20
times the diameter of structure the situation can be assumed to be steady.
When we discretize the ice field so that we take into consideration only
distance which is 10 times the diameter of structure we get the finite
element mesh.of certain size. If we want to expand the discretization
to distance which is 20 times the diameter of structure we necessarily
need not twice as many elements as in the first discretization but runtime
still rises,however, even tenfoldly.

18
We can dramatically reduce .the discretization by using infinite elements
from place where the steady situation begins. In practise an infinite
element means that displacements decreases to zero in the region of
element. In the reality the infinite end of element is not at infinity
but sufficiently far from edge. We can use infinite elements to
discretize the ice field into elements so that we use ordinary finite
elements in the most deformable region and infinite elements in the steady
or almost steady region. By discretizing by proper manner we can reduce
the number of the degrees of freedom. Because the ice field floats on
water we must take it's effect into account ~hen we evaluate ice forces
against structures. The addition of elastic foundation does not increase
the number of the degrees of freedom and in the full analysis of
materially and. geometrically nonlinear problems the increase of runtime is
insufficiently small.

2. The elements of MGEEMO

In the finite element program MGEEMO developed for calculating ice forces
we can use three different elements: the three dimensional isoparametric
from 8 to 20 nodes variable solid element, the isoparametric from 4 to 8
nodes variable interface surface element and the isoparametric from 8 to
12 nodes variable infinite element. The formulation of solid element
follows traditional technique (Figure la).

The interface surface elements consist of two same shaped surfaces whose
mutual distance is zero regarding to each other (Figure lb) /1/. The
interface surface element has only stiffness characteristics in the
normal and tangent di rection of surface. ~Je can write the stress state
in interface surface with normal anp tangent stiffnesses and relative
displacements as follows

19
where Ksl and Ks2 are stiffnesses in the tangent direction sl and s2
respectively and Kn is stiffness in the normal direction. ~u is the
increment of displacement difference in the normal and tangent direction
between corresponding nodes which are in the upper and the lower surface .
For the stiff bond the stiffnesses Ksl ' Ks2 and Kn are very high. For the
fully frictionless bond the stiffnesses Ksl and Ks2 are zero. For the
situation which is absolutely free the stiffnesses Ksl ' Ks2 ja Kn are zero.

We can also use the interface surface element for description of elastic
foundation in which the tangent stiffnesses Ksl and Ks2 are set zero and
the normal stiffness Kn is set as large as the foundation constant c.
In addition one surface is fi xed stiffly and another surface is fixed to
normal solid element.
a) b)

c)

node
o ~ ____2______a_t__i __
nf!~5~

= -1 ~ =0

Figure 1. a) Three dimensional isoparametric so lid element b) interface

surface element c) one dimensional presentation of infinite
element and geometrical mapping functions

In the formulation of infinite element we use almost the same principles

as in the formulation of ordinary isoparametric elements /3/ . The most
significant difference is different functions which describe geomet~ and
displacement state. In the description of geometry thG interpolation from

20
local to global state can be performed by standard manner as follows
2
L "1.( 1;) x·
i =1 1 1

where summation is performed only over finite nodes and the mapping
functi ons Mi can be given as follows

- 21;/ (1 - r;)

One dimensional presentation about the upper description of geometry can

be seen in Figure lc.

3. Discretizations

For evaluating ice forces by the finite element method when ice field
moves against structures we mus t discreti~ the ice field and possibly also
structure into elements. When we discretize the ice field into elements
we can use three or four boundary conditions depending on problems. For
the first the ice field is assumed to be symmetrical with regard to the
direction of the movement of ice field. Secondly the ice field is
assumed to initiate from the center of structure (Figure 2). The third
boundary condition depends on used elements. [f we use ordinary
isoparametric solid elements then the displacement of the ice field is
assumed to be zero at the paint which is at a distance of about 15 times
the diameter of structure from the center of structure. [f we use
ordinary isoparametric solid elements and infinite elements then the
displacement of the ice field is assumed to be zero at infinity. From the
formulation of infinite element it follows that the zero point is
sufficiently far away from the structure. The fourth boundary condition
is between the structure and the ice field. [t can be taken into account
as free or stiff.

The elastic foundation is taken into consideration in all dis cretization s

but not under infinite elements. A pile is taken into account in the ice
field as a score whose shape is the same as that of structure from the

21

-- - -
center. The movement of ice field against pile is taken into account so
that we give certain displacement increment to contact surface during
certain time increment. lie can see a typical finite element mesh with the
ordinary three dimensional elements in Figure 2a when pile is circular.
In the Figure 2b we see a typical finite and infinite mesh with the
ordinary three dimensional elements and the infinite elements.

a) b)

~>Ltln)ln?/Jnmnnl I
Figure 2. a) The finite element mesh of ice field b) the finite and
infinite element mesh of ice field

There are used finite element meshes in Table 1 so that the number of
elements in the circumferencial direction is given first, then the number
of elements in the radial direction and finally the number of elements in
the vertical direction. In addition there are given the y-coordinates of
the corner nodes of elements in Table 1 from the farthest edge towards
pile when the x-coordinate is zero.

22
Table 1. The finite and infinite element meshes (5 symbol, N circle,
M = radius and K = thickness)

5 Ii 1·1 K y-coordinates

EVl 10 11 2 30000,20000,12000,7000,3500,2500,1700,1200,800,500,300,200 .
EV2 5 ti 2 6400,3300,2000,1200,500,300,200
EV3 5 G 2 ~800,2400,1200,600,300,200,100

EV4 5 6 2 2400,1200,600,300,150,100,50
EV5 5 6 2 2000,900,400,200,100,50,25
EV6 3 4 2 2000,1000,500,300,200
EV7 5 4 2 2000,1000,500,300,200

4. Results and conclusion

The computer runs have been performed at the University of Oulu by UNIVAC.
A part of the runs have been performed by CRAY 15. The same finite
element program rl,GEHlO was used in both computers.

The forces against a structure have been calculated by displacement

loading and the finite element meshes which are given in Table 1. There
are force-displacement curves in Figures 3 through 10 for 0.5, 1, 2 and
4 m wide piers and for 0.7 m thick ice sheet. In every discretization the
thickness of ice sheet has been devided into two parts in order to take
into account temperature distributions throughout the thickness. As a
material, ice has been assumed to behave visco-elasto-plastically and to
be isotropic in the plane of ice sheet and ortotropic in a vertical
direction.

For solution of the force-displacement curves of Figure 3 the following

numeric values have been used. The ortotropic degree of 1.23 is used for
Lekhnitskii 's method /2/. The one dimensional time-dependent modulus for
the upper layer of elements is (300 e-t/100000+ 330 e- t / 10 + 300 e- t / 0 . 5 )
krj/cm 2 and for the lower layer of elements (100 e-t/100000 + 330 e- t / 2 +
500 e- t / 0 . 05 ) kN/cm 2 . Time t is in seconds. The P6isson ratio is 0.41
in the isotropic plane and the strain indused in the isotropic plane by

23
stress applied along the axis of symmetry is defined as 0. 25. The time­
independent modulus for the infinite elements is 950 kN/cm 2 .

All the force-displacement curves have been calculated by Tsai-v/u

criterion with numeric values proposed by Varsta /6/ and Riska /5/. In
Figures 3 through 6 we see the effect of infinite elements on ice forces
for O.S, 1, 2 and 4 m wide piers and for 0.7 m thick ice sheet. There are
no effect on total ice forces but only on the shape of force-displacement
curves. This dues to the fact that the use of infinite ~lements increases
the length of ice field and thus the elasticity of ice field also
increases. We see same kind of effect in Figure 10 where the length of
ice field is grown by using more finite elements in the radial direction.

In Figure 7 we see the effect of the velocity of ice field on ice forces.
The effect is similar to that of infinite elements. The velocity of ice
field has no effect on total ice forces but only on the shape of force­
displacement curves. This dues to yield criterion which depends only on
stresses but not on strains. When pier penetrates into ice field by
slower velocity it demands only a little bigger indentation depth to reach
the same stress state than by faster velocity .

In Figures 9 and 10 we see the effect of the size of finite element

meshes. If we increase the number of elements in the radial direction
from 3 to 6 the total ice forces decrease about 6 per cent (Figure 9).
When we increase the number of elements from 6 to 11 the total ice forces
decrease only 1.6 per cent (Figure 10).

The forces calculated with numeric values proposed by Varsta /6 / are 40

per cent higher than forces calculated with values proposed by Riska / 5/.
The effective pressure is about 1.1 kN / cm 2 and the indentation factor is
about 3.1 for all cases which are calculated by Varsta's values.
Respectively the effective pressure is about 0. 67 kN/cm 2 and the
indentation factor is about 2.8 for cases which are calculated by Riska's
values.

In Figure 8 the velocity of ice field is changed so that the strain rate
calculated by Michel's formula E = v/4D is same for all piers.

24
 EV3

5OO0
ll
8.~~,-·I.~OO~'2~.oo~-J~.00~~
•. ~OO,-<5.~OOo-~B.OO
O ISP'_ ~CE~.E:;r [eml O !SPL~CE MENT Ieml
Fig ure 3. 0=400 em, H= 7J em and Figure 4. 0=200 em, H=70 em and
v=J.5 em/s (Varsta) v=O . 5 em/ s (Va rs ta)
j IOOOO,---,---,----r·--~--_,-·---

- EV4

12S0 II
1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 8.00 .20 .•0 . 60 .80 1.00 1.20
01 SPU[E~ENT [em] 0 I SPL~CEMENT Ieml

Figure 5. 0=100 em, H=7J em and Figure 6. 0=50 em, H=70 em and
v=O.5 em/s (Varsta) v=0.5 em/s (Varsta)

I
~ xooo ~-+--+--4--~--t--±=-4-~
~ O. 5_____ ...--t:::==~
r-- =
200 00 f---+VC70~.l---:I>;/7"'f--+--+--+----i
llY"/

10000 ......:::::-0. no') ICDli

~V A: so 00 :
8.00 1.00 ~OO 100 ~ oo ~oo LOO too LOO 8.00 1.00 1. 00 3. 00 '. 00 5.00 8. 00 7. 11C 8. :3
D1SPL~[EMENT [eml OISPL~CEMENT [em,

Figure 7. 0=400 em and H=70 em Figure 8. Constant strai n rate

different velocities (Varsta) £=0.000625 l is and H=70 em (Va rs t a)
~ '0000 ,----,--,--,--,----,---,---.----.

~ :roooo EVan EJ7

E ~f--
10000 / /-' V2

10,00 ;
V
8.00 1. 00 ~oo 100 LOO ~oo LOO tOO Loo 8.00 1. 00 ~oo 100 ~ oo ~oo LOO tOO LOO
oI SPL~CEME N T Ioml OISPL~CEMEN T [eml

Figure 9. 0=4 00 em and H=70 em Figure 10. 0=400 em and H=70 em

different element meshes (Var sta) different element meshes (Riska)

25
The effective pressure and indentation factor do not change from values
1.1 kN/cm 2 and 3.1, respectively.

Because the indentation factor is constant by the different width of piers

we can conc 1ude tha t the aspect ra ti 0 has no effec t on ice forces . These
res ults agree well with Michel's results in the brittle zone / /. Michel
has found that indentation factor is 2.97 which is very close to the
present results 2.3 and 3.1.

References

Buragohain, D. N. &Shah, V. L., Curved isoparametric interface

surface element. Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE,

104(1978)STl, pp. 205 ... 208.

2 Cauwelaert, F. V., Coefficients of deformation of an anisotropic body.

Journal of ASCE I03(1977)EM5, pp. 823-835.

3 Marques, J.t1.M.C. & Owen, D.R.J., Infinite elements in quasi-static

materially nonlinear problems. Computers & Structures 18(1984)4, pp.
739-751.

4 Riska, K., On the role of failure criterion of ice in determining ice

loads. Espoo 1930. Technical Research Centre of Finland. Ship
1aboratory, Report 7. Pp 36.

5 Varsta, P., ~1odelling of impact between s hip hull and ice. The
Seventh International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under
Arctic Conditions. Helsinki, Finland, April 5-9, 1983, pp. 760-777.

26
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICS OF FRAZIL FLOCS

SOME PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS

C. PARK, Graduate Student Department of Civil Fngineering CANADA

R. GERARD, Professor University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2G7

ABSTRACT

Frazil particles have shown a propensity to flocculate within the

flow. Frazil disposition should therefore depend on the hydraulic
charactertisics of the floes rather than, or at least as well as, on those
of the individual frazil particles. Furthermore, the relation between the
mass of frazil produced and the volume of a frazil deposit will depend on
floc porosity. Hence the hydraulic characteristics of floes would seem
important for freeze-up process simulation.

As an initial contribution to defining the hydraulic characteristics

of frazil floes, measurements were made of the hydraulic characteristics
of artificial 'frazil floes' fabricated from plastic discs. It was found
that the drag coefficient of these floes was significantly higher than for
a solid smooth sphere of the same size and bulk density. This is
doubtless due to the sharp-edged roughness of the floc surface, although
little trend could be detected with disc Reynolds number, which is a
measur.e of this roughness. There was no definite trend in drag
coefficient with floc shape or, beyond its contribution to bulk density,
with floc porosity.

27
INTRODUCTION

Freeze-up in rivers is governed by the forma tion and accumulation of

frazil. Good general descriptions of the processes are. given by several
authors (see, for example, Michel, 1971; Tsang, 1982; Osterkamp and
Gosink, 1982; Ashton, 1983) • In general frazil particles form throughout
the flow, flocculate and, if the turbulence intensity is not too high,
gradually rise to the surface to form frazil slush and, eventually, the
familiar frazil pans. After it reaches the surface the frazil may be
re-entrained if it moves into a more turbulent reach of the stream, or if
it encounters an ice cover. It may then be deposited under the ice cover

or remain entrained, depending on its rise velocity and the

characteristics of the flow.

From this brief description it is apparent that the fate of frazil

produced in a stream - whether and how fast it reaches the surface,
whether and where it will deposit under the ice cover and so on - is
intima tely related to its rise veloci ty. This is therefore an importan t
parameter in the simulation of frazil production, transportation and
deposition. Yet very few measurements of this parameter exist. If the
frazil particles remained independent the problem would be simpler, as the
rise velocity could be reasonably estimated from the expected size of the
frazil discoids (Wuebben, 1984). However there is ample evidence to
indicate the frazil particles can flocculate within the flow (see, for
example, carstens, 1968 and Michel, 1971). The frazil rise velocity is
then a function of the hydraulic characteristics of the floc that forms,
and this in turn presumably depends on the turbulence in the flow and the
nature of the frazil - whether it is 'active' or 'passive', for example.

To make a start on unravelling this rather complex situation, the

experiments described herein were planned to simply define the relation
between rise velocity and floc geometry. Beyond length parameters, an
important feature of floc geometry is porosity. For example, this defines
the relation between the mass of frazil produced, which is what is usually
calculated, and the bulk volume occupied by the frazil, which is the
parameter of most practical significance.

Floc porosity would therefore seem to be an important parameter to

quantify. Although it can possibly be found di rectly by measuring the
immersed weight of the floc, as done by Kusuda et al. (1981), or by
calorimetry, this is difficult. Henc~, in addition to investigating the

28
general hydraulic characteristics of floc-like particles, an objective of
the present experiments was to determine if a general relation could be
defined between rise velocity and porosity. With such a relation the floc
porosity could be simply deduced from measurement of the rise velocity.
It can be shown from a simple force balance for the floc at termi nal
veloci ty that:

e =
1 - 2gY(1-s)/A

where e is the floc porosity, Co the drag coefficient of the floc, A its
croBs-sectional area normal to the direction of motion, V the terminal
velocity, 9 gravitational acceleration, ¥ the bulk floc volume, and s the
specific gravity of the floc particles. From this relation i t is evident
that the porosity can be determined from the rise velocity and other
measurable (photographically) geometric floc characteristics if the drag
coefficient is known.

In the few experimental investigations of floc characteristics

described in the literature the drag coefficient has generally been
assumed the same as that for the equivalent solid sphere (Tambo and
Watanabe, 1979; Kusuda et al., 1981). An exception is the study by
Hasliyah and Polikar (1980), who found that for a fabricated porous
spherical floc there was a significant disparity between the drag
coefficient of the floc and the equivalent sphere for Reynolds numbers
beyond about 10, reaching 20' for the maximum Reynolds number of 100 that
they investigated. This disparity they ascribed to the surface roughness
of the porous material they used. It seems, therefore, that the usual
assumption of equivalent drag coefficients may not be adequate and that it
would be prudent to measure the drag coefficients of frazil-like flocs
directly before using measured rise veloci ties to deduce porosi ty, and
vice-versa. The prime objective of the experiments described herein was
therefore to define the behaviour of the drag coefficient of artificial
frazil-like flocs of various configurations over a range of Reynolds
number that included values appropriate for frazil flocs.

29
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

The artificial floes were fabricated from thin discs of two

materials: polystyrene and polyvinylchloride. Two methods were

considered for floc fabrication: quick-bonding glue, and welding.
Although both methods worked, the latter proved faster and more rugged.
Discs of the same size and material were used within each floc, but were
varied from floc to floc. The discs used had the properties listed in
Table 1. The number of discs, their arrangement, and the final floc shape
were varied from floc to floc. An indication of the variety of flocs made

is given in Table 2. EXamples are shown in Figure 1.

Table 1: Basic disc properties

Material Density Thickness Diameter

(kg/m 3 ) (mm) (mm)

Polyvinylchloride 1354 0.157 10.4

polystyrene 1065 0.406 10.4
6.3

Table 2: Summary of floc properties

Disc type No. of Range of no. Max. floc dimension Porosity

flocs of discs* range (mm) range

Polystyrene 120 - 410 10 - 110 0.01 - 0.82

PVC 8 - 100 10 - 90 0.78 - 0.89

In each floc these were all the same size and material. Some single
discs were included in the data set. These had zero porosity.

For each floc the following geometric parameters were measured: bulk
volume, cross-sectional area normal to the direction of fall, and three
orthogonal characteristic lengths. The bulk volume was measured by
enclosing the floc in a fine rubber membrane and measuring the displaced
volume in a measuring flask. SUch a measurement is not particularly
precise but was judged sufficient for the present purpose. To determine

30
Figure 1: EXperimental equipment: fabricated flocs, vacuum jar and
settling tank.

the three characteristic lengths, the largest length was measured first
(diameter of circumscribed sphere), then the smallest dimension normal to
this, and finally the dimension normal to the former two. For flocs that
settled reasonable stably, the cross-sectional area was simply determined
from a photograph of the settling floc taken vertically. For those that
had an unstable fall (some of those with a small number of discs), an
average of areas taken from photographs taken at different times during
the fall was used.

Two types of containers were used to measure the settling velocity of

the flocs. One was a square plexiglass tank 0.9 x 0.9 x 1.5 m filled with
water, shown in Figure 1; the other was a cylindrical plexiglass tube
0.3 m diameter and 1.41 m high, filled with a glycerine-water mixture (38\
by mass of glycerine). The measured fluid properties are given in
Table 3.

wi th the tube in particular, there was concern about the possibility

of wall effects on the fall velocity. To check this the appropriate

31
experiments were repeated in a cylinder 0.6 m diameter and 0.75 m high.
There was no significant difference in the results.

Table 3: Fluid properties

Fluid Temp. range Densi ty Kinematic

of expts. viscosi ty
( ·C) 3 (mm 2 /s)
(kg/m )

Tap water 13 - 18 0.999 1.132

Glycerine-wa ter mixture 16 - 19 1.057 2.053

The fall veloci ty of each floc was simply determined by timing the
fall visually over about 1 m. Mos t flocs fell wi th less than 10 cm
deviation from the vertical at any time during the fall. A serious
problem encountered early in the tests was the attachment or entrapment of
small air bubbles wi thin the floc. Small though they were, they could
have a strong influence on the fall velocity. The problem was overcome by
immersing the flocs in the fluid in the small vacuum chamber shown in
Figure 1 prior to each test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In general the floc fall velocity can be expected to vary as follows:

V f(~,e,p,ps,u,d,A,shape factors)

where, in addition to the parameters defined earlier, .yo is the solid

volume, p and Ps the density of the fluid and discs respectively, ~ fluid
viscosity, d disc diameter and A the area of the floc projected normal to
the direction of fall. Dimensional analysis, guided by the simple force
balance at terminal velocity, suggests the following combination of the
above parameters:

f( VD* Vd
g(s-1 )..../A v ' -v-' e, shape factors)

where the equivalent diameter D* ./4A/TI. 'Itte term on the left is

simply 12/C , therefore this relation can be written
D

CD feR, R , e, shape factors)

d

32
where R = VO'/v is the floc Reynolds number and Rd Vd/v is the
'roughness' Reynolds number. The latter is a measure of the significance
of the floc surface roughness (an alternate parameter is simply diD').

The measured variation of floc CO with R is shown in Figure 2.

The shape factor g1 yen is the Corey, .or 'flatness' , shape factor
(=Lmin/iLmaxLmed)' where L is a characteristic length of the floc. Also
shown in Figure 2 are the variations of the drag coefficients of a solid
smooth sphere with R, taken from Cliff et al. (1978).

The floc drag coefficient is considerably higher than that of the

sphere at the same R. As mentioned earlier, Masliyeh and Polikar (1980)
found a similar disparity and ascribed it to surface roughness. However

their porous sphere was fibrous, and hence the surface protusions were
'finer' and of a different nature to that of the floes used in the present
study. The deviation of the measured drag coefficient from the best fit
line through the data is plotted against '\i in Figure 3. Only a faint
trend is apparent.

From these results it is evident that the drag coefficient of a floc

can vary significantly from that of an equivalent sphere for floc Reynolds
numbers above about 30, due, presumably, to the large surface roughness of
the floes. Further investigations are required to define this deviation
in more detail, but it would seem the general trend determined in the
present experiments should allow the estimation of the floc drag
coefficient with a standard error of about 20%, based on the floc Reynolds
number alone. For porosities of about 0.6 to 0.8 this represents an error
of about 10' in frazil floc porosities estimated from ri s e velocity
measurements.

CONCLUSIONS

For Reynolds numbers greater than about 30, the drag coefficient of
floes of disc-like particles was significantly higher than that for a
sphere of the same bulk density. This is likely due to the rough floc
surface, but only a faint influence of roughness Reynolds number was
evident in the present resul ts. There was no defini te trend wi th ei ther
floc shape or, beyond its influence on the floc bulk density, with floc
porosity. From the present results the floc drag coefficient could be
estimated with a standard error of about 20' so that it should be possible
to estimate frazil floc porosities within about 10' from rise velocity
measuremen ts.

33
 IOr-----------------------------~----~----------------_,

Legend
C DO . ~.SH)O.S

o ()O.S.SH(O.~

rJ [CO.5.StiJO.5
'V [..(O.5.SitcO.S
>­ n . . . [o 5PH(It(
Z
w
~Ql1L-
U
G::
~
w
o
(J

'-'
<l:
0:::
o

100 1000 10000

FLOC REYNOLDS NUMBER

Figure 2: variation of floc drag coefficient with floc Reynolds number

100,----------------------------------------------------------,

50
Z
0
~ 79 0
'>
w
() ()
0 r- -­ ! .s:P_ 9
~
0
<'
>-
z ':"
'7 'be
w
(J 0
0::: 0
w 0
[l..
G
-50 G C

10 100 1000
ROUGHNESS REYNOLDS NUMBER

Figure 3: variation with roughness Reynolds number of the drag

coefficient deviation from the 'best fit line' through the data
shown in Figure 2.

34
REFERENCES
1. AShton, G.D., 1983. Frazil ice. Chapter in 'theory of Dispersed
Multiphase Flow, Academic Press, Inc., New York, pp. 271-289.

2. carstens, T., 1968. Hydraulics of river ice. La Houille Blanche, 4,

pp. 271-284.

3. Kusuda, T., Koga, K., Yorozu, H. and Awaya, Y., 1981. Density and
settling veloci ty of flocs. Memoirs of the Faculty of
Engineering, Kyushu Uni versi ty, v. 41, n. 3, September,
pp. 269-2BO.

4. Masliyah, J.H. and Polikar, M. 1980. Terminal velocity of porous

spheres. Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, v.58, June,
pp. 299-302.

5. Michel, B., 1971. Winter regime of rivers and lakes. u.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Monograph III-Bla,
130 p.

6. Osterkamp, T. and Gosin!<, J., 1983. Frazil ice formation and ice
cover development in interior Alaska streams. Cold Regions
Science and Technology, v.8, pp. 43-56.

7. Tambo, N. and Watanabe, Y., 1979. Physical characteristics of

flocs-l: the floc density function and aluminium floc. Water
Research, v.13, pp. 409-419.

8. Tsang, G., 1982. Frazil and anchor ice: a monograph. National

Research Council of canada, Associate Committee on Hydrology,
Subcommittee on Hydraulics of Ice-covered Rivers, 90p. Available
from Administration, Publications and Distributions, National
Research Council of canada, Montreal Road, Ottawa, canada,
K1A OR6.

9. Wuebben, J.L., 1984. 'the rise pattern and velocity of frazil ice.
Proceedings of the Workshop on the Hydraulics of Ice-covered
Rivers, Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of New Brunswick,
Fredericton, N.B., canada, June.

35
 WlR lee Symposium 1984

-
'A Hamburg

BASIC INVESTIGATIONS ON MUSH ICE

by Jens-Holger Hellmann
Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH,

Ab stract

A shear box was specially designed and used for test s on the flow be­
haviour of mush ice, The dependencies of shear stres s with regard to
normal stre ss , shear velocity, and ice str ucture were inve st igated and
compared for three types of ice artifically produced from fresh water re­
spectively urea doped water. The resistance of two simple shaped bodies
moving through mu sh ice was determined in a second test program to estab­
lish the influence of the shape on the resistance .

37
Introduction

Under certain circumstances, mush ice is generated in traffic channels of

rivers and coastal areas. So~etimes this ice for~ation is also encoun­
tered at the edges of drifting ice fields.

~1ush ice is characterized by irregularly broken ice pieces of various

size ( ~ainly spheric or cubic in shape) but containing a significant
portion of very small ice fragments. A distinction between i"ush ice and
so-called brash ice is not clearly defined and may be understood as a
philosophical question. But in the author's opinion, this distinction
exists and is verified by the presence of slush, which in the case of
mush ice fills up the voids between the bigger ice pieces .

Anyone who has observed a vessel moving through heavy mu sh ice conditions
could recognize a highly viscous flow phenomenon of a two phase material.
An extremely \'Jide spread flow field arises around the ship at low speed,
leading to a high resistance. Whereas at a higher speed, a kind of bound­
ary layer is established and the navigation through mush ice becomes
somewhat easier.

Since there is no theory or empirical formula to estimate the resistance

of ships or even simple bodies in mush ice, a basic study on this problem
was initiated at the Hamburgis che Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt (HSVA) ice
laboratories about three years ago . This study was financially supported
by the German Ministry of Research and Techn ology (B~lFT).

The basic idea of the investigation was to obtain some general knowledge
on the flow behaviour of mush ice. Since a systematic study on natural
mush ice can hardly be carried out, a variety of artificially produced
mush ice was investigated instead .

In order to determine the shear stre sses as a function of shear velocity

and applied normal stres s , a newly designed shear apparatus (shear bOX)
was constructed.

In all, four types of artificially produced mush ice have been investi­
gated within an extensive series of tests . Results of only three test

38
"Fishery" ice

I .e ., fresh water i ce produced by a cold storage company and norm­

ally used on fishing boats and in market halls; this kind of ice
mainly consists of cylindrical fragments transparant in appearance
(Photo No.2). The grain size distribution of this material is
plotted in Fig . 2.

~li lled ice

I.e., urea doped model ice frozen and tempered in the HSVA ice ba­
sin. and then cut by a breaker mill tool; it consists mainly of
columnar single crystals.

The investigated types of ice do not represent a true parameter varia­

tion, but they were se lected to discover differences in the flow behavior
depending on the general ice structure. Furthermore, a sufficient repro­
ducibility within a large numbe r of tests could only be provided by an
automated ice production process.

In total, more than fi fty test runs were carried out. For each test run,
the shear box was filled up with newly produced ice to guarantee original
ice conditions. The cross section of shear cylinder and side chambers
were filled up completely and the covers we re closed. Therefore, the ice
had no possibility to expand in the vertical direction but only into the
side chambers where it had to displace the normal load pistons. The voids
between the ice were filled with water.

Shear tests were carried out at three different speed levels of about 1,
10 and 100 mm/s and at various .normal stress conditions.

The original intention, to provide a nearly constant normal stress during

the whole shear process, failed due to the friction force hysteresis of
about 300 N mainly caused by the seals of the hydraulic piston and rod.
Hence, the normal stress increased at the beginning of each test until
the normal load pistons were displaced by the dilatation forces of the
ice material.
series are presented in this publication because one of them Was carried
out before the shear box had been modified. This modification was neces­
sary to improve the accuracy of the normal stress measurement.

In the second phase, the mush ice resistance of various simple shaped
bodies had been determined as a function of ice layer thickness and vel­
ocity. In these ongoing tests, some results of a disc plate and a rec­
tangular cone are available at present .

Design of the Shear Box

The principle idea of the shear apparatus was to induce and to measure
shear stresses re spec tively shear forces within a plane of invariable
area (size). Shear velocity and normal stress should be as constant as
possible during the shear process.

Adhering to this requirement, a shear box was designed. It consists of a

square shear cylinder and two square side chambers of about 0.5 m2 cross
section orthogonally arranged. Two ~echanically coupled pistons displace
the ice material within the main chamber inducing a shear process
(failure) as shown in Fig. 1. The total displacement forces are measured
by a load cell mounted on the rod of the driving hydraulic piston. To
distinguish wall friction forces and real shear forces, the shear
cylinder was supported in longitudinal direction only by load cells. To
provide a good observation of the ice material during the shear pro­
cesss, the shear box was built from plexiglass.

Shear box tests

The following three different types of i ce were comparatively investigat­

ed in the shear box:

Ice chips

I.e., fresh water ice, produced by an ice maker which continuously

scrapes off the ice from the inside of a cooled cyl inder by means
of a screw. (Photo No.1).
 Errata

Vol . I, Table of Contents

Palmer, A. C. Indentation spalling fracture

Goodman, D.J. of edge-loaded ice sheets
Ashby, M. F.
Evans, A.G.
Hutchinson, J .W.
Ponter, A.R.S .
Wi II i ams, G.

Vol. III:
Hellmann, J.-H. Basic investigation on
mush ice
(The text of pages 39 and 40
have been mistakenly exchanged)
.....
,
To obtain also test results at a very low normal stress level, more or
less soft foam plates had been mounted in front of the normal stress
pistons.

Results of Shear Box Tests

The results of all tests have shown a fundamentally different flow behav­
ior for the higher shear velocity than for the medium and lower ones. For
the higher velocity, a narrow zone of high velocity gradient could be ob­
served between the displaced ice material within the shear cylinder and
the ice in the side chambers almost at rest. The transverse profile of
this flow seems to be similar to a typical channel flow of a viscous
flui d.

In the cases of the medium and lower velocities, the behaviour can be
better described as a failure of a plastic material. For the lowest vel­
ocity (l mm/s) typical cracks under an inclination angle of about 45° to
the longitudinal axis occurred.

Fig. shows a typical plot as registered for a test run with a shear
velocity of about 10 mm/s. The whole shear process can be divided into
three significant phases:

Phase 1:

At the beginning of the tests, a steep increase in the shear force

can be identified while the normal force remains at the original
value. This process can be interpreted as a denser packing of ice
particles before the real shearing starts. The highest value of
this phase is reached after less than 2 mm displacement and is
called primary shear mode in the following text.

Phase 2:

Hhi Ie in phase 1, the normal force remains nearly constant, in

phase 2 this normal force starts to increase due to dilatation of
ice fragments into the side chambers. Simultaneously the shear
 force increases further but at a slower rate than in phase 1. The
absolute maximum value of the shear force is registered at the end
of this phase. It occurs within a displacement range of about 50
to 150 mm from test to test. In the following chapters, the peak
values of this phase shall be called secondary shear mode.

Phase 3:

After exceeding the above mentioned maximum, the shear force drops
off more or less abruptl y and remain s at a lower level until the
end of the shear process, while the normal force further increases
until it remains at a nearly constant value. The mean value of
the shear and nor~al forces within the third pha se indicate the
tertiary shear mode, which can be defined as a continuous friction
process after the initial failure of the ice (secondary mode).

In order to illustrate the relationship between normal forces and shear

force in a different way, the shear force was plotted versus the normal
force in Fig . 4. This kind of presentation shows very clearly. the dif­
ferent shear failure n~des.

Shear Stress as a Function of Normal Stress and Velocity

The evaluation of all shear box tests yielded a relationship between

shear stress and normal stress which can be approximated by linear func­
tions. The actual regression depends on the types of ice, the shear
velocity, and the shear mode.

In Fig s. 5 to 8, the shear stress is plotted vs . the normal stress for

the first type of ice (ice chips).The shear modes as previously defined
are compared in Fig. 5. A considerable cohesion can be found for the
primary and the secondary shear modes, whereas the tertiary shear mode
seems to be free of cohesion. The influence of the shear velocity is
illustrated for the different shear modes in Figs. G to 8.

42
Based on these results it can generally be stated

that the inclination of the linear regression function increases

with decreasing velocity.

that the sharpest increase is found for the secondary shear mode,
the slightest one for the tertiary shear mode.

that only primary and secondary shear modes show a cohesion, i.e.,
determinable shear stresses at zero normal stresses.

The shear behaviour of the additionally tested types of ice ("fishery"

ice, mi 11 ed ice) can be charac teri zed bas i ca 11 yin the same way. However,
somewhat 10l'ier shear stresses were found for "fishery" ice whereas
slightly higher shear stresses were determined for milled ice than for
ice chips at the same normal stress level. This tendency seems to be
independent of the shear velocity as well as of the shear mode.

In order to demonstrate this trend some selected examples are presented

for both "fishery" and milled ice in Figs. 9 and 10 respectively Fig. II.
The tertiary shear mode for the investigated ice types is directly com­
pared in Fig. 12 for a shear velocity of about 10 mm/s. Neglecting the
different particle structures and surfaces of the tested ice materials an
increase in shear stresses can be identified for decreasing particle
size.

The decrease in the friction coefficient (i .e., the shear stress over
normal stress)with the velocity is shown for "fishery" ice in Fig. 13.

Mush Ice Resistance of Simple Shaped BOdies

A disc plate of 100 mm diameter and a cone of 100 mm diameter and 90°
center angle were tested in the ice material referred to here as "ice
chips". For these tests, the main chamber of the shear box and the hy­
draulic system of the displacement piston were used. A load cell was
mounted directly behind the body at the free end of the rod to measure
the resistance (drag). The side chambers were closed by the normal load

43
plates positioned in line with the side wal ls of the main chamber. The
stroke of the hydraulic piston moving the body Vias about 500 mm.

For all tests , the quantitie s of i ce materi al and water were adjusted so
that the test probe wa s situated in the middle of the ice layer. In all
cases, the ice l ayer floated, i.e. the i ce surface was free ( unco vered)
and a gap fi 11 ed with i ce free water rema i ned between the ice 1ayer and
bottom plate of the box . Three test ser ie s were carr ied out us ing the
disc plate, another one using the cone.

The influen ce of the ic e layer thickness on th e r esistanc e (drag) was

inve st i gated on ly in te sts wit h the disc plate . The thickness of the
layer was varied in the range of 0.2 m up to 0.8 m. The influence of the
ve l ocity was determined for the disc plate wit hin a 0.4 m thick i ce l ayer
and for both disc pl ate and cone within a 0.8 m thick ice l ayer. The width
of the ice l ayer was 0.8 m in all these tests.

Results of Resistance Te s ts

The results of the ice thickness variation are presented in Fig . 14,
where the drag of the disc plate was pl otted vs. t he sq uare of the ice
thi ck ne ss. Th e ~a x imum and me an va lues of eac h test ru n are marked. A
suff i cient approxi mati on of the re l at i onsh ip between resistance and ice
thickness is given by a simple square so lution:

o -0.9 + 758.4 * h2

corr. coeff.: r 0.98

o N drag
h m ice l ayer thickness

\Jithin t he velocity variati on , a sufficient number of resistance values

could be collected for the disc plate pus hed through in a 0.4 m thick ice
layer. The velocity \vas varied in a range of 0.5 m/s to 250 mm/s (1:500).
Ma ximum and mea n va lues of the meas ur ed resistance are plotted versus the
ve l oc ity ( l ogar ithmic scale) in Fig . 16.

44
A nearly ten times lower resistance is found for the higher speed range
50 mm/s) tested than for the low speed range ( 2 mm/s).Between these
two velocity values, the resistance decreases sharply; the measured val­
ues scatter moderately.

The comparison of disc and cone resistance as illustrated in Fig. 16 was

carried out in a 0.8 m thick ice layer for the following reasons:

the reproducibility of the results is improved for thicker ice

layers since a higher relative accuracy can be achieved,

the relation of disc diameter and ice dimensions approximates the

idealized situation of a body moving in mush ice of unlimited
extent.

Nearly four times higher resistance values for the lower velocities than
for the high velocity confirms the tendency of those tests in 0.4 m thick
ice layers. Compared to the disc, the cone delivers similar resistance
values in the higher velocity range. Whereas for the lower velocities
significantly lower resistance values were noted for the cone. However, a
slight decrease in resistance with increasing velocity can also be iden­
tified for the cone.

Based on these results, it might be supposed that at low velocity levels

the displacement of the ice material occurs in a similar way for both
disc and cone. For the higher velocity a different displacement process
can be assumed.

Summary and Conclusion

The flow behaviour exhibited by the ice materials tested in the shear box
has by far proved the suppositions gained from observations of mush ice
in nature. Two different failure phenomena have been confirmed in the
test series leading to higher shear stresses at low speeds and lower
shear stresses at higher speeds. This results in a higher ship resist­
ance at low speeds causing ships to get stuck in mush ice when the speed
falls below a critical value.
In all, the shear box investigations provided some insight into the mush
ice problem. It appears that the chosen method provides a useful but
probably not the optimal way of determining the flow behaviour of a two
phase material .

Nevertheless, this inve stigation might be a basic step on the ~Iay to pre­
dicting the resi stance of ships navigating through mush ice.

References

Nadai, A., 1963 . Theory of Flow and Fracture of Solid s . Vol . 2. NcGraw­
Hi II, New York.

Vermeer, · P.A. and Luger, H.J., 1982. Deformation and Fracture of Granular
~·Iaterials. International Union of Theoretical and Appl ied Mechanics

Symposium on Deformation and Failure of Granular Materials, Delft, 31

August - 3 September, 1982.

46
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0

ESTlHA TED
~
SHEAR PLANE

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0
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BEF ORE SHEAR TEST ~

C>

, F, CD NORMAL LOAD PISTON

0

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CD TANDEM DISPLACEMENT
PI STON

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AFTER SHEAR TeST ~I~ ,
9J .000 2:000 <4 :000 6 ~ooo 8 . 000
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., 3 1. 11·

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48
Photo 1: Ice chips (scale: em)

Photo 2: "Fishery" iee (seale: em)

49
(Jl
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co SHEAR VELOCITY 10.9 MIS co • PRIMARY SHEAR MODE
~ ~ ~ ~

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SHEAR BO X TESTS - ICE CH IPS FIG ~ 5 SHEAR BOX TESTS - ICE CHIPS FIr,. 6
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SHEAR STRESS VS. NORMAL STRESS SHERR STRESS VS . NORMAL STRESS

~
SHEAR BO X TESTS - ICE CHIPS FIG. 7 SHEAR BOX TESTS - ICE CHIPS EN....a
(J1
N
0 0
0 0
0 0

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«
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. SHEAR VE LO CITY I 10.1 MIS .. ...
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SHEAR STRESS VS . NORMAL STRESS SHEAR STRESS VS. NORMAL 'STRESS

SHERR BOX TESTS - FISHERY TCE f~ SHERR BOX TESTS - FISHER Y ICE FIG. 10
 0 0
0 0
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a: . BHEAR VE LOCiTY 10. 1 11M/a
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SHEAR ST RESS VS. NORM AL STRESS SHEAR STRESS VS. NORMAL STRESS
SHEAR BO X TESTS - MILLED ICE FIG . 11 SHEAR BOX TESTS - VARIOUS TYPES OF ICE
~ FIG . 12
~
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a fC
SHEAR ' SOX TESTS FISHERY ICE 0.0 0.1 0.2 0 .3 0.' 0.6 0 .6
THtCKNESS .. 2 (1'1 . . 2]

ORR~ VS . SQURRE OF ICE LRYER THICKNESS

FIG. 13
DISC PLRTE - ICE CHIPS FIG , l~
DRAG IN]

800
-
)(

)(

)(
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(') HEAN VRLUE8

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VELDCITY IHH/S]

ORAD VS. VELOCITY

DISC PLATE ICE CHIPS

DRAG r NI

1500 (') 018C PLRTE I HEAN VRLUES

ICE LAYER 0.8 H

100G OISC I CDNE DIRHETER 100 HH

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VELOC I TV IHN /S )
DRAG VS. VELOCI TV
DISC PLATE I CONE - ICE CHIPS FIG . 16

55
ICE FORMATION

 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

THE EFFECT OF AIR TEMPERATURE ON

THE DURATION· OF LAKE ICE COVER

011 i Laasanen National Board of Waters Finland

Research hydrologist Water Research Institute
Hydrological Office

Abstract

Relationships between freeze-up dates, durations of ice cover and break-up

dates of 19 Finnish lakes and air temperatures in high latitudes over a pe­
riod of one hundred years are studied. Global mean autumn, winter and spring
air temperatures between 65 0 Nand 85 0 N latitudes were used. An increase of
1 °c in autumn air temperature was found to ·shift freeze-up date 6.4·d later.
The same increase in spring temperature shifted break-up date 2.7 d earlier.
If both autumn and spring temperatures will raise 1 °c the duration of ice
cover will be 7.5 d shorter. The correlations were in most cases signifi­
cant. Factors weakening the relationships are discussed.

57
1. INTRODUCTION

In a sample of 188 Finnish lakes the average range of freeze-up dates was 54
days and that of break-up dates 19 days in the period 1960/61-1979/80 (Laa­
sanen 1982). Observation series over 100 years show that the duration of ice
cover has also long term variation. Flgure 1 shows the variation in the dura­
tion of ice cover of Lake Nasijarvi (62 0 N, 24 0 E) over 147 winters. The du­
ration has shortened from the late 1800's to the mid 1900's about 20 days.
On the latter half of this century the duration has again slowly lengthened.
In Canada the duration of ice cover of the Red River (50 0 N, 97 0 W) has be­
haved in a similar way (Rannie 1983). Even the decrease in the duration has
been about the same.

190
• • 0

d • • • • 'II • •
L
(l)
170 'II • • •
> • • • .- ** •
0
u .
o•
• *If
• ~o "-
JOt---o'V
'II
0
o •• • ••• •
•• ••• ••
0
• •
0

• • • o·
(l) 150 M It
• •• •• • o/f
• • 0
•• .'
u
·rl .. • w • •• • •• • .' •
M
."
Jf If. *
• • •
.'
4- 130 • • •• .' • • '.
0 • • • • ••
c
0 110
... • •• •
....,
· rl • • •
rtJ
L
~ 90 Lake Nasijarvi
0 ••
7~830 1850 1870 1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990
Winter

Fig. 1. Variation and 31-year moving average in the duration of ice

cover of Lake Nasijarvi in winters 1835/36-1979/80. Winters
are dated by the year of autumn.

In this paper the relationships between freeze-up and break-up observations

and air temperature in the northern latitudes (65-85 0 N) over the last 100
years are studied. Freeze-up and break-up dates are from 19 Finnish lakes.
Kelly and Jones (1981a, b and c) have published air temperatures in winter,
spring and autumn in the Arctic.

58
Air temperatures over such a wide area were used to get a touch of the ef­
fect of global changes in climate to the winter regime of lakes in Finiland.
The res ults can be a 1so compa red to those from other 1a kes, when a "world
wide" air temperature area, which can be the same for all studies, is chosen.

2. OBSERVATION SITES AND SERIES

The criterions in choosing the lakes for the analysis were areal representa­
tivity and the existence of long observation series. The mean length of
freeze-up series was 80 years and that of break-up series 81 years. Most of
the missing observations were from the first three decades of the study pe­
riod 1881/82-1980/81. Some physiographical data of the lakes are gathered to
Tab le 1.

The means, minima and maxima of the first three moments (mean, standard de­
viation and skewness) of freeze-up date, duration of ice cover and break-up
date series are given in Table 2.

The only statistically significant relationships between moments and physi­

ographical characteristics of lakes were between the mean values of the va­
riables and latitude (Figure 2). Standard deviations of freeze-up date and
duration of ice cover were largest in the southernmost and smallest in the
northernmost lakes, but the correlation with the latitude was not signifi­
cant. A larger material might reveal this relationship. This kind of rela­
tionship hils been found e.g. in the date of the arrival of the seasonal snow
cover (Solantie 1977). When the observation series were classified according
to their standard deviations and ske~messes, all the three variables had
their own range of variation (Figure 3).

3. ESTIt1ATION OF MISSING OBSERVATIONS

Missing observations were estimated to facilitate the comparison of relation­

ships between air temperatures and data of ice cover dates. The mean correla­
tion between freeze-up date series was 0.60,between durations of ice cover
0.67 and between break-up date series 0.68. Only 6 of 513 correlation coeffi­
cients were under 99.9 % significance level.

59
Table 1. Physiographical data of lakes.

Lake Latitude Longitude Elevation Area ~,1ean

N m Repr. Total depth

E km 2 km 2 m

Lohjanjarvi 60° 12' 23° 59' 32 40 89 12.6

Ve s ij arv i 61° ~O' 25° 39' 81 15 106 6
Sa imaa, Lauri tsa 1a 61° OS' 28° 16' 76 15 4400 17
Saimaa, Juurisalmi 61° 32' 27° 18' 76 10 4400 17
Nas ijarvi 61° 33' 23° 46' 95 257 257 14.1
Simpeleenjarvi 61° 36' 29° 29' 69 28 87 8
Kyyves i 62° 02' 27° 11' 101 4 133 5.4
Salosjarvi 62° 04' 25° 10' 103 10 10
Hauk ivesi 62° 07' 28° 36' 76 80 514 9.1
IIhtarinjarvi 62° 45' 24° 03' 154 6 41 5.9
Hiirenvesi 62° 51' 30° 12' 93 6 6
Ka lla ves i 62° 54' 27° 44' 82 80 318 11
Keitel e 63° 04' 25° 52' 99 50 450 6.3
Pielavesi 63° 13' 26° 40' 102 15 110 8.0
Lappajarvi 63° 16' 23° 38' 69 30 142 7.4
Pielinen 63° 19' 30° ~O' 94 40 867 9.9
Nerkoonjarvi 63° 25' 27° 18' 86 16 16 3.1
Nuasjarvi 64° 10' 28° 15' 138 97 97 8.6
Oulujarvi 64° 20' 27° 10' 122 900 900 7.6

Table 2. The means and variation ranges of the first three moments of
freeze-up date, duration of ice cover and break-up date.

Moment Freeze-up da te Duration of Brea k-up da te

ice cover

Mean
Mean Nov. 29 166 d May 15
Minimum Nov. 13 144 d Apr.30
Maximum Dec. 27 188 d May 25
Standa rd deviation (d)
r~ean 15.2 18.5 8.3
Minimum 11.3 14.4 7.3
Max imum 21. 2 24.8 12.1
Skewness
Mean 0.30 -0.34 -0.22
r1in imum -0.34 -0.85 -1.19
Maximum 0.69 0.43 0.24

60
 270
0
(J) Break-up
>­
10 255 0
D
0
~

0
240 0 Break-up date
0 4.2 Latitude - 38
Z r ~ 0.B8

22~O' 61' 62' 63' 64' 65'

200
d Ice cover
185 *
**
c
0
· rl

+J

170
10
L * * **
0
:::l

** *
155 * * Duration of ice cover ~
* 9.3 Latitude - 413
r : 0.88

14060, 61'
*
62' 63' 64' 65'
120 +
+
Freeze-up date =
+
-8.2 Lat itude + 570
(J) 105 r ~ -0.73
>­
10 +
D
+ +
~ 90 +
0 +
+
+
0
+ +
Z 75 +
Freeze-up
6°60, 61' 62' 63' 64' 65'
Latitude (N)

Fig . 2. The dependence of freeze-up date, duration of ice cover and

break-up date on latitude. Numbers of days are calculated
from September 1. All correlations were significant at 99.9
% level.

61
Missing data were estimated using two highest correlated series. The mean
coefficient of determination of esti'mated freeze-up dates was 0.62, dura­
tions of ice cover 0.67 and break-up dates 0.72. The difference in duration
estimates calculated as a difference of break-up and freeze-up dates and
using ready duration series was within + 5 d in 75 % of the cases.

1.0

tt ttt
.5 t
t

0
tt
t
t * t
t
UJ 6 ~
UJ
(l)
0.0
~~o
t *
C
3: ** * **
(l)
~ -.5
*~
Ul 0
* *
0 * '"
-1.0
*
0
0

-1. 5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Standard dey iation

Fig. 3. Standard deviations and skewnesses of freeze-up dates (+),

durations of ice cover (*) and break-up dates (0).

4. THE RELATIONSHIPS BETHEEN ICE COVER DATA AND AIR TEMPERATURE

The regression equations were first calculated with all series to find out
an average effect of air temperature on ice cover formation and disappear­
ance. Only 4 of the 57 correlations were under 99 % significance level,
when the best corrected air temperature data were used.

Freeze-up date was most highly dependent on autumn air temperature and break­
up date on spring air temperature, as could be expected. Duration of ice
cover had largest correlation with autumn air temperature when the seasons
were treated separately. The best correlation was achieved by using the
mean of autumn and spring temperatures. Winter temperature did not have a
significant effect. The means of intercepts (or the shift in date or dura­
tion due to 1 °c increase in air temperature), their standard errors and
mean correlation coefficients are given in Table 3. In Figure 4 the regres­

62
sion lines of freeze-up and autumn air temperature are shown as an example
of the course and deviations of the equations. Dates and durations are
treated as deviations from the mean of the whole serie. Temperatures were
deviations from the mean in period 1945/46-1959/60.

Table 3. The means and standard srrors of intercepts of regression equa­

tions (the effect of 1 C increase in air temperature) and mean
correlation coefficients of them.

Ice cover data Mean

Air tempera ture intercept Standard Mean
data error correlation
d d coefficient

Freeze-up date Autumn 6.4 0.3 0.35

Duration of Mean of autumn
ice cover and spring -7.5 0.4 -0.31
Break-up date Spring -2.7 0.1 -0.30

The regression equations were calculated also by using the means of freeze­
up dates, durations of ice cover and break-up dates of all 19 lakes as a
dependent variable. In Figure 5 the courses of freeze-up date and autumn
air temperature during the study period are shown. The latest freezing pe­
hod has occurred in 1930's. During that time autumn temperatures have
gradually increased. The peak of freeze-up dates was in early 1930's while
high temperatures were observed during the whole 1940's. The regression
equation between freeze-up date deviation (FD) and autumn air temperature
deviation (ATD) was as follows:

FD = 6.4 ATD + 3.0 (1)

The correlation coefficient was 0.44 which is significant at 99.9 % level.

Shortest durations of ice cover occurred in the 1930's and around the year
1950 (Figure 6). During that time the mean autumn-spring air temperature
has been at its highest. Exceptionally short winter occurred in 1929/30 and
long winter in 1941/42. The regression equation between the deviation of du­
ration of ice cover (DD) and the deviation of mean autumn-spring air temper­
ature (ASTD) was as follows:

DD = -7.5 ASTD - 3.4 (2)

63
~ 40
d
30 c
0
30 r Freeze-up
-ri
d -+-' 20 "
10 "
20 Freeze-up -ri 10 ~" ....
>
OJ
1 'D 0
c
0
-ri 10
~ -10 I" ' " ,
.. '
-+-' 10 +
10 0-20
' ri
> 0
OJ
'D
-3fu'so 1900 1920 1940 1960 19BO

OJ
21
~ -10 'C
0 ~ 0I ;6 C- I' ," c I'
'D ",
-20
a.
E -2

OJ

f­
-30
-3 -2 -1 0 'c 2
-fIl'BD 1900 1920 1940 1960 19BO
Temperature deviation
Autumn
Fig. 4. The regression lines of freeze-up date de­ Fig. 5. The average freeze-up date deviations from
viation and autumn air temperature devia­ the mean in period 1881-1980 and autumn air
tion. Deviations are calculated as in Fi­ temperature deviations from the mean in pe­
gure 5. Significance levels are shown with riod 1945-1959 and their 9-year moving aver­
line type: continuous over 99.9 %, dashed ages.
from 99 % to 99.9 % and dotted under 99 %.
 C
40 20

d
0
.r<
.+-J
CO
. r<
30
20
....

.r<
d

10 r'
, 0 0,0
"" o 0
DO" II

10 .+-J
> CO
0
..
ClJ . r<
0
TI >
.
c -10
.g;- 10 r o 0 ";'"
.~ -20
~ -30
.. ClJ
.+-J
0
0
00

~ -20 [ Break-up
~ -40 Ice cover
0
-5&80 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 -3&81 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981
2
2
'C
c
> >
0 0
ClJ
TI '. .. ClJ
TI

0.
0.

E -2
E -2

ClJ
ClJ

r­ r­

-480 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 -4'81 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981
Winter Spring

Fig. 6. The average deviations of duration of ice
cover from the mean in period 1881 /82 ­
1980/81 and autumn-spring air temperature
deviations from the mean in period 1945/46­
1959/60 and their 9-year movin9 averages.
8l Winters are dated by the year of autumn.
Fig. 7. The average deviations of break-up date
from the mean in per iod 1882-1981 and
spring air temperature deviations from
the mean in peri od 1945-1960 and their
9-year moving averages.
The correlation coefficient was -0.37 which is also significant at 99.9 %
level.

Break-up date and spring air temperature deviations are shown in Figure 7.
The variation pattern of break-up dates is not as clear as that of freeze-
up dates and durations of ice cover. Anyway, the descending trend of break­
up dates from the end of 19th century to late 1940's coinside very well with
increased air temperatures during the same time. The regression equation be­
tween break-up date deviation (BD) and spring air temperature deviation (STD)
was

BD = -2.7 STD + 3.0 (3)

Correlation coefficient (-0.35) was significant at 99.9 % level.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The correlations between ice cover data and air temperatures were rather low,
though they were significant. There are two major factors which are weakening
the relationships.

1. Air temperatures were calculated as a mean between 65 0 Nand 85 0 N

over all longitudes, while the ice data was collected from very lim~
ited area which fell in fact outside the temperature area. Local
changes in air temperature were thus not taken into account. Rannie
(1983) has got slightly higher correlation (0.47 vs. 0.44), when com­
paring the Red River freeze-up dates and October-November mean tem­
peratures. Correlation between break-up dates and March-April mean
temperature was -0.79 which is remarkable higher than that in this
study (-0.35). Heino (1978) has studied the climatic changes in Fin­
land during the last hundred years and found that mean annual air
temperature in Helsinki (60 0 N, 25 0 E) has increased approximately
1.5 °c from the 1870's to the 1940's, which is in good agreement with
the Arctic air temperature.
2. Air temperatures were means over three months, when freeze-up and es­
pecially break-up will occur in more limited time span. The use of
two months' time instead of three in calculation of' air temperatures
should make the dependence stronger. This is one reason for higher
correlations in the study of Rannie (1983). Break-up dates are most

66
negatively affected by the mean of three months' temperature.

How far can the results be extrapolated? Climatic models are forecasting a
rapid increase in atmospheric temperature in near decades (see e.g. Manabe
and Stouffer 1979). The changes are forecasted to be largest in northern
latitudes. If CO 2-content of atmosphere will double (a s i s estimated to
happen during the next 80 years) the air temperature will raise even 10 °C.
It is certainly not relevant to extrapolate equations 1,2 and 3 that far.
In cold areas lakes are always covered by ice and in warm areas they do not
freeze at all. The lakes used in this study are within these limits. It de­
pends on the shape of the curve temperature vs. duration of ice cover, how
these lakes would react on such a large temperature increase. Anyway, the
change in winter regime of lakes would be drastic.

REFERENCES

Heino, R. 1978. Climatic changes in Finland during the la st nundred years.

Fennia Vol. 150. P. 3-13.
Kelly, P.M. & Jones, P.O. 1981a. Hinter temperatures in the Arctic, 1882­
1981. C1i ma te Mon i to r Vo 1. 10 (1). P. 9-10.
Kelly, P.M. &Jones, P.O. 1981b. Spring temperatures in the Arctic, 1881­
1981. Cl imate Monitor Vol. 10 (2) P. 40-41.
Kelly, P.M. & Jones, P.O. 1981c. Autumn temperatures in the Arctic, 1881­
1981. Cl imate Monitor Vol. 10 (4) P. 94-95.
Laasanen, O. 1982. Freeze-up, break-up, ice thickness and surface water tem­
perature statistics in lakes and rivers in Finland. Publications of the
Water Research Institute 47. National Board of Waters, Finland. 67 p.
Manabe, S. & Stouffer, R.J. 1979. A CO 2-cl imate sensitivity study with a
matematical model of the global climate. Nature Vol. 282 (5738) P. 491­
493.
Rannie, W.F. 1983. Break-up and freeze-up of the Red River at Winnipeg,
Manitoba Canada in the 19th Century and some climatic implications.
Climatic Change Vol. 5. P. 283-296.
Solantie, R. 1977. Lumipeiteajasta Suomessa. Abstract : On the persistence
of snow cover in Finland. Ilmatieteen laitos, Hel s inki. 68 p.

67
ICE HYDRAULICS AND ICE CONTROL

 W-lR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhllrg

CONTROLLING RIVER ICE TO ALLEVIATE ICE JAM FLOODING

David Deck u.s. Army Cold Regions United States

Research Hydarulic Engineer Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, N.H.

Many communities affected by ice jam flooding have accepted the event
as unpreventable. Others have approached their problem as one of open
channel flow and implemented standard projects such as channel modifica­
tions or dikes to combat their flooding. We feel that the best approach
is to control the river ic e before it poses a problem, by controlling
either freeze-up or break-up.
This paper addresses our involvement at two areas where ice jam
flooding has caused severe economic hardship and los s of life. An ice
boom has been used to contr o l the formation of rive r ice at Oil City,

Pennsylvania, and a pe~anent ice control structure will be c onstructed on

Cazenovia Creek in West Seneca, New York, to control the river ice during
break-up.

69
INTRODUCTION

The first step toward alleviating ice jam flooding by ice control is
to determine the cause of the jam. This requires that the river's freeze­
up and break-up processes be thoroughly studied, including on-site meas­
urements and observations throughout the ice season. The river reach con­
tributing ice to the trouble area and the present downstream ice condi­
tions must be documented.
With this information one can accurately predict the effectiveness of
various means of ice control. Perhaps the most important consideration
when altering a river's ice regime is to ascertain that you will not cre­
a·te an adversity elsewhere, either upstream or downstream. These ques­
tions can only be answered adequately by an engineer in the field. Our
attempts to alleviate ice jam flooding at two locations are summarized
here.

OIL CITY, PENNSYLVANIA

Oil City, located in northwestern Pennsylvania, has been plagued by

ice jam flooding since the mid-1800s. The last major ice jam flood, in
February 1982, resulted in damages estimated at ~4,300,OOO (Fig. I). This
event was the 16th such flood in the past 32 years. The inundated busi­
ness district of the city lies on a lOO-year open-water flood plain at the
confluence of the Allegheny River and Oil Creek.

Figure 1. Results of the 1982 ice jam at Oil City, PennsylVania.

70
 Figure 2. Typical freeze-up at Oil City.

Oil Creek
I
I Ice Control
I Structure
I I

Ki lome Ters Aboye M ou Th

Figure 3. Ice thickness profile along the Allegheny River.

The cause of the ice jam flooding was determined during the winter of
1980 by conducting an extensive field study. A massive freeze-up jam con­
sisting of frazil ice naturally occurs throughout a long, deep pool in the
Allegheny downstream of Oil City and extends upstream past the joining of
Oil Creek (Fig. 2 and 3). Large quantities of frazil generated in the
creek are also deposited in the river, as well as at the mouth of the
creek. Because the discharge of small streams typically responds sooner
to rainfall and snowmelt than larger rivers do, Oil Creek's ice cover
breaks up and runs before the river's does. This ice runs unimpeded to

71
 Figure 4. Ice jammed at the mouth of Oil Creek.

the river until it confronts the stable ice at its mouth and in the Alleg­
heny River. Because it has nowhere else to go, the ice jaros and inundates
Oil City (Fig. 4). Deck and Gooch (1981) described the site and its ice
problems in detail.
We proposed in the spring of 1980 that the most feasible means of al­
leviating Oil City ice jam flooding would be to control the ice during
formation with environmentally and economically beneficial floating struc­
tures. A structure upstream of the city on the Allegheny would quickly
form a stable ice cover behind it, suppressing further frazil generation
and excessive deposition in the trouble area. A similar structure in­
stalled in Oil Creek would reduce the amount of frazil being deposited in
the river and accumulating at the junction of the two waterways. This
plan would keep the confluence area relatively ice free and would allow
the creek ice to discharge into the river during break-up.
A co nve ntional steel-pontoon ice boom was chosen to control the ice
on the Allegheny River (Fig. 5). We provided the design loads and general
configuration of the structure to the U.S. Army Engineer District, Pitts­
burgh, in 1981. The project was installed prior to the 1982-83 winter.
On Oil Creek, where a simple ice boom will not work due to the creek's ad­
verse hydrauliC conditions, we experiment~d with a floating structure cap­
able of controlling frazil ice; This structure has produced encouraging
results for co ntrolling frazil on steep and shallow streams. However, at
this site we feel it is not making a significant contribution, and we have
recommended other means of controlling the creek's frazil.
 Figure 5. Allegheny River ice boom with a stable ice
cover.

Figure 6. Confluence of Oil Creek and the Allegheny River

during the 1983-84 winter.

The results of this effort to control river ice during formation have
been rewarding. There have been no floods at Oil City in the two years
since the Allegheny ice boom was installed. The 1983-84 winter was the
most severe for ice generation in the Oil City area since at least 1977­
78, but the river remained relative ly ice free from the structure down­
s tream to below the mouth of Oil Creek (Fig. 6). Ice break-up on Oil
Creek occurred on 13 February, when all of its ice ran the length of the
stream and into the river unimpeded. More ice was disc harged into the
river than at any time since our involvement.
Despite the success of the project we are recommending ice control on
Oil Creek to assure that there will be no more ice jam floods at Oil City.

73
 18 I'~"

l. A K £

£ R I £

.
SC.... L[ O f" WILES

I
,,",xi

L _
Figure 7. Basin map of Cazenovia Creek.

CAZENOVIA CREEl<

Cazenovia Creek, a tributary of the Buffalo River, is a steep and

shallow stream some 60 km (38 miles) long. The creek joins the river in
Buffalo, N.Y., about 7 km (4.4 miles) from Lake Erie. The backwater ef­
fect from the lake extends up the river to about 2 km (1.3 miles) up Caze­
novia Creek. A basin map is shown in Figure 7.
Ice jam flooding is frequent on Cazenovia Creek, with inundation oc­
curing from the backwater upstream for about 8 km (5 miles). The abrupt
change in slope at the backwater is the primary factor of ice jamming due
to its poor transport capabilities. The flooding causes loss of lives and
severe economic hardships in West Seneca and Buffalo. Presently the only
ice control measures taken are to break up the ice in the Buffalo River
-and lower 2 km (1.3 miles) of Cazenovia Creek prior to the creek's break­
up. The City of Buffalo uses amphibious craft to break this ice. The ice

74
 Figure 8. Permanent ice control structure on the
St. Anne River in St. Raymond, Quebec.

then slowly moves downstream towards the lake, which does provide addi­
tional storage when the creek's ice runs. This is effective in reducing
flood levels, but more ice control is essential.
The Cazenovia Creek ice must be controlled during break-up by con­
taining it above the affected area. A permanent overflow weir or dam is
being designed to accomplish this task. However, the necessary design
criteria for such a structure remain to be developed. There are several
equations for determining ice jam stability, but the starting conditions
necessary for applying these theories are difficult or impossible to pre­
dict in our situation. The most notable work was provided by Michel
(1980) and Pariset et al. (1966). In addition to the weir or dam we feel
it necessary to provide other ice barriers to further stabilize the ice,
such as the structure at St. Raymond, Quebec, Canada (Fig. 8). These may
be piers or similar obstructions mounted on the structure or perhaps spur
dikes in the pool behind it. An overflow or by-pass channel will probably

75
also be necessary. We cannot assess these alternatives mathematically.
Therefore, we will use a physical hydraulic ice model as a tool for de­
signing this ice control scheme.
This model is currently under construction in our refrigerated Ice
Engineering Facility. It will reproduce about 1500 m (4920 feet) of the
creek at the proposed location of the ice control structu'r e and will use
real ice doped with urea (Hirayama 1983). This ice is used to scale the
flexural strength of the ice properly. Conventional Froude criterion
scaling will be applied to the model. After calibration we will test
various structure sizes and modifications. We are confident that this
study will provide the necessary design for a successful ice control
structure on Cazenovia Creek.

CONCLUSION

Controlling river ice can be an effective means of alleviating ice

jam flooding. Once a river system's ice conditions have been documented,
one can analyze site-specific methods of effectively controlling the ice.
In some cases, reducing the amount of ice by altering the freeze-up can be
effective; in others, the running ice during break-up must be delayed or
contained above the jamming location.

REFERENCES

Deck, D. and Gooch, G., 1981. Ice jam problems at Oil City, Pennsylvania.
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
N.H., Special Report 81-9.
Hirayama, K., 1983. Properties of urea-doped ice in the CRREL test baSin.
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
N.H., CRREL Report 83-8.
Michel, B., 1980. Interpretation of Alberta ice jams data. University of
Laval, Quebec City, P.Q., Canada, Report GCS-80-03.
Pariset, E., Hausser, R. and Gagnon, A., 1966. Formation of ice covers and
ice jams in rivers. Journal of the Hydraulics Division, American Society
of Civil Engineers, Vol. 82 (HY6) , p. 4965-4989.

76
 IAJm Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

FEASIBILITY OF ICE CONTROL BELON HIGH-HEAD

HYDRO PROJECTS

Lyapin V.E., Head of Lab.

Razgovorova E.L.,J.Res.Offr The B.E.Vedeneev USSR
Tregub G.A., J.Res.Offr VNIIG, Leningrad
Shatalina I.N., S.Res.Offr

Abstract
Effects of deep reservoirs on ice and thermal regimes of
tailwaters are discussed. A phYsical model of ice and ther­
mal processes is described as well as calculation methods
for the determination of water temperatures, the frazil ice
discharge, the length of polynya at the advance and retreat
of the ice cover presented. The methods of ice and thermal
processes control downstream from dams are suggested.

77
The construction of large hydroelectric projects poses a
number of problems associated with changes in the thermal
regime of rivers, its effects on the climate of a ~ydro
power station region as well as with the possibilities of
the ecology control. Deep reservoirs of large volume signi­
ficantly change the thermal regime of rivers. Most active
thermal processes occur in the surface layers of the reser­
voirs. In winter ice-covered reservoirs have a lot of heat
particularly in bottom layers. In summer reservoirs are
filled with cold flood water and its heating mostly takes
place in the surface active layers. Beneath the active layer
the water temperature remains close to 4 0 C.
Water temperatures in the tailrace differ from those in the
natural water course and the deeper is the water withdrawal
the greater is the said difference, since in summer the
bottom layers of reservoirs are not heated and in winter
they do not cool off to the temperatures of the natural
water course. As a result it can be concluded that the
effects of deep reservoirs on the thermal regime of tail­
races show up in both summer and winter periods.
In winter warm water discharge from a reservoir result; in
the formation of a polynya below a dam; the polynya length
depends on the meteorological conditions, hydraulic charac­
teristics of a flow, the discharge and temperature of warm
water. Intensive formation of frazil ice which occurs in the
polynya can initiate the ice jam formation downstream from
the ice edge as well as the rise of water level upstream
from the jam.
Construction of reservoirs has a pronounced effect on the
warm water discharge of rivers. The reduction of this dis­
charge and change in the river discharges coused by the regu­
lation, especially during flood period when the reservoirs
are filled, affects ecologic~l conditions and primarily fish­
ing resources and microclimate of the river valleys.
The ice and thermal regimes of a tailrace depend on meteoro­
logical conditions, hydraulic parameters of the flow, river

78
channel morphology and temperature of water entering the
tailrace.
Thus the construction of high-head waterworks results in
changes of thermal and ice regimes of the river downstream
of the structure which affects the climate . and ecology of
the hydro power .plant region and, therefore, calls for de­
veloping of methods which enable ice and thermal regimes of
the tailrace to be regulated. This goal cannot be achieved
without clear-cut idea of ice and thermal processes which
take place in the tailrace during summer and winter periods.
Though in summer the hydro power plant operation tells only
on the water temperature, in winter its influence acquires
more complex character.
Based on the results of long-term and comprehensive studies
the thermal processes in tailraces during winter period are
schematized proceeding from their physical aspects.
According to this schematization one is to distinguish three
kinds of ice and thermal regimes:
- the reduction of the polynya length, i.e. the advance of
the ice cover edge; the regime prevails when the zero
isotherm section is located upstream of the edge;
- the ice cover edge does not travel (stabilization of the
edge) ;
- the increase of the polynya length, i.e. the retreat of.
the ice cover edge; the regime prevails when the tempe­
rature of water approaching the edge exceeds zero degrees
centigrate.
When the ice cover advances the tailrace can be divided into

six consecutive stretches (Fig.1) starting from the jet fall

section to the section of

1 - the zero isotherm;

2 - the frazil formation start;

J - the maximum supercooling;

4 -the most intensive formation of frazil ice;

5 - the fUll coverage of the tailrace surface with frazil

ice resulting in water temperature rise to oOe;

79
 1 Z 13 14 1 5 1 6 1 7
a)
1 I Vllr l. h·
_- -I~~::~r~~ "o<>,:t
~}~:
~-'---~~ .. : I-~" I-V
I I
I
~

';:'./~ - - I L~ L
I 1
~)1~C r--, 1 I I I I I

0
--",: 1 I 1
1 1
1
1
I
L
x. J~ I
I 1 1 I
1 1 1 1 1
1 I 1 1 1
c) I
110
1 I 1 1
I
d)
I~
1 I I I
I
1
e) 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
i~ ~ :

Fig.1. Physical model of ice and thermal processes

in the tailraces:
a) Characteristic stretches; b) Variation of
mean water temperature along the tailrace;
c) Coefficient of water surface coverage with
frazil; d) Intensity of frazil formation;
e) Frazil discharge
6 - the stable ice cover (Skladnev and others. 1982).
In the regime of the ice cover edge stabilization stretches
1 and 6 retain their integrity.
In the regime of the ice cover edge retreat three consecutive
stretches may be distinguished starting from the jet fall
section to
1 - the ice cover edge where t /- aOc;
2 - the zero isotherm section under the ice cover;
3 - the stretch downstream.
The main parameters of the ice and thermal regime are consi­
dered to be the following: the temperature of water (for
summer and winter periods), the discharge of frazil, the
length of the polyuva, the thickness of ice cover (for winter

80
period).
The variation of the mean temperature over the depth of the
tailrace throughout its length can be described in the dimen­
sionless form by the followiDg formula (Skladnev and others,
1982):
-M,
8 = e (1 )

where 8 a -/; -,)f is the dimensionless tempera­

+.-v.
ture parameter and 0 1
J.".iJx
ML =
'
Cj)Q is the Mikheev criterion.

The variation of the volume discharge of frazil is det~r­

mined by the following equation (Pekhovich, Tregub, 1980):
~QXf'" = V-!J
lJ
ilp IIhr) (n axfr + J!> Clx· (2)

According to the field observations there is a linear rela­

tionship between the thickness of frazil accumulation on the
surface hyr and the degree of tailrace coverage with
ice ~ (Pekhovich,Tregub, 1980)
Jtyr = A, j3 . (3)

Substituting (3) in (2) and integrating the equation obtained,

considering that X = Xo ,F = a , we find the dimensionless
relationship for the degree of the flow coverage with frazil:
X =, -{;n(1-ft), (4)

where X => J. j (-Vj)

2 lilf, ~f1" V
Xo) ex - is the dimensionless para­
meter of the coordinat'e.
The volume discharge of frazil is determined from (2):
. X
~= 2n, V!J J@ - fl) dX. (5)
o
In the dimensionless form we have
Q
Up- == h.
,
rJ; =2 Ix (1 -.0) dX .
The predicted relationships f = ~ (X) and
are shown in Fig.2.

81
The polynya length depends on the ice and thermal processes
in the tailrace. At the advance of the ice cover edge in the
upstream direction its rate is described using the following
equation (Pekhovich, fregub, 1980)
xe
cLxe d. j ( - V!) dX e (7)
d.-r 43 ~r -At
x"
(1- ft) dx J f"
Integrating (7) with regard to (4-) '""and (6) and transforming
it to the dimensionless form we obtain the time of the ice
cover edge travel to the given section as
-'[; _ ,,(,i (-Vi )1:' JX' d.X e . (8)
2«'>~-hi, Q
Fig.} shows the -1: =f (XeiT) X, fT"
curve corresponding to ( 8.
)

At the retreat of the ice cover edge its rate is determined

by the formula
= ,,(,2 v -te .
(9)
e ~ fl.e
where te ' i.e. the . ice temperature on the ice cover edge,
can be defined from (1) at X = Xe and.Lp' is the coef­
ficient of heat transfer from water to ice.
Melting of the ice cover goes on simultaneously from the
frontal side and the undersurface. Rate of ice melting on
the under surface can be estimated using the heat eXChange
relationships for an extended flat ice cover which melts or
f,. ~.ll
80 10
•
&0 \
;...... \
70
60

1\ \ -
t\. I'
ZO
"­
~o
r--..
~
60

6
­
80 100
to
a Ol 0.4 0'6 o'g II x.,l1
Fig.2. Variation of cover­ Fig.}. Rate of ice cover
age coefficient and edge progression
dimensionless frazil in the advance
discharge parameter regime
along the flow

82
remains in the stable ag~regation state.
The abovementioned relationships can be derived by scaling
up the experimental data obtained from individual specimens
for an extended ice cover. This operation yields a simple
and convenient relationship for determining the heat transfer
coefficient
d...Ll = B· V ' (1 0)
f
where ~
B =CP-Pi.l~2·'
is the numerical coefficient in Nu::; 0.0356 Re 0.8P-t 0 • 4 ;
-It
V is the flow velocity close to the interface.
f
As a rule, the rate of ice melting on the frontal side
slightly exceeds that on the bottom surface and is deter­
mined by the following expression :
0.8
NUe = 0.0187 Pe , (11 )
where
Nu ::; J..~-hi.
e -.a-
Pe = Re· Ptt = Vhi. ;
a
a = -A- .
CJO
River regulation is nowadays performed with the task of the
conservation of the natural ecological conditions in a hydro
power plant region taken into account, in particular it
concerns the tailrace thermal regime.
Selective withdrawal, introduction of additional local
sources of heat or cold and creation of a primary ice bridge
are considered .to be feasible methods of the ice and thermal
regime control.
The selective withdrawal makes it possible to discharge to
the tailrace water of sDecified temperature. The surface
withdrawal enables the water temperature to approach the
natural one. Fig.4 a,b presents the qualitative effects of
the surface withdrawal on the tailrace water temperature in
summer and winter periods. The valve-type water intake sche­

83
 t
a)

Z
1

~)

c)

~------z

~----~~----------------------~---I
Fig.4. Effects of different control methods on
water temperature in the tailrace :
a) Influence of surface water withdrawal
on water temperature in summer period;
b) Influence of surface water withdrawal
on water temperature in winter period;
c) Influence of additional local source
of heat on water temperature in the tail­
race in summer
1 - water temperature without regulation;
2 - water temperature with regulation
matically shown in Fig.5 is thought to be most effective.
In summer period introduction of additional local heat or
cold sources into the tailwaters upstream from the active
zone results in an abrupt change of water temperature and
in "a jump" of the temperature curve (Fig.4 c). During the
winter period when the temperature falls below zero the
local source of cold contributes to the shortening of the
stretch from the jet fall section to the zero isotherm sec­
tion thus affecting subsequent ice and thermal processes.
If a source of heat or cold is located within the active

84
 Fig.5. Selective withdrawal of surface water
1 - concrete dam; 2 - pressure water
conduit; 3 - screen; 4 - vertical
guides; 5 - floats

zone, the frazil discharge will change abruptly (Fig.2) and

result in the variation of the polynya length, the latter
being decreased by the source of cold and increased by tbe
source of heat.
Warm water discharges from thermal power plants can be uti­
lized as sources of heat whereas tbe systems of artificial
cooling and those with snow-producing nozzles can serve as
sources of cold.
Snow is usually produced with the help of special nozzles
when compressed air is supplied to the water jet or free air
is e~ected through the nozzles.
Snow production by the use of compressed air is known to be
less economical than that by ejecting cool free air to the
water jet. The principle of operation of the nozzles consists
in producing the vacuum inside the barrel, entrainment of

85
free air through the slots in the case at a rate 20 times as
much as that of water, turbulization and aeration o#: a jet
stimulating the ice crystals formation already inside the case.
Testing of the above nozzle under 70 m head revealed that in
the water jet discharged from the nozzle ice crystals formed
intensively and fell out on a surface as snow having the
500 kg/mJ density. The rate of the snow cover growth at a
stretch between 0.5 - 0.75 of the jet trajectory is 0.26 m/h
at _20 0 C and 0.48 m/h at -JOoC.
In winter the artificial ice bridges retain frazil ice, pro­
mote ice cover formation at the given section and decrease
the polynya length by the magnitude (Fig.J)
I'1x = :2 At i> Ftr V (
e -v
eLj ( ) x.'I - X)
.'2 •
(12 )

The conditions of application of the above methods of the

ice and thermal regime control can be widely different. When
creating the artificial ice bridges and applying the addi­
tional local sources of cold the stability of frazil ice
must be taken into account to avoid ice floe diving and the
consequent jam formation. The surface water withdrawal is
thought to be most significant measure for control of the
ice and thermal regime in the tailraces of hydro power plants.
References
Skladnev M.F., Lyapin V.E., Pekhovich A.I. " Razgovorova E ,L.
1982.0n design and calculation methods of the ice and
thermal regime downstream . of hydro power plants. Gidrotekh­
nicheskoe Stroitelstvo, (11), p.15-19.
Pekhovich A.I., Tregub G.A. 1980. Evaluation of frazil ice
formation and ice cover progression in tailraces of hydro
power plants. Izvestia VNIIG im.B.E.Vedeneeva, Sbornik
Hauchnykh Trudov, Vol.14J, p. 87-91.
Notation
Q. - discharge,

~ - flow width,

*0 - temperature of water passed through the dam,

86
v - m~an velocity of a flow,
~ - equivalent temperature of air above the water
surface,
~t - heat-transfer coefficient (from water to air),

~ - latent heat of ice formation,

p - density of water,

Pp - density of frazil ice,

e - specific heat capacity of water,

A - molecular heat conductivity of water,

h.L - ice cover edge thickness,

ft - coefficient of surface coverage with frazil ice,
x - the coordinste along the flow,
Xo - the coordinate of the zero isotherm section,
Nu - Nusselt number,
Re - Reynolds number,
p~ - Prandtl number,
Pe - Peclet number.
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

IUV 1~::': TIG_\TIOl L 1J) DlNELO PMENT 02 I CE

PHOTl::CTIOH EQUIHlENT FOR PORT AND SHIP

REPAIR y,\.RDS ilITH FREEZnJG i/J\.TER AREA

L.Y.IY"HOV, Candidate of Marine Research U. S. S.R.

Technology, Chief' of ice and Design Institute
enGincerin~ sector
LEI'll,lORIUIPROJEC T
E.S.VINOGRADOY, Candidate
of Teclll1010c;y, research
worker
A. T. LUPA, research vlorker

Due to the DroViing need of winter navigation under severe

clilJ1atic conditions a new effective technique has been de­
veloped which permits trapping and directing of drift brash
ice, melting of ice sheet, laying of ice-free approach fair­
ways as well a s icenine suppresion of ships and shiplifts.
The operation of ice protection devices is based on dif­
ferent mechanical, therQal, pneumatic and hydraulic princip­
les.
Using the ice protection devices perruits the duration of
cargo handling and ship repairin~ to be reduced by 10-15%.

89
 Effectiveness of the prolonged and year-long naviga tions
depends substantially on the idle time of fleet due to the
water areas of ports and ship repair yards being covered
with ice as well as the icening of ship lifts and wharves
members.
The set of investigations has been carried out in LEliMOR­
NIIPROYECT with the object of developing an efficient equip­
ment for the protection of shore facilities against ice du­
ring winter periods. Investigations were based on the data
on major sea ports and repair yards, the analysis of which
allowed for the evaluation of ice nature and effects on the
technical and economic indices of the operation of fleet,
docks and wharves.
In the initial stage of the inve s tigation a criterion was
established which desoribed the ice situation at the water
area in order to determine a required ice protection equip­
ment:
hi2(-t a )
Tneg
where: hi - ice thickness typical for a given water
area. (cm);
~ (-t ) - average sum of ne gative air tempera­
a
tures in winter period (degree-day);
T - average duration of the period of negative
neG
air temperatures (day).
To develop the ice protection equipment, an analysis was
performed of the Soviet and world experience in creation
ice-free water areas and icening suppression with regard to
the special conditions of winter operation and to structural
features of the facilities under consideration.
To remove or make thinner the ice cover of the water basin
without natural heat reserves, a new method of ice melting
using the vapor-air mixture distributed at the bOttOLl of
the water basin through a single line system of perf orated

90
pipings was developed. Using the sinc;le line system instead
of a COLlmon twin pipeline allows for cutting the number of
pipes nearly in half, the pipe laying being more simple.
Natural investigations provided a Q~ans for verifying a
method of vapor flow rate estimates based on the heat ba­
lance equi2.tion for the vmter body covered by the distri­
buting pipings.
Outcomes of the systeLI trials in the mouth of Northern
DvinC'- h2ve sho,ill the efficiency of ice LJel tine; 20% higher
cot~a red to the COLmon systems. At pres ent such new distri­

buting systems are introduced in many ports and ship repair

yards.
To assist the icebreaker convoying of the vessels and
reduce idle tine and fuel consumption, an icebreak and ice­
removal "pristavka" (LLP-20) represented by a special con­
struction pontoon with icecut knives on ·it's bottom pushed
by icebreaker and coupled with it by tightener was proposed.
In 1982-1984 the natural full-scale tests of the experllnen­
tal "pristavka" LLP-20 were carried out in the Gulf of Fin­
land and Gulf of Vyborg under conditions of level fast ice
(see fig.1), brash ice and hwnmocked ice. The "pristavka"
pushed by a port icebreaker provides laying and renovation
of a navigation lead along approach fairways with remainder
small ice cake concentration of 20-30% when working in level
ice, and of 30-505:~ when in hummocked ice. The icebreaker
coupled with the "pristavka" consumes less power, a dec­
rease of 30-40%, and can work in more thick ice (see fig.2).
For a less power consumption, the speed of u. transport
ship is 2-2,5 times higher within the navigation lead than
without. Investigations performed allow 2 typ es of the "pri­
stavka" to be developed the first one welded to the ice­
breaker's bow, the second one pushed by both an icebreaker
and a transport ship. An elaboration is planned of the tech­
nology of laying and renovation of the navigation lead with
the help of the "pristavka" for different climatic condi­
tions.

91
 Duri nc the \/in teL' llavi 3~' tion t 1e \/<.:. t e r clre~s of' ports and
ship repair yards are covered \'lith f lo at ili G br a s h ice Hhich
hingers mooring and rear-' Geil e nt or' ships as well <:is the ir
docking. To trap or sor~ewhere direct this floati l b ice, d i :1.'­
ferent wechanical, hydrodyn a l 'ic und pneunohydraulic devices
have been desiGned.
The mechani c al devices provide for a secure triC,p p in G o~'

brash drift ice, thus creatinL the navicution lead for

ships, remove brash ice froll the closed parts of water
areas and from under the ship's bottor.! Oc t ore dry or floa­
ting dockinGs.
The hydrodynamic devices use the su buerg ed I'ree jet ener£SY.
Qui te a number of such devices employ WIder and above rill ter
nonpressure propeller flow generating units and are desi[,-ned
f or ice flow trapping and reliloval frolil locks, { loa tin t:; and
dry docks, as well as from under the ship's bottoJ., when
docking. The hydrodynamic devices Tileet the requirements o f
efficiency and safety with due regard to the speci f ic con­
di tions or the water area in question. A desie;n procedure /1 '
for the flow generating complex elaborated as a result of
theoretical and natural investi g ations for the protection
of docks aGainst brash drift ice assisted an advantageous
and sidespread introduction 01' such device s .
A relationship is found between the characteristics of

dock and ice and the surface velocity of flow required to

ensure the ice movement

l ! 2 ­
Vs =V12Ye TId + O,24Bd + 4416D d

Bd+ JOh i

v/here: Y - surfa ce velo c ity of flow generated by

6
the flow generatine; unit (m/s);
Ve - velocity of flow entering the floating
dock as it suboerges (m/s);
Bd dock width along the building berth (m);
Ld - dock length along the building berth (m);
Vd - SUbmergence velocity of the dock (m/s).

92
 To ihlprove the prote(; tion oi' port fa cilities a g a inst brash
floating ice, a YlUJilber of devices COi.lbininr; both r..echanical
and hydrordechc!.llical principle s of opera tion h a ve been de­
veloped. ;u,ionL these are the telescopic ba:criers Vii th woving
edGes equipped rli th no zzles for creation the hydrodinaI,lic
zone of contact between the barrier and s hip; the floating
be am cOl"plete wi th the flow genera tine units, etc.
l r inciple of operation of the pnew~atic devices in ques­
tion is ..Jell knol'm and based on generation of an upward
water-air flow converting to a surface flow. Compared to
the r"echanical, hydrodynamic, and combined devices, the
pneUJi,ohydraulic ones hav e a high operate reliability and
small overall dimensions.

To IHake the operation of the pneUJ!latic devices more effi­

cient and economic, it's possible either to optD,dze the
rate o f a ir flow depending on the parameters of dock and
i ce and enviroruoental conditions or to develop lllore advanced
air distributing devices.
An equipment has been designed i'or keeping the distri bu­
ting perforated piping at the proper depth independent of
the submerged depth of the floating dock. This eqUipment
enables the upwards water-air flow to be shielded during
it's transformation at the Vlater surface. What is more, an
eqUipment has been designed ythich generates a strong sur­
face flow by ~eans of laying of the perforated distributing
pipes at specific angles.

iJ uantitative relationships have been found between the

air flow rate and parwileters of docks, ice and water area'
in which the empirical coe:t'ficien ts were deterJ.1ined fror.l
natural tests.

\'lhen trapping i ce ahead of the face of a submergine; floa­

ting dock
0 ,76 3,68 10 3 h. Vd 1,5

(1 + 1:, 3 3 hi/B )] ,
d

93
 where: qo - required rate of air per 1 runrlint; metre of
the perforated pipe (m 3 /s);
k - empirical coefficient 12/;
n i - concentration of brash ice ahead of the dock,
ni.c::1.
When removing ice flows from between the dock's towers

0,016 r (1 + 335.0h/Bd )(1 + j . 5) 1

1 ,5

qo = T, l (1 + 103.0~1t.)
where: Ksp- specific coefficient 12/;
Bd - width of the ice fICIN being removed (m);
1 - distance between adjacent perforated pipings
on the building berth of the dock (m).
To protect port facilities from icening, different heating
and mechanical devices have been developed. Thus, in an
effort to eliminate icening of the building berths of dry
docks and slips, an installation comprising a closed pipe­
line laid at the base of a structure and filled with circu­
lating heated antifreeze has been designed. The temperature
and rate of antifreeze flow are autor;Jatically controlled de­
pending on the characteristics of outdoor air. A design
procedure has been developed which allows for the installa­
tion parameters and OptiL1W",j operating mode to be specified
during desir;n.
To provide an integrated power supply to all the ice pro­
tection devices, a pOYler plant comprising a re-equipped air­
craft gas -tubrine engine, and heat exchanger has been design.
This plant is capable of providing any protection complex
of any port hydraulic facility (e.g. a ferry) or cluster of
dock with compressed air and heat.
In conclusion it should be noted that, by using the de­
veloped ice protection devices, time of cargo handling and
ship repairing can be reduced in winter period by 10-15%,
whi ch results in increase of the cargo carrying capacity
ot' fleet and cargo handling and repair capacities respecti­
vely of berths and ship lifts.

94
1. Ivanov L. V., 197fJ . ;"lin ter operation of water transport
installation . Transport, ;.;oseoH.
2. Vinot;radov :2 . 3 ., 1979. Cal c ulation of cOlupressed ail'
:1:'101'1 for dock protection aGainst drift ice. ::iudostr'o;,re­
niye No .12, p.42-4 5.

95
 Pp, HW

3+------+------++----~----~

II 35cm
0/ 1,.50kPa

OL----I------I------+----.1
o z 4 6 8

V, Kn

FiC;.l. lle-;; p01f/el' 'IS spee d {or iceore aker with " pris­
tavk a " 11:,:::'- 20 in level fa s t ice

96
V,kn

o L -________+­________ ~--------~----------+_--~

o 20 40 60 80

h,cm

Fig.2. Expens es o~ the power :or icebreaker ~ i thout (1)

and with (2) "prist 8.vko. " LLP-20 in level :c'uat ice

97
 WIR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

CONCENTRATION OF FRAZIL IN FLOWING WATER AS MEASURED

IN LABORATORY AND IN THE FIELD

Gee Tsang National Water Research Canada

Research Scientist Institute, Canada Centre
for Inland Waters,
Burlington, Ontario

An instrument has been developed at the National Water Research Institute

for measuring the concentration of frazil in flowing water. This paper.
reports frazil concentration measurements measured under laboratory
conditions for both fresh water and seawater and under field conditions
in the Beauharnois Canal.

99
INTRODUCT ION

An instrument that can measure the concentration of frazi I in water has

been developed at National Water Research Institute (Tsang, 1984). This
instrument is bui It on the physical principle of comparative resistance
measurement. The instrument was originally constructed for laboratory
use to measure frazi I in fresh water but was I ater adapted to measure
frazil in seawater afso. The instrument has two identical probes, one is
the reference probe for which frazil is excluded and the other is the
sensor probe for which the frazil 1aden water can flow through. The
probes sense the resistance of a cylindrical volume of a diameter of 5 cm
and a length of 5 cm, giving a sample volume of 100 cm 3 approximately.
Fig. 1 is a photograph showing the instrument.

Fig. 1. Frazi I Instrument for Laboratory Use

100
This paper reports interesting frazil behaviour and characteristics as
measured in the laboratory and in the field. The experiments were on
fresh water and seawater frazil under laboratory conditions and on
freshwater frazil in a river under field conditions. A field instrument
is now being constructed for a planned field experiment in the winter of
1984-85.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON FRESH WATER FRAZIL

The laboratory experiments were conducted in a recirculating flume in a

cold room. The flume was race-course shaped and had a total length of 2
m and a cross section of 15 cm wide and 13 cm deep. For the experiments,
it was filled to 2 cm from the top. A variable speed propellor mounted
at one end of the flume produced the flow of desired velocity. A fan was
placed about 1.5 m from the flume to produce a wind of about 1.5 m/s over
the water to accelerate cooling. To prevent ice fran adhering to the
wa 11 s and bot tom of the fl ume, the fl ume was embedded ina warm ai r
jacket. The temperature of the warm air jacket was maintained at one to
two degrees above the freezing temperature.

The water temperature was measured with a thermometer accurate to O.002°C

and the concentration of frazil in the main streilTl was measured with the
sensor probe which was placed in one of the straight sections of the
flume. Because the size of the sensor probe was comparable to the depth
of the flow, the measured concentration could be approximately considered
as the concentration of the main flow. The reference probe was placed in
a depres s i on chamber added to the bot tom of the fl ume. The chamber was
covered with a pl ate with two slots cut in it for the probe supports to
pass. Because the chamber was surrounded by warm air and the water
exchange between the main streOO1 and the chamber was limited by the small
slots in the covering plate, plus the fact that the natural buoyancy of
ice discouraged frazil from moving down into the depression chamber, no
frazil was observed in the chamber during the experiments.

A total of five experiments were conducted for this group of experiments

as shown in Table 1 below:

The velocities shown in Table 1 were measured before frazil was produced
in the flume. Following the formation of frazil, the flow slowed down

101
 Table 1. Fresh VJater Laboratory Experiments

Experiment No. 2 3 4 5
Air temperature, ·C -10 -15 -20 -15 -20
Flow velocity, cm/s 15.0 16.0 15.6 21.4 21.4
Cooling rate of water
at seedi ng, 10- 4 ·C/ s 2.71 4.98 7.35 4.67 6.85
Seeding temperature, ·C -.030 - .030 -.030 - .030 spontaneous
Calibration coefficient 3.59 3.56 3.76 2.54 2.21

( Terms used in table will be explained later in text)

noticeably. The velocity of the frazil laden flow, however, could not be
measured because of lack of established technique. For experiments 1 to
4, frazil was first produced by seeding the supercooled water with ice
particles scraped from a slab of ice when the temperature reached the
predestinated temperature of -0.030 ·C. For Exp. 5, frazi 1 nucleated
spontaneously just before the water temperature reaching -.030 ·C.

Fig. 2 shows the water temperature recording (the upper half) and the
frazil concentration recording (the lower half) of Exp. 2. Simi 1ar
recordings were obtained from the other experiments. The temperature
recording shows that prior to seeding the supercooled water, the
time-temperature curve was approximately a straight line (the bending of
the curve at one point was caused by the change of the chart speed).
From the concentration curve, one sees that before the supercooled water
was seeded, no frazi 1 was detected and the zero concentration basel ine
remained constant except for its minor meandering. The meandering range
of the baseline shows that the accuracy of the instrument was about 0.1
percent frazil in water.

Following seeding of the supercooled water, Fig. 2 shows that the

temperature curve began to deviate upwards from the straight line and
minute ripples also began to appear on the concentration - curve,
indicating that small frazil clusters now existed in the flow. The
spiky pattern of the concentration recording shows that frazil was not
uniformly distributed in the water, but formed dense agglomerations. The
single peak of most of the agglomerations indicates that generally they
had only one centre of mass. Occasionally,however, agglomerations with

102
 ~ ~~~~~~--~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

~
i·

~pon . -.03"t
I --
f

~ I.O

fll
.t - ~~=~"';~2~!I-=-=r=r==========-,
0= :- l ~ ==~
IJ ! Id il l
(5C) S) I i I I
i' " ~~,t'i'IL)~~.UJlL~~~
I I

Fig, 2 , Experimental Recording of Early Part of Exp, 2,

8
double or multiple centres of mass did occur. The concentration
recording shows that as time progressed, the agglomerations became denser
(meaning containing more frazi 1) and the number of agglomerations al so
increased as evidenced by higher and more numerous peaks. Fig. 2 shows
that whi le the average concentration of frazi 1 in water was low, the peak
concentreation could be many times the average concentration. Fig. 2
also shows that following the formaton of frazil in the flow, the
baseline of the concentration curve seems to have risen and was
superimposed with small ripples. These indicate that besides the large
agglomerations, there were also small frazil clusters and individual
frazil crystals in the flow, as were indeed observed during the
experiments.

The velocity effect on the agglomeration of frazil can be studied by

comparing the concentration recordings of Exps. 2 and 4 in Fig. 3. The
flow velocities of these two experiments were 16.0 and 21.4 cm/s
respectively. The concentration recording shown on the upper part of
Fig. 3 is the same as that shown in Fig. 2 except that for better visual
recognition the horizontal time axis has been expanded and the vertical
concentration axis has been shrunk.

Because the concentration recordings shown in Fig. 3 cover about the same
time span and the rates of heat loss of the two experiments were about
the same (see Table 1), the average concentrations of frazil of the two
experiments should be close. However, because of the different
velocities, the distributions of frazil agglomerations of the two experi­
ments were quite different. For the slower flow, the frazil agglomerated
into less but larger flocs. The peak concentration of the flocs was also
higher even after the calibration coefficient (see following paragraph)
was taken into account. On the other hand, for faster flow, the frazil
flocs were smaller, more numerous, more evenly distributed ·and had lower
peak concentrations. Similar conclusions could be drawn from comparing
the concentration recordings of the other experiments. Because it is
actually the turbulence of the flow that affects the agglomeration of
frazil, any factor that affects the turbulence of the flow therefore
should be a factor affecting the agglomeration of frazil.

The instrument was electronically designed to give a 0.51 volt output

when the "theoretical" frazil concentration is one percent. The word

104
 Exp . 2, V -; 16 cm/s

lewd ........

.,.,
~~ ~~
i
,,!ooo
i
~I I
,-B1.5 -=- .-t32.S ,-'18'1..5 Me.

i
Me.

rf.
i I
l'l
LI~ A -,--~

,,!ooo " ,000 I

"'-­
0IItr1 . - i: 5 rrm ~ 1-zi:z.5-=- 1-282.5 .c. + ,-332..5 tIC. I

'u l
c

" ~~:
rf.
~
{
.' ,': ::::::J
1'-' .... -._­

"'" "",,=::J
, I ,

lEi'Fig. 3. Comparison of Agglomeration Characteristics of Fraz i l in Flows of Different Velocity

~
"theoretical" here means that if the frazil crystals are symnetric, their
distribution is uniform, etc . Since these "theoretical" conditions do
not actually exist, a 0.51 output volt therefore will not present an
actual concentration of one percent, but some other calibrated values.

Let Cft be the theoretical concentration as shown by the instrument and

Cfa be the actual concentration, then the ratio F = Cft/C fa becomes
the calibration coefficient of the instrument. Knowing F, one can
calcul ate the actual concentration from the instrument's voltage output.
Tsang {1984} found that F is the product of two factors, a shape factor
which is approximately equal to two and a velocity factor. For a given
experiment of fixed pre-frazil velocity, he found that F is independent
of the quantity of frazil in the flow. The calibration coefficients of
the five experiments are shown in Table 1.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS ON SEAWATER FRAZIL

The same experimental setup and procedure were used to study frazi 1 in
seawater. Atlantic seawater with a salinity of 31 0/00 was used as
the medium. Two experiments were conducted with parameters as shown
below:

Table 2. Seawater Laboratory Experiments

Experiment No. 6 7
Flow velocity, v, cm/s 15 . 0 15.0
Air temperature, T , ·C -15 -17
a 4
Cooling rate of water, {dT/dt}n' 10- •C/ s 5.2 6.4
Seeding temperature, ·C spont aneous -1.888
Equilibrium temperature, ·C -1. 820 -1.844

Note: Equilibrium temperature is the co-existing temperature of frazil

and saline water and is close to the freezing temperature, see
Hanley and Tsang, 1984.

Fig. 4 shows the chart recording of Ex. 7. For the early part of the
experiment, a chart speed of 2 mm/s was used and for the 1ater part, the

106
 Q.

...
c:
<lJ
E
'­
<lJ
0.

.•

~
N

'"
! '­
......

J 1~ ...
\...
<lJ
n -~ ~
& gi
,j '"
<lJ
V>
j~ '+­
o
~ !

~
H 0­
c:

"'­o
J I U
<lJ
'"

Ii
.
.,:j ~ ...'"c:
<lJ
E
'­
H <lJ
Q.

~I W
X

!~
ij
a•
I
!r
H
3

107
chart speed was increased to 5 nm/s to give a more easi ly recognizable
recording. From comparing fables 1 and 2, one sees that the parametric
conditions of Exp. 7 were somewhere between those of Exps. 2 and 3 of the
freshwater experiment series. A comparison of Fig. 4 and Fig. 2, however,
shows that the seawater frazil had quite a different behaviour from that
of fresh water frazil in a flow. In spite of the fact that the vertical
scale of Fig. 4 has been expanded to twice that of Fig. 2, an exercise
that should lead to the exaggeration of the spikiness of the recording,
the sharp spikes shown in Fig. 2 are conspicuously absent in Fig. 4.
From comparing the timewise expanded recording of the later part of Exp.
7 with the recordings in Fig. 3, one sees that in the fresh water flow,
frazil agglomerated into flocs and there were little individual frazil
crystals or low density clusters among the highly concentrated flocs.
Each time after a frazil floc has passed through the probe, the frazil
signal would fall back to more or less zero. Although for faster flows,
the frazil would form more but smaller flocs, the basic agglomeration
characteristic mentioned above remained the same and the cohesiveness of
the frazil flocs was clearly evident. This cohesiveness was not seen in
the seawater frazil. It is seen from Fig. 4 that the concentration
signal did not go to zero after the high concentration pulses, but fell
back to a finite value which increased with time. The above means that
sea water frazil did not form individually distinguishable clouds with
high cohesiveness, but a base flow of individual frazil crystals
suspended in the water and in the base fl ow the remai nder of the frazil
formed loose agglomerations. The agglomerations were formed more by the
interlocking of the frazil crystals than by fusing together as in the
case of fresh water frazil. The different cohes i veness of fresh water
frazil and the seawater frazil has been reported by Hanley and Tsang
(1984) •

From the temperature recording, the concentration of frazil in seawater

could be calculated. In Fig. 4, the calculated concentrations and twice
the calculated concentrations at various times are shown. It is seen
from Fig. 4 that the points of twice the calculated concentration fall
closely but slightly below the mean of the signal recording, meaning that
a calibration coefficient of a value slightly greater than two should be
used when USing the instrument to measure seawater frazi I.

108
FIELD MEASUREMENT OF FRAZIL IN RIVER

Although the frazil instrument was constructed for laboratory use, it was
nevertheless decided to use it to measure frazil in a river. The
Beauharnois Canal near f1lntreal was selected as the experimental river.
it is about 25 km long, 1 km wide, 9 m deep and carries a discharge of
about 7,100 m3 /s with a velocity of about 0.8 m/s.

Fig. 5 shows the 46 minutes of data taken near the bank. The velocity
there was estimated to be from 15 to 25 em/so A comparison of Fig. 5
with Figs. 2 and 3 immediately shows that frazil behave quite differently
in the field and in the 1 aboratory. For the field measurement, al though
the vertical scale of Fig. 5 has been expanded and the horizontal time
scale has been shrunk, a change that would accentuate the spikiness of
the recording, the sharp spikes that are shown in Fig. 2 are not seen in
Fig. 5. The frazil in the field, therefore, instead of agglomerating in­
to clouds of high density, coalesced into massive patches of low density.
It is also worth noting that the single peaked frazil agglomerations
shown in Fig. 3 are no longer seen in Fig. 5. Instead, the field frazil
patches showed a rather complicated areal distribution of frazil
concentration. The above is interesting because one would have thought
that the propeller action in the laboratory experiments would have broken
up the frazil agglomerations and hence led to less concentrted flocs and
more varied distribution of frazil in the flocs. Fig. 5 shows that the
di scharge of frazi 1 in the Beauharnoi s Canal was not cons tant, but in
waves of different intensities. The different periods of light, medium
and heavy di sch arges of frazil are i ndi cated in Fi g. 5. The hi ghest peak
concentration measured, without correction by the calibration
coefficient, was about 0.7 percent, and the mean concentration was about
0.25 percent. A very low concentration thus appeared to be a
characteristic of frazil in the field. A comparison of Fig. 5 with Fig.
4 shows that although both the recordings show high fluctuation of frazil
concentration, they are different in one major aspect that the
concentration curve in Fig. 5 periodically falls back to zero, indicating
the basic cohesive nature of fresh water and the absence of a
frazil/water base flow.

During the field experiment, abundant ice floes of frazil origin and
fractions of one centimeter thick were observed on the river surface.

109
 '~----------------------------------------------------.
---
'.... _11< _••• _
- ... -­ .--­
1_ _

I ~4,-------------~-.__.--.---------------------
.' H ' -------------,
~
l
;~
I.
~
L .or--­
A lit. - ­-
~ 0
- - - - - ­-,
lit­

.A.

Fig. 5. Frazil Measured in Beauharnois Canal

Therefore, 1arge quantity of surface ice floes can be formed even though
the concentration of frazil in the water is only a small fraction of one
perce nt. It may be added that even at such a low concentration, the
river would have a misleadingly thick appearance as evidenced during the
field experiment.

CONCLUSIONS

Using the newly developed frazil in s trument, the concentration of frazil

in flow water was measured in the laboratory for fresh water and seawater
under vari ous parametric condit ions. The concentrat ion of frazil was
also measured in the Beauharnois Canal near Montreal. Much information
on the agglomeration characteristics of fresh water and seawater frazil
was obtained from these laboratory and field experiments.

More work is needed for better understanding the behaviour of frazil in a

flow. A field progrifll is being planned for the winter of 1984/85 in the
St. Lawrence River. This field experiment should reveal more information
on the behaviour and characteristics of trazil in a river.

110
REFERENCES

Hanley, O'D.T. and Tsang, G., 1984. Formation and properties of frazil
in saline water. Cold Regions Science and Technology, Vol. 8, p.
209-221.
Tsang, G., 1984. An instrument for measuring frazil concentration.
Submit ted to Co ld Regions Science and Technology for possible
pub I ication.

111
STRUCTURES IN ICE

 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

B.W. Crumul, Sr. Vice President Arctec Canada Limited Canada

~ .E. Potter, I'Enager, Sy. Projects Sohio Petroleun Ccmpany U.S.A.
;(. N. \o.bod, Research Engineer Esse :<esources Canada Limited Canada
C. Callfort, !'rinci:::.al Eng:ineer Aretec Canada LiMited Canada

ABSW.cr

The hLg.'l cost of ex;lloration drilling iII the Canadian and U.S. Beaufort See rev-ons res led
CD the search for irmovative, econa;rical solutions to the ?rob161l of ?rovidir!:::; a stable
drilling ~latfonn. CI1e such solution might be the rubble-protectiOil conce,)t. 'Ire conce"t
relies on the stability of hrevily grounded ice rubble, as observed urewo:l the artificial
islands row in use, to provide protection a;jai.nst aoV6161ts of thick ice. It is bei.nJ
proposed for use in regions "hlch experience si3f1iiiaIDt HOV6161ts of thin ice after freeze­
tI? iJI1d then becafE landfast.

Field tes'"LS and ,rodel tests have :llaYcd a rrajor role in the current devcloil...~nt of this
COi1Ce,)t. This >G)er discusses the mdel tests condocted in 1~ arrl 1933 at 0,.0 different
scales, 1:11.5 end 1:5, and with Q,.o different r.odeling I.BterialS. 'Ire sraller scale tezts
.,ere coodocted usin::; synthetic mdel ice at the Aretec Canada LLctLted Calsary 00s:in and the
lar:;"," scale tests usinJ fclirle ice in the Esse Resources larze ootdoor b3sin. 'Ire ;riJ,ary
ODjectives of tl-e tests loeI'e, firstly, to develop a st:roctural coo£i3tJratiOl1 that I<.OUld
reliably break thin ice and cause it to ground; and , secondly, to develo) desi!Jl loads for
the stroctures and verify the stability of the grounded ice.

'Ire evoltItion of the structural layout is discussed, be-;;innin:; with the desi;:;n of the field­
tested stroctures re::;orted earlier. Resclts of both nodel test progr&'S are iJI"esented a;"ld
car~misons are ;;ade betv.een then. Finally, conclusions ere drawn about the reliability of
the CO!lCe:)t.

113
'Ire high cost of ex;Jloration driJ..l.in.5 in the Canadian and Alask8n PEaufort Sea regions res
led to tre study . of inmvative, wore econa,lical solutions to tre prob16l1 of ;:rr:oviding a safe
drillin3 platform. Observations of the rubole fields which forr.! around the artificial
islanis and c:aissJl islams currently being used, eE described by :<ry (1977) for exanrple,
and observatio>1S of rubble f€l3tures 3JUunded over seabed htmoocks, such as :<atie' s floeber3
(furrett and Strin5er, 1978) and at tre artificial island site Issungrnk by tI.o of tre
autlxlrs (see 9Unde and W3.rds, 1982), rave indicated that they rorain stable until after
brE6k-up. Trese observations led to tre concept of using heavily grounded ice rubble to
protect conventioilll dril.ll.nJ systers fran ercroac:hi.nG ice. 'Ire conce~t relies <Xl the
resistance of tre groumed rubble 'IBSS to withstand sheet ice 8l1d ?ressure ridse forces
durin3 the drillin,; period.

A cu.mber of recent studies rave been undertaken airred at develo?lnfl th:i.s conce~t for a~»)li­
catiOil in what is ar.rrooly called tre landfast region of tre Bmuiort. A si:;nificant
,x>rtion of th:i.s region is charccterizea by larse mve:elts of rela tively thi., ice followin3
freeze-up &-.:1 t:mn tre ice beca1J2s staole within thrre to four r:onths, ;>rior to reach:i.ng its
liaxiHll1ll thickness. 'Ire rislc of ",<counter with rulti -year features is less in this re3ion
tCan it is further offshore anci desi::1' criteria for ]j,;rited ~..csure a?ptications rave
tended to consider first-year ice conditions only . Trese ere all factors ,roch ;,light be
exr,-ected to contribute to tre eventual su:cess of tre conce",t.

'Ire develo;.nent studies to date rave been co<lducted in a nui1ber of sta3es. 'Ire first stage
took tre fonn of a prO'JIan of full-scale and nvdel-scale tests .roch was ciescribed by Potter
et a1 (1982). This lEper discusses the second stage of -ork in which the rertier IIDdel­
scale tests were extended and conducted at t'-O different scales lJSi,-,g tI.o different rrode1ing
;mteria1s.

In the first stage, t'-O tubular steel "dol)!lins", ballasted to act as gtavity-tr.e stroc­
tures, were deployed with an intercormecting floating boan in tre Alaskan Beaufort. Toe
loadin3 criteria for these structures was developed frOC! theoretical asseSffnents of rubble
fonation forces, such as :;i.ven by :~ (198J), frO] "Ddel test data as re~)()rted oy Abcielnour
(198J), and fron previous field ex:;;erience with a siJ,Iilar desisn re,x>r-ced by Ya:,aJUChi et cl
(1981). 'Ire s tructures were effective in causir>.:; tre early seaso;, St'-€et ice to fail in
fleJ<Ure and remained stable until break-up, but;.ere not aole to retain the broken ice to
initiate any si;Silificant rubble for,cation.

114
'Ire s:ale-;nodel tests in this ?rcY'J8f" Vlere f:irst validated with observations fran the field
test 8lld .ere then extended to study three different concepts for the design of the inter­
connecting toan. 'Ire tests were conducted in the ArctEC Canada Limited synthetic Hod-Ice
tasin in Calgary and srowed that this material was able to duplicate the cr'ack 12tterns,
failure modes and broken piECe sizes observed in the field. Ole of the toa" designs tested,
wf1ich consisted of free--hanging tutlliar rembers suspended from a horiwntal spanning between
the dol;:hlns, proved effective in inducing flexural and buci<li.ng tY;Je failures of the ice
sheet ",xi in preventins much of the broken ice fra" moving rest the li.,e of the boan.

With this initial su::cess, the second stage of deve1q:ment work, discussed rue, was under­
tak5l to ir,'prove the OOan desi::p end the design of the dol;JItins &a:1selves. Scale-<"odel
tests were selected as the primary evaluation tool in this develo;ment ;JHJOaI"8ffi, because of
the ability of this technique to re~roduce the co1!Qlex kinematic processes of interest. An
optimization study consistin3 of a series of snall-s:ale t ests in the Arctec Canada tasin
Io<lS first lmdertaken at a s:ale of 1: 11.5. 'Ire confi3lJTatio.' evolved fran this study was
then tested at a considerably lar3N scale of 1:5 using saline model ice in the Esso
Resources Canada lj.,ltited outdoor tasin in Calgary. 'Ire purpose of these large-scale tests
.as to verify the ice failure WlaviDur observed in the snall-s:ale tests and the sca1in3
relationshi;:tS used in developin3 full s:ale lead values frm measured test values.

'Ire ;rimary objectives of the s,mll-s:ale test ?rograrn were as follows:

(i) the developrnent of a structural confi3lJT3tion that would reliably fail early
season ice and cause it to 3ITJuml,
(ii) the evaluation of desi:sn loons for the structures, and
(iii) the evaluation of loads transnitted throlJ3h the structures to structures or
equi;ment iinmediately behind than.
A tl<.<) ;Jhase ;xogrBtn VIas undertaken in which the first ;:hase co:x:entrated on develojling the
structural confi3lJTation and the second ?hase on develo~ing desi3J1 looda as a function of
ice thickness and on assessing the extent of rubble growth. Five dol;lhi., designs and four
toa" variations were tested in the first phase. 'Ire most successful configuration was then
instnnented to r.1easure loods in the second ;:hase a"1d tested in t I<.<) ice thicknesses with
si&.JU.ficant exter.ts of ice movenent.

'Ire five dol;:hln desiJlS were prirrarily variations of the earlier field tested design. 'Ire
effect of leg spac.il\s, '"'Ye, and upbreaking or downbreakin~ ice failure action was studied.
Th2 OOaTI designs were variations of the floatin3 2lld free-han3in:; desiCjlS tested earlier c:nd

115
a new rigid desi:Jl llsing tutular manbers si;niler to tre dolphin members.
The second [.i1ase test 9Ct-up in the syntretic model icc rosin is shown in Fi~e 1. The
geanetric scaling ratio for &ese tests was 1:11.5. The structures ~e tested in full
E<:cle ice thicknesses of 0.2 r.I ami 0.5 m with full s:ale ;>lOVEI"ents of about 20J 1.1. The ice
stren~th was s:aled to reflect tre relatively wrek state that miGht be expected for youn:;,
first-yoo;r ice. /fod-Ice;.as selected as the IIodelinS material iJecause of its superior
elastic ,,,odulus/ flexural stren;sth ratio and c.ru.shing strength/flexural stren3th ratio when
COi,pared to urea or saline refri3erated model ice at this s:ale. &Jth of these factors ue
:im ;:.ort:a,t to tre correct 'flode1.ir(; of tre r.ulti-;rodal rubble-tuildin3 !Jrocess. The ?W;Jer­
ties of this material are described in Abdelnour GIld MerXln (1983) and :in Schultz and Free
(1SB'<).

F~'tlre 1. 3Tall-s:.ale test set-u;:> in the synthetic l'rn-ICE tasin.

Figure 2 shows i:re rubble pile formed at tre conclusion of tre test run in tre 0.5 m ice
thickness. The confi:suration tested we resulted in an initial ::ffise of flexural down­
breaking of tre pa!e,t ice s.'lcet which continued until tre broken pieces were ~ down-­
Io6rds sufficie.,tly to ground. Then a multi-modal :xocess of rubble--tuilding began, charac­
terized at tre be;;inninu by lI,JWard flexure as tre sh:et advanced over tre grounded pile,
then failure at the toe of the ;:>ile. This toe failure was usually followed by :;enetration
of tre sreet into tre pile with SQ,le downward flexure, which caUS2d lifting of tre sreet in
front of the toe and then a buckle--type failure. This sequence was then generally re;Jeated
wren tre advancing sreet would ride onto m: I:u:kled ;:>ieces as trey became incor;:.orated into
the;ille. The failures did mt s;:an the full width of the interaction zone rut tended to

116
occur within distinct boundaries, altfuugh &e boundary locations IoOl11.d vary with time.
Within these subregions, &e cycles were ::\e;Jerclly out of j:hase with roch other.

Figure 2. Grounded rubble formation after a:>proxiJaately 2CO);,

of ice sheet movenent full ocale.

1Pe structures were hi3hly effective in preventin3 &e broken ice i,>ieces from pa.ssirl:j
through and caused the oo.set of ;;rOlmdins at full s::a1e r,lOvenents of tY:Jically less than 1CXl
m. Th2 rubble that tren began to OOild piled to a hei3ht of about 4 to 5 m full s::a1e and
continued to exteIod outward from the stru:tures to the conclusim of the test.

1Pe measured loads were initially srrall during &e flexural downbreald.ng s tase and tre."1
begen to rise as the broken i,>i.eces started to foron a ;>ile--u~ and .ere bei.J13 forced down­
wards. CX1ce grounclin3 occurred, &e loads continued to rise as tJ"e multi-Ilrxlal ?I"ocess
described above took over, reac:1tin3 a · 'Strody state" c:llElracterized by cycles of j:El3ks of
varying am plitude.

1Pe peak and rrean lead values ,"easured are ~lott:L>d in dimensionless for.n in Figure 3. Th2
dimensionless grou[:S used are those s~ested by Alxlelnotrr- et al (1932) in which R is tJ"e
horizrntal load, Of is the ice flexural stretl3th. h is the ice thickness, a is the stnx:ture
width and 9. c is the ice sheet char2cteristic len::\th.

1Pe data sho'wn were taken fran selected portions of the load trace which were jud3ed to
represent sefEIClte events during &e course of &e test. For canrariSCll, values that rave
been sll6i!.ested by others for large-s:ale rid:;e-buildinS loads rave also been plotted. i1el­
lor (Ism) recently developed an equatioo for &e avera3e thrust to create a free-floating

117
ridge. Tre values 500"\1 were ca1culBted usin3 this equatioo nnd doubled to account for the
effects of friction wbich the r.odel i~res. Tre ranGe mown 00 the left side of the ?lot
was takert fra,} Croasdale (lSS'l) and re;Jresents a consolidation of predictiOl1S from various
sources for ice u;) to 2 ill thickIless. It mould be reaJ3l1ized that ~lese values have beel1
derived as averages over several kilanetres of ridge length.

'00 "l1tO HIGH

• PEAK VALUES
• MEAN VALUES
.. X MELLOR

1;.
.
10'0

~
.. "
'" LOW

••
8~lC
10
"
.
Figure 3. D:inensionless ice load on do1;m., and 00an stru:ture
- small-scale synthetic rrode1 ice tests.

The su:cess of these snall-scale tests in deve1orin;; a structural configuration and ,=vid­
i.."1g Ired estinates tJ-en led to an extended tes~ program at a significantly lar;;er scale.
The objectives of this ;>rogram >!ere:
(i) verificatiou of the failure mec:hanisn s and rubble ::,eoretries observed in the
mall--s:.ale tests,
(li) verification of the load predictions made from the small--s:.ale tests,
(iji) a ssessnent of the Ired transfer through the grounded rubble and the structures to
the ice sheet behind the stru:tures,
( iv) assessrent of the influence of water de;Jth,
(v) investigation of the ;:erfOH]ance of a modified piled coilfi.:;uration, and
(vi) investigation of the ;:erfon.1G/lce of the sttuctures under conditions of oblique
ice mOVEment.

Field tests were considered as an altemative, rut the s::zle testing ap)roach was a.?filll sel­
ected because of the greater de->Jee of control ?rovided over test conditions, b~ ability to
test at a scale i..,ter,nediate between that of the ~revious s;1all-scale tests and full scale,
and significantly redu:ed costs.

118
'Ih2 test set-tr,l, in the Ess:> Resources Camda outdoor resin, is srown in Figure 4. 'Ih2
dol;:Xrin and lxxn confi:}lTEtion selected froo the snall--s:a1e tests was mounted on a load
table "hich provided rneasurElnents of vertical :;roundin:; forces, total oorizontal ice load,
and load in the ice sheet behind the stru:ture. Beside this table, a se:9T1ent of the boon
was mounted on ~iles instrunented to measure horizontal and vertical loads. Il=eper water
versions of these t \;Q confi3Uffitions >ere placed in the rema:ini.rl6 half of the resin. 'Ih2
dee;>er water piled boon mooel was also instrumented, but not the dol;fu.n r.JooeL

Ficiure 4. Large-scale test set--ll? in Esse :~urces Canada saline ice lEsin.

'Ih2 geanetric scale of these tests was 1: 5. Four ice sheets, which varied in thickness fran
0.25 to 0.5 m full scale, were grown and pulled against the models. 'Ih2 sheets varied in
length fra:\ about 100 to 15) ,n full scale. 'Ih2 ice stren:;th was scaled to approxilffite1y the
salle ran:se as was selected for the earlier sr,ull--s:a1e tests. Salt was used as the dopin:s
fll3teria1 for pre;mation of the ice and the sheet was allowed to freeze naturally wi\:l'£)ut
refrigeration. This ,nethod is sir.Jilar to that used in ;xevious :Jrograms conducted in this
basin and has been discussed in :lobbins et al (1975).

Wrin:; the conduct of the tests, the failure of the advancinz ice sheet wa.s recorded on 16
,TIn fiLn and video and both abovewater and underWBter surveys ;.ere carried out at the conclu­
sion of each of the fOiL[ sheet runs. Tl1e rubble Vias left in 7lzce in front of the stru:­
tures after each nm and it was allQ\'.ed to consolidate as each following ice sheet was
grown. Prior to each test, the ice iJll;,lediate1y in front of the toe of the "ile-u7 was
broken to siJnulzte the tidal cr&ck that ;,li:?,ht be eJ<?eCted to occur in the field.

119
Fi';'>Ure 5 sro.s the rubble fonned in front of the structures after the fourth sPeet tad been
run. TI-e failure ",odes observed :in the rms were very sim ilar to those observed :in the
snail-scale tests and described :in the previous sectim. As:in those tests, the structures
were very effe.c:tive :in ?r<xiuclllg ~und:iJ,g and caused a sioni ficant :;rowth of rubble in less
tlnl 'JJ) ;.0 of ice sheet moveocnt full scale.

-­
F:i{,ure 5. Grounded rubble for.nati.on at the conclusion of the fourth test sheet.

Fi;;ure 6 sro.s a dimensionless plot of the sail hei3hts :in front of the two structure ty;:leS
against ice sheet f,Dveuent. i's is the sail hei30'1t, D is the water de;Jth, L is the distance
of ice sheet HDvelrellt, and I.{; is the distance of ice sheet mov6Olent wren gro~ first:
occurred and rubble-ruild:ing started. TI-e two grOlQinJS of curves represent the t 1.0 water
depths :investigated in the tests. TI-ese data a~pear to indicate thst a l:iJ"niting value for
the sail height tad tJee" reached durin; the tests. Sail hei~ts were 00 u'1e order of 4 to 5
m full scale, which ccrn~:ares quite c.l.a;ely with the hei:-)1ts ~redicted froa the 9i1ail-scale
tests.

Fi"aure 7 ffiows the gowth outwards frO'l tile stroctures of the 3rDtmded region as a function
cr the distance of sheet J,10V6OleJlt, where XG is the width of the 3I"ounded keel at the bott:crn.
Values are full scale. As:in the s;,ElI-scale tests, grOtmding occurred first after about
100 to 1:D m of ice sPeet mOVEment full scale. 'Ile data sOOw the influence of water depth
pnjuarily, as indicated by the slo?eS of tile fitted lines. TI-e lines represent::ing the
shailo.ler water depth structures are essentially jl3I"alle1 while ti"'e one for the deeper water
piled strocture sro.s a sJElier slo?", as might be e.'QeCted.

120
 1.0 25 I 1.-,

...
0.1 ,. +,0 DOLPHIN AND BOOM STRUCTURE

X, [;) PILED BOOM STRUCTURE

0.7

0.'
"
K
~ 0.'
~

0.' 10

0.3

.+, 0 DOLPHIN AND BOOM STRUCTURE

0.2
X, [;) PILED BOOM STRUCTURE

0.1

1.0 ~o 3.0
UL, 100 :zoo 300
~ml

Fi5ure 6, Dii,l2l1Sionless sail reight as a f unctioo of the Fi:;'lire 7. Extent of grourrled zolle as a functioo of the
3 tDunt of ice nOVElrent - . large-scale tests . mount of ice liDvare.lt - large-scale tests .

i':?
As ;.as observed in tle sllnll--scale tests, tle J'lcasured leads 00 tle structures were init­
ially sHall durin;:; the flexural do.,,-brroking stage of the ice sheet failure and then rose
to reach a steady-stnte during tle multi-modal foilure stage of rubble-building. Ho signi­
ficant diiferences were a;>;.arent between the loads measured 00 eoch of the t-o structure
tnes. Figure 8 sh<:>.Is tle mean horizontal lead measured against cl>2 dolphin and lxxm
strocture 00 the load table. The data points rqresent averc3es fmn ;nrtions of cl>2 record
selocted wren steady stutc md been rffiChed.

100
• MEAN VALUES

"
~60
£ ./"
40

" . I

.'.
10

, . . ."". " " .

Fi gure 8. Di;nensionless ice load 00 dol ;>hin and boan strocture
- large-sca1e saline ice tests.

It was apfBI"ent fron the r,rosure:rents Oladc ixhi nd the structures that the structures and cl>2
grounded rubble were very effective in transferrL"8 the ice sheet lmds into the foundation,
rather than through the consolidated zone into the sheer behind. Ty:Jically, a relatively
snall percentage of the measured ridge-buildinci lead was transnitted.

4. DISaJSSIO'I CF RESULTS

Very ;;ood agreanent \o6S observed betvieen d le two test ?rogr8fl\s in terms of the ice failure
rrechanisns, the disccnce of ice sheet rrover.ent needed to ?rodoce grounding, the gemetry of
the rubble 3IOunded in front of the strucLures, and the ?redicted ice loads. A cOl1;artson
of the fit liDes dr<lWn throu:sh the mean Iced values pre"-B1ted in fi::;ures 3 and 8 is shown in
Figure 9 and da,1Qnstrates the very close correlation at the two s:a1es.

122
This close a3I""ff"ent in results provides a high level of confidence that &e tests ere
representative of what "'i@lt be expected to occur in the field. 'Ire scal..ing relationshi;:>s
used to develop full scale values fron &e test measurements can alro be used with increased
confidence and extra~lOlations of results beyond the test conditions can be made with sane­
what less risk.

. - LOAO ON DOLPHIN AND BOOM STRUCTURE ­

LARGE-5CALE TESTS
--LOAD ON DOLPHIN ANO BOOM STRUCTURE­
SIIA1.L-$CALE TESTS

10 1<1

Figure 9. Dii1l2nsionless ice lood can::ariroil-smll-scale and lar:se-scale tests.

To-e follo.ring general observations are made about &e test prograns:
(i) the tests reve shown quite conclusively tha'C either of the final structure con­
fi3'-ll"tions is C8;:able of initiatinJ a rather heavily grotmded rubble field iil
early season ice conditioilS,
(ii) 8S illustrated in Fi;s--ure 3, the loads ex;>ected to be carried by &e st.ru:tures
are =nfl9rable in rnagnitule to estimates made of lar:se-scale ridge-building
forces, and
(iii) the tests have shown that the coobination of stm::ture GIld ;srotmded rubble can
significantly reduce loods on an installation located behind it.

Each of these ;x>ints su~;X)rts &e feasibility of the rubble-protection concept. A major
additional consideration in evaluatin3 a prrticular application is &e degree of protection
provided by the rubille a:sainst wte winter ice movanents whei1 the ice is a,Y;rr-oaching its
,lBlCilnu" thicJmess. If extensive rubble forms in &e ;>eriod before tl-e area becanes land­
fast, wte winter loads mi;sht not be ex.:JeCted to be a concerrL r!c",ever, if landfast condi­
tions occur early on, tren &e extent of grOl.mded ruoble Clay be quite li;nited and &e rub0le
'nOuld be tmable to generate sufficient resistance to talance these late winter loads.

123
This dejl€Ildercy OIl early srescn ice movenents, I>hlch are highly variable by nature, is a
;:.r.oblEJil that is be:ing doolt "ith in the next stE1a<>e of deve1o;me.1t. 'Ire focus of this work
has hero the ada[ltstial of spra}'ir€ technology to provide a metlxxl of augnenting the rubble
fiBSS 1oh2n this is required. Potter et ,al (1<x34), in an =;:en}'in6 lEper, provide more
details about full-scale experiments c.ondocted over this ;:est winter.

In corx:lusion, the s:ale model tests have provided COnsiderable confideoce that grounded
rubble masses can be soccessfully initiated imd that they can be effective in protecting
offstnre installations fran m:ounters with first-year ice. As field experieoce is gained
frao full-ecale tests am fran the mooitoring of grotrrled features, such as the ice ;:ads row
being used as relief well platfoms, abetter tnderstanding will be developed of the full
requirements for the soccessful application of this technology. It is also expected that
this experieoce will derronstrate the economies to be gain2d :L1 canp3rison with current
practice am that it will lead to many ideas for fur&er a;Jplications of the concept.

'Ire authors wish to thank SOOio Petroleun and Esoo Resources Canada far ili2ir !JeIT.Iission to

:>Jblish this ;:aper. furing the conduct of the work, Arctec Canada Limited am S\oaI1 Wooster
Engineering collaborated closely on the deve1of.lll2Ilt of the stroctural configurations tested.

Abdelnour, R., lseJ. I'bdel tests of an icebreaki.n3 ioclined !)lane strocture. Can. Soc. Civil
Fng. Conf., WinniF€l5, Carada.
Abdelnour, R. am ~ B., 1983. thysical siaulation of Arctic marine stroctures. Sixth
Can. Hydrotechnical Conf. of the CD'., OttsW'!, 03rnda.
AlxIelnour, R., Sayed, M. Metge, M., 1982. Ice ricJeu;;> on a ITBIl-fiBde island. Offstnre Tech­
nology Conference, Hoostm, Texas.
Perrett, S.A. and Stringer, W.J~ 1978. Growth mechanisms of '~\atie's Floebeqf. Arctic and
Alp:ire Research, Vol. 10, No.4, p. 775-7'03.
Croasdale, K.R., 1%'1. 'Ire limiting drivin3 force ap;rooch to ice loads. Offshore Technology
Conference, lbustm, Texas.
:<ry, P.R., 1977. Ice rubble fields in the vicinity of artliicial islands. FIJ.IC 1977, St.
John's, Carada.
:<ry, P.R. , lseJ. Ice forces on wide stroctl1reS. Can. Geotech. J., Vol. 17, p. 97-113.
Mellor, M., 1983. Mocffinical bel-avicur of see ice. U.S. Army ooa Vrnogra~ 8}-1.

124
Potter, R.E, Reid, Dl.., fu.x::e, J.e., Noble, P.G., 1~ ~veloprrent and field teSting of a
Beaufort Se3 ice boan. Offshore Teclmology Conference, Houstm, Texas.
Potter, R.E., Broce, J.e., Allyn, N., 1~4. Rubble protection - an alternative to Arctic
exploratim. IAHR, Hamburg, Gernany.
Robbins, R.J. et al, 1975. Techniques for the study of ice/strocture interaction. ffi\C 75,
Fairtanks, Alaska.
Schultz, L.A., and Free, A.P., 1<;64. Recent experieoce in condocting nodel tests of ice­
worthy shir:s and offshore structures in synthetic nodel ice. lAHR, Hamburg, Germany.
Shinde, S.B. and Wards, R.D~ l~ Ice rubble field stability. Offshore Technology Con­
ference, HoustC1\ Texas.
Yamaguchi, T., Yoshida, H., Yashida, N., Ando, M., 1~ l. Fie ld test stuiy of pack i ce
barrier. FDAC 1~1, Q,Jebec, Caroda.

125
 WlR lee Symposium 1984

Hamburg

RESPONSE STUDIES OF CONCRETE SHELL PANEL MODELS

TO SIMULATED BERGY-BIT IMPACT

M. Arockiasamy Faculty of Engineering Canada

A.S •J. Swamidas and Applied Sci~nce

D. Hamlyn Memorial University

K. Munaswamy St. John's, Newfoundland

ABSTRACT
The paper reports an experimental study carried out on fibre/plain
reinforced concrete cylindrical panels to determine their impact
resistance against simulated bergy-bit impact. Two fibre-reinforced
concrete and two plain-reinforced concrete panels were tested in a
Universal Testing Machine (UTM) against a suddenly applied load from the
loading rams of the machine. It was found that the fibre reinforced
concrete panel was 1.65-1.70 times stronger (ultimate failure load) than
the plain reinforced concrete panel. The deformation of the
fibre-reinforced concrete panel was found to be considerable before
ultimate failure.

127
 INTRODUCTION
Concrete gravity structures have been constructed in the Arctic and
sub-Arctic regions and other similar structures have been proposed for
oil and gas exploration/production for the Hibernia region, in the
eastern coast of Canada. Gravity-based concrete structures are
particularly more attractive to offshore areas such as the Hibernia
region, where, in addition to extreme winds and waves, one encounters
sheet ice, annual ridges, rubble fields, multi-year ridges, ice island
fragments, icebergs and bergy-bits. When these ice features COme into
contact with the outer shell of a gravity structure, either as direct
collision or as a slow quasi-static ice-field pressure, very high
dynamic steady-state/trsnsient concentrated loads are applied to the
structure. When concrete structures are required to carry large dynamic
loads, ductile fibre reinforced concrete having a high crack arresting
property, fatigue resistance and resilience has been invariably used
instead of plain reinforced concrete. Hence an effort was made to
determine the impact resistance of plain/fibre reinforced concrete
panels (constituting the outer panel walls of a gravity platform)
against suddenly applied loads.
STATE-OF-THE-ART
Emphasis on effective utilization of structural materials has
stimulated an active interest in methods of replacing brittle msterials
by the use of fibre cements and fibre concretes possessing increased
toughness, impact/fatigue resistance and resilience. Research has shown
that the inclusion of glass, steel or other fibres can improve
considerably the strength and durability characteristics of concrete.
After extensive tests on plain and fibre reinforced concretes,
Ramakrishnan et al. (1981), ACI Committee (1978), Hibbert (1979) and
Schupack (1982) have concluded that fibre reinforced concrete has
comparable durability and better strain capacity, ultimate modulus at
rupture, toughness index and impact (cracking snd ultimate) resistance
than plain reinforced concrete.
Gerwick and Venuti (1979) and Gerwick, Litton and Reimer (1981)
have examined the effects of low cycle fatigue and high concentrated ice
l oads on the resistance of reinforced/prestressed concrete panels. They
concluded that (i) low-cycle high amplitude loads cause more damage than
high-cycle low amplitude loads, (ii) failure under heavy concentrated
loads is produced by a combination of flexural and shear stresses; while

128
bending results in cracking the final failure occurs in punching shear,

and (iii) provision of adequate longitudinal and transverse

through-like-thickness reinforcement or transverse prestressing'

increases the resistance of the panels.

Addition of fibres increases the resistance of concrete to absorb

strain energy at impact. Hughes (1981) carried out tests on
impact-resistance of fibre-reinforced prestressed concrete beams and
stated that the increased resistance of fibre reinforced concrete was
due to the stretching and pulling out of the fibres; adequate bonding
between the concrete mix and the fibres increases the impact resistance.
Three types of impact tests have been carried out on plain/fibre
reinforced concrete beams/shells, viz., (i) drop weight, (ii) swinging
'pendulum snd (iii) rotating impact tests, by Hughes and Beeby (1981),
Hughes and Watson (1978), Jamrozy snd Swamy (1979), Dellaripa (1982),
Furness and Amdahl (1980) and Radomski (1981); these test results also
indicate the high impact resistance of fibre reinforce concrete. Suaris
and Shah (1982, 1983) state thst steel fibre reinforced concrete absorbs
20 to 100 times the impact energy absorbed by plain concrete and that
the modulus of rupture increases with impact strain rates. Mindess
(1980) and Hi1lerborg (1980) used linear elastic and elasto-plastic
fracture mechanics concepts to investigate the crack initiation and
propagation under impact loads.
Sorenson (1976) reviewed the analytical approaches available for
evaluating the static behaviour and impsct response of reinforced snd
prestressed concrete tubes. Experimental results of static loading on
two reinforced concrete tubes showed that punching shear dominated.
Brakel et al., (1979) carried out static loading of concrete cylinders
while trying to determine whether the vertical shafts of a concrete
gravity platform would be damaged by the collision of s ship; they
stated that the ship would be crushed rather than the concrete shaft.
Since nO detailed work has been reported on the dynamic nonlinear
behaviour of fibre reinforced concrete cylindrical panels, which are
likely to be the predominant structural elements of a possible type of
gravity structure to be used in Hibernia (Fig. 1), a study was
undertaken to determine the impact resistance of panels. The
experimental results of the study are reported in this paper.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Dimensional Analysis and Structural Modelling: Although complete

129
 stmilarity is desirable in the structural modelling, this presents
practical difficulties in the choice of model materials for maintaining
true similarity. In the present study a practical true model was
designed for predicting the primary behaviour of the shell panel forming
part of the prototype gravity structure. The governing equation for
dimensional analysis is given by
F(o,E, t,T,v,P,x,p,I,h, ,R,!, '!2 )=0
where a is the stress in the panel, E the Young's modulus of concrete,
t the time, T the total duration of applied transient load, v the impact
velocity, x the displacement, p the mass density, I the moment of
inertia, hi' the thickness of panel, R the radius of curvature of
cylindrical shell panel, !, the length of one side of panel and !2 the
length of other side of panel. The scale factors obtained from the
dimensional analysis are given in Table 1. The local effects due to
stress in reinforcing steel, elastic modulus of reinforcing steel, bond
stress, area of reinforcing steel, volume of fibres, nonlinear
behaviour, etc., were neglected in the modelling.
Table 1: Scale Factors for Reinforced Concrete Model

Scale Factors
Quantity
True Model Practica l Model
(used in the study)

Concrete stress, a -2
no · npnx

Modulus of concrete, E -2
~=npnx

Mass density, p 2 -4
np=npnt nx

Linear dimension, ! n!-n x n

4
Moment of inertia, I nI=n x

Displacement, x nx n

Concentrated load, P np
-1
Impact velocity, v nv==nxnt

Time, t n

am Em xm Pm Pm tm
, n n n
no ~
0- ~ ~ Ep , n x
P xp P Pp P Pp tp
!m 1m vm Lm
nR. r p , ":r Ip' n
v V'
p
n =(L)
p

130
Model Fabrication: One of the outer wall panels of the gravity platform
shown in Figs. I, 2, and 3 was chosen as the basic prototype. A
geometric scale of 1/30 was chosen for fabricating the model and the
detailed structural dimensions are given in Fig. 4. After fabricating
the framework of the shell panel of mild steel plates, casting of the
panel was done in two stages, viz., (i) edge beams and end traverses,
and (ii) the cylindrical shell panel. As a whole four panels were cast,
two made of fibre reinforced concrete (FRC) and the other two of normal
reinforced concrete ~RC). Mix design was done based on a compressive
strength of 35 MFa (PCA, 1979). An optimum fibre volume of 1% was
chosen based on experimental data [Jamrozy and Swamy (1979), Edgington
(1973) and Dellaripa (1982)]. After a few trials, the mix proportion by
weight was chosen as follows:
Coarse aggregate 1.77 Cement 1.0
Fine aggregate 1.83 Water 0.45
Super-plasticizer 3 litres/l00 kg of cement Fibres 0.17
The fibres used were hooked-end, brass-coated steel fibres, 30 mm in
length and of nominal diameter 0.4 mm. The superplasticizer, MelmontR
was used to increase the workability of the fresh mix without increasing
the water-cement ratio. The mix proportion for PRC panels were also the
same save the super-plasticizer and fibres. Laboratory tests on fine and
coarse aggregates and the steel fibres gave the following results:
Coarse aggregate(10mm): Fine aggregate(6 mm):
Dry rodded bulk density 1832 kg/m 3 Fineness modulus 3.06
Relative density 2.55
Steel fibres: Density 7.64 g/cm 3
Besides the steel fibres, conventional steel reinforcement was used
in the edge beams, end traverses and the shell panel. 4 bars of 3.70 cm
diameter were used in the edge beams and end tranverses along with
stirrups at a spacing of 90 mm. Steel mesh of wire diameter 2 . 80 mm at
a spacing of 50XSO mm was used in the cylindrical panel and adequate
care taken to ensure continuity of reinforcements of the panel and the
edge beams traverses. In addition, steel bars of 2.80 mm diameter were
provided at 45° to the edges in all the four corners of the panel.
After carefully mixing in the drum mixer so that no clumping of fibres
takes place, the panel was cast using the steel formwork. Specimen was
cured, along with the cylinders, using saturated burlap. The cast shell
panel is shown in Fig. 5.

131
 CONCRETE • CAiSSON' CONCEPT

c---:.--.:.5

DRILL SHAFT
PROTECTIVE -':":'f---i~~n
BARR IER

OIL STORAGE .

ANNULUS '

... ..
.... :.: -, -:- ._
_.

Fiej. I.

MORIZONTAL CROSS SECTION OF CONCRE TE CAISSON

VERTlCAL CROSS SECTIOH BARRIER

OF
CX)NCRETE CAISSON

10 WATER FI'LLED
ANNULUS
1.6

o 6-n-- ____""'1r

I
DfM . IN "TRS.
64
120
FiQ . Z.

Fig. , .

132
Instrumentation and Testing: The models were instrumented with six sets
of 45° strain gauge rosettes, both on the top and the bottom. In
addition to strains, displacement and applied load were monitored (using
an LVDT and a load cell) using a 16 channel automatic data acquisition
system. The load was applied hydraulically using a Tinius Olsen's
Universal Testing Machine of 1.335 MN capacity, taking care to see that
the initial preload was small and the same for all tests.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Of the four panels tested, two were made of fibre reinforced
concrete (FRC) while the other two were made of plain reinforced
concrete (PRC). The maximum loads obtained were compared with the loads
obtained using other empirical formulae, and given in Table 2. It is
observed that there is a close agreement with the plain reinforced
concrete for the formulation of Brakel et al. (1979) whereas the
formulation of Caldwell and Billington (1981) gives a value clo~er to
fibre reinforced concrete. The 28-day (and over) compressive strengths
of fibre and plain reinforced concrete cylinders (average of 6 tests for
each panel) were found to be respectively, 42.20 MPa and 39.52 MPa.
Thus owing to the increased ductility and stiffness provided by the
addition of fibres, the ultimate strength of reinforced concrete panels
increases considerably.
Fig. 6 shows that the load vs. time characteristics of the applied
impact loads on FRC and PRC panels differ considerably for the same
opening of the hydraulic valves (in the UTM, the valves were opened
completely); the load cell measured indirectly the losd experienced by
the panel. I t is observed that the fibre-reinforced concrete panel
sustained 1.65-1.70 times the load resisted by a plain reinforced
concrete panel. Fig. 7 gives the load vs. transverse displacement (of
the panel) curves of the four tested panels. While the load-deformation
characteristics of the plain-reinforced concrete panels follow one
another very closely in the pre-ultimate load range, the load
deformation characteristics of the fibre-reinforced concrete panels
differ considerably. One possible reason for this difference in FRC
panel behaviour could be attributed to the monolithic behaviour of the
FRC H2 panel (due to proper bonding between the edge beam and the
panel) and the insufficient bond length of the reinforcing steel in FRC
II panel (Fig. 8). The edges were properly tied in for the plain
reinforced concrete panels (as well as for FRC In) as shown in Fig. 9.

133
 - ,

Poi...

(D,
_.
Co- o,d lnat..

O,l) (O,O,~O)
I D, 0 , 0) (0, D, 0 I
I ~. 0, Ol (400,0 , 0)
t 96, D, 21 (400, 0 . !IO 1
( ~ . 16. Z I (400.4<XI.!:IOJ
I tfi, 16, 0) 1.-00,400,01
( 0,1&. 0) (0,400,01
«0,1&, ZI C O,400.~1
Fig . 5 FRC s he ll panel

,.
PRe , PIo'fI ..... fof* tlloflettl.
f ....c• •••
'.' rR C · f Ib •• ~. lfI lo.-c.ed

PIO", t,In"""e.d cowe,."

!! 'RC : Fa, ";"f"'- CCIrCf'h

]
.. PRe "
- - ­ - -----fR(:'Z

00
,."C·I
0 10 30 ' .0 OJ)

~ (--)

F"';' 6 l.Dod .... tntDry (~ a~ load) .

Fig .. 8 Fa ilure o f FRC 111 at th e junc tion betwe e n edge

beam and panel.
134
 Table 2: Comparison of Failure Loads from Experiment with Empirical Formulae

Ultimate failure loads of concrete panels(N)

Particulars
Fibre reinforced concretelPlain reinforced concrete

Panel 1: 66,750.0 N Panel 1: 37,233.0

1. Experimental values
Panel 2: 69,528.4N Panel 2: 40,715.8

2. Formula due to Brakel et al. (1979)

PU=2010203 f thn(al+hn)
43,885.8 42,467.8
[ft=tensile strength of concrete (° =1.15) (° =1.15)
=7.5/f'c 1 1
f'c=compressive strength of concrete
h n= thickness of panel to the reinforcement]

3. Formula due to Caldwell and Billington (1981)

58,657.7 56,764.6
Pbr=2.92ksktkphn(a+hn)/f' c

4. Formula due to Jenson (1979>

P f=N c ( c+a ' tan~ ) bh 145,476.0

[C=cohesion of concrete: a'=eff. normal

stress at failure line; bh=impact area
W
01
 It should also be noted (Fig. 7) that the fibre-reinforced concrete
panels deform considerably before failure than PRC panels. At first the
edge beams developed cracks in between or at the ends of one side; this
was followed by partly separating cracks at the intersection of the edge
beams and shell. Thereafter the corner and edge cracks developed in the
top panel. Finally the loading platen punched through the panel,
pulling apart the concrete below the reinforcements in the panel, as
shown in Fig. 10. The same behaviour has been reported earlier by
Gerwick, et al. (1981).
Fig. 11 shows the load vs strain characteristics of two points in
FRC #1. It is seen that the ultimate compressive bending strains in the
fibre-reinforced concrete panels were of the order of 2000-3000 p£. It
is also observed that the strains at the center of the panel reached a
value equal to four times the strain at maximum load, indicating the
beneficial effect of the fibre reinforcements at the bottom.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Dean Dr. G. R. Peters and Associate
Dean, Dr. T. R. Chari of the Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science,
and Dr. I. Rusted, Vice President for their continued interest and
active support. The support of this investigation by the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Grant Al799 and Esso
Resources of Canada is gratefully acknowledged. Grateful acknowledge
is due to Levinia Vatcher for the careful typing of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
ACI - 544, 1978, '"Measurement of properties of fiber reinforced
concrete", ACI Journal, July, pp. 283-289.
Brakel, J., Reinhardt, H. W., and Oostlander, L. J., 1979, "Concentrated
loadings on a thick walled concrete cylinder", Proc. of the
International Symposium on Offshore Structures, COPPE, Federal Univ.
of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, October, pp. 171-187.
Caldwell, D., and Billington, C. J., 1981, '"Major ship collision damage
to the prestresed concrete cylinder towers of offshore gravity
structures", Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on
Integrity of Offshore Structures, July 1-3, University of Glasgow,
Scotland, (Ed. D. Faulkner, M. J. Cowling and P. A. Frieze), pp.
339-361.
Dellaripa, F. D., 1982, '"Impact capacity of undersea fibre reinforced
concrete closed shell structures", M.Sc. thesis, University of
Florida, Gainesville, August, 76 pp.
Edgington, J., 1973, "Steel fibre reinforced concrete", Ph.D thesis,

University of Surrey, Dept. of Civil Engineering, October.

Furnes, 0., and Amdahl, J., 1980, "Computer simulation study of offshore
collisions and analysis of ship-platform impacts", Applied Ocean
Research, Vol. 2, No.3, pp. 119-127.

136
"Fig. 9 Failure 0" plain reinforced concrete panel

Fig. 10 Punching shear failure and pulling apart

of concrete below

~~~~~~~~~~~~t.r ___ •
'4 2D ,..... I

137
 Gerwick, Jr., B. C" and Venuti, W. J., 1979, 'lIigh-and-low-cycle

fatigue behaviour of prestressed concrete in offshore structures",

Proceedings of XIth Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas,

May, Paper No. 3381, pp. 207-212.

Gerwick, Jr., B.C., Litton, R. W., and Reimer, R. B., 1981, ''Resistance
of concrete walls to high concentrated ice loads", Proceedings· of XIII
Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, Texas, May 4-7, Paper No. OTC
4111, pp. 425-436.
Hibbert, A. P., 1979, ''Impact resistance of fibre concrete", Report from
the Construction Materials Research Group, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, U.K., July.
Hillerborg, A., 1980, "Analysis of fracture by means of the fictitious
crack model, particularly for fibre reinforced concrete", The
Construction Press Ltd., London.
Hughes, B. P., and Watson, A. J., 1978, "Compressive strength and

ultimate strain of concrete under impact loading", Magazine · of

Concrete Research, Vol, 30, No. lOS, December, pp. 189-199.

Hughes, B. P., 1981, 'Uesign of prestressed fibre reinforced concrete

beams for impact", ACI Journal, Technical Paper No. 78-25, July-Aug
pp.276-281.
Hughes, G. and Beeby, A. B., 1981, "I nvestigation of the effect of

impact loading on concrete beams", Structural Engineer, 8 pp.

Jamrozy, Z., and Swamy, R. N., 1979, ''Use of fibre reinforcement for

impact resis tance and machinery foundat ions", The International

Journal of Cement Composites, Vol. I, No.2, July, pp. 65-75.

Jensen, J. J., 1979, "Impact of falling loads on submerged concrete

structures", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Offshore

structures held at COPPE, Federal Univ. of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil,

October, Vol. I, pp. 215-231.

Mindess, S, 1980, ''rhe fracture of fibre reinforced and polymer

impregnated concretes", The Construciton Press Ltd., London.

Portland Cement Association (PCA), Ottawa, Canada, 1979, 'Uesign and

Control of Concrete Mixtures", Metric Edition.

Radomski, W" 1981, "Application of the rotating impact machine for

testing fibre reinforced concrete", International Journal of Cement

Composites and Lightweight Concrete, Vol. 3, No.1, February, pp.

3-12,

Ramakrishnan, V., Coyle, W. V., Kulandaisamy, V., and Schrader, E. V.,

1981, ''performance characteristics of fiber reinforced concretes with
low fiber contents", ACI Journal, Technical paper No. 78-35,
Sept.-Oct., pp. 388-394.
Roland, B., Olsen, T. 0., and Skaare, E., 1982, "Ship impact on concrete
shafts", Proceedings of the European Petroleum Conference, London,
Oct. 25-28, Paper No. EUR 305, Vol. I, pp. 269-276.
Schupack, M., 1982, 'Uesign of permanent seawater structures to prevent
deterioration", Concrete International, March, pp. 19-27.
Sorenson, K. A., 1976, "Behaviour of reinforced and prestressed concrete
tubes under static and impact loading", Proc. I International
Conference on Behaviour of Offshore Structures, Norwegian Institute of
Technology, Trondheim, Norway, pp. 798-813.
Suaris, W., and Shah, S. P., 1982, "Strain-rate effects in
fibre-reinforced concrete subjected to impact and impulsive loading",
Journal of CompOSites, April, pp. 153-159.
Suaris, W" and Shah, S. P., 1983, ''properties of concrete subjected to
impact", Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 109, No.7, July,
pp. 1727-1741.

138
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984
IA
•
Hamburg

MODEL FOR PREDICTING GLOBAL ICE LOADS ON WIDE ARCTIC OFFSHORE

STRUCTURES DURING IMPACTS OF SUMMER MULTI-YEAR ICE FLOES

DENIS BLANCHET, M. Sc. DOME PETROLEUM LIMITED CANADA

RESEARCH ENGINEER

MICHEL METGE, Ph. D. I.S.E. ENGINEERING CANADA

PRESIDENT LTD.

Abs tran
ThIs paper deals wIth a new formulatIon of a mathematIcal model for the
predIctIon of global Ice loads due to Impacts of multI-year Ice floes on
a cIrcular offshore structure durIng summer loadIng events. A
statIstIcal Ice load model, usIng the concept of zones fIrst developed
by Kry (197B), has been modIfIed to take Into account a lImIted
penetratIon of the floe by the structure ("lImIt momentum").

The model also Includes the effect of several parameters on th r

effective Ice pressure such as the Ice thIckness, the local contact,
fle xural failure and the general state of the Ice floes (temperature,
type of Ice, Quality, etc . .. ). The lImitatIons and sensitIvity of the
model to the major parameters affectIng the effectIve Ice pressure are
also dIscussed.

1. IntrQd~ct~qn

The experIence gaIned sInce the fIr s t exploratIon Island has shown that
one of the major rIsks assocIated with offshore structures located In
Ice covered waters Is the dynamIc Impact of multI-year floes. SInce for
long - life structures such as productIon Islands the rIsk of multl·year
floe Interactions durIng the summer Is hIgh, a model was developed ttl
calculate the probabIlIty of exceedence of a gIven load level durIng any
s Ingle Impact or durIng the lIfe of a partIcular offshore structure.

ThIs type of Interaction Is better defined as "lImit momentum" when the

full envelopment of the structure Is not reached for a partIcular

139
1mpact. F~r the case of full envelopment of the structure, the 11m1t1ng
cond1t1on become the "11m1t stress·. These concepts have been d1scussed
1n deta11s by Croasdale (1984).

S1nce many 1mpact scenar10s are posslble, the followlng assumptlons were
made to s1mpllfy the results:

1) non-bermed rlgld structure wHh vertlcal faces of c1rcular plan

form and stlff foundatlon,
2) contlnuous crush1ng mode of lce fal1ure,
3) sufflclently h1gh multl - year lce veloclty to ensure brlttle
fallure and
4) -floes assumed to lmpact the structure lndependently of one another
(no group1ng) .

A c1rcular structure wHh vert1cal walls was selected slnce 1t reduces

the rlsk of abrupt lmpact load and H can be modelled wHh slmpllcHy .
For such heavlly damped and stHf foundatlon and structure, the 1ce
loads calculated by thls model are felt to be representatlve s1nce no
dynamlc magnHlcatlon of the loads takes place durlng the lnteradlon
(Croteau, 19B3).

The theoretlcal treatment and concept of non-slmultaneous fallure of an

lce sheet movlnq past a w1de structure has been flrst addressed by Kry
(1978). Once fa11ure has been lnHlated or when sufflclent lce motlon
occurs to cause the lce sheet to fracture, the lce crushes
non-s1multaneously across any local dlscrete reglon at the structure/lce
sheet 1nterface.

The fallure ·zones· concept has been estab11shed from observatlons from
the f1eld whlch have shown the wldth of the largest lce pleces to be
about 4 tlme the lce thlckness . The theory lmpl1es that all the zones
crush lndependently of .one another over the entlre contact w1dth and
thlckness of the lce sheet. An expected reduct10n In the effectlve lce
deslgn pressure 1s calculated dependlng on the number of zones and
extent of lce movement durlng the l1fe of the structure .

140
Kry assumed a log-normal d1str1but10n of the "peak " pressures 1n one
lone wHh med1an stress msl and geometr1c standard dev1at10n 0gl ' The
part1cular des1gn pressure "SO 1s g1ven by:
y
S = msl (Ogl) (1)

where

Y 1s related to the 1nstantaneous probab1l1ty of exceedence P1(s)

by the probab1l1ty 1ntegral

msl
1s the med1an stress 1n one lone and

0gl 1s the geometr1c standard dev1at10n 1n one 1ndependent lone .

When several zones are added togethe~, the fluctuat10n of the peak

pressure S about the mean pressure 1s reduced. Assum1ng that 1n many

zones the peaks are also log-normally d1str1buted, the geometr1c

standard dev1at10n 0gn and the med1an stress msn 1n On" zones are:

0gn = exp [In (exp (In 0gl/n+l-l/n))l/2] (2)

2
exp (112 ln ° 1)msl 2 - -
(3 )
-:-:---:-~-:-:--g-- 112
[1- lIn + lIn exp (In 0gl)]

In a log normal probabllHy d1str1but10n, the med1an stress msl 1s

related to the mean pre ss ure S by :
2
S exp (112 ln 0gl)
( 4)

Comb1n1ng equat10ns (1), (2) and (3), the des1gn pressure OS" can be
calculated for a g1ven 1nstantaneous probabllHy P1(S) and a number of
zones n. The prev10us equat10ns are useful for determ1n1ng the
pr'obab11Hy that the average pressure at an 1nstant 1n t1me 1s above a
spec1f1ed value. They are not d1rectly useful for determ1n1ng the
probabllHy that the pressure w111 exceed a spec1f1ed value at some
p01nt dur1ng a penetrat10n of length "d O of the 1ce around the
structure. The average number of peaks wHh1n a penetrat10n "d" 1s the
rat10 between the fract10n of the penetrat10n dur1ng wh1ch the pressure
exceeded "S" , and by the average durat10n of a peak .
d. P1 . (s)/durat10n (s) (5)
d .P1(S)0 . 65 ( 6)
0.04 tL

141
Assumlng that peak pressures occur lndependently of one another, the
probabl1lty that at least one peak pressure ls greater than OS" wlthln a
penetratlon of 'do ls glven by the followlng equatlon:
P = 1 - exp (-n peaks) (7)

A rearrangement of equatlon (1) has been made to better correlate the

deslgn pressure OS" wlth the lnstantaneous probabl1lty of exceedence
P1(s) uslng the normal probabl1lty table:
Pl(s) = F([ln(S/m sn )])
[In 0gn] (8)
where
F(x) ls the probablllty of exceedence of "x" for a normal dlstrlbutlon
wlth zero mean and un1t varlance.

Uslng equatlon (2) to (6) and lnvertlng them, the deslgn pressure ·S· for
a speclfled rlsk "P" and penetratlon ·d" can be determined:

-1 1 5

S msn.exp[F ((-0.04t L ln(1-P)) . ) ln 0gn 1 (9)

d
where :

F- l (y) the function lnverse of F(x).

The multi-zone crushlng model was developed by Kry assuming no change of

the slze of the contact wldth at the lnteractlon zone . Often an lce
feature wl11 not completely envelop a st~ucture. In thls sltuatlon lt .1s
lmportant to be able to determine the rlsk of a peak load for
penetratlons less than complete envelopment. The flrst step ln modlfylng
the model to account for lncomplete envelopment ls to replace the width
of the structure wlth the projected wldth of the contact zone for a glven
penetratlon. Secondly, the expected number of load peaks for a
penetratlon "d" must be evaluated uslng an lntegral.

I dmax Pl(S)0.65 dx
o 0.04 tL (10)

In this equatlon, "s· ls a functlon of the lnstantaneous penetratlon "x·

because the contact wldth changes wlth penetratlon .

142
Our1ng the SUlTl11er, 1nd1v1dual mult1-year 1ce floes are nkely to 1mpact
long 11fe offshore structures 1n the Beaufort Sea. The 1ce floes h1tt1ng
the structure w111 release theIr klnetlc energIes by crushIng and bendIng
at the contact zone. Thls Is expressed by:
2
1/2 mv = Jdmax P
av x tL x w(d) x d(d) (11 )
o

The added mass can be lncluded ln the present study by assumlng a mass m

equal to:

m=ml(l+)...) (12)

where

m = mass of lce floe lncludlng added mass

V lce floe veloclty at the tlme of the Impact

Pav = average pressure durlng the lmpact over the wldth of the contact

zone (5)

tL = local thlckness of the lce floe,

w(d) contact wldth varylng wlth the penetratlon "d"

d(d) step penetratlon at glven tlme.

The energy lost or the work done by crushlng at the contact zone ls the

product of the average pressure or stress Pav multlplled by the contact

area (w(d)xt L) and the lncremental penetratlon d(d). The effect of the
rate of loadlng due to the deceleratlon of the floe on the effectlve lce
pressure ls unknown and was not taken lnto account ln the present model.

To account for the Increase of the effectlve lce pressure at small

aspect ratlos, the average pressure used to calculate the energy
dlss1pated at the contact zone ls corrected. The peak to mean pressure
ratl0 ls also dlfferent at the beglnnlng of the penetratlon. To account
for these two effects, correctlon factors were applled on the mean
pressure "P av for aspect ratlos less than 4. 0. A schematlc
representatlon of the model ls glven ln Flgure 1.

The maln parameters affectlng the results of the model are: The mean
stress, the geometrlc standard devlatlon and the number of zones.

143
The mean stress S and the geometrIc standard devIatIon for one zone can
be eHher measured In laboratory or In nature . A detalled analysIs
showed that the mean stress was varyIng by ! 21" and the geometrIc
standard devIatIon by.!. 10" (Kry. 1981). For the present study. the
mean stress used equal 1 . 0 MPa (150 psI) (Sanderson (1984) Blankarn
(1910). Kry (1918)) wHh a varIatIon of ! .21MPa (see F1gure 2). For
the geometrIc standard devIatIon. Kry's (1981) data from laboratory
tests are used. 0gl was found to be equal to 1.6 ! 0 . 16. The wIdth of a
zone was kept constant at four thIcknesses.

The model pr esented above calculates the rIsk of faIlure durIng a

selected InteractIon. To calculate the rIsk wHhln one random
InteractIon . the characterIstIcs of an Ice floe are requIred. The rIsk
depends on the local thIckness and on the kInetIc energy of an Ice floe
prIor to Impact. The kInetIc energy In turn depends on the dIameter.
mean thIckness and drHt speed. The [.I.S . weIghted dIstrIbutIon of
ImpactIng energ I es has been used In the present analysIs (see FIgure
3). In thIs dIstrIbutIon. the probabllHy of ImpactIng floe dIameter
and drHt speed have been derived usIng the method outlined by Dunwoody
(1983). The probabllHy dIstrIbutIon of local thIcknesses have been
derIved from the USS Sargo poInt data plotted In FIgure 4.

The rI sk of an event durl ng one random 1nteractl on 1 s the weIghted

average of the rIsks within a well specHled InteractIon. The risk can
be expressed by
peE) = f P.PI(~).d~ (13)
!C.
where
~ = a vector of two parameters defIning the energy and the local
thickness
PI (!C) the probabIlIty densIty function of the energy and local
thIckness of the floe
P = the probabilIty of an event given the floe energy and local
thIckness gIven by equation (9)
peE) = the risk over one random event

144
The numer1cal techn1que used to evaluate th1 s equat10n 1s the
1ntegrat10n over the respect1 ve cumulat1 ve probabll1t1 es for the energy
and the local th1ckness:
ptE) = J 1J 1 P.dP 1(E) .dP j (t L) (14)
o 0

where
P1(E),P 1(t L) are respect1vely the cumulat1ve d1str1but10ns for the
energy and local th1ckness of the floe.

To calculate the return per10d of load exceedence of an offshore

structure, the average frequency of 1nteract10ns was f1rst calculated by
the method out11ned by Dunwoody (1983):
II = r dave Save
(15)
where

II = average frequency of 1nteract10ns

r = average number of 1ce features per un1t area of ocean

dave = average floe d1ameter

Save average floe dr1ft speed

The average frequency of 1mpacts of a part1cular class of 1ce features

1s then:

n = p([)x II ( 1&)

where

ptE) = r1sk of one random event (equat10n 14)

The return per10d of load exceedence «10%) 1s then:

R.T . = l ( 17)
n

It has been shown [Iyer (1983), Gold (1978), H1rayama et al (1974), Kry
(1981), Lavrov (1973), M1chel (1977)] that there 1s a reduct10n 1n the
effect1ve 1ce strength due to the 1ncrease 1n the amount of volume (or
area) crushed . Th1s reduct10n effect 1ncludes both 1ncreases 1n the 1ce
th1ckness and the contact w1dth (or 1ndentor w1dth).

145
Kry's model accounts for the effect of the contact w1dth. Therefore, an
express10n relat1ng the th1ckness effect to the effect1ve 1ce pressure
was needed. The ch01ce of the reduct10n factor g1ven by a modH1ed
Lavrov (1973) relat10nsh1p was done arb1trar11y. It 1s expressed by:
-0.3 ( 18)
C = tL + .3830

assum1ng Pay = 1.0 MPa at tL = Sm.

The phenomenon of non-s1multaneous bend1ng and crush1ng at the contact

zone was observed dur1ng large scale 1mpacts and was very 1mportant 1n
reduc1ng or chang1ng the 1ce loads. The model was assum1ng so far that
100% of the zones were non-s1multaneously crush1ng across the w1dth of
the structure. If the chance of fal1ure by flexure ls 11kely for summer
lmpacts because of surface unevenness and zones of weakness of the 1ce
floes a certaln percentage of the zones can be assumed to fall by
flexure not contr1butlng thus at the result1ng lce force. The mean
calculated "pressure" must thus be 1ncreased by the same percentage of
the contact w1dth fa111ng by flexure as th1s process does note
contr1bute s1gnH1cantly to the total load. Th1s assumpt10n ls
emplrlcal but can be statlst1cally determ1ned by looklng at the contact
zones dur1ng 1mpacts of many floes on offshore structures. S1nce large
scale behav10urs are not necessar11y related to small scale 1ce
strength, 1.e. fracture modes, deformat10ns, crack1ng are all scale·
dependant, 1t was more approprlate to use the general cond1t10ns and
homogenelty of the floe rather than the small scale parameter effects to
correct the effectlve 1ce pressure . The dHference between f1rst-year
lce and multl year lce can be made also assum1ng the above phl10sophy.

The rlsk of exceedence of a load level durlng one random 1mpact by

summer mult1-year lce floe 1s shown 1n F1gure 5. The rlsk has been
calculated for 100m structure. "Conservat1ve", "best estlmate" and
"optlm1st1c" curves have been der1ved us1ng the upper, mlddle and lower
bound var1atlons from the geometrlc standard devlatlon 091 and the mean
pressure S. Uslng 14 lmpacts/year, a typlcal number for 40 m water

146
depth In the CanadIan Beaufort Sea, the return perIods of global Ice
loads are plotted In FIgure 6.

For a 100m wIde structure, global loads of 100,000 tonnes and 200,000
tonnes wIll be exceeded respectIvely 1.2% and 0.14% of the tIme for 1
random Impact . AssumIng 14 Impacts/year In average such loads have
respectIve return perIods of 1 and 11 years for the 100 m wIde structure
us1ng a mean pressure of 1 MPa.

A model for predIctIng probabilIstIc global Ice loads on w1de arctIc

offshore structures has been presented . The new versIon of Kry I s model
was found to be useful to calculate global Ice loads on w1de structures
durIng sUlTlller dynamIc Impacts of multI-year 1ce floes. The model was
however, largely modIfIed to take Into account parameters affectIng
dIrectly the result1ng effectIve 1ce pressure such as the thIckness
effect, the overall cond1t10n of the floes and the local Increase of the
effectIve Ice pressure at the beg1nn1ng of the Impact. The model was
also modIfIed to calculate the loads for an Incomplete bendIng
envelopment of the structure durIng an Impact. Flexural failure was
also Included 1n the model.

The authors are grateful to Oome Petroleum LImIted for allowIng them to
publIsh thIs paper. The authors have benef1ted greatly from d1scuss1ons
with K. R. Croasdale, of K. R. Croasdale and assocIates and A.B .
Dunwoody of Dome Petroleum Ltd. and D. Montgomery (computer program).

APOA Project 205, 1984 ·Deslgn CriterIa for ArctIc Offshore ProductIon
Platforms·, Dome Petroleum Ltd., January, 1984

APOA Project 202, 1983 "Ice Forces on Hans Island", Dome Petroleum Ltd.,
January, 1984

147
 Croasdale, K. R. and Person, A. 1984, "A loglcal Approach to Ice loads"
2nd Sympos1um on Arct1c Offshore Dr1111ng Platforms, Houston, Texas,
Aprll 11.

Croteau, P. 1983, "Dynam1c Interact10ns 8etween Float1ng . Ice and

Offshore structures, PH . D. D1ssertat10n, Un1vers1ty of Cal1forn1a,
8erkeley, Report No. NC8/EERC-83/06.

Kry, P.R., 1978 "A Stat1st1cal Pred1ct10n of Effect1ve Ice Crush1ng

stresses on W1de structures" Proceed1ngs, IAHR, Internat10nal Sympos1um
on Ice, lulea, Sweden, PP 33-47.

Kry, P.R., 1981 "Scale Effects 1n Cont1nuous Crush1ng of Ice",

Proceed1ngs, IAHR Internat10nal Sympos1um on Ice, Quebec, Canada, Vol.
II, pp 565-579 .

lavrov, V.V., 1973 'Scale Effects as · Ind1cat10ns . of Ice 8reak1ng

Mechan1sm" Stud1es 1n Ice Phys1cs and Ice Eng1neer1ng, Yakovlev.

Sanderson, T.J.O . , 1984 "Theoret1cal and Measured Ice Forces on W1de

Structures' IAHR, State- of-the-Art Report on Ice Forces, 1984, Hamburg,
W-Germany, August 27-31 .

UMlT MOMf:NT1)IIIII _ : _ UMI'T ~

I ltQ.to 0'.
I ,,.&,
Ii
t'-'I
": : •
•
1.~
J. Wi 170
1.A3
IAI
! t---EOMt\.b....,\ . ..,, 11I11
II ,.1 oM, Ii o 7 _10- 1
'" 1.10'"2
IlO
..,
1.1'
1.16
,
I
I

I
~l

FKIURf I S(}-tEMATIC IIfPRESENTAT)()N Of fHE MCX>B. FOt THE AGUItE '2 CUMULATIVE ~lITY Of NOT fXCEEotNG PlOHID
CAlCUlAHON Of GlO8Al ICf LOADS DUR'lNG IMAO.CTS Of
STIlES51'S FOR E.oGl£ LAKE mTS IKIIY '''')
SUMMER M'Y a flCES

148
 uu u.aoo 1960 ClUI~
lfNGTH Of T1.AH~T·' OII( ..

",

i
~
~ ..­ r'
~
(;
~

J ~ ~.~-----------------------1
,~,

~ICXNfU .wtlAGEO 0VltI :

_P'OIHT OAIA

,,- ,,' ,,- 10"

""'ACT fNllOl IJOUl U)

AGllItt: 3 IMfW:nNG ENERGY [)fSTtlBlJTK)N fOQ

MUln-YEASI: ICE (AF TER MAltCElLUS AND
ROTH, CANADIAN 6EAUFORT EIS, 19&1)
FIGUif" PRQBA8.IL ITY Of EXCEEDENCf Of POW
~K KE THKKNESS

'!II
-'"
""
~IM

II
IISI'15T~ +r-

vi I
II IL OI'flMj" ­
1/ 1.1

'I
/
/ I
.!,
,
, j DIoAMIT!I Of SfllJCru:u • 100.

, I' I ! I I
GlOUl tel lOADS 1<iN)

FIGURE.5 .LSI( DURING ONE IMPACT OF MULTI­ FIGURE 6 REruIN PERIOO KlR Gl08Al ICf lOAD
YEAI ICE FlOe IN SUMMER fOR A Ol.IRING SUMMER IMfW:TS Of M-Y ICE
100", ST~UCTURE FIDES

149
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS OF ICE PRESSURE

AGAINST A STRUCTURE IN LEVEL ICE AND IN
PRESSURE RIDGES

Juhani Hoikkanen University of Oulu Finland

ABSTRACT

Durin9 springs 1978-1981 ice force measurements have been performed at the
Kemi I lighthouse in the Gulf of Bothnia. The concrete lighthouse is
equipped with transducers for measuring local ice pressures at different
levels, the total ice load, and the vibrations of the structure. The
equipment was installed for obtaining the pressure distribution and the
total load of first year ice ridges. The signals of the transducers were
recorded by using a portable data logger. The analysis of the data in­
cludes the integration of the total ice load from local pressures, and
the spectral analysis of the measured signals and the ice force. The com­
putation of the total ice force was performed by using the Monte-Carlo
simulation.

;--laximum local ice pressures yielded 7,5 IIPa. The total ice loads for the
structure of width 5,8 m vJere 7 :-IN for level ice of thickness 70-80 cm,
and about 10 ~N in case of small pressure rid~es.

151
 1. INTRODUCTION

Ice pressure and force measurements have been performed during springs
1978-1981 at the instrumented Kemi I lighthouse. The main purpose of the
measurements has been to estimate the vertical pressure distribution and
the total ice load of a pressure ridge. Additionally, information about
the dynamical interaction between the structure and different kinds of ice
formations, can be obtained. The Kemi I lighthouse is a caisson type pre­
stressured reinforced concrete gravity structure (Fig. 1).

J ·2 . a ".
O. 1l

-5 . 5 ..
(_~...,z

_r 2S • O •

ttl,S 11)­

Figure 1. The Kemi I lighthou se.

The depth of water at the site is 11,6 m, and the heliport at the top of
the lighthouse is 23,5 m above the mean sea level. The caisson is 26 m of
diameter and it is filled with ballasting stones. The diameter of the
structure is 5,8 m at levels of pressure transducers. The lighthouse is
s ituated in the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia, 40 km off the coast,
in the region of active ice movement. The annual maximum level ice thick­

152
ness is 70-100 cm, and ice often strongly ridged.

2. THE MEASURING SYSTEM

The Kemi I lighthouse is equipped with transducers for measuring local

ice pressures, and the deformations and accelerations of the structure.

800

a) b)

Figure 2. a) Ice pressure transducer and b) the location of transducers.

Local ice pressures are measured by 30 pressure transducers (Fig. 2).

These are embedded at the surface of the lighthouse, in six levels to five

directions. The pressure sensing plate of the transducers is 200 mm of

diameter, and strain gauges are used to sense the deformations of the plate.

The transducers have been calibrated and the linear measuring range is at

least up to 6 MPa with less than 1 % error.

The total ice force measuring system sen ses the deformations of the lower

part of the lighthouse. The transducer consists of a system of steel rods

which senses the relative vertical movements of the structure (Fig. 3).

The lower part of the rod is attached to the structure, but otherwise the

153
 rod is inside a tube, and free to move in relation to the structure. The
relative movement between the structure and the rod is measured with a
temperature-compensated transducer. This relative movement is depentend
on the vertical distribution of the ice force. Eight moment sensing rods
are situated in pairs along a circle, 2,8 m of diameter, 90 0 apart. The
temperature compensation is needed to compensate the effect of the differ­
ent thermal coefficients of steel rods and concrete. A uniform change in
temperature of the structure does not make troubles, because the signals
are taken from a full strain gauge bridge formed by opposite transducers.
But daily the lighthouse gets warmer on the sunny side which causes an
apparent loading. The sensitivities of the transducers have been defined
according to the structural properties of the lighthou se.

Ball Joint
Bi-metal beam

-··:·.

Strain gouges
8011 joint

Stulnle99 stepl

m
rods
... .. i'
+- -t- - .•'
.. \ i ·
\"t............:.. , ...

a) b)

Figure 3. a) Moment sensig rods and b) the transducer for measuring the
relative movement between a rod and the structure.

The vibrations of the structure are measured with acceleration transducers

154
situated at levels +3,6 m and +23,1 m. At each level two perpendicular
components of horizontal acceleration are measured to form the resultant.

A portable data logger collects signals from the transducers and stores
them in a magnetic tape mass storage. The data logger has 64 output chan­
nels with preamplifiers, filters, and bridges needed in strain gauge meas­
urements. Two microprocessors control multiplexer, programmable amplifi­
ers, buffer memories, and mass memory station. The same apparatus is used
to output the data from the mass memory. Available are outputs in serial
and analogous form.

3. I~EASUREMENTS

In springs 1978-1981 at the lighthouse there have been operators for meas­
urements in April-May, when the ice is most probably moving. However, the
movement has generally been unexpectedly small. Besides the prevailing
direction of the ice movement has been from the North in which case it has
been possible to get ice pressures only from one or two rows of the pres­
sure transducers. In the beginning there were difficulties with data
logger, in addition, some transducers have been damaged.

During springs 1978 and 1981 several hours of data from the transducers
have been recorded . Effects of sheet ice and pressure ridges are included
in data sequences. During the measurements the air temperature varied
approximately from -20 oC at nights to DoC in the daytime. The sheet ice
thickness was 70-80 cm, the depth of measured pressure ridge keels were
approximately 5-7 m. Also deeper ridges and a rubble field broke against
the structure, but the data was lost.

4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1 Spectral analysis

The collected data was first output to a chart recorder in order to select
the interesting data sequences for further analysis. Next a spectral anal­
ysis ~Jas performed ~Jith a two channel analyzer by which power spectral den­

155
 sities, cross-spectras and coherences between different signals were ob­
tained. The data collecting frequency was 20 Hz, so the spectral analysis
is reliable up to almost 10 Hz . The lowest natural frequency of the struc­
ture is 3,1 Hz which has been obtained also from calculations and earlier
measurements (M~~tt~nen 1977) . The damping of the structure, calculated
from decaying free vibrations , is approximately 3,5 % of the critical
value in the first mode. The crushing frequency is below 1,5 Hz, and the
dominant frequencies vary in separate data sequences. No strong dynamical
interaction between ice and the structure was observed.

4.2 Local pressures

The local pressures have peaks up to 7,5 MPa. The order of these maximum
pressures is the same as local pressures encountered by ice-breakers in
Finnish waters. In the earlier measurements at the Kemi I lighthou se
(M~~tt~nen 1977) the pressures remained as low as 2,5 MPa .

.A typical distribution of maximum ice pressures in case of a pressure

ridge is presented in figure 4. A considerable compression exists in the
directions perpendicular to the direction of ice movement. In the verti­
cal direction the highest pressures are, as expected, caused by the solid

Pressure [MPo] PrQssure [MPo] PrQssure [MPo]

+1 +1 +1

0 1 - - - - -__ 6
0 3.2 0 2.8
~
~
E ~ E
'-'
E '-'
....<II -. 9 t-------,:~ 7.5 '-' -. Q 5 -. Q 3.2
>
.... !II
j -1.8 g -1. 8
QI
3.2 ~ -1.8
--1
--1
-2. 8 .4 -2.8 -2.8

-3.8 .2 -3.8 .5 -3.8 .2

South
South-East West

Figure 4. Vertical distributions of maximum local ice pressures in differ­

ent directions. Pressure ridge from South.

156
portion of the ridge which consists of level ice and consoldated ice
blocks. At the lower levels pressures are very low which is the conse­
quence of the loose structure of the ridge keel. The low pressures of
the keel in the direction of ice movement (South) may result from the
formation of a "bow" or a "plug" of ice blocks in front of the structure.
The water lewel at the time of the measurements was so low that sheet ice
caused maximum pressures to transducers at level -0,95 nl. In case of the
pressure ridges the sheet ice and the con sol idated part reached tr.ansducers
at levels 0,0 m and -0,95 m.

Peak pressures in separate transducers occur at different instants. The

ice pressure within the area of the pressure sensing plate is close to
zero from 40 to 70 % of the time in case of sheet ice and the solid part
of the ridge. In the ridge keel the zero-pressure time is over 90 % of
the duration of the ridge penetration, depending on the location of the
transducers. In figure 5 the probability density of a local non-zero
pressure from a representative data sequence is expressed. The length of
data is few minutes, and the velocity of the ice about 0,1 m/s. The solid
line is an approximating two-parameter curve .

•5

...,
>­
.... .4
(f)
c
OJ
"1J .3 1\
...,>­
....
-
....
.£l
0
.2

.£l .1

~
0
'­
c..
0.[0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0
Pressure [MPo]

Figure 5. The probability density of a local ice pressure ( >0,1 r~Pa).

157
 4.3 Total ice force

The transducers for measuring the total ice load were damaged due to the
severe climate at the site - signals were noisy and unreliable. This is
why the total ice force was calculated only from the local ice pressures
as well as from the dynamical behaviour of the structure. The forces in­
directly obtained from the local pressures and the structural response are
not as accurate as forces directly measured from the moment sensing rods.

The grid of the pressure transducers is relatively sparse - the distance

between the centres of transducers is 2,3 m in horizontal and about 1 m in
vertical direction. Therefore a simple probabilistic approach for inte­
grating the total ice force was applied instead of the direct calculation
from an instantaneous pressure distribution. The probability densities
and the cumulative probabilities for the local pressures were evaluated.
Then the Monte-Carlo simulation was performed to obtain the probability
of the total ice force. In the simulation, it was assumed that ice breaks
in independent zones. The count of the zones were varied, and the CDF's
and zero-pressure time for each zune were interpolated from the pressures
obtained from nearest undamaged transducers.

The maximum ice force caused by level ice was about 7 MN (Fig. 6). The
forces for ridges are only slightly higher, below 10 MN. The count of the
breaking zones affected slightly on the results. The measured ridges were
quite small, the total depths approximately 5-7 m. In fact, if the ridge
is deeper, the caisson raises the approaching ice masses, thus disturbing
the shape and structure of the ridge.

The maximum accelerations at the top of the lighthouse have been 1,2 m/s2

which corresponds to the top amplitude of 3,2 mm. Compared with the FEM­

analysis for the structure the measured acceleration corresponds to 5 MN

releasing force at level +1 m. Actually, the resultant of the ice force,

especially in case of the ridges, is below the water level, and thus the

load is higher. If the resultant is at level -0,5 m, the ice force is

approximately 7 MN.

The pressure against different load areas was also calculated. Two data
points, the measured local ice pressure against a pressure transducer area,

158
 ... ,
"'9

""
09
0:< 115
90 v
>-.
...., 80 L
70
-g 60 /
-g 50
7
1i. 40

~ 30
....,
o 20
:J
E
:J
U 10

5
.5 5 10 20
Force [MNl

Figure 6. COF of ice force. Level ice.

,....., 10.0
o
Q
::::;:

OJ
L

:J

(f)
"'­
(f) I'
OJ
L I
0...

L
OJ
m
o
OJ
>
<:
'"
1.0
.01 . 10 1. 00 10.00
Load area [m 2]

Figure 7. Relationship between the maximum effective pres sure and load
area.

159
 and the measured total i ce load on the width of the structure, are quite
reliable. The effective pressures on the intermediate areas were deter­
mined by the Monte-Carlo simulation using local pressures as starting
points. The relationship between load area and pressure followed the rule

(1)

where the pressures p and Po correspond to areas A and Ao' respectively,

and the exponent a in this case was close to 0,3 (Fig. 7).

5. CONCLUS IONS

The forces and pressures caused by the moving ice field against a struc­
ture have been measured at the Kemi I lighthouse, in the Gulf of Bothnia.
The ice t~ickness was 70-80 cm. The maximum local pressures were 7,5 ~Pa
for sheet ice and solid part of pressure ridges. The pressures caused by
ridge keels were low comp~red with solid ice. The maximum total ice force
of the level ice was of the order 7 MN, and 10 MN for small ridges. The
relationship between the load area and pressure follows the exponent law
with an exponent 0,3.

6. REFERENCES

Hoikkanen, S.J., 1981. Measurements and analysis of the loads a moving

pressure ridge exerts on a lighthouse. M.Sc. thesis. University of

Oulu,.Oulu. (In Finnish).

Maattanen, M., 1977. Ice-force measurement at the Gulf of Bothnia by the

instrumented Kemi I lighthouse. Proceedings of the 4th International
Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions, Memo­
rial University of Newfoundland, St.John's, Newfoundland, Canada. Sep.
26-30, 1977.

160
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

-
IA Hamburg

ICE-STRUCTURE INTERACTIO~:

A FUNDAMENTAL ENERGY-BASED APPROACH

Corr,leau, A.

Research Engineer

Jordaan, 1. J.

Head, Research & Development Det norske Veritas (Canada) Ltd. Canada

NessiOl, 14.

Research Engineer

Tor,'; n, I~.

Senior ~aterials Engineer

Abstract

Loading of fixed offshore structures by ice results from a variety of sit­

uations, typical of which are ir,lpacts by discrete features (floes, ice­
oergs) and continuously moving ice. In the case of discrete impacts, the
ice feature will arrive with a given kinetic energy (including added mass)
and in the case of continuously moving ice, one can think of energy dissi­
pated per unit tiflle (power). The key features are dissipation of energy
either at constant or variable rates of movement. It is important to iden­
tify the ihlportant energy sinks. The interaction problem given a loading
scenario is studied and attention is concentrated on the dissipation of
energy within the ice feature, for structures with vertical faces. Energy
transformations are intimately related to the constitutive equations used
to model the ice. Elastic energy is stored in the ice and this is dissi­
pated as creep r,lovements and consuflled in the fracture process (creation of
new surfaces). Crushing in compression involves the creation of numerous
crack surfaces and can be an important energy sink. In the event that an
ice feature breaks into pieces, these may attain energies of translation
and rotation. For oblique impacts, translational kinetic energy is con­
verted to rotational energy. Exar,lples of the formulation of typical pro­
blems are given, including the finite-element analysis of the splitting of
an ice floe with initial (pre-existing) cracks. These are shown to prop­
agate at much lower loads than these corresponding to crushing of the ice.

161
 There are two main requirements for determining environmental loads for
structural design. First, they must correspond to a predetermined return
period or other statistical description, which will be related to environ­
mental conditions in a readily measurable form. Second, the load on the
structure must be calculated using methods that are practical yet provide
sufficient accuracy; these calculations are con_ditio_n_a_l on the environmen­
tal input parameters. An example of this procedure would be the estima­
tion of the 50 or 100 year wave height and period, corresponding to the
first requirement above. The second requirement would entail the calcula­
tion of loads based on a knowledge of the mechanics of wave motion, using
for example I~orison's equation.

Historically, consideration of ice loads has followed the "worst case

scenario" approach. Consider for example the consideration of the follow­
ing extremes:

limiting environmental driving forces

1imiting forces based on ice "failure".

The estirnation of design loads in frontier areas, often with rather 1imit­
ed information, has made it natural in a safety-conscious industry to use
pessimistic or "maximum credible" events as a basis for ~alculation. How­
ever, this approach can be unduly conservative. To exemplify this, the
kinetic energy of the "maximum credible iceberg" offshore eastern Canada
has oeen shown to have more than 100 times the kinetic energy of the ice­
berg with a 100 year return period.

2. Approach

The discussion above has centred on statistical aspects relating to the

environmental conditions - the "force parameters" of Figure 1. Aspects of
this are addressed in the conrpanion paper to the present one (Maes and
Jordaan, 1984). The other side of the problem is the ice-structure inter­
action calculation as shown in the second box of Figure 1. This involves
probabilistic aspects, and the mechanics of the interaction of ice with
structures. The approach outlined is further exemplified by the two pro­

162
 INPUT :
FORCE
PARAMETERS "-0­
RATE OF
,..
ICE­
STRUC~
INTERACTION
r-
ESTIMATED
LOADS ON
STRUCT~
MOVEMENT ; CALCULATION
MASS/VELOCITY
COMBINATION
t
I
t
PROBABILISTIC,
MODELS OF
PROBABILISTIC MATERIAL
MODELS OF PARAMETERS,
FORCE PARAMETERS MORPHOLOGY

Figure 1 Outline of Procedure for Estimating Ice Loads

cesses of Figure 2. This deals with a series of random arrivals of dis­

crete ice features, such as ice floes or icebergs. The input stochastic
process relates to environmental force parameters, for instance arrival
rates, mass/velocity combinations and kinetic energy. The main purpose of
the present work is to address the calculation of the force response shown
as the output stochastic process of Figure 2. In particular, the ice-

Oulput Stochastic Process

Figure 2 Characterization of Ice Loading

163
structu r e interaction calculation give.!l_ the input information is the sub­
ject of the present paper.

The case of continuous ice, for instance, ice sheets or first year sheets
with embedded multiyear ice, can be generalized from the above. The input
process can be thought of as a distribution of power input, while the ice­
structure interaction can be thought of as the power of energy dissipation.
This paper addresses the formulation of ice-structure interaction problems
using an energy-based approach.

There are many uncertainties in the ice-structure interaction calculation

itself. These might relate to uncertainty regarding parameters governing
material response, such as creep rate, or the location and density of
flaws in the ice. The main thrust of the paper is the mechanics of the
interaction without special attention being focussed on the probabilistic
aspects just noted. The assumptions as regards ice mechanics are the key
ones for a realistic treatment of ice loads, and this aspect is stressed.

3. Energy Balance in Ice- Structure Interaction

The first law of thermodynamics dealing with conservation of energy can be

. . .
stated as follows: K + E = Q + P, where K = kinetic energy, E = internal
energy, Q = heat input and P = power of body forces and surface tractions,
all for a set of particles occupying a volume V. The deformation of ice
in ice-structure interaction can be treated as an adiabatic process where
changes are effected without gain or loss of heat, hence Q = 0 (except for
small amounts of heat generated during creep).

Applied to ice, the basic energy balance equation can be used to formulate
a solution for ice-structure interaction problems. It is important to
note that energy, a scalar quantity, has to be supplemented by other meas­
urable quantities such as mass and velocity in order to complete a solu­
tion: for instance, velocity is important in the assessment of strain rate
effects in ice. It is useful to review the types of energy and work which
may contribute to the energy balance.

The energy of a discrete ice feature at any instant of time is a sum of

its kinetic energy K, gravitational energy G and internal energy E. Our

164
analysis depends only on changes in energy and therefore energy components
which are not expected to change during the interaction process will not
influence the results. The gravitational energy is dependent on the eleva­
tion of the ice and is important in the case of sloping structures where
the movement of ice against the structure results in uplift or submerging
of the ice. For vertical structures which are the concern of this paper,
the gravitational energy is constant and need not be considered. The en­
ergy of an ice feature can then be characterized at any instant of time by
the sum of its kinetic energy and its internal energy.

The kinetic energy is given by K = f~ vi vi dV, where vi is the component

of the velocity vector of a particl~ of volume dV and p is the density.
Added mass should be included in the calculation. Further discussion of
energy transformations is related to the constitutive behaviour of ice and
this will be discussed in the following section.

4. Internal Energy, Dissipatio~~~~Con~!J tutive ~uati~

As er,lphasized, for example by Palmer et al (1983), Jordaan and Nessim

(1984) and Sanderson (1984), the predominant material properties to be
accounted for in studying ice behaviour are elasticity, creep and fracture.
'For low loading rates, creep is predominant whereas at higher rates, frac­
ture becomes predominant. Energy is stored in the ice as a result of lin­
ear elastic strains, E: ij , i.e. E = ~ f 0ij E: ij dV, where 0 ij is the stress.
Energy can also be dissipated by cree~ at the rate of 0·. ~., per unit
lJ lJ
volume, which appears as heat during the dislocation process.

The strain energy can also be a driving force for crack propagation and a
critical strain energy density constitutes a possible criterion for crack
propagation (Sih, 1973). This approach is particularly attractive for
general stre s s states. Since strain energy is a positive quantity (for
tensile or compressive stress fields), the state of stress must also be
accounted for in the criterion. The tendency of ice to fracture is em­
phasized by the following values of surface energy, ys and Glc ' Griffith's
critical strain energy release rate.

165
 Table 1

Ma teri a1 Ys (J/m2) GIC (J/m 2 ) GIc/Ys

P~IMA 0.5 500 800

GLASS (lead alkali) 0.25 1.2 4.8
(boros i 1 icate) 0.3 3.0 10
ICE 0.1 0.9 9
STEEL (mi 1d - 150°C 18.0 3600 200
O°C 18.0 43200 2400

During fracture, strain energy is transformed to free energy of the surf­

ace created and energy is also dissipated at the crack tip by creep and
viscous flow. For GIc ~ 2y s in Table 1, the behaviour would correspond to
that of an ideally brittle material. The total energy is GIc x (area of
crack). This energy is small for global cracking, but for crushing
(cracking in the compression zone) it is a significant energy sink.

Crushing of ice is in fact brittle behaviour characterized by small cracks

occurring in the stressed zone. The density of the cracks is typically
large and characterized by "crazing"; the energy consumption is a result
of this high density of cracks as well as frictional dissipation in the
crushed zone as the fissured ice is "squeezed" out. The quantification of
crack densities has been studied in other areas, for instance in NaC1
crystals in compression the density can be as high as 10 8 -10 9 per cm 3
(Kuksenko, 1977). This ·quantification represents a fundamental need in
ice research, to better understand this energy transformation. The app­
roach pioneered by Sinha (1979) and developed subsequently (Sinha, 1982)
offers a promising route for this work.

At the macroscopic level, the requirement is to formulate constitutive

equations that represent the phenomena noted above. This cannot be achie­
ved within the context of conventional creep or plasticity theories and
other candidate theories such as the endochronic theory (Gopal et a1. 1984)
should be assessed from this standpoint. Figure 3 illustrates this aspect
from our energy standpoint; it should be borne in mind that the area under
the stress-strain curve represents work done (per unit volume).

166
 Volumetric Fracture
(highly rate-dependent I
.
c
o
a

Elastic Strain Energy

Time Time

Figure 3 Schematic Diagram of Eenrgy Transformation for Ice

Under Uniaxial Compression at Constant Strain Rate

The present group utilizes numerical time-stepping algorithms and the elas­
tic-viscoelastic analogy for non-linear creep. Damage models for crushed
ice are being developed. These have been developed for failure of float­
ing ice sheets but the criterion was based on damage accumulation models
such as the energy dissipated by creep (Bel taos. 1978).

Empirical approaches are available which solve the problem on the basis of
the "strength" of ice in crushing, (Jr. The energy in crushing can be cal­
culated from Dr = (JrV, where V = volume of ice crushed. The rate of vol­
ume change will vary continually during a real interaction, and the assum­
ption of (penetration) x contact area is correct only for a steady state.

5. Load Limitations in Ice-Structure Interaction

Limitations on load can be categorized into external and internal. The

external limitations relate to the movement of the ice and the driving
forces. An interaction between an ice floe and a structure for example is
limited by the kinetic energy available. The total consumption of this
energy (or its transformation to rotational energy which does not contri­
bute to the load on the structure) marks, in effect, the end of the inter­
action. Another example .of the external energy limitations relates to the
work done by external forces on the ice. Upper limits on the driving

167
!orc~ r,lay be detenlined, thus ir,lposing lir,lits on the work done for a given
displacer,lent. Consider the case of an ice sheet [.loving against a frozen­
in structure. The forces in the ice depend on the wind and current drag
but cannot exceed the force neces sary to fail the ice cover (ridge build­
ing forces). This in turn limits the work which can be done by "the ice
for a given displacer,lent. The 1imitations just noted should be treated
statistically and this is the approach of the present research group (e.g.
~aes and Jordaan, 1~84).

Internal energy limitations relate to events in the ice during interaction.

Fracture is an important Mechanism which has been shown to result in load
1ir,litation. As noted, the elastic strain energy E stored in the r,laterial
may be released by crack propagation. In addition, the ice feature May
break into pieces and attain additional energies of translation and rota­
tion. Clearly the analys i s of fracture events of the kind noted is the
key to an appreciation of such events. It will be shown in the example
below that the flaws existing in an ice floe are a key element in analyz­
ing the "spl itting" event. The consequent creation of new degrees of
freedom is an important aspect which can mark the peak of the load-time
curve. Flexural failure in floes or other ice masses is also an ir,lportant
phenomenon (Oanielewicz et aI, 19(3) and these can also result in decreas­
es in peak load.

The present research programme includes an evaluation of laboratory inden­

tation tests and their use in the estimation of ice forces. In brief the
strategy ' is to develop a stres s analysis of ice sheets including boundary
conditions, using appropriate constitutive equations, including fracture
mechanics, as already noted. Extrapolation to real (field) conditions can
only be made on the basis of correct characterization of the flaw struc­
ture. Such aspects as large initial peak loads ("breakout") may well be
explained Dy the relative perfection of laboratory and small-scale field
ice sheets.

6. Example of Forr,lulation of a Typical Ice-Structure Interact..:!~Probler.1

This scenario (see Figure 4) has been dealt with before by other authors
(e.g. Rojanski, 19d2 and Fidjest~l, 1983). In these studies the ice fea­

ture was assumed to be moving at a constant velocity just before the ini­

tial contact indicating that the driving forces acting on the ice are in

168
 Ice Feature

t Velocity

Figure 4 Discrete Ice Feature Collision

equilibrium. The energy balance equation is K + E = P.

The term P will include work done by the environmental driving forces W
DF
which may be acting on the ice feature during the interaction, and the
work done by friction between the ice and the structure W . Normally WDF
F
is ignored, and WF is not considered on the assumption that no slippage
occurs between the ice and structure. E is considered to be small com­
pared to the energy expended in crushing. Thus, the energy balance equa­
tion reduces to K = Dr.

It is noted that K may include a rotational component caused by the moments

resulting from eccentric impacts. This transformation of translational
energy into rotational energy may result in the clearing of the floe
around the structure, thus reducing the amount of energy dissipated by
crushing.

Consider the idealized problem in Figure 5 representing the collision of

an ice floe and a flat structure. The problem can be solved on the assum­
ption that crushing will occur. The purpose of this example is to inves­
tigate the effect of a pre-existing crack on the failure load of the ice.
Different crack lengths will be considered in order to gain an apprecia­
tion for the effect of the flaw size on the spl itting load. The ice floe
and structure dimensions are shown in Figure 5. The initial velocity of
the floe is O.2m/sec.

169
 T= 5.0m
Vo= O.2m/s

Figure 5 Ice Floe Collision Example

The energy balance equation can be apprOXimated for this case as K = 0rV,
The crushing strength or was expressed in terms of the uniaxial strength
of ice using the commonly used empirical indentation constants. The uni­
axial strength o(v) is a function of the strain rate which is in turn a
function of the velocity of the ice floe. To quantify this dependence re­
sults from EXXON (1979), shown in Figure 6 were used. The strain rate was
defined as t=v/2D where 0 is the width of the contact lone. Now observing
dv . '
that K = m v dE and that V = DTv we have [dv/o(v)] = [(-DT/m)dt].

This equation can be integrated to obtain the indentation velocity as a

function of time. This relationship can then be used to obtaln the ·decel­
eration, hence the force history shown in Figure 7.

A crack of variable length is introduced in the floe alon g the diameter

parallel to the direction of motion. Two cases are considered: one with
the crack under the indentor and the other with the crack at the opposite
end of the floe. The limiting condition on the strain energy density is
checked to find the load at whi ch the crack propagates. This is done by
a finite element quasi-static elastic analysis of the floe using the mesh
shown in Figure 8. The use of elastic analysis is appropriate for this

170
 Ice Source Grain Size
'0 ~o
"­
!

I.~

I
u 1.0

0.5

1(, 10-' 10-- 10-2

Stroin Rale (s-')

Figure 6 Sea Ice Horizontal Strength as a Function of the

Strain Rate (EXXON, 1979) for Unoriented Columnar Ice

brittle behaviour since crack propagation is driven by the stored elastic

energy and since ice is highly notch brittle (see Table 1). The criterion
for crack propagation is G > G , where G is evaluated by the finite ele­
It
ment analysis. The results are shown in Figure 9. It is noted that cracks
under the indentor can propagate at a much lower load than cracks at the
opposite end of the floe. Also, the splitting load for a crack under the
indentor, in the range considered, is not affected by the crack length.
For a crack at the rear of the floe, the splitting load increases as the
crack length decreases.

~'r-----------------,
1800

1600

1400

! 12ao

joooc
800

600

400

2ao

OL-------~o2,-----_,a~.------~a•.------,Q~.----~~,o

Figure 7 Force History Based on Floe Crushing

171

-
 Figure 8 Typical Finite Element Mesh Used in Analyzing
Ice Floe Splitting: Indentor at Origin

It should be noted that the crushed zone proceeds ahead of the indentor,
and it is expected that at the initial contact the rate of crushing will
be higher than the rate of displacement until this zone develops. These
effects are not normally considered in crushing analyses and represent an
area for further research.

2000
CrushinQ

1800

Z
:::e 1200
"§
.J

.!.! BOO Crock Diametrically

.1: Opposite The Indentor
u

400

00 100 700
Crock LenQlh (meters)

Figure 9 Critical Load for Crack Propagation as a

Function of Crack Length

172
6. Conclusion

An energy balance fOrfilUl ation represents a cons i stent and convenient tool
for the forn,ulation of ice-structure interaction probler,ls. The types of
energy involved in the basic ice-structure interaction scenarios were re­
viewed in this paper . . Different load limiting criteria were outlined and
formulated in terms of the energy components involved. These include ice
failur~ by crushing or fracture, energy dissipation by creep, consumption
(on conversion) of kinetic energy and environmental driving forces. Ener­
gy balance forr,lulations for important ice loading scenarios were given.
An example is presented to illustrate the application of energy formula­
tion of sufficient elastic strain energy to propagate a pre-existing crack.
The example shows that the splitting loads in this case can be substan­
tially lower than the loads associated \/ith crushing of the ice. This is
r,lOre pronounced for cracks in the stressed zone under the indentor.

7. References

Beltaos, S., (19713); "A Strain Energy Criterion for Failure of Floating
Ice Sheets" Can. J. Civ. Eng. Vol. 5, pp. 352-361.

Croasda1e, K.R., (1932); "Some Ir,lpl ications of Ice Ridges and Rubble
Fields on the Design of Arctic Offshore Structures", Proceedings of Work­
shop on Sea Ice Ride-up and Pile-up, Calgary, Alberta, October 1980, pp.
157-ltlO.

Danie1ewicz, B.W., Metge, I~. and Dunwoody, B., (1933); "On [stir,lating
large Scale Ice Forces From Deceleration of Ice Floes" Proceedings POAC
tl3, Vol. 4, pp. 537-546.

EXXON, (1979); "Technical SeT,linar on Alaskan Beaufort Sea Gravel Island

Design", Houston, U.S.A.

Fidjest¢l, P., (1':ld3); "VOSIl - Vertical Offshore Structures Ice loading

SiTolulation Program Docur,lentation" VERITAS Report 83-8513 (Proprietary).

Fung, Y.C., (1965); "Foundations of Sol id Mechanics", Prentice-Hall.

173
Gopal, K.R., Reddy, U.V., and Arockiasar,lY, I~., (1984); "Endochronic Con­
stitutive Modelling of Ice Behaviour", CSCE Specialty Conference in Com­
puter Methods for Offshore Engineering, Halifax, i~ay 1984, pp. 459-474.

Jordaan, I .J., and Nessir,l, ri.A., (1984); "Hechanics and Properties of Ice
in the Sea: What Should be Studied fO'r Ice Structure Interaction" VERITAS
Report 84-CGYI2.

Kuksenko, V.S., (1977); "Concentration Criterion of Volume Fracture in

Solids", Proceedings of Int. Conference on Fracture Mechanics and Tech­
no logy, Hong Kong, 1977.

i1aes, ,<l.A., and Jordaan, I.J., (1984); "Probabil istic Analysis of Iceberg
Loads on Offshore Structures", IAHR Symposium Hamburg, 1984.

Palr,ler, A.C., et aI, (1983); "Fracture and its Role in Deterfilining Ice
Forces on Offshore Structures" Annals of Glaciology 4, pp. 216-221.

ROjanski, 1·1., (1982); "Open Water Ice-S 'cructures Interactions", IEEE,

pp. 1195-1200.

Sanderson, T.J.O., (1904); "Theoretical and Measured Ice Forces on Wide

Structures", IAHR State-of-the-Art Report on Ice Forces.

Sih, G.C., (1973); "Some Basic Problems in Fracture Mechanics and New
Concepts", Engineering Fracture Hechanics, Vol. 5, pp. 305-377.

Sinha, N.K., (1979); 'Grain Boundary Sliding in Polycrystalline Materia~",

Philosophical i·jagazine A, Vol. 40, No.6, pp. 825-842.

Sinha, N.K .• (1982); "Delayed Elastic Strain Criterion for First Cracks in
Ice", International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Symposium
on Llefonlation and Failure of Granular Materials, Delft, pp. 323-330.

174
 WiR Ice Symposium 1984
IA
•
Hamburg

GROUNDED ICE PADS AS DR I LLI NG BASES I N THE

BEI(JFDRT SEA

T.S. Ke~ Jes8arch IBpart""nt

~search Engl neer Esso Resources Qlnada Limited CANADA

!t>stroct

Grounded Ice pads constructed upon natural Ice rubble f 'aids are beIng considered 8S

foondatlons for drilling rigs, and 8S protective Ice barriers around drilling structures
In the southern Beaufort Sea, Sprayed Ice Is an attn,ctlve alternative to flooding

techniques for construction of these pods. The spraying technique produces Ice at rates

50 to 100 times foster thon flooding. Th Is Is slgnlflcont becouse It enobles the pad or

barrier to be conpleted wl'thln the time frames necessary to drill til _II before spring

bre.akup, or to protect 8 structure 1!lI981nst mid lind I lite seoson Ice forces. The design

conslderlltlons, construction procedures, and mBasure<! properties for an e:wperIrnenta1 Ice

pad constructed fran sprayed Ice on a natlX'DI Ice rubble field Dre discussed.

175
 I NTRODUCT ION

Recent e)(p loretTon for hydrocl'lrbons I n the Beeufort Sell hl'ls led to the development of

l'I rl'lnge of novel drilling pll'ltforms. Reguletory requJrements heve spurred the need for

providIng contingency relief well capl'lbilities beside these new p l etforms. During _Inter

rronths, grounded Ice ptJIds have been proposed liS contI ngency dr 1111 n9 foundl'ltlons In .. "ter

depths reng 1"9 between 10m end 20 m. For th' 5 reeson Esso Resources Can8de L' ml ted hl'ls

been cl!Irrylng out tests to determine the feasibility of these structures.

A grounded I c e p.d ••s first used .s • drilling b.se In 1977 by Union 011 In 3 m of

water .. Ithln Hl'Irrlson Bey, AttJIske. Through 1977 to 1980 Esso Resources dr! lied several

de'InetJItlon 'Wells from grounded Tee pl'Ids In the M~kenz'e River et Norm"n Wei Is, North

West Territories. These peds 'Were formed by sequences of dally floods and each pad took.

several .. eeks to complete. In 1979 Exxon Comp~ny U.S.A. ~t Prudhoe Blr(, Alesk~ ~nd In

1980 Esso Resources Can~da at Its Issungn8<. artificial Island site In the Beaufort Se~,

tested the use of hIgh capeclty .. ater pumps equipped .. Ith sprey nozzles to form spreyed

fce caps on ~n experimental Ice Island and e naturel rubble field, respectively. In 1982

Esse Resources constructed an lee pad formed completely from spreyed Ice on the naturel

Ice rubble field surrounding Its Alerk ertlflclal Island site. The loct!l1'lon of the Alerk

site Is shown In Figure 1. ThIs paper, dIscusses the design considerations , construction,

materi al properties and performance of the Alerk Ice pad.

CONSlRUCT I ON

The site selected for the Alerk lee pad .. ~s I n an are~ of bath grounded and

ungrounded Ice rubble. The ..ater depth ranged bet.. een 3.5 m and 10.5 m obove the Alerk

Island berm. The sIte was chosen primarily due to logistics; It .. as accessible from flat

sea Ice on two sides, construction of an Ice ~cess road .. &5 not necessary and there was

en amp Ie water supp I y for the spray modu Ie through the f I wt lee areas. The extent of
2
grounded rubble constituted opproxlm.tely 60$ of the fln.1 5500 m p.d .re. end h.d en

average freeboard of approximately 2.0 m. Just prIor to spraying, the grounded Ice rubble

areas were leveled with ~ 07 bu Iidozer. The depth of .. "ter below the ungrounded Ice

rubble areas ranged from 1.0 m to 2.0 m.

3
The equipment used for the Ice p.d construction ••s • 4.54 m 'mln .t 8.27 kP. (1200

USGPM .t 120 PSI) Auror. centlfug.1 pump end. P200R 3.8 cm (1.5 In) dl""",ter spray

nozzle. In calm conditions this equipment projected the water Jet for e distance of 90 m

.. Ith the nozzle at a 45 0 elev~t'on. The equipment was housed In an Insul~ted sh~k and

••s reloc.ted by skidding It .round the periphery of the pad on the fl.t Ice.

176
LOCATION OF ALERK WITHIN THE BEAUFORT SEA

SPRAY ICE PUMP IN OPERATION

FIGURE 2

177
 Spraying of the pad began on January 27, 1982 and was coop I eted 14 days later on

February 10, 198 2. The actual net spraying tIme rurlng this perIod was 10 days o r 240

hours. Temperatures during the period ranged from +1 ·C to -40·C and winds varied from a
to 65 m/hr. FIgJre 2 shQts a photograph of the spray pump In operation.

DJrlng the spraying operation an average dally Ice grotth of 0.3 m/ day to 0.4 m/ day

was achieved over the entire pad surface area. In addition localized mounds up to 1.5

m/day developed In sheltered areas In front of the spray morula.. OJrlng shutdewn and

relocation of the pump these mounds were leveled and the sprayed Ice conpacted using both

a 06 and a D7 bulldozer. CtJservatlons shewed that sprayed Ice formation was greatest with

light winds and terrperatures between -20·C to -40OC. H:lat transfer calculations also

shewed that the most efficient freezing oCOJrred on water droplets with dlaneters 2 mm and

less. loPon corrpletlon there were approxlnately 22000 m3 of sprayed Ice within the pad,
3
versus 65000m of water pllT1ped. The difference Implies vo!l'ne losses from wind

disperSion and brine drainage of between 65% to 75%. A cross section prior to and upon

cOfl1)letlon of the pad Is shewn In Figure 3 and an aerial photograph of the finished pad Is

shown In FI gJre 4.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Th e major requirement for an I ce pad Is that It shool d not move I aterally under Ice

loads. Its latera I resistance 1 s calculated by conSidering the Sliding resistance On the

seabottom and shear resistance thro..gh the unconsolidated I ce rubble beneath and around

the pad. It Is desirable to construct a pad of dlrrenslons such that passive slope failure

oCOJr before either lateral pad resistance Is fUlly mobilized.

Ice !Dads - The limiting Ice load on the pad .111 be governed by the failure

mechanlsn, thickness, and strength of the Ice sheet .. As a result of the non-uniform

shape of the rubble field, the Ice failure will be mlxed~dal Involving crUShing,

buckling and fle)QJre, though passive failures .Ithln the Ice rubble .111 make fle)QJral

failures more dominant. The global toad used for design could therefore be rationally

reduced frcrn that of a continuous crUShing load to a point closer to the lewer fle)(Ural

Ice loads. A continuous crUShing load of 3.57 MN/m was calculated using a crUShing stress

of 1.7 loPa and an Ice thickness of 2.1 m (Stagg. 1982. A I""er bound fle""ral failure

load of 0.38 MN/m with 4.0 m of Ice ride up was calculated using a 2 dlrrenslonal elastic

analySis proposed by Croasdale (198(».

Sliding Resistance - 51 nce the Alerk Ice pad was located on a sandt seabottom only the

frictional resistance on a 1:11.4 sloping berm was considered. The relationship for

178
 CROSS SECTION THROUGH
LEVELED ICE RUBBLE AND COMPLETED ICE PAD
6 COMPLETED ICE PAD
FEBRUARY 10, 1982
4
LEVELED ICE RUBBLE
2 JANUARY 27, 1982
E 0
I -2
:J: -4

l-
ll.

UJ -6
c -8

-10

-12

-14

o 20 40 60 80 100
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE - m
FIGURE 3

COMPLETED ICE PAD WITHIN RUBBLE FIELD

AT ALERK

e
\

179
 horizontal sliding resistance of the Ice pad on a sloping surface. shewn In Figure 5, Is

given as:

= W l t ane + t ane ) (1)

RH T \1 - tane tane

From I ce rubble field stu:lles (Sh Inde, 5.8 •• W!!rds, R.D., 196~ 1 t was shewn that the

weight of the Ice rubble on sea bottom can be ~Iculated as follOlfs:

W (2)
r

On the I ce pad the additional we Ight of the sprayed I ce will b..

w 0)
s

If ria" Is the Ice pad width, then combining equations (I), (2) and (3) results In an

eJIIPresslon tor the lateral res i stance RH per unit length of the pad:

RH • a [p 9 (1 - 8 I (z _ _d_) + P 9 z _ ( tane + tane ) (4)

r s r 9.0 s s I - tane tanj3

g,eflr ~slstance - The calculated shear resistance through the Ice pad Is

more dlttlOJlt to determine because of uncert!!lntles In defining the shear strength of the

subrrerged Ice rubble. However, based on rubble field stability calculations the global

undrained shear strength of the I ce rubble was found to range from 20 kPa to 70 kP!!

(g,Inde, 1962). U;lng 20 kPa, the later!! I shear resistance through the 80 m wide pad

woul d be approximately 1.6 MN/m.

Passive Resistance - The granular sprayed Ice, which displays both cohesion and

friction. was treated as a ~hr O:>ulomb ""terla I. The pass Ive resistance I s therefore

given as:

(5)

The uncertainties I n the predicted passive resistance were assessed by varying ~ from O·

to 2et and C from 50 kPa to 100 kPa. O:>hesive strengths were determined from unconfined

conpresslve test results. llIble 1 shOlfs a corrparlson between these ctllculated Ice forces,

a nd I ce pad res I stances.

180
 TABLE 1
COMPARISON BETWEEN ICE FORCES

AND PAD RESISTANCES

ICE FORCES
FAILURE MODE PARAMETERS CALCULATED FORCE
MN/m

CONTINUOUS as = 1.7 MPa 3.57

CRUSHING 1=2.1 m

E = 1 X 10 7 kPa Z = 4.0 m
FLEXURE AND Ii = 0.5 Ci = 45° 0.38
RIDE UP I = 2.1 at = 750 kPa

ICE PAD RESISTANCES

FAILURE CALCULATED
PARAMETERS RESISTANCES
PLANES
MN / m

PASSIVE SLOPE )' = 7.3 kN/m 3 H = 3.75 m

RESISTANCE C = 5010100 kN /m2 0.40 -1.18
q, = 0° 10 20°
a = 80 m d = 7.0 m
SLIDING Zr = 2.0 m Zs = 1.75 m 1.67
RESISTANCE Ps = 740 kg /m 3 Pr = 900 kg/m 3
i3 = 38° f-) = 5°
SHEAR
RESISTANCE T = 20 kPa a = 80 m 1.60

TABLE 2
ICE PROPERTIES
CONFINED UNCONFINED
DENSITY SALINITY COMPRESSIVE COMPRESSIVE
kg /m 3 0100 STRENGTH STRENGTH
MPa MPa

SPRAYED 0.2 at - 2°C to

540 to 870 0.5 to 8.0 MEAN 7.3
ICE 3.4 at -22°C

CONSOLIDATED 0.81 at -13°C to

810 to 940 4.0 to 15.0 MEAN 13.4
ICE RUBBLE 5.27 at - 22°C

The surrounding sea water had a salinity of 20 0 /00.

Salinities from brine and slush samples were between 15 0 /00 and 20 0 /00.

The sprayed ice had a uniform crystal size of 1 mm.

The mean confined compressive strength of surrounding natural ice

was 17.8 MPa.

181
 SCHEMATIC OF ICE PAD RESISTANCES
PASSIVE SLOPE
f - - - - - - - Q - - - - - . y - F A I L U R E PLANE

SP~~JED f­
~-~~-------H

CONSOLIDATED--,--l 4S
ICE RUBBLE i i',
d
UNCONSOLIDATED SHEAR
~ _1S.E_R.!;!Bll~E~ ~ ~ _ ~ _ ~ ~ _ ~ ~
FAILURE PLANE

~=::-:-:-:-~-:-1~~::~~~~~~:S:LlDING

-----­
- - - - _ _ FAILURE PLANE
()

FIGURE 5

ICE CORE PROFILE

FIGURE 6

182
PROPERTY MEASl1lEMENTS

Property measurEments began soon after conpletlon of the Ice pad and were continued

through the winter. The prInciple objectIve of these rreasurerrents was to determine

strength properties for use In stability and bearing capacIty calrulatlons. Core sa'l1lles

ren'Oved from the pad were used to rreasure salinities, densities, unconfined conpresslve

strengths and to conduct a crystallographic analysis. In situ confined conpresslve

strengths were rreasured adjacent to Ice coring locations. Ice pad tenper"'atures were also

monitored using a renote data collection systEm throughout the progrm..

A typical core Is shown In FlgJre 6. The sprayed Ice was a white opaque granular

material and the consolidating Ice rubble was translucent. The ranges of properties

rreasured In the sprayed Ice, and consolidated Ice rubble are slmrrfllrlzed In Table 2.

A representative profile of the In situ confined corrpresslve strengths, a relative

rreasure of Ice strength, with corresponding rreterlal properties Is shown In FlgJre 7. It

can be seen that the sprayed Ice strength Initially Increased with depth then dropped as

tenperatures and brine volume Increased. The rel~tlonshlp between decreasing strength

with Increasing brine volLll1e was common to all tests. As can be seen In Table 2, the mean

strength of the sprayed Ice was lower than the consolidated Ice rubble.

The unconf Ined conpresslve strengths, a Iso slmtnarlzed I n Table 2, were measured

onslte from both vertIcal and horlzonta I core satrples at four different anbfent al r

tE!I'I'Peratures.-~e, -,Ye, -2(J'C and -2?C. A represent~tlve prof lie of the unconfined

conprass I va s"tran gth sis sh own r n FI gJre 8. Th a ver"t 1CBI I an d hor I zon"ta I uncon f I ned

conpresslve "tests sh{llfed tha"t the sprayed Ice was Isotropic; this con"trasts with natural

sea Ice. Sarrple strength as ~Is~ found to Increase with sarrple denSity.

DISruSSION

When corrpared with the thermal conditions of a natural rubble field, the sprayed Ice

on the Ice rubble has both a detrlrrental and a beneficial effect. The sprayed Ice

1 nsul~te5 the Ice rubble and reduces the rate of natural consolidation. Kry 1977, shOted

that the consolidation of the Ice rubble keels during winter Increases the stability of a

rubble field. The sprayed Ice, hOfever, conpacts the I ce rubble reduc Ing void spaces and

the surface area avaIlable to heat transfer from surrounding sea water. When conpared to

t€JT1)erature prof lies measured I n rubble fields, the rate of I ncreaslng t~erature In

spring beneath the Ice pad was s.lgnlflcantly slower. This may partially account for the

I ce pad survlvl ng breakup 1nto the open water season.

183
 IN SITU CONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WITH

CORRESPONDING DENSITIES AND BRINE VOLUMES

E
w
0
...""a:
~
III
0
""
"­
w SPRAYED ICE
!:! CONSOLIDATED
::Ii ICE RUBBLE
0
...a:
....x 6
"-
w
0 0 10 20 30 400 600 800 12
CONFINED COMPRESSIVE DENSITY - kg / m' BRINE VOLUME - VO'OO
STRENGTH - MPa

FIGURE 7

UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH WITH

CORRESPONDING DENSITIES AND BRINE VOLUMES

E
I
W o
o
...'a:"
~
III
o
""
"­

~
5

w 6
CIl
7
~
"­
w
o
10·> 10·' 500 600 700 800 900 o 12
UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE
TESTING
DENSITY - kg/m' BRINE VOLUME­
STRENGTH - MPa
STRAIN
VOiOO
RATE - S·,

FIGURE 8

Using t,"",eroture gradients fran M8reh}, 1982, measured Ice thickness, and given

that the ther"" I conduc"tlvlty of the consolidated Ice rubble 15 equlvolent to natural Ice

(/.84 W m- I K- I
for P • 870 kg/m and s • 4 0/00, Schwerdlferger, 196:J, a the..... I
r

conductivity of 0.26'11' ",-1 K- 1 was calculated for the sprlllyed Ice using:

k z T - T
k .~r._m_ _ I) (6)
a z 'T - T
e I a

An e.,"",le of the eonputed th...... 1 gradient, using this value with a mea.urad profile on

"'reh 22, 1982, 15 shown In FI gure 9.

184
 The bearing capacity of the I c e pad was c alculated using 5t~ndard geotechnical

rrethods. (bnslderlng the minimum unconfined conpressiv8 strength of 190 kPa f o r the

sprayed I ce and a 30 "kPa d Istrl buted dr III r n9 rig load, a safety f actor greater than 7 was

ca I cuI ated.

1AIr-lng the winter no major Ice sheet movement events o c curred around Alerk, althOl9h

an Ica rubble ridge did form adjacent to the I c e pad. Through surveys referenced to the

Alerk artificial Island. no lateral movement In the Ice pad was detected as a result of

thIs ridging activity. A srrell currulatlve lateral rJOvenent of 0.08 m WlIIS, hClrtsver,

measured over the winter. Also, total settlements during the winter were between 0.2 m

and 0. 5 m and a surf.~ce ablation of appro x lrTBte Iy 0.3 m was observed f n late May.

CALCULATED AND MEASURED

TEMPERATURE PROFILES

THROUGH THE ICE PAD

TOP OF PAD

SPRAYED ICE ~
0

CONSOLIDATED ICE RUBBLE \

-2
E
I
:I:
.... -4
"­ UNCONSOLIDATED ICE RUBBLE
'"
Q
-6

• MEASURED PROFILE ­
-8 MARCH 22
- CALCULATED PROFIU;
-10
FOR k. :; 0.26 Wm- I K""1 I
-12
SEA BOTTOM i
t-="-'-'='-'-==----------r
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5
-1.8·C
10
TEMPERATURE _·C

FIGURE 9

COf'CLUS IONS

The AI erk I ce pad constructIon demonstrates that the sprayed I ce constructIon

technIque can be used to construct an Ice pad on a rubble field, and th~t construction can

be corrpleted within the time frane necessary to drIll either a relief well, or a shallcw

dellne.tlon well before spring bre.kup. Though Iittl e I.tero I move...nt and modest

settlement oCOJred on the Ice pad, drilling rig SystEmS should be capable of ~ccomrrodatlng

these rooverrents. In order to limit these f"OC}verrents In future designs, passive flllilure of

the Island periphery should o c cur prior to mobilizing the l.ter.1 reslst.nee of the p.d.

In calculations of passive resistance, the hll1?r cohesIve strength values should be used

185
 since the colder site tarperatures make then more appropriate and they will glv9 a more

conservative design vah.le for required lateral resistance.. Other potential appllcliltions

of the sprayed Ice technolog( are the construction of protective barriers around

conventional drilling Islands or as winter storage pads. Further testing 15 stili

required to extend the sprayed Ice technolog( to other situations such as beside caissons,

on flat sea Ice, In the shear zone and In other water depths.

AO<NOI'L EDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank Dr. G.S. Stevens and Dr. J.R. ~wklns for editing the

rranuscrlpt and Esso R3soorc8s canad~ Limited for permission to publish this paper.

REFEREtC ES

Bowles, J.E., "Foundation Analysis and DeSign, McGraw Hili, 1968.

o-oasdale, K.R., "Ice Forces on Fixed Rigid structures", (bId Feglons

Fesearch and Engl neerlng Laboratory, Special Report 80-26, June 1980.

Kry, P.R., "Ice Rubble Fields In the VIcinity of A'"tlflclal Islands", P.O.A.C., 1977.

Schwerdtfeger P., "The Therrnal Properties of Sea Ice", Journal of

Glaciology, Vol. 4, No. 36, 1963, pp 789-807.

Sh 1nde 5.8., Personal Comnun Icatlons 19SZ.

wards, RooD., 111981/82 Ice Rubble Pobdel Tests", }POA A-oJect 186, .une 1983.

Shlnde, 5.8., Kerrp, T.S., "Natural Ice Rubble Studies", APOAProJect 185, A+Jrll 1981.

9l1nde, 5.9., R.O. W:t.rds, "Ice Rubble Field Stability", OTC4423, .-ouston,
Texas, May 19SZ.

N~ENCLATURE

pass lve s' ope density 01 Ice rubble - kg/.,3

res I stance - kN/m
y unsaturated unit weight
of sprayed Ice - kg/m 3
H tota I freeboard - m
C cohes Ive strength - kN/m 2
2 gravlty-m/s 2
K ton (45 + <1>12)
,p
q> Internal friction angle
C bottcm slop e a ng Ie
to static friction angle for
I ce on sand
total grounded weight - kN
grounded weight 01 Ice
rubble - kN
we I ght 01 sprayed Ice - kN
horlzont~1 Sliding
resistance - kN/m
paras I ty 1actor O. I to O. I 5
freeboard of Ice rubble - m
thickness of sprllyed Ice - m
average water depth - m
sprayed I ce density - kg/.,3
width 01 Ice pad - m
thenra I conwct Iv I ty 01
5 pr ayed 1ce - W m-I k- 1
therrra I con duct I vi ty of con so 11 dlilted
Ice rubble - W m- I k-I
melting point 01 Ice - ·K
1ntermedlate tB1llerature between sprayed
Ice and consolidated Ice rubble _ oK
Ta ambient air t6'l1larature - ·K
0/00 parts per thousand

186
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ICE INTERACTION WITH ADAMS ISLAND, WINTER 1982-83

R.M.W. Frederking National Research Council Canada

M. Sayed of Canada
E. Wessels Hamburgische Schiffbau­ West Germany
Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
A.J. Child The British Petroleum Company England
p.l.c., BP Research Centre
O. Bradford Fisheries and Oceans Canada Canada

ABSTRACT
A small island (200 m in diameter) is being used to study the interaction
of the ice cover with the island and the response of the ice cover to the
environmental driving forces. The environmental factors of wind, a'ir
tempera,ture, current and tide were measured. Horizontal movements of the
ice cover varied from 10 cm per day in March to 2 cm per day in June~ The
direction of movement did not correspond to wind or current direction.
Average strain rates measured with small (0.3 m) gauge length strain meters
and large (-100 m) triangular arrays were of the order of 10- 9 s-l. Direct
measurements of stress and values calculated from the strain rate were of
the order of 100 kPa.

INTRODUCTION
Only limited information is available on ice behaviour and ice loads on
offshore structures. Extensive ice monitoring programs have been carried
out for petroleum exploration structures constructed in the southern area
of the Beaufort Sea but much of the information remains proprietary.
Although most of the offshore exploration activity in the Arctic is in the
Beaufort Sea region, it is desirable to obtain information on ice behaviour
and loads in other areas of the Arctic, where circumstances are different.
For such studies, man-made structures are not available, but small islands
may simulate their effects on ice covers. This approach has been used in
investigations of large multt-year floe impacts on Hans Island
(Oanielewicz et aI, 1983) and first-year sea ice rubble formation at

187
Fairway Rock, e.g. Kovacs and Sodhi, 1981. A similar study is beiog
carried out at Adams Island in the Lancaster Sound area (Frederking et aI,
1983) which is the subject of this communication.

The project involves a number of participants and will extend over five
winter seasons. Its objective is to determine the response of the ice
sheet to the environmental driving forces, and consequent ice interaction
with the island. Results of the first winter of observations (1981-82)
have been reported elsewhere (Frederking et aI, 1983). For the winter of
1982-83, site visits were made in November, March, April and June, thereby
allowing the progression of ice conditions and behaviour throughout the
winter to be followed. This paper presents measurements of environmental
factors, i.e., wind, current, tide and temperature; and movements,
deformations, strains and stresses in the ice cover adjacent to the island ·
for the winter of 1982-83.

SITE DESCRIPTION
The area of investigation is at the intersection of Lancaster Sound and
Navy Board Inlet (73°45'N, 81°30'W) (Figure 1). Adams Island is situated
about 3 km ENE of a base camp (Borden' Station) on the Borden Peninsula. It
is at the entrance to Navy Board Inlet and in a land-fast ice regime from

+ _______ + _______ + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ + )J°50'N

USUA.L Olll "ION OF
~ ,,,,C i. ICI MOV (MfNT

---- ~s-u:~ ~A~O:-;;ST TeE" 700( ­

I
·r"·
+ +

ro'""

-----''"----[::: 80" JO'W

Figure 1
Location map of study area

188
November to June. Pack ice generally moves in a net ea&terly direction
through Lancaster Sound under the action of wind and current throughout the
winter, but occasionally it becomes land-fast, as was the case for the
winter of 1982-83.

During a site visit November 9-15, 1982, the ice in the study area was
already land-fast, with a thickness of 40 cm. The edge of the land-fast
ice was about 2 km to the north of the island. The late March site visit
showed no substantial change in ice conditions immediately around the
island but the ice in Lancaster Sound had become land-fast. Level
first-year ice thickness had increased to 1.7 m, and by early May it was
1.9 m. In early April an aerial photography survey was carried out in the
area. A photograph of the ice around the island appears in Figure 2.
Buckling features can be seen in the ice cover around the southern
perimeter of the island. The ice is mostly first-year, with occasional
small multi-year pieces.

o True
N

Figure 2
Aerial view of ice conditions around Adams Island, April 1983

189
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA

Environmental factors that can generate loads on an ice cover include wind,

current, tide and air temperature changes. All ·these factors were measured

from March through June.

Wind speed and direction were recorded at Borden Station from March 20 to
the end of June. The predominant wind direction during this period was
from the west. About half the time, wind speed was less than 15 km/hr,
one-third of the time 15 to 30 km/hr, and the remainder of the time above
30 km/hr. The wind s above 15 km/hr were almost exclusively from the west,
except in May, when they were predominantly from the south. There were
occasional storms with very high wind speeds from the south. Speed and
direction for one such occasion are illustrated in Figure 3. Air
temperatures in March were in the range -30 to -3S·C. As the season
progressed there was a gradual warming to -15 t o -20·C in early May a·nd 0
to 4·C in early June.

The ocean current was measured with an Aanderaa RCM-4 recording current
meter. It was deployed about 2 km northwest of Adams Island, 3 m below the
surface in an area where water depth was about 35 m. The record covered
the period April 16 to June 11. Readings were taken at ten-minute
intervals. The maximum current velocity was 0.37 m/s. The predominant

60 r -
::
E 50 t­ A -
-
,; 40

~
)0 -
~

20
c

I ~ h~
;-::

" 17 APR Il 18 APR i l I

q APR Il

Figure 3
Mean hourly wind speed and direction at Borden Station in April 1983

190
direction was to the east and that associated with peak speeds was to the
east-southeast. An analysis of the current record showed the currents to
be strongly related to the tide. The east-west component of the current
cycled between 0 and 0.3 mls to the east, resulting in a mean speed of
0.1 mls to the east. The north-south component cycled from 0.1 mls to the
south to 0.2 mls to the north with no net north-south movement. The
instrument also recorded water temperature and salinity, giving steady
values of -1.8S o C and 32.8%0' throughout the measurement period.

An Aanderaa TC-3A tide recorder was deployed on March 20 about I km north

of Borden Station in 5 m of water; it was recovered on June 14. Recordings
were made at fifteen-minute intervals. Maximum tide ranges were up to
1.9 m in mid- and late May; these were also times of high current
velocities. Tidal regime can be described as mixed, mainly semi-diurnal.
The maximum current of 0.37 mls to the east-southeast was associated with
the tide falling from its maximum peak.

ICE MOVEMENTS· AND DEFORMATIONS

An electronic distance measuring (EDM) instrument (Wild 01-20) coupled to a
theodolite (Wild T-2) was used to measure movements of reference points on
the ice cover. Prism reflectors attached to wooden stakes or camera
tripods indicated the reference points. The EDM has an accuracy of ±5 mm
for distances up to 1000 m, when corrections are ·applied for atmospheric
density (barometric pressure and temperature). Horizontal and vertical
angle measurements had an accuracy of ±S seconds of arc. Positions of
reference points on the ice were established by measuring their distance
and bearing from fixed base lines on Adams Island and at Borden Station.
The Borden Station and Adams Island base lines were tied to each other.

Two arrays of reference points were established on the ice cover in March,
one around Adams Island (Figure 4a) and the other adjacent to Borden
Station (Figure 4b). A coordinate system centred on Adams Island, with
east the positive x-direction and north the positive y-direction, was set
up to specify the location (in metres) of the reference points and other
instrumentation on the ice. All the reference points, with the exceptions
of MY-I and MY-2 in Figure 4b, were on floating ice. Point MY-I waS on a
grounded bergy bit and MY-2 on a multi-year floe. Positions were measured
from March 20 to 26 at two-day intervals. Another sequence of readings was

1~
 1000 .:I { a )
+ SURVEY STATIONS

!
o ICE MOVEMENT MARKERS
* THERMOCOUPLE CHAINS
03
.. IN SITU STRES S SENSORS

/,
..;
u
z
"'
0
I
~
0
500

-.­ N

I
!
I

(
t
0
z

-500 SCAlf OF
IC( '.i OV EME Nf S
~
o
~
, . 08
;:

- 500 500
EAST-VI[ S I OI S IAN CE. m

SCALE OF
ICE MOV [ ,\ ',ENT S
~'---
" - Figure 4
o
~
'm
(a) Ice movement array and ice
movements at Adams Island,
u
z
March - June 1983
"'
-500 (b) Ice movement array and ice
movements at Borden Station,
March - June 1983
8S2

-1000

-,
BORDEN + \

SIATION \ .:lIb)

-3500 -3000 -2500

[AST-W[ST OISTANCl, m

192
taken from April 27 to May 7 and a final sequence between June 10 and 14.
By drawing straight lines between successively measured positions of a
reference point, movement vectors can be established. These are also
plotted in Figure 4.

All the reference points moved in a north-northeasterly direction. During

the March measuring period, the movement rate of the ice cover averaged
100 mm/day. During the interval from March to April, the average rate was
80 mm/day and from May to June, it was about 20 mm/day. Movements of the
Borden Station and Adams Island arrays were very similar. Also the
grounded ice features moved at essentially the same rate as the floating
ice cover.

Detailed examinations were made of relative movements of the reference

points in the Adams Island array. The area change, rotation, average
movement rate and direction of a number of triangular elements defined by
three neighbouring reference points were calculated and are summarized in
Table 1. The proportional change of area of an element (6A/A) is the
change in area of an element (6A) divided by the initial area of that
element (A). Rotation is the average rotation of the three sides of the
element. Average rate and bearing are the average rate of movement and
direction of the three reference points defining the element. Elements to
the south and west showed area 10S8 or compression (6A/A negative) while
the other elements showed area gain. There is also a pattern in the
rotations of the elements. Elements to the east of the island have a
counter-clockwise rotation and those to the west, a clockwise rotation.
This indicates that the island is exerting an influence on the movements
and deformations of the ice cover immediately adjacent to it.

It was also possible to use data on the change in distance between any two
reference points to determine strains in the plane of the ice cover. These
strains were determined over gauge lengths from 30 m up to 500 m, scales
over which the ice is not necessarily a homogeneous body. Therefore, the
resulting strains are average or bulk values applicable to the distance
over which they were measured. (Local strains measured over gauge lengths
of 0.3 to 1 m could be substantially different.) Given the uncertainty in
the location of the reference points, the strains determined were accurate
to about 100 x 10- 6 m/m.

193
Principal strains and their orientations were determined for a number of
triangular elements around Adams Island. The total principal st£ain change
over the measurement period from March to June is presented in Figure 5.
The maximum strain determined over the 85-day duration of the measurements
was 5000 x 10- 6 m/m, which yields an average strain rate of about 10- 9 s-l.
Strain rates were generally of the order of 10- 10 s-I, but for Some short
time intervals (2 days), strain rates as high as 5 x 10- 8 s-1 were
observed. To the south, east and west of the island, one of the prinCipal
strains in the triangular elements was compressive and oriented towards the
island. To the north, east and west of the island, elements had large
tensile principal strains oriented in a north-south direction. The nature
of the strains shows that the ice sheet is responding to the presence of
the island.

STRAIN MEASUREMENTS
The Delta strainmeters deployed at Adams Island were based on the Scott
Polar Research Institute Wire/Rod Strainmeter (Moore .and Wadhams, 1981) and
the SP Sunbury strainmeter. They had a gauge length of 0.3 m and contained

CO MPRESS ION

ICE MOVEMENT

MARKERS
o 1 2" 10-J o100 100 m

'--'--' STRA I N SCALE ~

Figure 5
Total strain from ice sheet deformation between March and June 1983

194
three measuring arms 1n a 60° rosette formation. Drift is generally less
than an equivalent strain rate of 5 x 10- 9 s-l, one or two orders of
magnitude lower than strain rate expected during significant loading
events. More serious drift often occurs in the first one or two days
following installation, due to relaxation of residual stresses and
temperature equilibration.

Two instruments were installed on April 26 on flat ice at coordinates

-160.851, -194.010 and -163.373, -162.310 (see Figure 4a for coordinate
system). This area was considered to be sufficiently distant from Adams
Island to eliminate the probability of bending of the ice cover. As a
precaution, three level surveys were made during the period of measurement.
These showed no sign of bending within the accuracy of measurement
(estimated to be ±15 rom over a 30'm line).

Ice structure was examined at each strainmeter site at the beginning and
end of the period of measurement. The ice was about 2 m thick, the top
50 rom of which was granular, the remainder columnar. Ice temperatures
ranged from -16°C at the surface to -0.5°C at the base.

By April 29, three days after installation, strain rate drift was below
5 x 10- 9 s-l. One instrument operated until it was removed on May 6. The
other was damaged by a polar bear on May 4. Average strain rates are given
in Table 2. Analysis of the data tapes revealed that the strain rates
never exceeded 10- 8 s-l. Converting these strain rates to stress
(Sanderson, 1984), average stress levels were below 70 kPa and never
exceeded 140 kPa for the measurement period.

IN SITU ICE STRESS MEASUREMENTS

A transducer developed by Cox and Johnson (1983) capable of measuring
biaxial stresses in the plane of the ice cover was used to make in situ
measurements of stress in the ice cover. Controlled laboratory tests by
Cox and Johnson (1983) with the transducer in ice demonstrated that the
sensor has a low temperature sensitivity (5 kPa/oC), a resolution of 20 kPa
and an accuracy of better than 10% under a variety of loading conditions.
Ten of these biaxial ice stress sensors, lRAD Gage type VBS-3, were used in
the ftrst-y.ear level ice around Adams Island.

195
On April 17, five ice stress sensors were installed in the first-year level
ice southwest of Adams Island at about 120 m from the outer edge of the
rubble ice on the shore. Readings were obtained at twelve-minute
i n tervals. The locations of the five gauges were close to each other, at
less than one metre distance to the coordinates -182.996, -191.218 (see
Figure 4a) in order to measure the ice stress variation with depth. The
measuring plane of the sensing portion of the gauges was loc ated at 10 cm,
40 cm, 70 cm, 110 cm and 124 cm depth. The total thickness of the level
ice was about 1.9 0 m.

On April 23 the transducers were redeployed into a circumferential array

around the southwest quadrant of the island about 120 m from the outer edge
of the rubble on the shore. They extended over a distance of about 25 0 m.
The measuring plane of all the gauges was located at a depth of 30 cm in
this case.

Figure 6 shows the record for principal stresses p and q and their
direction (~) for a sensor at a depth of 40 cm (compressive stresses are
positive). High compressive stresses were associated with freeze-in of the
sensor, but generally within two to four hours they had relaxed to ambient
values. The results in Figure 6 show a gradual buildup in ice stress to
maximum values of p = 370 kPa and q =190 kPa following a period of high
winds on April 18 (see Figure 3).

900 ~-------------------------------'

~ ,..- FR EEZE- IN ST RES SES

~ it 600
:;;­

i ~ lOO~
0
t? AP Ril
~~ 18 APR IL

~~ ~
"' I!'i:
~~~ , ,
-e: ~
I
I I I

Figure 6
Principal in-plane ice stresses and direction from sensor at a depth of
40 em

196
The maximum ice stress occurred about 24 hours after the start of the
storm. The orientation of the maximum principal stress was east-west,
roughly towards the island. Similar stress behaviour was observed at a
depth of 10 em, but at depths of 70 and 110 cm, stresses were lower (less
than 50 kPa) and did not change significantly during the period of
measurements. From the vertical distribution of stress it is apparent that
the majority of the stress is carried by the top quarter of the ice cover.

The long-term readings with the transducers deployed circumferentially

around the island did not yield stresses as high as previously recorded.
There was a similarity in the trends of the results for all the sensors. A
sensor placed in the same area as the BP strainmeters yielded a ma ximum
principal stress of 84 kPa and a minimum principal stress of -11 kPa on
April 26.

DISCUSSION
A complete record of wind speed and direction, air temperature, current and
tide was obtained for the study area. As a first step to determining the
influence of these environmental effects on ice sheet movement, wind and
current stress on the ice cover will be examined. Wind stress (T) on an
ice cover is given by the expression
2 (1)
T = Pa C 10 U 10

where P is density of the air, U IO is wind velocity measured at 10 m

elevation above the ice surface and C 10 is the mean drag coefficient for
10 m wind velocity. Banke et al (1976) have measured values of C 10 for
Arctic sea ice in the range 1.0 to 2.5, with a mean value of 1.7. Using
the mean value of CIO and a wind speed of 50 km/hr (14 m/s) (a reasonable
value for the storm period shown in Figure 3), a wind shear stress of
0.43 N/m 2 was obtained. An equation similar to (1) can be written for
water (current) drag. In this case water density is used, velocity 1 m
below the bottom surface of the ice, and the corresponding drag
coefficient. An appropriate value of drag coefficient would be 3 x 10- 3 at
a current of 0.35 m/s (Shirasawa and Langleben, 1976). This yields a
current shear stress of 0.37 N/m 2 • The magnitudes of both wind and current
shear are similar, but quite small in both cases. ' Examining the magnitude
and direction of the wind and current shear stresses and ice movements,
there is no apparent correlation between these factors on either a
short-term or long-term basis. This suggests that other environmental

197
factors, or a complex combination of ~hem, may be responsible for the ice
cover movements.

It is unfortunate that measurements of ice movements, strains with the BP

strainmeters and stresses with the IRAD Gage transducers operated at the
same time during only a four-day period. This proved to be too short a
time to establish direct correlations between the various measurements, but
some comparisons can be made. Average strain rates calculated from the
movements of reference points on the ice surface were quite similar to
those determined from the BP strainmeters, 10- 9 s-l. This value is also
similar to average strain rates of 10- 9 s-1 and 5 x 10- 10 s-1 estimated in
1982 at Adams Island (Frederking et al, 198 3).

The in-plane stresses in the ice cover as calculated from the BP

strainmeter were on average below 70 kPa and never exceeded 140 kPa. The
maximum stress measured with the in situ stress transducers was 370 kPa,
but averaged over the thickness of the ice cover would be 1/4 to 1/3 of the
maximum, that is, 90 to 120 kPa. This is in the same range as that
predicted from the strain measurements.

It is interesting to calculate the magnitude of the 1n-plane stress which

could be generated in an ice cover by wind shear. Previously a maximum
wind shear of 0.43 N/m 2 was calculated for the storm period in April.
Applying this shear to an area of ice 10 km by 10 km, a total force of
43 MN would be developed. If this force acted on Adams Island (200 m
wide), and the ice cover was 2 m thick, the average in-plane stress would
be about 110 kPa, a value little different from the above measured and
calculated stress values. Although the selected area over which the wind
shear acts is arbitrary, this calculation provides one explanation for the
magnitude of the stresses measured.

CONCLUSIONS
The maximum average in-plane stress in the land-fast ice cover adjacent to
Adams Island in late April and early May, 1983, was about 100 kPa, from
both direct measurements and determinations from measured strain rates.
The ice cover was moving at rates between I and 5 cm/day during this
period. The maximum stress was associated with a storm but the increase
and decrease in stress lagged behind the wind by about 24 hours. Rate of

198
h.oriz.ontal m.ovement .of the ice c.over decreased fr.om ab.out 10'em per day in
March t.o ab.out 2 cm per day in June. The island exerts a l.ocal effect .on
the m.ovements and def.ormati.ons .of the ice c.over. Strain rates measured
.over gauge lengths fr.om 0.3 t.o 500 m were similar. T.otal strain change in
the ice c.over .over the three-m.onth peri.od was n.o m.ore than 0.5%. It is n.ot
yet p.ossible t.o establish the relati.on between the envir.onmental driving
f.orces and the m.ovement .of the ice c.over.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The l.ogistic supp.ort pr.ovided by the P.olar Continental Shelf Pr.oject is
greatly appreciated, as is the use .of the facilities at BOrden Stati.on,
.owned by the Canadian Department .of Fisheries and Oceans. Als.o the
financial supp.ort .of Supply and Services Canada and the Panel .of Energy
Research and Devel.opment is gratefully acknowledged. Technical supp.ort in
the field was pr.ovided by the Arctic Research Establishment, P.ond Inlet.
Thanks are extended t.o E. Lewis at the Bayfield Lab • .of the Department .of
Fisheries and Oceans f.or analysis .of the current data. Assistance in
preparati.ons and in the field pr.ovided by P. J.ochmann and W. Neper .of ·HSVA,
J.D. Neil, Technical Officer, NRCC, and M. In.oue, Visiting Researcher, NKK,

is gratefully acknowledged. Financial supp.ort .of the German Ministry .of

Research and Techn.ol.ogy made p.ossible participati.on .of HSVA in the

pr.oject.

REFERENCES
Banke, E.G., Smith, S.D. and Anders.on, E.J., 1976. Recent measurements .of
wind stress on Arctic sea ice. J. Fish. Res. B.oard Can., 33,
p. 2307-2317.
C.ox, G.F.N. and J.ohns.on, J.B., 1983. Stress measurements in ice.
U.S. Army CRREL Rep.ort 83-23, Han.over, N.H.
Danielewicz, B.W., Metge, M. and Dunw.o.ody, A.B., 1983. On estimating large
scale ice f.orces fr.om decelerati.on .of ice fl.oes. VTT Symp.osium 38, 7th
In ternationl C.onference .on P.ort and Ocean En gineering under Arctic
Conditi.ons, Helsinki, Finland, 5-9 April, 1983, V.oI. 4, pp. 537-546.
Frederking, R., Sanders.on, T., Wessels, E. and In.oue, M., 1983. Ice
behavi.our ar.ound a small Arctic island. VTT Symp.osium 28, 7th
Internati.onal C.onference .on ·P.ort and Ocean Engineering under Arctic
Conditi.ons, Helsinki, Finland, 5-9 April, 1983, V.ol. 2, pp. 875-887.

199
Kovacs, A. and Sodhi, D., 1981. Sea ice piling at Fairway Rock, Bering
Strait, Alaska: Observations and theoretical analysis. 6th Int. Conf.
on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic Conditions (POAC), Quebec,
1981, Vol. II, pp. 985-1000.
Moore, S.C. and Wadhams, P., 1981. Recent developments in strainmeter
design. Presentation by Scott Polar Research Institute to Workshop on
Sea Ice Field Measurements, St. John's, Newfoundland, April 29 - May I,
1980.
Sanderson, T.J.O., 1984. Theoretical and measured ice forces on wide
structures. Paper to be presented at IAHR Ice Symposium, Hamburg, August
1984.
Shirasawa, K. and Langleben, M.P., 1976. Water drag on Arctic sea ice.
J. Geophys. Res. , 81, p. 6451-6454.

TABLE 1: Area changes, rotations and average velocities of triangular

elements for interval (1) March 26 to April 27 and (2) May 7
to June 10, 1983

Area change Rotation* Average rate Bearing**

Element (M/A) % degrees mm/day degrees
(1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2) (1) (2)

SI-S2-S3 .02 .21 -.0002 +.148 82 15 25 32

II-Sl-S3 -.08 .07 -.072 +.034 83 14 25 30
BS1-BS2-BS3 .10 -.28 +.004 -.010 73 24 36 34
I7-07-08 .00 -.02 -.039 -.027 87 18 22 60
18-07-08 -.07 -.07 -.037 -.021 85 19 22 61
II-Ol-08 -.20 -.05 -.029 +.045 89 16 23 41
Il-Ol-02 -.33 .03 +.046 -.020 72 19 28 29
12-01-02 -.23 .03 +.073 +.003 70 21 27 25
I3-02-03 .20 -.03 +.060 -.012 85 26 31 20
14-03-04 .01 .17 -.008 +.065 110 31 30 18
14-04-05 .06 .28 -.014 -.033 106 30 31 16
15-04-05 .08 .15 -.016 +.064 106 25 30 32
16-05-06 .06 .44 -.067 -.003 103 20 30 27
I7-05-06 .10 .24 -.032 +.040 92 18 29 46
I7-06-07 -.01 -.04 -.033 -.026 86 18 25 65

*+ counter-clockwise, - clockwise
**clockwise from true north

200
TABLE 2: Average strain-rate in level ice

Strainmeter (-160.B5I, -194.010) (-163.373, -162.310)

co-ordinates

Orientation from North

Arm A Atm B AtmC AtmA AtmB AtmC
31· ISO· 91· 31· lSI· 91·

Date Strain rates Strain rates

(s- I) (9- I)

4/27 -9.lxI0- 8 -2.B x10- 8 2.7xI0- 9 -9.2 xl 0- 9 1.0 x10- 8 4.0xI0- 8

4/2B -1.IxI0- 8 -4.1 x10- 8 -1.5xI0- 9 0 2.3xlO- 8 5.4xlO- 9
4/29 -5.9xI0- 9 -9.BxI0- IO -9.BxI0- IO -1. 6 x10- 9 9.BxlO- IO 3.6xI0- 9
4/30 -5.4xI0- 9 0 -9.0xI0- IO 0 1.4xlO- IO 4.lxlO- 9
5/1 -4.0xI0- 9 0 0 0 7.4 xl 0- 10 2.6xI0- 9
5/2 -4.1 xIO- IO 0 -1.2xI0- 9 0 0 -1.7xlO- 9
5/3 -7.5 xl 0- 1 0 0 0 -3.7 xl 0-1 0 -3.7 xlO- IO 0
5/4 0 0 -B.2 xI0- IO 0 0 -B.3xlO- IO
5/5 0 3.9 xl 0- 1 0 2.3xI0- 9
5/6 0 7.BxlO- IO 0
5/7 0 3.7xI0- IO 0

201
 wm Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamhurg
MODEL TEST INVE STIGATION OF ICE FORCES ON
FIXED AND FLOATING CONICAL STRUCTURES

Egon Wessels, Hamburgische Sc hiffbau-Versuchsanstalt GmbH

Research Engineer Bramfelder StraBe 164
2000 Hamburg 60
F.R.Germany

Abstract
A comprehensive model test program was carried out under use of low
salinity model ice at HSVA 's ice model basin within the international
joint ve nture COSMAR (Concrete Structures for Marine Production, Storage
and Transportation of Hydrocarbons). The objective of the te st program
wa s to investigate the influence of the following main parameters of
structural condition s as well as of ice c'ondition s on the ice forces
exerted on conical structure s: - cone angle
- cone diameter at waterline
- structural breaking mode
- friction coefficient between ice
and cone surface
- velocity of ice /struct ure interaction
- ice t hickne ss.
One hundred fifty-two model te sts were performed in a three-part program
investigating the interaction between ice and
- upward breaking fi xe d cones,
- downward breaking fixed cones,
- downward breaking floating cones.
During all tests the force s and moments exerted by ice onto the conical
structures were continuou sly recorded by means of a six component bal­
ance. The test program included level ice tests as well as pressure ridge
tests. By variation of the breaking mode, a decrease of 70% in the hori­
zontal peak force of un con solidated ridges was determined when the upward
breaking fixed cone was changed to a downward breaking fi xed con e and
another 40% decrease was gained when the downward breaking cone was used
in a moored, floating mode. The results of the level ice model tests were
compared with prediction s derived ' from different analytical methods.

203

--,
 Introduction

In 1977 the international joint venture COSMAR started its investigation

of 'Concrete ltructures for Marine Production, Storage and Transporta­
tion of Hydrocarbons' . In Phase 1, the COSMAR-group consisted of sixteen
companies and institution s from Germany, Japan, The Netherlands, Norway,
United Kingdon and the United States. Financial support was given by the
European Community and the German Ministry of Research and Technology.
Within COSMAR - Part Project 4, "Concrete Structures Subjected to Ice and
Arctic Conditions", a series of model tests in ice was carried out at the
Hamburgische Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt's (HSVA) i ce model basin. The
objective of the test program was to determine ma ximum ice forces to be
expected on conical shaped concret offshore structures operating in
polar regions.
The conical shape was chosen because the inclination causes the ice to
fail predominantly due to bending instead of crushing , which is more sig­
nificant for a vertical structure. As the bending strength of ice is only
about one-third to one-fifth that of the compressive strength, much lower
ice forces on the conical structures were expected. The consideration of
concrete material in the COSMAR-Project was reflected by the choice of a
basic friction coefficient of ~ = 0.2 between ice and the cone surface.
This value was considered reasonable for uncoated concrete surfaces of
offshore structures.
One - hundred fifty-two model tests in ice were carried out between Nov­
ember 1979 and December 1980 in a three-part program investigating the
interaction between different ice features (level ice, ridges, rubble
fields) and upward breaking fixed cones, downward breaking fi xed cones
and downward breaking floating cones. Shallow water conditions and break
out from frozen-in condition were also investigated . Mos t of the tests,
however, were performed in the upward break ing fi xe d mode, which allowed
for a parameter study by systematic variation of cone and ice parameters
compared to basic conditions, which were agreed upon as most reasonable.

Due to limited space, this paper mainly presents the results of the level
ice tests with upward breaking fi xed cones ~s they indicated very con­
clusive trends depending on the different test parameters.

204
Ice Test Facility

The model test series was carried out in the Hamburgische Schiffbau­
Versuchsanstalt's (HSVA) small ice model basin. It is a three-part basin;
i.e. trim tank, freezing tank, and melting tank. The freezing or actual
ice testing tank is 30 m long, 6 m wide and 1.2 m deep. A motor-driven
carriage provides a speed range from 0 to 2 m/s . The air temperature can
be set at any value between 0 and -18°C and is kept constant within
1°C. The level ice thickness is uniform over the entire tank area to
within + mm. In order to reduce the crystal size and obtain ic~ of
uniform crystal structure and strength, a water spray method is utilized
for the level ice sheets: water of almost 0 ° C is sprayed at 400 kPa into
the 10°C cold air above the testing tank. The droplets form ice crystals
that settle on the water surface, initiating the formation of fine­
grained columnar ice similar in structure to natural sea ice.

Pressure ridges are produced by first growing a parental level ice sheet
which is then cut into small ice pieces. These pieces are compressed and
filled into casts, which provide the required geometrical configuration
of the keel. The compressed broken ice mass is supported by a level ice
cover, which is grown in the residual open water area of the tank. After
sufficient support is provided, the keel casts are lowered to the tank
floor. During creation of the final (supporting) level ice cover, the
degree of consolidation of the ridge material is controlled use of an
insulating cover .

It has been shown that not only Froude similitude but also Cauchy simili­
tude must be satisified (Schwarz 1978), so that it is necessary to main­
tain the same ratio of elastic modulus to flexural strength in the model
ice as in nature. The ratio of elastic modulus to strength (E/o) is 2000­
5000 for natural sea ice. For the cone test program under consideration
in this paper, low salinity ice (grown from a 6 % 0 NaCl solution) was
used. The ice strength was further reduced by increasing the ice
temperature and with it the brine volume prior to testing (Schwarz 1975).
The increase in brine volume also reduces the elastic modulus by an
amount such that E/ o ratios in the range of 1700-2000 can be maintained.
When the flexural ice strength is reduced to below 50 kPa, plastic
.deformation becomes significant, contributing substantially to the

205
energy required to break the ice cover. It should be mentioned, that in
the meantime HSVA began using a carbamide dopant instead of the NaCl­
solution, which allows for further reduction of the fle xural ice strength
to 10-20 kPa while the E/a -ratio remains in the range of full scale
values.

The breaking strength of the ice was measured before and after each test
run us ing· in-situ ca ntilever beams according to the method proposed by
IAHR (1981). Brea kin g force was determined wit h a spring gauge, the
dimensions of the broken beam measured, and strength calculated from the
following equation:
6 Pl

where P is the breaking force, 1 the beam length (usually 0.4 m), b the
beam width (usually 0.1 m) and h the ice thickness.
Generally, the beam tests were performed in the downward bending mode,
yielding typical downward fle xural strength values of 60 kPa. However, as
most of the cone tests were carried out in the upward breaking mode, some
of the beam tests were also performed by pulliing the beam upward instead
of pushing it downward. The upward bending strength was found to be 2/3
of the downward bending strength, which is due to the fact that the top
layer of the ice is colder and thus stronger than the bottom layer. The
ratio between downward and upward fle xura l strength of 1.5 is in very
goo d agreement with full scale cantilever beam test results reported by
Gow (1977) .
The ratio of uniaxial compressive strength to fle xu ral strength of the
model ice was determined to be about three, which is of the same order as
in nature.
A friction test ser ies was performed at HSVA's ice laboratory by drawing
an ice block over plane reference steel plates. Thus, the required mi x­
tures of INERTA 160-coating and fine granulated carborundum was estab­
lished, which provide friction coefficients against ice of 0.05, 0.2 and
0.3 respectively . These mi xtures were used for coating of the cone

models.

The density of the ice wa s determined to be about 940 kg/m J .

206
Test Performance

The test program was based upon the idea of carrying out tests under
identical cone and ice conditions in different ice breaking modes: upward
breaking fixed, downward breaking fixed and downward breaking floating.
Furthermore, the influence of single parameters was investigated. Each of
these parameters was varied in two additional tests, one at a lower and
one at a higher value compared to the basic test conditions. The velocity
was investigated during each test by performing test sequencies under
different constant velocities.

The basic cone conditions were as follows:

cone angle 45°

- friction coefficient between
cone and ice : 0.2
- cone diameter at waterline: 1.28 m
- tota 1 freeboa rd: 0.64 m
- conical part of freeboard
(ata =45°): 0.34 m

The basic level ice conditions were defined by a thickness of 5 cm and a

flexural strength of 60 kPa and the basic ridge thickness was 40 cm.
The basic cone model consisted of a double truncated cone with a vertical
cylinder on top which modelled the support column of the deck structure .
The main dimensions of the basic cone model at 45° cone angle, which was
used for the upward breaking fixed cone tests, are shown in Fig. 1. All
cone models were rolled out of steel plate and coated with INERTA 160 in
combination with fine granulated carborundum. The diameter at waterline
of 1.28 m of the basic cone was varied to 1.08 m resp . 1.48 m by lowering
or lifting the cone towards the measuring device. Two other upward break­
ing fixed cones were tested, one at 30° and the other at 60° cone angle.
For both, the basic diameter at \~aterline of 1.28 m and the width of the
top cylindrical column of 0.60 m was kept constant . Thus, the conical
freeboard of the 30°-cone was rather small (0.2 m) compared with the two
other models, which resulted in specific differences in the ice-cone
interaction.

207
All tests with the downward breaking fixed cone were carried out by use
of the basic 45°-cone model as shown in Fig. 1., however, in an up s ide
down position mounted towards the mea suring device.
Fig. 2 shows a principal sketch of the six-component-balance to which the
cone models were rigidly attached for both the upward and downward break­
ing fi xed model tests. By means of a computer program, the forces thru
and the moments about X, Y and Z axes were determined out of the six load
cell recordings.
The eigenfrequency of the entire measuring device was determined by ac­
celeration pick-up to be ab out 7 Hz. Thu s , the model tests were performed
subcritically, as the predominant ice breaking frequency varied between
0 . 1 Hz and 1.7 Hz.
In a smaller part of the test series, the downward breaking cone was free
floating, but fixed to the bottom by a single centerline steel cable. Due
to the forces of the oncoming ice sheet, the cone was free to move and
pivot about the one centerline support . Fig. 3 shows the main dimensi ons
and the characteristic hydrodynamic data of the model. The end of the
mooring line was connected to a three-component balance, which measured
the three cable force components thru X, Y and Z axes .
The measuring devices with the rididly resp. compliantly attached cone
models were mounted to an underwater running carriage, which was pushed
by the main ice tank carriage, thus providing the required relative
motion between ice and structure . The question about the additionally
created hydrodynamic resistance was answered by performance of open water
tests, which showed that for the velocity range tested; the open water
resistance was negligible compared to the ice resistance.

Test Results

The main results of the level ice test s with upward and downward breaking
fixed cones are numerically summarized in Table 1. In order to indicate
trends, these results were plotted vs. several parameters in Figs . 4 thru
11 and in Fig. 14. The so-called significant horizontal and vertical peak
force (F x ,1/3' resp. Fv , 1/3) was chosen as representative for a
specific test run. The significant peak force was defined as the mean of
the one-third highest peak values, which was determined by means of a
computer program for each test run .

200
Almost all level ice tests with the upward breaking fi xed cone showed a
negligible influence of the velocity on the ice force s , as illustrated in
Figs. 4 and 5 for ice sheet thicknesses of 0.03 m and 0.05 m at basic
cone conditions in the velocity range from v = 0.02 m/s to v = 0 . 20 m/s.
The only exception was the te s t at 0.07 m ice sheet thickness (Fig . 6),
where a considerable decrease in both the horizontal and vertical ice
forces was observed in the higher velocity range above v = 0.10 m/s . This
phenomenon can be explained by a change in failure mode as described in
the next paragraph . Most of the tests · showed a slight drop in the ice
forces ·at the slowest investigated velocity (v = 0.005 m/s). This effect
may be caused by ductile instead of brittle failure. However, at this
extremely low velocity, the ice was extensively flooded by ice tank
water, which had an undefined influence on the elastic behavior of the
model ice. Hence, the results at v = 0.005 m/s are questionable and
should not be overrated .
Figs. 14 and 15 show the speed dependency of the downward breaking cones
at fixed and floating conditions. Contrary to the upward breaking mode,
both the vertical and the horizontal ice force slightly increased with
increasing velocity.

Ice thickness effec t s

---------------------

Level ice thickness was varied in the test series with the upward break­
ing fi xed cone ~ In the speed range between v = 0. 02 m/s and v = 0. 10 m/s
a typical dependency of the horizontal i ~ (mean peak a ~ s
significant peak) to a power of about three of the level ice thickness
~ found as illustrated in Fig. 7. The corresponding vertical ice forces
- ~-- - ---.-~--- . ­
showed a power of two depende~ . At the highest velocity tested (v =
0.2 m/s), however, the exponent of the power dependency considerably
dropped for both the horizon t al and vertical ice forces due to the de­
crease in ice force, which in the higher speed range occurred only at an
ice sheet thickness of 0. 07 m but not at thicknesses of 0.03 m and 0.05 m
respectively. In order to illucidate this phenomenon, an analysis of the
distances between the horizontal peak forces was performed, which allowed
for an evaluation of the ice failure mode. In Fig . 8 the mean distance
between the horizontal peak forces was plotted vs . velocity. At a speed

209
 of 0.2 m/s the mean peak distance decreased considerably at 0.07 m level
ice thickness, whereas at 0.03 m and 0.05 m sheet thickness the mean peak
distance still increased slightly. This can be explained by the fact that
at higher speeds the ice failure changes abruptly from bending to shear,
resulting in lower peak forces . Obviously, the velocity range, where the
abrupt change from bending to shear occurs, decreases as the ice thick­
ness increases. Thus, the power two dependency of ice force on the ice
thickness at a speed of 0.2 m/s was due to the fact that the 0.07 m thick
ice failed already in shear whereas the 0.03 m and 0.05 m thick ice still
failed predominantly by bending.

With increasing cone angle from 30 0 over 45 0 to 60 0 the horizontal level

ice forces on the upward breaking fixed cones increased significantly,
whereas the dependency for the vertical forces was vice versa (see
Fig. 9). The ratio of the significant horizontal peak force was about 0.7
for the 30 0 cone, about 1.0 for the 45 0 cone and about 1.2 for the 60 0
cone. These ratios were determined at a basic friction coefficient of
~ = 0.2 . The corresponding ratio of the test with a downward breaking
fixed cone at 45 0 cone angle was 0.8.
Diameter at waterline effects

The increase of the cone diameter at waterline resulted in an increase

both in the horizontal and in the vertical level ice forces on the upward
breaking fixed cones (see Fig. 10). When increasing the diameter at
waterline from 1.28 m to 1.48 m, the force increase was greater compared
to increasing the diameter at waterline from 1. 08 m to 1.28 m. i.e. the
effective ice pressure slightly increased when increasing the aspect
ratio from 21.6 to 29.6. The reason for this dependency was probably the
increase of the clearing portion of the total ice force at larger dia­
meters at waterline.

Friction coefficient effects

The increase in the friction coefficient from ~ = 0.05 to ~ = 0.3 led to

a considerable increase in the horizontal level ice force on the upward
breaking fixed cone, but was almost negligible with regard to the

210
vertical forces (see Fig. 11). When the friction coefficient was varied
from ~ = 0.2 to ~ = 0.3, the horizontal ice forces increased about twice
as much as when the friction coefficient was varied from ~ = 0.05 to
~ = 0.2. The ratio of the significant horizontal peak force to the sig­
nificant vertical peak force was about 0.7 for ~ = 0.05, about 1.0 for
~ = 0.2 and aboutl.5 for ~ = 0.3. These ratios were determined at a basic

cone angle of 45°.

~!~~~!~~~~-g~~~~~~g-~~g~-~!!~~!~
Fig. 12 shows a comparison of the level ice test results at identical
cone and ice conditions, except for the ice breaking mode of the cone.
with the downward breaking fixed cone no test was performed at a level
ice thickness of 0.03 m. The horizontal ice force for this case was
predicted by comparison of the test results of the upward and downward
breaking fixed cone tests at 0.05 m level ice thickness. By changing the
upward breaking fixed cone to downward breaking fixed cone, a decrease of
50% in the significant horizontal peak force can be expected. By using
the downward breakng floating cone an additional 50% decrease can be
obtained compared to the downward breaking fixed cone.

Fig. 13 shows a comparison of the actually measured horizontal peak

forces of the unconsolidated ridge tests at identical cone and ridge
conditions, except for the icebreaking mode of the cone. A decrease of
70% in the horizontal peak force could be obtained when the upward
breaking fixed cone was changed to a downward breaking fixed cone and
another 40% decrease, when the downward breaking cone was floating and
moored.

Comparison with Analytical Predictions

The results of the level ice tests with the downward breaking cones
(fixed and floating) were compared by Milano (1982) with predictions made
by his analytical model, which calculates the energy loss associated with
the ice-structure interaction. In Fig. 14 a plot of total resistance, or
x direction force as predicted by Milano's analytical model for the
downward breaking fixed cone condition is shown together with the data
points of the model test results. The correlation is quite good, except
for the higher speeds, where the analytical model seems to underestimate

~1
the inertia effects of the ice. In Fig. 15 a corresponding comparison is
shown for the floating moored cone condition. Here, the correlation is
reasonable over the entire speed range tested.

Based on model test results, the following empirical equation has been
proposed by Edwards and Croasdale (1977) for the mean peak horizontal
level ice force on a 45° upward breaking cone at a friction coefficient
of ~ = 0.05: FH = 1.6 of h2 + 6.0 Pw g 0 h2
where of is the flexural strength of ice,
h is the ice thickness,
Pw is the density of water and
o is the diameter at waterline.

In Table the result of applying this formula to the cone and ice
conditions at ~ 0.05 of this test series is given. For the flexural
strength of of the ice the standard downward breaking cantilever beam
test result was used. The formula overpredicted the actually measured
mean horizontal peak force by about 25%.

In Table 1 all upward and downward breaking fixed level ice test results
have been compared with the plastic limit analysis approach as proposed
by Ralston (1980). With one exception (0.03 m thick level ice) all
measured absolute maxima of the vertical forces were higher than the
predicted ones. However, when compared with the measured mean peak force,
only one data point (0.07 m thick level ice) was underpredicted. An
explanation may be that the actual amount of broken ice mass on the cone
was greater than the one sheet thickness layer, which is assumed in the
analytical model.
As for the horizontal ice force, the correlation between the measured
absolute maxima and the predicted forces is better. However, the power
three dependency of the horizontal ice forces on the ice thickness as
found for the upward breaking fixed cone tests is not in good agreement
with the plastic limit analysis. Thus the maximum horizontal ice force at
0.07 m sheet thickness was considerably underestimated. A similar under­
prediction is the case for the 30° cone. Nevertheless, it should be born
in mind that due to the small conical freeboard of the 30° cone model,
the vertical top cylinder of the model had a large influence on the ice­
cone interaction, which is completely neglected in Ralston's analytical
model.

~2
Remarkable is the high overprediction of the maximum horizontal force on
the 60° cone, as this cone model had the highest conical freeboard of all
models tested and almost no top cylinder was present to interfer with the
ice. Th ~ quality of correlation between the model test results and
the plastic limit analysis pre~! ~ns were not homogeneous, and have to
be evaluated from case to case.

Conclusions

A model test program was carried out under use of low salinity model ice
in order to investigate the influence of themain parameters of structural
as well as of ice conditions on the ice forces exerted on conical struc­
tures. During all tests the forces and moments exerted by ice were con­
tinuously recorded.
The investigation of the structural breaking mode variation yielded the
most important results: Compared to the upward breaking fixed cone a very
large decrease in horizontal and vertical forces could be obtained, when
a. downward breaking fixed or a downward breaking floating cone was used
to break the ice. This result was achieved from level ice tests as well
as from ridge tests. The ridge tests showed that a decrease of 70% in the
horizontal peak force could be obtained when the upward breaking fixed
cone was changed to a downward breaking fixed cone and another 40%
decrease, when the downward breaking floating cone was used.
Comparison with analytical predictions showed reasonable correlations.

Acknowledgements

The author acknowledges financial support for this basic model test study
from the German Ministry of Research and Technology and from the European
Community. Gratitude is expressed to the colleagues in HSVA's Ice Engin­
eering Department as well as in the Technical Committee of COSMAR Part
Project 4 for their contributions.

~3
 Rpferences

Edwards, R.Y. and Croasdale, K.R. (1977), Model experiments to determine

ice forces on conical structures. Journal of Glaciology, 19 (18):660.

Gow, A.J. (1977), Flexural strength of ice on temperate lakes. Journal of

Glaciology Vol . 19, Nr. 81.

IAHR Section on Ice Problems (1981), Standardized testing methods for

measuring mechanical properties of ice. Cold Regions Science and
Technology, 4:245-253.

Milano, V.R. (1982), Correlation of Analytical Prediction of Ship

Resistance in Ice with Model and Full Scale Test Results.
Intermaritec '82, Hamburg.

Ralston, T.O. (1980), Plastic limit analysis of sheet ice loads on

conical structures. Physics and Mechanics of Ice, Per Tryde (Ed.),
IUTAM Symposium, Copenhagen, pp . 289-308.

Schwarz, J. (1977), New developments in modelling ice problems . Fourth

International Conference on Port and Ocean Engineering under Arctic
Conditions, St. John's, Newfoundland 1:45-61.

Schwarz, J . (1975), On the fle xural strength and elasticity of saline

ice. Third International Association for Hydraulic Research Symposium
on Ice, Hanover, New Hampshire, pp. 373-386.

214
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Peak Peak I Hax. Ralston
[m] [m] ide'} [mt sll[ kPall [lc Pal [m]
FH ,1/3 FV,ll3
L611.2810.601 45 10 . 2 10 . 05 1 61 141 0 . 05 0.3781 0. 5571 0 .650 10.7521 0.768 0.656

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1~11.28 I 0.601 45 10.2 10.051 60 140 0.07 0 . 905 I 1. 446 I 1. 826 I 1. 980 I 1. 286 ,­ 0.81911.17011.38011.46311.093

&11.2810.6014510.210.09160140 0.07 0.8031 1.2311 1.57611.8801 1.286 0 .69510.97711.15411.45011.093

[611.2810.601 4510.2 10 . 19 1 60140 0 . 07 0 . 79111.06611.33711.400 1 1.286 0. 756 1 0 . 951 1 1.09211.20011.093

~11.081 0.601 45 10.210.02160140 0.05 0.39710.527 10.5821 0.602 0.39110.50610.59010.60010.510

IL5,. 11.48 I 0.601 4510 . 2 10.02161 141 0.05 0 . 53410.72810.887 10.9901 0.974 O. 558 I O. 700 I 0 . 803 I 1. 000 I 0 . 836

~11.281 0.6013010.210 . 05155136 0.05 0.38610.490 10 . 537 10 . 5921 0 . 428 0 . 5521 0.6691 0 . 754 10 . 8001 0.612

~11.281 0 . 6016010.2 10 . 05160140 0.05 0.39410.59510.78611.038 1 1.719 0 . 36710 . 52210 . 647 10.88810.756

16.11.2810.601 45 10.0510.05159 139 0.05 0.249 1 0. 34310.42510.46510.53610.428 10.40410.51310.60610.70410.638

1~11.281 0.601 4510 .3 10.05160140 0 . 05 0 .650 10.8891 1.081 11.1501 0.976 0.4631 0.6141 0.740 10.8961 0.672

'\711.2810 . 6014510 . 210.05159139 0.05 0.15610 . 23210.298 10.4401 0 . 441 0.19810.27710 .343 10.4401 0. 366

1.2810 . 601 45 10.2 10 . 10 159 139 0.05 10.163 1 0.24710.31110.400 1 0.441 0.20810 . 31810.38610.43210. 366
J:{ 11.281 0.6014510 . 210.19159139 0.05 10 . 17910.31310.41810.4881 0 . 441 0.21510.36 3 10 . 46810.55010.366

Tab leI: Hade I test results of leve I ice forces on upward and downward break i ng fi xed cones
~
(0
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

RUBBLE PROTECTION - AN ALTERNATIVE FOR ARCTIC EXPLORATION

R. E. Potter Sohio Petroleum Company, U.S.A.

J.C. Bruce Swan Wooster Engineering, Canada
N.F.B. Allyn: Swan Wooster Engineering, Canada

ABSTRACT

The authors have .spent a number of years developing theoretical,

laboratory and field eval uations. of concepts, for protecting drill ing
and other systems in moderate water depths in the arctic, using
artificially generated grounded rubble pads. Thi s has culmi nated in
the development of preliminary designs fo r rubb 1e gene rat i ng
mechanisms, and also for potential types
of associated drilling
vessels. For these, methods have been developed for providing
sufficient stability in the· system to allow operation through the
dynamic break-up season. The paper will review the theoretical,
engineering and practical aspects; the methods envisaged for grounding
the protective pad; and a number of deployment alternatives.

The results of the work undertaken so far have indicated that the
system is feasible and could lead to the development of readily mobile
alternatives to the drilling systems at present in use or being
proposed. In addition to its use as a drilling platform, the concept
has the potential of being used to provide rel ief well capabil ity,
where appropriate, or for storage or other uses adjacent to a gravel
island or structure. In its present state of development, the system
is considered to have application in water depths up to approximately
20 metres, depending to some extent on the dynamics of the ice
movement.

221
 INTRODUCTION

Exploratory drilling in the arctic has proceeded from simple shallow

water sand or gravel islands to more sophisticated second generation
integrated gravity based and fl oati ng structures. Whi chever has been
used, the costs have been high and, consequently, there is an incentive
to seek new and more economical drilling methods. One such method for
shallower waters (probably up to the 20 m range) has been under study
by the authors for the past few years, and is referred to as a RUBBLE
PROTECTED DRILLING SYSTEM. In this, the concept is to use a reasonably
traditional rig within a protective ring of grounded ice or rubble.

At present, two bas i c approaches are under study in the · development of

protection concepts:

A system of high capacity water spray monitors which deposits the

spray in the form of hail or small ice particles, which builds up
and ultimately grounds to form a stable pad.
A system of "rubble generators" to initiate breaking of the ice
sheet and for ce the pi eces downwards to ground on the seabed; the
additional mass above waterline being provided by spraying.

The fi rst of these sys tems is bei ng developed by Exxon Co. U. S. A., and
details of tests undertaken in the winter of 1983/84 are reported
elsewhere in this symposium (Kemp, 1984).

The authors have concentrated on development of the second s ystem,

which is the subject o f this paper.

For protection of a structure, the fundamental requirement is for the

rubb 1e to be grounded so that it may transmi t a l arge portion of the
interactive ice force through the seafloor rather than to the structure
itself. In addition, a means has to be found to develop sufficient
"freeboard" in the ice mass to provide the grounded pressure necessary
to maintain stability even with very dynamic ice conditions in the
surrounding ice field. When so protected, a structure does not require

222
the same inherent stability as it would if it had to withstand, on its
own, the entire ice interaction force.

In the last few years, grounded ice pads have been used successfully on
the slopes of submerged berms in the Canadian Beaufort Sea, principally
for relief well contingency measures. Generally, these have been
formed uSing the naturally occurring rubble as a base, and building up
and stabil izing the pad by spraying to increase the grounded pressure.
One other pad was built on a trial basis in the U.S. Beaufort Sea.

A particularly interesting observation with most of these pads was that

the grounded pressure was such that, during break-up, the pads rem~ined
largely intact and in-place until well after the surrounding ice had
gone. This would be important, and indeed essential, if a structure was
being protected within a grounded pile or pad.

RUBBLE GENERATION

In a dynamic ice environment, rubble fields will form around any

obstruction, and the effect of the rubble on ice/structure interaction
has been discussed in previous papers (Allyn and Wasilewski, 1979;
Allyn, 1980; Bercha et aI, 1980). Methods have been presented for
analyzing rubble fields around structures in a range of water depths,
and for modelling the rubble accumulation and plotting the rubble
movement around a complex structure in a dynamic ice environment (Allyn
and Charpentier, 1982).

Rubble fields are important factors in the design of all arctic

offshore structures for a number of reasons:

they induce multi-zonal failures due to their width (Kry, 1980;

Metge et al 1981), and the ice floe/rubble interaction pressures are
reduced when compared with traditional calculations of the ice
floe/structure interaction

223
 they induce a multi -modal fail ure of the incoming ice due to the
random block orientation within the rubble pile which further
reduces the pressures
the grounded rubble transmits much of the force from the pack ice to
the seabed and so can be transmitted to a structure
the energy absorption capacity of a rubble field may be large

Field observations have indicated that stable rubble fields develop

over submerged remnants of abandoned art ifi cia1 is 1ands (Kry, 1977),
and natural shoals such as Katie's Floeberg (Vaudrey and Thomas, 1981),
a 12 m deep shoal, and 'The Natural Shoal', a 15 m deep shoal. Stable
rubble features could alone protect a winter drilling system with
minimal additional structural cost, but it is necessary to have a
system which provides protection during the dynamic freeze-up and
break-up periods. The rubble initiating devices discussed in this
paper were pursued partly because they were seen to have the potential
for providing' stability to the early season formations where no subsea
berm, shoal or other feature was present.

It is instructive first to review the current rubble theories and

methods of calculating the as sociated forces.

When free floating rubble forms initially, the sail and keel heights
depend on ice thickness and strength, as shown in Figure 1 developed
from the theories of Parmerter and Coon (1972, 1973).

The fo rces exerted by the pa rent ice sheet on the free fl oat i ng rubble
are composed of two parts:

conservative forces due to the potential energy increase (as given

by Parmerter and Coon)
nonconservat i ve forces due to fri ct i on on the top and bottom of a
sheet and passive pressure on the leading edge of the sheet, as it
pushes into the rubble. This additional force is represented by the
equation:

224
 where the variables are as given at the end of the paper. This
additional force is the largest contribution to the total ridging
force

A theory for grounded rubble pile-up was developed in 19BO (Allyn) with
a sin9le limit mechanism to determine peak pile-up heights. This
theory was later enhanced to include salinity, strength, and mod ulus of
elasticity variations through the depth of the ice sheet. In a paper
by Allyn and Charpentier, 19B2, a parametric study was made of the
theories available on these variables and the associated peak pile-up
heights. The resulting average curve used by the authors to define peak
pile up heights is shown in Figure 2:

~(~ '0r=------------~~------~~
=Tensile Ice Strength (MPa)
aT
~ .---------------------------~

~--------------~~ . '~------~ I
t "f------------:=;;oo-.....~~=-----...:j
i
!~ r_~------------------------~
~

) , t-t------------I

05 1.5 20 2-5
Ice SMet~ , him)

Fig. 1 - Free Floating Fig. 2 - Grounded

Ridge Pile-up Heights

The associated peak driving force, vertical force a"nd pile-up heights
are:
p. th( U-Ut)
c >-.- ( ~
3k )~

(cos/l-I'II sin/l)p_{ I'li C08/1 + sin/l)v

v-ih h2 (Uc+Ut ) >-'/0 3224 H· Pigh(I+l'li cot 1I){t+ f)

where the assumed pile-up geometry is given in Figure 3:

225
 bk>c", ( 9ht P':'_'_h_o--~
blocks . on top of primary train

of of

W= p;gh (1 + ~)s
~p~~~===~~~~ ____ ~C-~~~____

Figure 3

Components of the Resistance of Ice Blocks for Grounded Rubble

The grounded rubble fo rce and 1i mi t hei ght theori es ha ve been

developed, in part, using semi-infinite beam on elastic foundation
theory (Hetenyi, 1971). For an ice cover which is composed of
individual floes, the force is governed by floe buckling for small
diameter floes, and finite length beam on elastic foundation theory is
applicable. In this case, it is assumed that the blocks of ice are not
long enough to generate a substantial edge loading V, and .so the
pile-up height equation applies with V set to zero:
o. sine(l-l'lilanO)
H ~ pig (1'" .,an 0)( 1 +1')

Here Uo is the limiting driving force on the blocks due to

antisymmetrical buckling (Hetenyi, 1971). For the region of interest
where f< f;. ,q, can be obtained from the following sets of
equations (Hetenyi, 1971):
sn(t.J;vSX) _ (l-X) VN"
sinh (i..r; ~)- (l'X) VN"
f2~~

i= lengths of blocks in fractured sheet

x = °0 _ 00
~KE(I- "2)& - q;,
Thus x is the ratio of Uo to the buckl ing strenth of a competent ice
sheet and mu s t be obtained iteratively .

226
With this theory in place, force calculations can be undertaken for all
stages of the development of the rubble field to assess the protection
required throughout the season.

RUBBLE GENERATION MECHANISMS

Sohio's first experiments were with concrete shoreline protection

systems deployed on one of the Barrier Island beaches, (Potter et al,
1982). Similar experiments were undertaken with steel coastal barriers
in Japan (Yamaguchi et al, 1981). The relative success of these
experiments gave impetus to an attempt to develop mechanisms for
forming offshore protective mounds.

As has been seen, however, offshore protection systems rely on

grounding and stabilization. Consequently, the challenge was to find a
reliable method of initiating the grounding -process and a method which
would ensure that the rubble initiators and the rubble pile itself
would survive the very high forces and dynamic conditions that could
occur during breakup at the end of winter.

The first stage in the offshore development was the installation by

Sohio of ballasted tripods, or "dolphins", in the sUlMler of 1981 i n
approximately 20' of water (Potter et al, 1982). Their performance
showed that a stable structure could be produced that would induce
flexural failure in the ice. However, the design was not efficient as
an ice "collecting" mechanisms nor was it stable during break up
(Figure 4 shows the pile up around the dolphins).

A series of laboratory tests were then undertaken to evaluate "upward­

breaking" and "downward-breaking" booms with .varying types of ice­
collecting grids for water depths of up to 10 m. These tests were
undertaken in two tanks; an indoor synthetic ice basin and an outdoor
saline ice basin,the latter in co-operation with Esso Resources
Canada. The resu It s of these tests are reported e 1sewhe re in thi s
symposium (Graham et al) the basic findings being.

A fairly continuous "collector" for the rubble was desirable, with

the correct choice of spacing of the members being important.

227
 An upward-breaking boom generated rubble and collected ice but dill

not promote grounding.

A downward-breaking boom immediately initiated grounding.

Figure 4

Arctic "Dolphins"

Typical pile-up co nfigurations are shown in Figures 5 and 6 for the

indoor and outdoor tests.

Fi gu re 5 Figure 6
Indoor Tank Tests Outdoor Tank Tests

228
Following these successful tests, the decision was made to concentrate
efforts on the development of effective and readily deployable
mechanisms with downward breaking booms.

Whatever the design, there is a requirement for sufficient initial

stability to resist the ice forces prior to the grounding of an
effective barrier. Consequently, in the tests and in other work, an
evaluation was made of a variety of methods of ballasting the
structures, using sand ballast, piles or anchors. Very little
difference in performance of the boom was evident, and the choice of
ballast method would depend upon the plant available for deployment on
location in the arctic.

Detailed designs were developed for deploying a number of

sand-ballasted individual generators with downbreaking booms. The
resulting design is shown on Figures 7 and 8. From these sketches it
can be seen that the units are fabricated from standard steel shapes,
and bui lt up in such a way that they can be fabri cated insect ions in
the south, and assembled with a minimum of lifts in the arctic.

~ ~
Independent Rubble Pile-up on
Generator Generator

229
 FIELD TESTS

The designs were circulated to industry, the intention of Sohio being

to use a number of these generators for a field test in 1983/84. For
this test, the desire was to find a "dynamic" ice area to test the need
for a structure to act as a stabilizing device for the first rubble
formations. The test would have sought confirmation of three essential
requi rements:

that, in full scale, the generators would act to initiate a grounded

pile as they did in the laboratory.
that sufficient stability could be achieved in the initial grounding
to act as a base for the spraying operations.
that the grounded pad could survive the dynamic break-up conditions.

Time did not permit the construction of new generators nor the
participation of a wider segment of industry. Consequently an
alternative test was undertaken for Sohio in 14 m water depths in the
Canadian arctic using a modified bow of a decomissioned tanker as the
rubble generating mechanism, and as an operations base for spraying. On
the basi s of model testing, the bow was modified to incl ude a downward
breaking structure to induce early winter rubble formations (Figure 9).

Figure 9
Rubble Generating Structure Test with Synthetic Ice

230
In the winter of 1983/84, conditions were unusual, however, with
incursions of multiyear ice stabil izing the ice between the 20 m
isobath and the shoreline. Consequently, little rubble developed and
the pad was produced entirely by spraying, (Figure 10).

Fi gure 10

Winter Spraying - Field Test

While the ice conditions were such that the ability to generate rubble
was not demonstrated, the field tests were successful in that they
demonstrated two important points:

that in the depth tested,a sprayed pad can be built up in stable ice
conditions even without initial rubble
that the grounded pad can survive break up

231
 To ensure that use can be made of the pad as early as possi ble in the
season, there is a need to ensure that sprayi ng is undertaken in as
short a time as possible. In the recent tests, traditional spraying
techni ques achi eved along term average of 30 cm ice buil d-up per day,
with peaks up to 100 cm per day. Much faster rates can be achieved
with the large monitors (Exxon's monitors being used to build up the
1ast few meters of the Sohi 0 pad) and thi s cou 1d be a cons i derab 1e
advantage for achieving the earliest possible use of the protected
system.

USES FOR PROTECTION SYSTEMS

The development of rubble protection systems is in its infancy. As

well as being used for drilling, the system appears to have many
potential uses, such as for supplementary storage islands, relief pads
or protection for water intakes and harbour entrances.

The most si mp 1e system is the independent ice pad formed by rubble

initiation and spraying, which is shown in Figures 11 and 12. Because
of the time taken in building up the sprayed pad, the system would not
be ready for use in early winter, and so the system is perceived to be
a later winter solution. A disadvantage with this system is that as an
exploration island, the drilling equipment would have to be placed on
the island in mid winter and removed prior to break up. This has
obv i ous problems if the site is ina dynami c area, or nea r the
transition zone, and cannot be accessed by ice road.

Figs. 11 & 12

~.--
~- _
.. .......

--­

Alternative Configurations

232
~10re promising alternatives for dri 11 i ng are integrated
multi-directional generators which may carry the drilling equipment, or
the use of an integrated floating or bottom founded barge which can be
dep 1oyed in earl y wi nter and protected by a rubble pi 1e. A typi ca 1
arrangement can be given, and is indicated in Figure 13.

' ~'3~\
00«\'
~ \,o~
aac o O\~eC
c-B-a-r-g-e--'] ~Discontinuous
L ­_ __ ' a Barrier

.. ,,~-

Figure 13

Typical Rubble Protected Vessel

As has been seen for any of these systems, the freeboard is a function
of the resistance required for the ice loading at the various times of
the season, and is a standard ice/structure interaction problem. The
dimensions of the pad will be a function of the ice density which can
be obtained from the spraying, and of the soils conditions. Again, the
interaction of the pad with the seabed is a standard soil mechanics
problem. An interesting feature of the system is that, in general, a
large base area will be provided in the process of developing the
rubble. Consequently, there is an inherent abil ity to deal with the
very weak soils conditions which occur in certain areas of the Beaufort
Sea.

233
 COMMENTAR Y

This paper has outlined the development of rubble protection systems

over the past few years. What is evident from laboratory and field
tests is that a variety of systems are feasible for the development of
stable ice pads around a structure. Now, considerably more field
experi ence wi th the systems is requi red so that thei r performance and
reliability can be more accurately assessed. The points which
particularly need to be addressed in future work are:

the separation required between the protected structure and the pad
the abil ity to deal with potential overtopping of the rubble pi Ie
the ability to deal with late surrmer storms if a rig is in place but
not protected.
the ability to develop systems which can also cope with multi-year
ice incusions when no protection system is in place.

Of particular interest, also, will be the continuing development of the

high capacity spray monitors and the possibility of combining their use
with the use of rubble generating systems in very dynamic ice areas.

The time is forseen, therefore, when it will be possible to deploy more

traditional floating barge drilling systems and to protect them, with
confidence, with ice pads during the winter and through break-up.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The development of the rubble generating mechanisms has been undertake
primarily by and for Sohio Petroleum and Esso Resources Canada. The
work and sys tems reported in thi s paper are 1arge I y those for Sohi 0
who, previously, have circulated much of the information to industry.
Laboratory work was undertaken by Arctec Canada who collaborated
closely with Swan Wooster in developing the boom configurations. The
1983/84 field test was undertaken by Canmar for Sohio, with spraying
undertaken under sub-contract by Geotech TTl. The authors acknowledge
the cooperation of all these organizations and the assistance in
providing information for this paper. The authors are also grateful to
Sohio for permission to publish the information and illustrations, and
to Esso Resources staff for commentary on the text of the paper.

234
NOMENCLATURE
E Young's modulus of elasticity s' length of train of
h thickness of parent ice sheet blocks riding on the primary
or floe train of blocks
H extreme height of grounded ridge v vertical edge load on ice sheet
HK keel depth below ice sheet 'Ys ratio of ice in sail
Hs sail height above ice sheet 'Yk ratio of ice in keel
K unit weight of water ~H ice block-ice block dynamic
Kp passive pressure coefficient friction coefficient
P grounded. ri dgi ng force ~s ice sheet to sail friction
s length of primary train of coefficient
blocks riding up a grounded ridge ~k ice sheet to keel friction
ac crushi ng strength of ice coefficient
at tensi Ie strength of ice Pig unit weight of water
o angle between the sail and the ¢ angle between the keel and the
hori zonta I hori zontal

REFERENCES
Allyn, N. and Vlasilewski, B.R.: "Some Influences of Ice Rubble Field
Formations Around Artificial Islands in Deep Vlater", POAC, Trondheim,

Norway, 1979.

Allyn, N.: "Ice Pil e-Up Around Offshore Structures in the 8eaufort

Sea", Sea Ice Ridging and Pile-Up, Calgary, Alberta, 1980.

Allyn, N.F.B. and Charpentier, K.J., 1982, "Modeling Ice Rubble

Fields Around Arctic Offshore Structures", Proceedings OTC, Houston.

Bercha, F.G., Potter, R.E., Goss, R.D. and Ghoneim, G.A.: "Effect of

Pile-Ups and Rubble Fields on Ice-Structures Interaction Forces", OTC

Houston, Texas, 1980.

Graham, B.VI., Potter, R.E. , Vlood, K.N •• Comfort. G.:

"Rubble-Protected Dri 11 i ng System Deve 1 opment s" , IAHR, Hamburg.
Germany, 1984.
Hetenyi, M.: "Beams on Elastic Foundations", Ninth Ed., U. of

Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1971.

Kemp, T.S.: "Grounded Ice Pads as Drilling Bases in the Beaufort

Sea", IAHR, Hamburg, Germany, 1984.

Kry, P.R.: "Ice Rubble Fields in the Vicinity of Artificial

Islands", POAC, Newfoundland, 1977.

Kry, P.R.: "Ice Forces on Vlide Structures". Canadian Geotechnical

Journal, Vol. 17, 1980.

235
 Metge, M., Danielewiq, B. and Hoare, R. : "On Measuring Large Scale

Ice Forces, Hans Island 1980", POAC, Quebec City, 1981.

Parmerter, R.R. and Coon, M.D.: "Model of Pressure Ridge Formation

in Sea Ice", of Geophys i ca I Research, Vol. 77, No. 33, Nov. 1972.

Parmerter, R.R. and Coon, M.D.: "On the Mechanics of Pressure Ridge

Formation in Sea Ice", OTC, 1973, Houston, Texas.

Potter, R.E., Reid, D.L., Bruce, J.C. and Noble, P.G.: "Development

and Field Testing of Beaufort Sea Ice Boom", OTC, Houston, Texas,

1982.

Vaudrey, K.D. and Thomas, B.: "Katie's Floeberg-1980, prepared by

Gulf Research and Development Co., Houston, Texas, January, 1981.

Yamaguchi, T., Yoshida, H., Yashida, N., Ando, M.: "Field Test Study

of Pack Ice Barrier", July 1981, POAC 81, Quebec, Canada.

236
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

ICE ACTION ON HYDRAULIC STRUCTURE SLOPES

S.M.Aleinikov, Hd of Res.Gr. The B.E.Vedeneev VNIIG,

V.E.Lyapin, Hd of Lab. Leningrad
L.A.Sbmelyova, LeadiIlg EIlgr USSR
D.E.Kheisin, Hd of Chair I.SKhI, Leningrad

Abstract

A process of the ice pile-up on the slope is considered and

relationships for determining the pile-up formation force

are presented. A description is given of experimental inves­

tigations and calculation procedures for defining the stabi­

lity of the slope protection made of tetrapods, large-size

quarry stones and ribbed reinforced concrete plates. The in­

vestigatioDs revealed that the slopes protected with tetra­

pods and quarry-stones are not stable.

237
Ice loads on the elements of the Leningrad Flood Control Bar­
rier were predominantly defined based on the Building Code
SNiP 2.06.04-82 (1983). Considering a unique character of
this structure and peculiar conditions of its operation some
additional stUdies were sponsored. In particular, the inter­
action between the moving ice and the jetty protecting the
ship canal was investigated. To design a jetty stable under
all ice loading conditions the probable damage of the slope
protection, ice slide over the jetty crest and the protection
elements carry-over by the moving ice up and into the canal
were estimated. To this end both design calculations and
model experiments were performed. Two types of the slope pro­
tection were checked by the calculations: large-sized quarry
stones and tetrapods. The experiments covered three types of
the protection: large-sized quarry stones, tetrapods and
ribbed reinforced concrete slabs.
The model experiments were carried out in the cooling chamber
of the B.E.Vedeneev VNIIG at specified temperature conditions.
Basic parameters of the models were adopted according to the
modelling theory worked out for studying ship movement in ice
infested waters. The ice plate was assumed to be isotropic
and quasielastic. Based on the sizes of the ice basin the mo­
del scale 1 .to 10 was adopted which corresponds to the load
scale 1.25x105 • The jetty nose and a part of the side slope
were put to testing. Each type of the slope protection was
checked for pull-out of the elements due to rise of the water
stage and then for their displacement and carry-over by the
ice sliding up the slope during the debacle. The mOving ice
action was investigated at free resting of ice on the slope
surface and at congealing of the protection elements above
the water level which can be expected if the freeze-up is
preceded by swelling.
In all pull-out tests at the moment when water reached the
height equal to the ice thickness (h ), a crack was formed
in the ice at a distance of 10-12 h from the slope. There
was no pull-out and, therefore, no lift of the slope protec­
tion elements. The jetty portion below the water level was

238
 -

!frozen to the depth of 4-5 h .

In the studies of the moving ice-structure interaction the

ice slid up the slope and broke into 12 -h long and 8 -h wide
pieces (approx.). On the jetty nose the sqeezed out ice
blocks usually reached the jetty top and then came to a hault.
If the ice slide-up continued, the pilings formed in this
location. When the ice field moved towards the jetty slope,
the ice blocks slid up, moved over the roadway to the oppo­
site side and stopped, thus starting formation of the pilings.
There were no signs of the displacement and carry-over of
congealed elements of the slope protection. When the ice slid
up the non-congealed slope protection the quarry stones were
displaced and carried along to the roadway, in some cases be­
ing pushed over it. The tetrapods were also displaced and
carried along on the road. Sometimes the upsliding ice came
under the "legs" of a tetrapod and drew it out onto the con­
gealed slope surface. The tetrapod either rolled down this
surface towards the Gulf or crossed the jetty crest and slid
off to the canal. On the slopes protected with reinforced
concrete slabs having ribs of a lesser height than the ice
thickness the slabs were not displaced, and the ice blocks
moved up as if the surface were flat. The ribs did not affect
the ice failure pattern. Thus the protection of the jetty
slopes with ribbed reinforced concrete slabs turned out to be
most effective in sustaining ice loads.
The jetty stability under the effect of ice during debacle
was also estimated analytically.
Depending on the angle of slope (9 the sliding of ice up the
slope and its subsequent failure assume different patterns.
At 8 >8 cr the sliding of the ice up the slope is imposs­
ible. Here 8 cr = arc ctg f fr' wheref fr is the friction
coefficient of ice. At 8.;; Gcr ice slides up the slope and
fails due to bending. Then the fragment formed continues to
move up the slope under restricted turn conditions. Hence two
design versions were considered: first, the breaking of the
ice field edge under combined action of bending and compres­
sionl second, the squeeze of the ice fragment up the slope
under combined action of gravitational and longitudinal com­

239
pression forces.
Consider the first phase of the solid ice sliding up the
slope under the action of the longitudinal force T (Fig.1).
The ice cover is assumed to be a thin uniform plate resting
on the hydraulic foundation and bending over the cylindrical
surface. The ice plate is compressed by the force T and bent
by the vertical component of the slope reactive force R
The differential equation of the plate bending will be

(1 )

where W(X)is the plate deflection;

~ is the density of waterl
L1J
2.
is the cylindrical density of the plate.
On the left end of the plate assumed to be freely resting on
the slope the horizontal reactive force Rx = T and vertical
force
n!1 =T (2)

are acting; at e>(1 cr R", = T SLit e and

rlF = TcosS.
Considering that the bending moment in the ice edge is equal
to zero we have
W"(o) = 0 , 0)
and at X = 0 the contact force will be
J)W"'(O) + T W'(O) = - R!J (4)
On the right -hand side at X - - + all bending elements tend
<>0

to zero. Then for the sag VV we will derive

(6)

The longitudinal force T cannot exceed Tcr at which the

ice plate looses stability. For semi-infinite plate on the

241
hydraulic foundation

The constants of integration C1 and C2 are defined from

boundary conditions (3) and (4). The values of the maximal
horizontal compressive force IImax can be found assuming
that the initial fracture of the ice plate takes place due
to bending at the section where the maximal bending moment
is observed.
M =6fh~.
1 6
where Of is the ultimate bending strength of the ice.
Omitting further rather lengthy calculations we present below
low the final calculation formula for ~ max

where the coefficient ~ is determined from the expression

v&n 0XP (t a7C~ ~) (9)

The calculations according to formulas (8) and (9) are made

by the successive approximation method taking into account
that the exponential term in formula (9) takes the form

mctg (10)

This term weakly depends on the ratio T / T cr ' I f T =0

we have c;{ =f6 and e;xP(atd91)= 2.19, whereas at T= Tcr
erxp (J met$]- (3) = 1.83. .
Thus, as the first approximation in determining the ~ltimate
compressive force acting on the slope due to the ice load
av;y values of T within the range 0 '7' Tcr can be adopted • .
Next the coefficient I.fJ should be determined by formula (9),
and a new value of II - by formula (8). Then the exponent
value is to be refine~c. Two approximations are found
bv(10),

242
 "­
"­
"­
"­
"­
""­
"­
""­
""
""
""­
"""........~~-~,'\
~ t 02~ '-'-'"

t~

243

to be sufficient.
Following the first phase of the ice sliding, the fragment
formed is squeezed up the slope. The squeeze-up movement is
hampered due to substantial friction between.the fragment
and the slope. At large angles of slope no squeeze-up m~y
take place. Consequently, in this case the critical angle of
slope and the force at the contact between the fragment and
the slope surface are to be de~ermined. Fig.2 depicts the de-
Sign diagram of the fragment squeeze-up.
Set up the equations for the static equilibrium of an :tce
fragment projected on the coordinates X and ~
RAX . = nN8 (SLn. e+ fv C05 e) ,
RA\j = P - P6 - RNf> (COS (9 - ff r Sli1 8) , (11 )

where P is
the gravitational force of the fragmentl
~ is
the buoyancy force of a volume corresponding
to the cross-hatched area.
In the limit equilibrium state the reaction force {{AX is
equal to the longitudinal force T acting in the ice field.
From this it is inferred that
R = T (12)
N8 SL/'L e + f COS e
Having formulated the moment equation with respect to the
point A and considering formula (12), we get the final ex­
pression for

T= [p(i C05'1' f 5'"1- P, x,j (sen Q+fiC

+ C05
Q)
,(13)
f cos(a-If) - Asi-n (9-~) - fir [ncos(8-lf) - f ~Ln(9-lfj]
where i is the length of the fragment and
Xl is the arm of the buoyancy force.
The values of p~ and Xl (£) depend on the position of the
fragment relative to the water surface. Regardless of this,
the forceT~Coapproaches infinity if the denominator of frac­
tion (13) becomes equal to zero. This suggests a new condi­
tion for determining the critical angle of slope

244
 (14)
1+ .L J
n. Jfr
For the angle ~ = 0 we derive the critical value of the
aI!f5le of slope 8 cr adopted in the first phase. Usually
i ~ 10, which gives
tn 8 - 10 - fw instead of tn ec~ = f~
"6 C1" 1 + 10flr J' fr
The stability of the slope protection is determined by means
of comparing the forces derived by formulas (8), (13) and
the weight of the quarry stones. The force upsetting the sta­
bility of the tetrapod protection should be equal to that
moving an element of the protection in the least convenient
position. Determine the force. ~. necessary for turning the
tetrapod about axis 0 - 0 (Fig. 3) •

Fig. 3

245
By formulating the equation for the sum of moments acting on
the tetrapod we obtain the condition limiting the value of
the horizontal force II acting from the ice side
lI~ QQ.
H
Considering the angle of slope 8 we have
O(a + ~ 148) (16)

where
a= f~dv ,
Q is the gravitational force of the tetrapod.
The tetrapod will be stable if the horizontal component of
the ice load on the tetrapod is less than T cr. The . value of
the hori~ontal component T is to be determined by formula
(8) or (13). As is seen from the .calculations the jetty pro­
tection of tetrapods or sizable quarry atones is not stable.
If the angles of slope are small, a considerable accumula­
tion of ice - the so called stranded hummock - may form. The
accumulation will take place, if significant external forces
acting on the ice cover persist for a long time. These forc­
es work on the ice field which Qlides up the slope and forms
ice pilings. The work done is partly spent on the ice frac­
ture, partly absorbed by various friction processes, whereas
the rest is expended in increasing the stranded hummock po­
tential energy. The contribution of the kinetic energy to the
total energy balance of the piling up process is relatively
small.
The potential energy of the hummock is easily determined pro­
viding the dimensions and the fill coefficient If' of the
hummock are known. For simplicity, consider a trapezoid-shap­
ed hummock with base B , height H and slope factor m= ct:JV;
where 11
is the angle of slope. The volume of the hummock re­
lated to the unit length of the slope is determined by the
formula
\{ = (B -mH) H (17)

246
and the mass of the ice - by the formula
m", =rJ If'\i: =)S \f/H (8 -mH).
If the thickness of the ice cover is It ,
the length of the
ice field section which rides up the slope and forms the pil­
ing will be

Let tp be the full time of the stranded hummock formation.

Then the average velocity of the slope-advancing ice which
forms the pilings will be
U = La 'fYt. (18)
p tp tp h
The potential energy of .the trapezoidal hummock is assumed to
be equal to the work required for lifting ice fragments above
the horizontal base of .the hummock taken as a reference sur­
face
(Jim). (19)

The energy lost by frictional force can be estimated using

the solution for pulling a body up along the inclined surface
with friction. The ratio between the frictional force and the
work done for lifting the body to a certain height will equal

UF = Iv i.e. I[ -~U
vV-- 111.1 .
W 1111
In our case ice mostly rubs against ice. With allowance made
for roughness, fir is no more than 0.20-:-0.25. The angle of
repose for an ice piling usually comes to 1l~30740ol there­
fore, the ratio fir/fg.1Twill not exceed 0.30-:-0.40. The energy
lost by the fracture of ice is relatively small making up no
more than 5-:-'10 per cent of the total energy spent. Avoiding
major errors the total energy of the pile-up formation can
be calculated by the formula ~Lp = 1.5 U • where the
value of U is defined by formula (19).
Assuming that the piling up process is of constant intensity
and lasts for tp seconds, we will get the following expres­
sion for the average power of the pile-up formation

247
 Q =1,5U (W/m) (20)
P tp
The analysis of the external effects which can produce the
necessary power shows that the main force causing the ice
ride-up on the slope at the hummock formation is the wind.
According to the known formula the stress due to the wind ac­
tion can be defined as follows;

Po.. =2·1O-2~1 (N/m2 ) (21)

where WM is the wind velocity in m/s. At the velocity!¢t,f
the ice riding up the slope and length La of the section
subject to the shear stress of the wind the power of the pil­
ing-formation force will be
-2 I. I .I.
Qp= PaLo Up =2,10 LaVVM Up .
Equate this expression to the. average power Qp derived by
(20) and express tp using (18). Then, with due regard for
(17), the velocity of the wind required to form a stranded
b.u:nunock of B x H in size will be

W=
M
(22)

Q;;IlLo
At that, the pile-up compressive stress of the ice caused by
the wind shall be not less than the maximum horizontal force
determined by formula (8).

References
SNiP 2.06.04-82, 1983. Effects and Loads Induced .by Water and
Ship Waves or Ice on Hydraulic Structures. GOB. Kom. SSSR
po deIsm stroitelstva, Moscow.

248
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

RECOMMENDATIONS ON THE DESIGN OF LOADS

ON HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES DUE TO ICE

J.CCl.JMULATIONS

V.N.Karnovich, SrJ&es.Oftr The B.E.Vedeneev VNIIG,

I.N.Sokolov, Sr.Res.Offr LeniDgrad USSR

4bstract .

Based on field observations, the results of calculating the

thickness and stability of ice accumulations are presented.

l!'ormulas are given for estimating the quantity of thawed ice

and the force from the pier outting through the ice accumu­

lation.

249
The impact of ice dams on hydraulic structures has been
studied insufficiently. However, this problem is of prime im­
portance, e.g. in the construction of overhead power trans­
mission line piers in wide river channels where ice dams are
frequently to be found. Based on the investigations carried
out at the B.E.Vedeneev VNIIG, it may be concluded that ice
load analyses should allow for the reduction in the strength
of the ice dam during its formation and stabilization under
the action of the natural processes of spring thawing .and
nondenae contact of the ice dam with the pier erected. It
should be noted that the thickness and stability of ice accu­
mulations depend on the amount and packing of ice, water
flow velocity under ice accumulations and thermal processes.
As is known, the thermal processes in ice accumulations are
governed by weather conditions during ice dam stabilization
and the water temperature in the. river. Fig.1 illustrates
the time-dependent water temperature variation in the reaches
upstream and downstream of the ice accumulation.

5
V-A-V
~
"
3
G
/ l(..r2
I.

0
)
/
la~te ~411/ ~/.III t.w a.w AlII ~'" 6:1'1' ~N 'T.w I.IV !J.III law

Fig. 1. TiJne-dependent water temperature variation

in the reaches of ice accumulation formed
in the Dniester River
1 - upstream of ice accumulationl
2 - downstream of ice accumulation.

250
 1-1,'"
I,(J
o,(J
1.0
2,0
",0
't.q
5.0
6,0
7,0
8,0

Fig.2. Cross~sections of ice dams in the Dniester

River.
Fig.2 shows the constriction of the river channel by ice. It
may be seen from Fig.1 that downstream of t~ccumulation
the water temperature is generally close to zero (0.1-o.2 0 C),
whereas upstream of the ice acoumulation it sometimes reach­
es 3-5 0 C. The quantity of thawed ice in the ice accumulation
over its stabilization period may be determined by the for­
mula (Sokolov, 1965)
0

Ow
a
3600 24 C 0 'Y" 0 0LH 01:
0

av (1 )
r
Ice
"to?
where
vac = quantity of thawed ice in the ice accumulation, m3 1

251
 a. = water discharge, m' Is,
~t..v = water temperature dif'ference in the ice accumulation
reach averaged over the ice thawing period, °C,
~ = duration of ice accumulation stabilization, days,
~ = heat of ice melting, WAil
T
Urce
= volume weight of ice, kg/la3,
? = packing of ice masses in the ice accumulation in
fractions of unity,
c·r= specific heat of water, 1.16 W hrJm3K•
Henc:, ~he impact of a relatively warm river water on the ice
dam results in a decrease of its volume and strength. It may
be . assumed that the strength of the ice dam reduces by around
0.03 MFa at abovezero air temperatures every day of its sta­

bilization. Moreover, field studies indicated that the stabi­

lization period of ice dams on rivers usual~y makes up ~ =

3-4 days.

If the daily reduction in the ice dam strength is taken equal

to 0.03 UPa, then at the moment of destruction the strength

limit of ice dams for the northern regions of the USSR will

be

R = 0.75 - 3 x 0.03 = 0.66 (MPa)

8.,
and for the southwestern regions it will be
R•. = 0.115 - 3 x 0.03 = 0.36 (MPa)
0.'
It should be borne in mind that cutting-through .of ice dams

by the pier erected in the river channel is accompanied by

splitting of separated ice floes and their relative dislodg­

ing, therefore a dense contact between the pier and . ice mass­

es is impossible. According to Korzhavin. (1962), the co­

efficient of contact is assessed at K = 0.6-0.8. In our cal­

culations we adopt K = 0.7.

Thus, it is advisable to estimate the force F~. .,

(MN) from

the pier cutting through the ice dam ~ the formula

(2)

where
mi = pier shape factor,
~ = pier width at the level of ice action, ml

252
 R
11,"
= strength limit of the ice dam taken to be 0.65 MFa
for the northern regions and 0.35 MFa for the south­
ern regionsl
.,.

h, . = design thicknsss of ice dams (m) adopted from field

data.
If the field data are not available, it is assumed that
It,.= a · H~. where H,. is the mean water depth in the ice dam
8,1. ,f. 'tI,(.. .
reach at the water discharge taken for the ice damming peri­
od. The coefficient a may be assumed according to H~,L from
Table 1.
Table 1

H · M ~5 10 15 20 >20
~ ,L.

a 0.8 0.65 0.55 0.45 0.40

Eq.(2) was verified. on the rivers in the USSR and good re­
sults were obtainsd.

References
Korzha~n, K.N., 1962. Ice action on hydraulic structures.
Izdatel'stvo SO .AN SSSR, Novosibirsk.
Sokolov, I.N., 1965. Variation in the ice cover thicknsss
and strength in the periods of abovezero air temperatures.
Trudy koordinatsionnwkh soveshchanii po gidrotekhnike,
Moscow, vyp.23.

253
ICE MODELLING

I
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

SEGMENTED ICEBREAKING SHIP IoUDEL TESTH'lG

TECHNIQUE DEVELOPMENT

A.I~.Nawwar,
Vice President. Arctec Canada Limi ted Canada
D. Howard,
Project Engineer. Arc tec Canada Limited Canada
I.M. Bayly,
Senior Development Transportation Development
Officer. Centre, Transport Canada Canada

ABSTRACT
Segmented model testing techniques have been developed for testing
icebreaking ship hulls in model ice. The segmentation technique was
developed following an analysis of the primary sources of ice resistance
and the determination of the contribution of various hull geometric areas
to the total measured resistance. The segmentation rationale was applied
to the hull of the Canadian icebreaker PIERRE RADISSON. A total of three
independently supported bow segments were used in this study program. The
segment instrumentation and support system was developed to measure the
instantaneous loads acting on each segment and define such loads
completely in terms of the magnitude and centre of action on the hull, of
the normal ice force as well as the magnitude and direction of action of
the frictional ice force component. Prel iminary results obtained during
the early stages of technique development are discussed. The information
which can be obtained by using segmented model testing techniques can be
instrumental in the del/elopment of improved designs for icebreaking ships
and can lead to better understanding of the ice loads exerted on the hull
under varying ice conditions.

1. INTRODUCTION
Ships navigating in ice covered waters must be designed and powered
to cope with enl/ironmental conditions which vary significantly with geo­
graphic area and time of year. While safety and structural integrity are
of prime concern, the abil ity of a ship to proceed ,in ice and accomplish
its mission is determined by its ability to overcome the ice resistance

255
and progress at an economic rate. A better ship would be that which
offers a lower resistance in ice thus requiring less power and energy.
The prediction of icebreaking resistance of ships has been the focus
of interest of many investigators since Runeburg in 1888. However, the
first attempt to rationalize the various mechanisms involved in icebreak­
ing resistance and their contrib~tion to the total resistance may be
credited to Kashteljan and co-investigators (1968). Current methods for
resistance prediction may be classified into empirical, semi-empirical and
analytical, and within the 1imi.tations of each type, reasonable
predictions of the ice resistance can be made. However, the lack of
universal agreements between predictions made by various models and exper­
imental (full or model scale), as well as the need to design and build
longer and larger Arctic class ships, underscored the need for further
work. The purpose of such work would be to consolidate prediction models
through the verification of the contribution of the basic mechanisms
associated with the icebreaking process.
The use of segmented models of icebreaking ships permits the measure­
ment of the forces acting on each segment. ay controlled testing, the
nature of loads acting on each segment and their sources may be better
understood. The development of segmentation and instrumentation methods
and discussion of preliminary results will be presented in the following
sections.

2. PREVIOUS WORK
Segmented models have been used in the past for testing ship model
forms. The earliest reported attempt to utilize segmented ship models for
experimental purposes is credited to Lewis (1954). Lewis developed a two­
segment model of the T-2 tanker and used deflection measuring devices to
monitor bending loads. The accuracy of measurements obtained were
influenced by inertial effects and later Lewis and Dalzell (1958) used an
improved dynamometer to measure bending moments and shear forces at the
plane of segmentation amidships.
Wachnik and Robi.nson (1956) and later Wachnik and Schwartz (1963)
used another approach to measure bending moments using segmented models.
They segmented the hull into several transverse segments interconnected by
an aluminum flexure beam which was instrumented to measure the bending
;noment at each connection. The flexure modulii at each section were

256
scaled down values of the ship. The beam was calibrated statically by
using deadweights at discrete points along its length and the calibration
constants were calculated from beam properties and associated instrumenta­
tion.
Gerritsma and Beukelman (1956) developed a segmented model of the
Sixty Series with seven separate segments of equal length for investiga­
ting the distribution of hydrodynamic forces along the model hull during
heaving and pitching motions. They used a common infinitely stiff steel
box girder. Each segment had two transverse bulkheads and was connected
to the girder by a stiff strain-gauge dynamometer. This model represented
a rigid ship hull in which only one component of load was of interest.
The gaps between the segments had negligible effect and this was verified
by . comparative testing with a non-segmented model. Beukelman and
Gerritsma (lg82) used the same segmentation technique described above to
determine the distribution of hydrodynamic mass and damping of an oscilla­
ting ship form in shallow water.
Lloyd et al (1973) used specially designed dynamometers to measure
vertical and horizontal bending moments as well as torsional moments. The
dynamometers were used to interconnect the segments which were closed by
rigid aluminum bulkheads. The gaps between segments (2 11111) were either
sealed by flexible tape or left open. The dynamometers were also encased
in water tight flexible rubber elbows.
aales and Jones (1380) used a single bow segment to study flare
slamming. They measured the vertical force acting on the above-water bow
using a triangular array of force transducers. They experienced some
mechanical and vibration problems which were corrected in due course.
It may be concluded, that previous work has generally been limited to
transverse sectioning of a model into a nuliber of segr.1ents (2 to 8) and
several techniques have been developed to measure bending moments, shear
forces and torsion at the various sections. Both towed and self-propelled
models in water have been used with varying levels of success.
In ice motlel testing, no serious attempts have been reported on the
use of segmented models to study the icebreaking phenor.1enon. Nonetheless,
experimental work on segmented models of structures in ice has been
conducted. Ship models have also been segmented into bow, midbody, and
stern segments where the overall influence of each segment on resistance
has been determined. 110 detailed measurements of internal forces on
segments have been identified in the public domain.

257
3. SEG~lENTATIONRATIONALE
It is generally recognized that the resistance of ice to ship motion
consists of several components due to: a) bending and breaking of ice
cusps, or "breaking" component, b) acceleration and turning of broken
ice pieces, or "turning" component, and c) gravitational resistance due
to buoyancy of submerged ice or "buoyancy" components.
In order to assess the relevance of the icebreaking components to the
icebreaking hull zones the cusp breaking patterns were studied. The study
was performed using the hull of the Canadian icebreaker PIERRE RADISSON .
However, the procedures ·and methods may be generalized for other hull
forms. FIGURE 1
The cusp patterns were determined REPEATED BREAKING PATTERNS
on the basis of experimental observa­

~
tions on several icebreakers which
were analyzed by i~aegle (1980), and
assuming ice to have an elastic
I I I • ~ • 7

modulus of 3 GPa and Poisson's Ratio

~
0. 3. Based on an analytical model
deve loped by Lewi s et a 1 (1383) and
described by i~awwar (1983), it was
shown tha t the se 1ec ted sh i p wou 1d
break two rows of cusps for thicker 1-­ ...,--­ -.......,--..---_
ice of 0.6 m or more and three rows
or more for thin ice. Figure is a
schematic presentation of the 1--­______~.roIlllilll~!!!1.:~_ _ ,
progressive development of cusps.
The shaded areas represent crushing and contact development and the arrows
represent the centre of force acting on the hull during cusp contact.
Using successive breaking patterns it was possible to identify four bow
regions which are described below:
Region I: which extends from the stem to Station 1 region will mainly
experience breaking and associated friction forces due to the first row of
cusps. Turning and submersion forces are minor in this region.
Region II: which extends between Stations 1 and 2 3/4 will experience
icebreaking and associated friction forces due to the second row of cusps
as well as an increased share of turning and submersion forces.
Region III: which extends between Stations 2 3/4 and 4 1/2 will exper­
ience primarily turning and submergence forces due to the second row of

258
cusps (in medium and thick ice). It will only experience breaking forces
in thin ice.
Region IV~ which extends from Station 4 1/2 to Station 9 at the end of
the bow will primarily experience turning, submergence and associated
friction forces and possibly side crushing of the ice.
Prel iminary t·lodel tests were conducted using a non-segmented 20th
scale model of the PIERRE RADISSOI~ in 30 Ii111 thick ice to observe the
breaking patterns. There was general agreement between the experimental
observations and the analysis. Subsequently, the model bow was divided
into three segments. The first two segments toincided with Regions I and
II while the third segment covered Region III and about one third of
Region IV. These three segments were sufficiently extended above and
below the wa terl ine and c overed about 30% of sh i P 1ength and 69% of . the
bow length. Figure 2 illustrates the bow segmentation plan.
FIGURE 2: DEFINED REGIONS AND SEGr1ENTS

The 3-segment model would provide means for investigating the most
significant icebreaking, ice turning and associated fri.ction forces. A
fourth segment in Region IV will likely be subjected to predominantly less
significant turning and submersion forces and it was excluded at this
state of investigation. An additional underwater segment beneath the
three segmen ts and a kee J segmen t were also cons i de red to mon i tor submer­
sion forces and associted friction but were excluded to maintain simplici­
ty of the segmentation, segment support and instrumentation techniques.
Several methods were considered for segmenting the model and the
selection criteria were based On considerations of. manufacturing,
assembling, instrumenting and repair. The selected method, as illustrated
in Figure 3, offers a stiff and water tigh~ model.

259
 FIGURE 3
EX PlODED VI EW OF
SEGMENTED MODEL

I.BUlNT 1 IICI"UT I

4. SEGf·IENT SUPPORT AND I1'1STRUI-1ENTATION

Each segment was supported in such a manner to ensure its stability
under ice load conditions and provide for a sufficient number of measure­
ments to be taken on each segment. The ice force s acting on a seg~ent at
any time consist of a normal load and a frictional component. These
forces may be expressed in terms of an equivalent force system acting at
the centre of gravity of the segment a s shown in Figure 4. The system
consists of three linear components along the x, y, z axe s and three
moments about the three coordinate directions.
In order to provide support for the segment subjected to such loading
conditions a total of six support pOints are required: 3 support points
along the x, y and z directions, and 3 extra support pOints in the x-y, y­
z and z-x planes to support the three momen ts. These supports are "roller
type" and can only transfer normal reactions. It should be noted that as
the ice loads traverse each segment the reactions at the support points
may change sense, and therefore it is required that the support system
allow for a load release at any pOint without loss of contact. Figure 5
illustrates the typical segment support system with seven load sensors
located at the support pOints. load sensors were placed at each support
pOint.

TV PleAL SEGMENT

FIGURE 4 SUPPORT SYSTEM

EQUIVALENT FORCE SYSTEM

260
 The load sensors used were FIGURE 6: LOAD CELLS
specially designed for this pur­
pose and two types of these
sensors are illustrated in Figure
6. The load cells were of the
diaphragm type and could not
transfer tensile loads. There­
fore, tension wires were used to
apply a preload on all load cells
so that they can measure tensile
or compressive reactions at the
pOint of support. The segment
support system proposed in Figure
5 satisfies the condition of
stability, and provides 7 individual load measurements (the load cells
are practically insensitive and cannot support lateral loads). This
number of measurements is sufficient to define the following five unknowns
which completely define the external ice load:
a) The position of load centre on the hull, \~hich requires two
coordinates. The third coordinate is then defined on the
hull surface.
b) The magnitude of the normal force component at this point of
action. The direction of the force is that normal to the hull
surface, which is determined by the hull geometry at this point.
c) The direction of the frictional force which can be determined by
two direction parameters. Its magnitude is related to the normal
force by the friction factor.
The present support system offers two redundant measurements which
may be used for verification. This system has been implemented in seg­
ments 2 and 3. However, for the foremost segment, and because of strict
space limitations it was only possible to fit two vertical support points
instead of four. Additional preload arrangements were added to stabilize
the segment under load. Furthermore, all segments were neutrally buoyant,
and pretensions were applied in the x, y and z directions to ensure
contact with load cells within the range of experimental variation at all
times.
The capacities of individual load cells were determi.ned on the basis
of maximum normal force of 24.4 N (195.4 kN full scale) due to static

261
breaking load. A dynamic load factor of 3.0 was applied which is inclined
to the conservative side. Based on maximum reactions, the load cell
ratings as well as rolinirrum preload requirements were establ ished. Two
standard ratings of 50 Nand 100 f~ were used.
Data reduction methods were established to calculate the position and
magnitude of normal ice force, the fricti.on coefficient and the direction
cosines of the friction force at any time during the progress of icebreak­
ing test run. Figure 7 illustrates the method graphical determination of
the position of ice load. It uses the measured resistance, Rij, horizon­
tal forces, Hij, and the vertical rea ctions, Vij, as well as two coeffi­
cients C.. and C, which are moment coefficients to be evaluated for
each condition. The additional measurements provide for po sition
verification.

FIGURE 7: GRAPHICAL METHOD OF DATA REDUCTION

C,
A.

5. TESTING AND PREL I1HNARY RESULTS

The segmented model was subjected to a calibration testing program
which included; calibration of load cells, segment respon se to external
loads, and system response to model motions in open water. In the latter
calibration tests the system response to model rolling, heaving and
pitching was investigated. The load cell sensitivities to model motions
were determined and used in the analysis of test results.

262
 The first tests were performed to determine the effect of model
segmentation on overall ice resistance. The results of the present resis­
tance tests were compared to previous model test results available on non­
segmented models of the PIERRE RADISSOiL The comparison indicated that
model segmentation does not appear to influence the total ice resistance,
and subsequently the icebreaking process.
Preliminary testing was performed in order to identify and correct
any problems and evaluate the segmented model technique in ice testing.
Figure 8 presents some of the results obtained in 44 mm ice sheet having a
flexural strength of 22 kPa FIGURE 8: RESISTANCE BREAKDOWN 1 AND LOADS
and at a test speed of 0.58 ON SEGt~ENT 2
m/s. The total measured S£GHENTEO HODEL ••• SG6C
TEST 04 RUN E2
resistance in ice during the
test run was 69.4 kN. The
corresponding mean segment <C1 In, 1=~ "'j ND·nONS
1>11

resistances were:
Segment 1 : No reading u=~a ' .~, 1 ~~~NS
~::f ~:=::

Segment 2: 10.61 i~ (30.6%)

Segment 3: 6. 96 i~ (20.1 X)
Examina ti on of the varia ti on leaQQ l
1
( RESIST
NeWTONS
of the resistance components - 10ra ,

~_c:'?~ Ie · ~tt~·-·
of Segment 2 indi.ca tes a
±50% variation about the
mean. The peak occurrences
correspond to a cusp
breaking frequency of 0.31
Hz. While the resistance
contribution of Segment 3 is
on ly two th i rds tha t of
Segment 2 the range of
fluctuation of
.
the -i 10-­ - ­ ____
resistance is 3
-.
times '-:!;j===4=~==k
greater, and the maximum _~ 1-­- - - - " - - " ,
resistance is 41% higher
than corresponding values in
Segment 2. These results
suggest that the dominant
forces in Segment 2 are

263
associated with bending and breaking the ice while in Segment 3 turning and
associated forces dominate.
The forces acting on Segment 2, as shown in Figure 8, may be
considered as an example. The total mean forces in the x, y and z
directions were measured to be: 10.607, 28,757, and 18.209 N respective­
ly. The prevailing position of ice load was calculated to be 1.81 m which
was slightly forward of Station 2. The calculated normal force was 35.563
i~ and the friction factor was 0.071 giving a frictional force of 2.525 N
acting in the direction given by the cosines (-0.729, -0.583, +0.359).
The position of the force coincides with that predicted by theory. The
mathematical model predicts a maximurll normal static ice load of 24.425rl at
1.835 m from midship. This suggests a dyna[,lic load factor of approximate­
ly 1.5. The measured hull ice friction factor prior to testing was O.l.
Considering the low magnitude of friction force, the calculated friction
factor on Segment 2 is acceptable. The prevailing direction of friction
force component is sensitive to experimental errors in n~asurement for low
friction coefficients.

6. CLOSURE
During this study a basic scheme for ship model segmentation has been
developed for ice testing. The segmentation and instrumentation addressed
the measurement requirements for ice load on ship hulls. Preliminary
testing have shown the system to be capable of detecting the magnitude and
position of ice loads. Hhile the system is capable of closely predicting
the frictional forces it appears to be sensitive to experimental errors
and requires fine tuning. Such errors are expected to be much reduced if
rougher hull surfaces are used.
Segmented ship models are intended for use to better the present
state of understanding of the icebreaking mechanisms as they relate to
specific hull geometric areas. This ~y ultimately be used to develop
ship hull optimization methods which will contribute to improved design
methods for icebreaking ships. The contribution of hull zones to the
resistan.ce would be studi.ed under different ice conditions, for example,
1eve 1 ice, pressure ridges, rubble fi e1ds, and others. They [,13Y also be
used to study ice impact loads during ship interation with rnul ti-year
floes or bergy bits under a variety of controlled conditions.

264
ACKNmJLEDGEI~ENT

The work reported in this paper was conducted under contract to

Transport Canada, Transporta tion Development Centre . Thi s support is
gra tefully acknowl edged. Thank s to Mr. W. Wallace for his useful
suggestions on model segmentation and instrumentation.

REFERENCES
BALES, iLK. and JONES, H.D., July 9-11, 1980. "I;ieasu r ement and Reduction
of 1·lodel-Scale Data on Flare Slamming and Deck wetness", Paper Pres. at
19th ATTC, University of Hichigan.
BEUKELIoIAN, W., and GERRLTSi·lA, J., i~ovember 1982. "The Distribution of
Hydrodynamic ~'lass and Damping of an Oscillating Shipform in Shallow
Water", Intl. Shipbuildi.ng Progress, V.29, No.339, p.297-315.
GERRITSMA, J. and BEUKELI:iAN, ~-J., 1964. "The Distribution of the
Hydrodynamic Forces on a Heaving and Pitching Ship Hodel in Still \later",
Proc. 11th Symposium on Naval Hydrodynamics, Bergen, Norway, p.219. Also
Report PUB-124, Technische Hogeschool, Shipbuilding Lab, Delft, Nether­
lands, Feb.1965.
KASHTELJAN, V. I., POmJAK, I. J., and RYVL Hl, A. J., 1968 . "Ice Res is tance
to Hotion of a Ship", Translation from Russian Original Soprotivlenie
L'da Dvizheniju Sudna, by I'larine Computer Application Corporation.
LEWIS, LV., 1954. "Ship 110del Tests to Determine Bending i'1oments in
Wave s ", Transactions Society of Naval Archi.tects and 11arine Engineers,
Vol. 62.
LEWIS, E.V. and DALZELL, J.R., April 1958. "110tions, Bending Homent and
Shear i1easurements on a Destroyer Hodel in Waves". Stevens Institute of
Technology, Report 656.
LEWIS, J., BULAT, V., GLEN, I.F. and KOTRAS, T. April 1983. "A Semi­
Empirical Ice Resistance i'lodel ", submi.tted to Transportation Development
Centre, Arctec Canada Limited Report i~o. FR444C.
LLOYD, A. R.J.N., BROWN, J.C., and ANSLOW, J.F.~~ . , 1979. "I·lotion s and Loads
on Ship rlodels in Regular Oblique Waves", Trans. of RmA, pp.21-33.
ijAEGLE, J.N., 1980. "Ice Resistance Prediction and I-lotion Simulation for
Ships Operating in the Continuous I·lode of Icebreaking", Ph . D. Thesis,
University of Michigan.
i~AWWAR, A.f'l. fiarch 1383. "Lce Resistance Prediction Model for Icebreaking
Ships-Principles and Assumptions", submitted to Transportation Develop­
ment Centre, Arctec Canada Limited Report No. 1172C.
WACHIHK, Z.G . and ROBINS0f1, D.R., Hay 1956. "A Study of Bending Ilolilents
in a Ship I·lodel, I·loving in Waves", B.S.Thesis, f·1 assachusetts lnst. of
Technology.
WACHiHK, Z.G. and SCHvJARTZ, F.i'I., January 1963. "Experimental
Determination of Bending I,lolilents and Shear Forces in a ~lul ti -Segmented
Ship I'lodel Moving in ~~aves", International Shipbuilding Progres s ,
Vol.10,n.10l, pp 12-24. Also DniB Report 110.1743, July 1963.

265
 WfR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

SMALL SCALE· TESTS OF

SEA BOTTOM ICE SCOURING

Razek Abdelnour Arctec Canada Limited

Vice President Kana ta Canada
nruce Graham Arc tec Canada Limi ted
Vice President Calgary Canada

ABSTRACT
A small scale test program was carried out at Arctec Canada
Laboratories in Kanata to simulate ice and iceberg sea bottom scouring and
to obtain an experimental database. The test considered the simul·ation of
two model scales, two model shapes and three types ·of soils. The test
consisted of moving the model at three velocities and three cut depths,
and simultaneously measuring the forces and pressures on the model and the
pressures in the soil.
The study was carried out for the Arctic Petroleum Operator's Asso­
ciation, Project 150, and reported by Abdelnour and Lapp (B80). The
details of the test procedures, the model construction and test instrumen­
tation and data acquisition were reported by Abdelnour et al (1981).
This paper presents the measured forces, their analysis and
comparison with previous similar studies.

INTRODUCT ION
The probl em of ice scouring has been studied both experimentally and
analytically. The first experimental tests were carried out by Chari and
Allen (1974), where a rigidly fi.xed prismatic model was towed through a
constant seabed slope. In a later study carried out by Fenco (1975),
several models were described, in which the major one was termed "the
dynamic soluti.on". This model involved equating all external forces, to
the product of mass and acceleration and the differential equation solved
numerically. Chari and Allen's model was also di.scussed and modified and
presented as "Energy Principle Solution to Scour". Kovacs and Mellor
(1974) presented another solution based on standard soil mechanics to

201
calculate the frontal "bulldozing" resistance of an ice mass scouring
through sand. Abdelnour and Lapp (1980) carried out an experimental
program where the following was investigated:
the resistance force required for an ice mass to scour under
various conditions such as shape of the ice mass, soil materials, cut
depth and f orwa rd vel oc i ty.
the pressure distribution measured on the front face of the model
as well as within the surrounding soil in both horizontal and
vertical directions relative to the model.
the behaviour of the soil during the scouring procedure and the
scour profile characteristics behind the ice mass relative to its
shape and cut depth.
the correlation of the experimental results obtained with
available published work including model and full scale tests.
In this paper, the measured resistance on the frontal face of the
models is presented and analyzed. A comparison with previous experiment
results is also included.

EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
The tests were conducted at Arctec Canada's basin in Kanata which is
18.3 m long, 6.1 m wide and m deep. The program was divided into three
phases where three different types of soil were tested. Table 1 shows a
summary of the test program. During this experimenta 1 program the
following variables and assumptions were used for each particular case:
Soi 1 Type: Three soi 1 TABLE 1: SU""-A.Ry OF TEST PROGRAM

types, one in each phase of PHAse-- -;(iDeC-~s[o-·----­ --DAri-oi-jEsriNG--·- ----Ho:-oi-p~NS-;---­

the program. The first was a --j--- - -P;;;~;d---------­ --2;:-i6-J;~~------- ­ ---------------------
fine-to-medium sand with 3% (S4nd) r!~~:i~riSm.ltic ~ ~~n; July

Srrall Pr;s!'Il4t;c 6 July

silL The sec ond wa s sandy I( Pyramid 30 July

(Sandy SrniIll Prismatic 11 Aug
silt with 60% silt, 30% sand Silt) 13. 18 Sept
large Prj SIM tit 18. 11. Sept
and 10% clay_ The third was Pyramid 24 Sept

II( Pyr4mld Z9 Oct 9

silty clay with 75% clay and (Sn ty Pyramid 31 Oct o'
Clay) wll Prismat ic 5 Nov
9
25 % silL Saall Prismati c 7 Nov
9
large Prismatic 9 Hav
9
~Iode 1 Shapes: Two model large Pri Smil t ie 13 Noy
9
PYramid - Front
Face Only 15 Hov
shapes. a pyramid and a pris­
matic were considered. The I The nIne rons. consisted of three i ndentor cut depths and three
velocities. Humers shCM'J in this; calum are the ones where dati. lola
obu ined wi th goOd accuracy.
shapes were chosen to repre-
I "'ine n.Jns were conducted but resul ts are suspected due to ill1lroper
remolding of the clay .

268
sent extremes wtthin which all other shapes were assumed to lie.
,-Iodel Haterial: The model ice mass was built using steel frames and
plates. The ice was assumed indefinitely rigid relative to the soil
strength. To assess the val idity of this assumption. the model was
instrumented with pressure cells on the frontal face of the model where
pressure profiles were obtained and the structural integrity was assessed.
Model Motion Restriction: The models were rigidly fixed to the car­
riage allowing only one degree of freedom. This implies that the towing
weight of the ice mass is much larger than the scour force and that any
side or upl ifting forces would not result in motion in other directions.
~Iode 1 Sca 1e: Two model sca 1es. one twice the size of the other. were
cons i de red . Two prismatic and one pyramid models were built. For the
pyramid model. the cut depth was doubled to obtain the larger scale model.
however the large prismatic model had the length and width twice as large
as the small one.
i-Iodel Instrumentation: Each model was instrumented with five force
blocks and three pressure transdu­ fIGURE 1
cers to measure forces at various
segments and locations of interest
PYRAMID MODEL
as shown in Figure 1. Two force
transducers. Fx and Fz were used
to measure total body force in the
horizontal (in the direction of
motion) and the vertical (uplift­
ing) directions. Another three
were used to measure the forces on
the model faces. The pyramid model
had two blocks measuring the hori­
zontal and vertical forces. f x and PRISMA TIC MODEL
f z' on the frontal face. while
one block was used to measure the
side force on one of the two sides
fy . The prismatic model had three
blocks measuring forces on each of
the sides. front f x• bottom fz and
side f y. Both the prismatic and
pyramid models had an array of
three pressure transducers on the

269
frontal face.

Soils Instrumentation: The soil was instrumented with pressure trans­

ducers to measure earth and pore water pres sures. Three of each

transducers were used in each run and were placed at a preset location to

obtain comparative resul ts.

Towing Velocity: The models were towed at three different veloci­

ties (V), 0.006, 0.022 and 0.088 m/sec.

t·lodel Cut Depth: Three model cut-depths (h) were used. The cut-depth

is the difference between the soil surface and the level of the bottom of

the model.

In Tables 2, 3 and 4, the results of the tests are presented. Each

table includes, the test number, the model type, the towing velocity, the
cut depth, the average cut width and all five forces measured on the
model.
Thirty three tests were completed in sand, twenty two in sandy silt
and si xty three in sil ty clay. The target was a total of 108 tests , 36 in
each soil type. However, due to difficulties during the sand tests with
the large model for the deep cut depth tests, and during the silt tests
with high cohesion strength, a lesser number of tests were performed in
these soils and more were added to the tests carried out in clay soil.

ANALYSIS OF THE FORCES r·1EASURED ON THE MODEL

The analysis of the forces is made based upon a set of dimensional
and dimensionless relationships described by Schuring and Emori (1964).
The governing parameters are summarized by the following:
L the 1 inear dimension of a soil body (h, B, etc.)
F Resistance force (f x, Fx)
g gravitational acceleration
p = mass density of the soil (p= y/g)
V the towing velocity of the model
C = the cohes i on of the soil
4> = the angle of internal friction

The friction factor between the model and the soil was not varied
during these experiments, therefore its effect on the measured force was
not investigated.
The relationship between the previous seven parameters is given by:
F C V2
YCT = f (~, yr , gr) (1)

270
 TABLE 2: SILTY SAlW TEST RESULTS
TE51 MOOEl TOWING CUT AVR(L TOTAL TOTAL FRONT SID( BOTTOM
I TYP[ VELOCITY O[PlH WIDTH FORCE FORC[ FORCE FORC[ FORC[ Yh6 flr.lYh6 V/G(l.B)
(V) ( h) (B) (fx) (F,) ( (, ) ((y) (II)
(em/uc) (em) (e m) (N) (N) (N) fN) (N ) (N) (- ) (-)

I PYRAMID 2.2 7.6 ~.D 5~ 37 21 I ~6 3.9 5. • ".9(-05

2 PYRAMID 2.2 1~.2 6.3 922 593 ~DO 111 537 31.9 17 . 2 1 .9(-05
3 PYRAMID 2.2 25.6 13.2 '~I 276-4 3527 ~B~ 1430 \10.8 2:5.0 ~.9[ -05

•5 PYRAMfD
PYRAMID
B.S
6.5
7.6
16 .2
~.O

B.3
268
923
f06
560 750
~6 2f
90
((9
752
3.9
3~.9
17 . 1
2f.5
7.1[-01
1.1[-04
6 PYRAMID 8.5 25.6 13.2 5~71 1077 HZl 297 3502 110 . 8 31.1 1.1(-01
7 PYRAMIO O .~ 7.8 ~.O SO 2~ 53 3 39 3.9 13 .~ 3.7[-~

8 P'1RAM rD 0.6 \ti.2 6.3 585 325 ~O~ 5 <79 ]1,9 17.1 3 . 7[~
9 PYRAMIO O.~ 25.8 13.2 2256 1480 2371 9 2072 110.8 16 . 8 3.7[-06
10 PYRAMID 2 .2 ~.9 3.5 52 35 56 0 '2 2.7 20 .8 1,Q[-05
(( PYRAMID 2 .2 16.1 6.' 878 529 715 2 716 3~.2 19.6 '.9[-05
12 PYRAMID 2.2 25 .2 12 .9 3'05 2179 29" '0 250~ 131.1 22 . " '.9[-05

..
13

IS
PYRAMID
PYRAMID
PYRAMID
8.5
6.5
8.5
7.5
1~.2
25.2
3.6
8.3
12.9
83
1257
52~3
)6
7~2
3110
75
1024
1516
I
50
259
53
1257
297J
3.5
3'.9
131.2
21.7
29. ~
31 . 6
7 . • [ - 01
7.1[-01
7.1[ -01
16 PYRAMfD O.~ 7.~ 3 .9 13 27 35 I 32 J.~ 9. ~ 3. 7[-0~
17 PYRAMID 0.6 I~ 8.2 ~~I 2n 578 2~ )29 33 .6 \7 .2 3.7[-D~

18 PYRAMID 0.6 25.2 12.9 2192 1513 2729 ((. 1200 IJI . 2 20.6 J.7[-06
19 l.PRISM 2 .2 8.2 52.0 2n 162 J37 -- - 55.9 ~ .D 9.5[-05
20 L.PRISM 2.2 16.2 52.0 '270 182' 1129 -- - 218.2 18 . 9 9,5[-05
21 l.PRISM 8. 5 7.3 52.0 1111 555 IJ!17 52 - "" .3 31.5 1••[-03
22 l.PRISM 8.5 15 . 9 52.0 '9'6 1898 .717 656 - 210.2 22.7 I..[-OJ
23 L.PRISM 0.6 7.5 52.0 ((73 .05 1087 7J -- .~.6 2J.2 7.1[ - ~
Z1
25
2~
l.PR ISM
S.PRISM
S.PRISM
D.~
2.2
2.2
15.6
3.1
7.6
52.0
2~.0
2~.0
23~5
680
1737
%3
1618
2. 20
2202
12 I
5)6
7.
..
20
--
-
--
207. ~
~ .O
2'.0
10.6
30 . 3
ZZ .3
7. I[-D~
1.9[- 01
1.9[ - 01
27 S.PRISM 2.2 13.1 2~.0 5216 <778 3JI5 -- -- 71.3 .~ . 5 1.9[-0'
28 S.PRISM 8.5 3.6 2~.0 13.3 1~31 729 ~5 -- 5.~ 135.J 2.8[-03
29 S.PRISM 8.5 8 .1 26 . 0 2:551 322~ 1341 68 - n.J ~9 . 2 2.6£-03
30 S.PRISM 6. 5 13.1 2~.0 ~6-42 2163 339. ((0 - 71.3 H.6 2.8E-03
31 S.PRISM 0.6 3.5 26.0 1002 1683 162 71 -- 5. I 35.7 ...[-05
32 S.PRISM 0.6 8.3 2~.0 1115 2178 ~90 14~ - 28.6 Z1.1 , .1[-OS
3J S.PRISM 0.6 12 . 3 2~.0 2271 1700 1061 25~ - 62 . 9 16.9 1.'[-05
TABLE 3 : SANOY SILT TEST RESULT::,
.
TEST MQO(L
TYP(
TOWING
VELOCITY
(V)
CUT
O£PTH
(h)
AVRO .
WIDTH
(B)
TOTAL
FORCE
(fx)
TOTAL
FORCE
(F, )
FRONT
FORCE
(f,)
SIDE
FORCE
(fy)
BOTTOM
FORCE
(fll
C "/r~B (ll'h

(emJuc) (em) (em) fN) ( N) (N) (N) (N) «P o) (- ) (-)

I PYRAMID 0.8 10." 10.6 12 II 7* -- -- 0.7 0. ' 0.10

2 PYRAMID 0.6 2l . 6 2~. J 737 291 "3" * -- - 0.7 1.9 0.18
l PYRAMID 0 .6 30 . 7 31.J lD3 126 176 * • -- 0.7 O. ~ 0.1"
•~
PYRAMID
PYRAMID
6.5
6.5
IU
23 . 6
11.8
Z1.3
167
1615
72
379
9B
950
*
*
2
16
--
-
0.7
0.7
3.7
~.2
0 . l6
0.16
6 PYRAMID 0.6 11.8 12 . 0 27 16 I~ 0 -­ 0.7 0.6 0.35
7 PYRAMIO 0.6 23.0 23.' liB 53 70 * I -­ 0.7 0.3 0.16
6 PYRAMID 2.2 30.' 31.0 577 226 319 * 6 -­ 0.7 0.7 0 . 1"
9 S.PRfSM 2.2 3.3 26 .0 30' 170 127 ~ 196 50 . 0 27.3 90 . '6
10 S . PIUSM 2.2 B. 7 16.0 1756 '66 1169 17 180 50.0 19.2 l'.31
11 S.PRISM 2. 2 11.9 2~.0 2899 52 I 12~I 2 2l 50.0 20.6 25.06
12 S. PRISM 8.5 ~ .2 16 . 0 21 l 15~ 117 18 191 50.0 15 . 5 7 1.07
13 S.PRISM 6 .5 6.7 2~. 0 177 '220 125 ..S 50.0 130.5 31 . 31
14 S. PRISM 6.5 12.6 26.0 7~" S2 71)6 ~I '0 SO.D 101.9 2l.l2
15 S.PRfSM 0.6 l.O 26.0 139 116 9l I lOl 50.0 2'.2 99.50
16 S . PRISM D.~ 8.6 26.0 l060 751 2796 160 157 50.0 66 . 6 3'.71
17 S.PRISM 0.6 13.0 2~.0 ll66 776 3139 226 166 SO.O '3 .5 22 . 96
16 L.PRISM 0.6 10.2 52 . 0 -­ '591 6261 25 -­ 50.0 70.7 29.27
19 PYRAMID 1.2 lO .l 10.5 6126 2D8D 3323 62 1702 100.0 161.6 57 .96
20 PYRAMID 2 .2 17.6 18 .1 11190 "O:H .996 ~97 17Z2 100.0 52 .9 J3. 5~
2I PYRAMIO 0.6 10.2 lO.~ .507 2056 l212 321 2~2' 100.0 160.7 S6.5l
22 PYRAMID 0 .6 17.7 18.0 "65\) 198J 3315 158 2)67 100 .0 JS.7 :n.73
* Data obtained from (Fx/1.7)

271
 TABLE 4: SILTY CLAY TEST RESULTS (*Model Without Sides)
TEST .,OOll TOWII' CUT AYAG • TOTAL TOTAL fAOIT 510£ BOTTOM CUT
TYPE ynOCITY O[PTH WIDTH fOAC[ fOACE fOAC[ fORC£ FORC[ AREA CIl'h
(Y) (h) (8) (F') (Ft) (r. ) (ry ) (II) (A)
(em/etc) (em) (em) (N) (N) (I) (N) (N) (cro2l (- ) (- )

PYAAMIO 1. 1 12.1 12.4 111 II 110 65 152 4 . 069 2. 2[-01

PYAAMIO 1.1 20. 2 20.8 235 111 215 165 416 1.753 1.3[-01
PYAAMIO 1.1 28 . 1 26.6 258 108 220 20 146 804 0 . 666 9 . 6[-02
PYRAMID 8. 5 11.1 11.6 186 88 15B 110 132 7 . 165 2. 4[-01
PYAAMIO 8.5 19. 9 20.3 l2l 114 2BB -3 166 40l 2.460 1.4( - 01
PYAAMIO 8. 5 30.B 31.4 640 218 509 18 301 966 1.173 8 . 7(-02
PYAAMID 0.6 11.6 11 . 8 125 37 10 1 3 75 137 4 . 354 2. 3[ - 01
PYAAMIO 0.8 19. 2 19 . 6 l 16 122 277 14 192 l75 2. 639 1. 4(-01
PYRAMID 0.8 lO . 4 31 . 0 611 232 551 3 314 941 I.l22 6 . 9(-02
10 PYRAM ID 1. 2 11.7 11 . 9 II l8 2B -2 36 139 1.165 2 . 3[-01
II PYAAMID 2. 1 20.4 20.8 68 85 86 63 424 0. 523 1.3[-01
11 PYRAMID 2. 2 27.5 28.0 109 136 116 97 770 0.375 9 . BE - 02
13 PYAAMIO 8. 5 11. 5 11.7 48 68 54 -2 52 135 2. 396 2 . 3[-01
11 PYAAMIO 8. 5 19.720. 1 • 90 11 8 92 -5 102 l.5 0 . 808 1.4(- 01
IS PYAAMIO 8. 5 27.9 28.4 211 277 261 11 214 793 0 . 8O'l 9 . 6£- 02
16 PYAAMIO 0.8 II.l 11.5 19 61 47 -3 59 IlO 2 . 160 2 . 4(-01
17 . PYRAMID 0.6 19. 5 19 . 9 71 76 52 -3 62 367 0.46l1 1.4(- 01
18 PYRAMID 0. 6 27.8 28.l 486 lOI 277 211 767 0 . 667 9. 7(-02
19 S. PAISM 2.2 0. 7 26.0 l7 63 22 4 47 16 117 . 904 3.6['00
20 S. PAISM 2.2 8.7 26.0 1l6 145 115 56 11 3 226 4 . 015 3. 1(-01
11 S. PR"M 2.2 15.6 26 . 0 187 100 158 123 67 406 1.715 1.7( - 0 I
21 S.PRISM 8. 5 0.9 28.0 59 IlZ 32 2 113 23 104 . 870 3.0£'00
23 S.PRISM 8.5 8.l 16 . 0 178 129 III 60 179 216 5. 101 3.2(-01
24 S. PAISM 8. 5 18 . 1 26.0 ll2 236 258 134 207 419 2 . 626 1.7(- 01
15 S. PRISM 0.8 0.7 16.0 SO lOB 24 96 18 130 . 267 J . 8['00
2& S. PRISM D.S 8.5 28.0 15. 184 108 63 151 221 l.870 3.2[-01
27 S. PAISM 0. 6 16.3 26.0 355 95 198 114 55 424 1. 944 1. 7[-0 1
28 5.PRISM 2. 2 1 18 . 0 42 85 28 44 26 13 . 337 2. 7Et OO
29 S.PRISM 2. 2 8. 2 26 . 0 100 118 B9 4l 102 213 l . 492 3. 3[-01
30 S. PAISM 2. 2 15. 7 26 . 0 160 106 ISS li D 162 406 1.660 1.7(- 0 1
31 S.PAISM 8.5 0.7 26.0 Jl 53 22 18 11 5. 750 3. U . 00
32 5.PRISM 8. 5 8. 3 26.0 157 155 96 !l4 216 3. 676 3.2(-01
33 '.PAISM 8. 5 16.1 26.0 259 215 217 206 42 1 2 . 176 1. 7(-0 1
J4 S.PAISN 0. 6 0. 7 26 . 0 48 81 28 -I 61 18 150. 206 3.BE'00
35 S. PRISM 0.6 8.2 26.0 ISO 134 116 lO 124 213 4. 551 J . l( - Ol
36 S.PRISN 0.6 18 . 5 26.0 174 91 235 165 g] 429 2. 273 1. 6(-01
J7 L. PAISW 2. 2 11 . 9 52.0 279 80 272 42 o 619 2. 534 2. 3[ - 01
38 L. PAISM 2. 2 19.2 52 . 0 512 .B 450 219 998 1.610 1.4[-01
39 L. PAISM 2.2 27 . 3 52 . 0 751 B7 6SB 361 24 1420 1. 165 9 . 9(-02
40 L.PAISM 8.5 II 52.0 lID 37 125 22 53 572 1.365 2.4(-01
41 L. PRISM 8.5 18.9 51.0 490 14 395 101 13 983 1.459 1.4(-0 1
41 L. PA"M 8. 5 27 . 4 52.0 551 171 410 296 108 1425 0. 773 9. BE - 02
43 L.PAISM 0.6 11 . 5 52.0 309 157 245 49 21 598 2. 448 2.3[ - 01
44 L. PRISM 0. 6 19.1 51.0 567 Il1 40B 182 4 100. 1.430 1.4(- 01
45 L. PAISM 0.8 17.8 52.0 B92 129 65B 398 92 1446 1.1 24 9 . 7( - 02
46 L.PA"N 2.2 11 51.0 167 84 235 59 4 624 2 . 119 2.2( - 0 1
47 L.PR"M 2.2 20.l 52. 0 500 IB9 338 101 20 1056 1. 083 1. 3[- 01
48 L.PA"M 2.2 27 . 2 52.0 761 IB5 592 364 1414 1.056 9. 9( - 02
49 L.PA"" 8. 5 10. 2 52 . 0 275 52 262 51 Il 530 l . 327 2 . 6£-01
SO L.PAISM 8. 5 19. 7 52.0 SID 184 185 199 11 2 1024 1.647 1.4[-01
51 L.PRISN 8. 5 27 . 1 52 . 0 5BO 92 517 30 1 82 1409 1.019 9 . 9[ - 02
259 Il7 195 66 27 5JO 2.47.1 2 . 6£-01
51 L.PRISM 0.6 10.1 51. 0
164 419 266 35 1024 1. 424 1.4(-01
53 L. PRISM 0.6 19 . 7 52 . 0 577
88l 299 B43 419 96 1409 1.155 9.9(-02
54 L.PA"N 0.6 27.1 52 . 0
36 56 39 194 1. 429 2.1)(- 0 I
55 PYRANIO 2. 2 Il.8 11 . 07 81
85 136 91 428 1. 064 1.3[- 01
58 -PYRAMID 2. 2 20. 5 20.9 153
130 20B 131 754 0. 695 9.9( - 02
57 -PYRAMID 2.2 27 . 1 27.7l 234
63 104 64 239 1.961 !.a[-O l
5B 'PYAAMID 8. 5 15.l 15.8 109
105 170 104 420 1.366 1.3(-01
59 'PYRAMIO 8.5 20 . 3 20 . 69 181
311 184 290 176 749 0. ' 82 9.9[- 02
60 -PYRAWIO 8.5 27 . 1 17.62
72 125 68 236 2. 397 I. BE-OI
81 'PYRAMID 0. 6 15 . 2 15. 19 126
187 114 175 124 42 0 1.411 1.3[- 0 1
6Z .PYR.t.,,'O 0. 6 10 . 3 20.69
63 - PYRAMID O. (5 17 . 1 Z7 . ~1 297 166 279 179 74. 0 .912 9 . 91"-02

272
where F Inertial Forces
Dimensionless Force
yl' Gravitational Forces

Frictional Forces

4> Dimensionless Friction

Gra vi ty Forces
C Cohes i on Forces
yl Dimensionless Cohesion
Gravity Forces

V2 External Forces

gc Dimensionless Velocity
Gra vity Forces

These equations were used to obtain dimensional and nondimensional

relationships for each group of results obtained for geometrically similar
models tested in the same soil type.

SAND TESTS
The governing dimensional and dimensionless numbers for the sand are
F/ yl', 4> and V2/gl. The term C/yl will have no effect since soil cohesion
C is equal to zero in sand. The angle of internal friction was constant
(4) ~ 36.5° ) during this test program. Therefore, equation 1 can be written
as follows:

(2)

In order to investigate the influence of each of the governing parameters,

the dimensi.onless force number was used· to obtain the following
dimensional equation:
F = f y( l') (3)
This equation can also be written in the following form where the term l'
is replaced with Bh 2 and F is replaced by the front face horizontal force:
f =C(yBh2)m (4)
x 0
where f ~ front face hori zontal force
x
y = dry density of the sand
B ~ average width of the indentor
h = cut depth
m, Co = constants defined by the regress.ion analysis
As shown in Figure 2 and 3, si x regres.sion lines were obtained one
for each of the three veloci.ti.es and one for each model shape.
Correlation coefficients were excellent and all but one were between 0.95
and 1.00.

273
 Since the effect of the FIGURE 2
towing velocity has been clearly

:1
"'00 ELQT Of Itl~ FRQNT FAC~
'000 HORIZONJ.A! fQ~([ Ix
observed for both the pyramid and '000 YH:SUS III h 6
rQR THE eYRAM!~
prismatic models, regression 2000 MOQEL I~ SANQ
"00
analysis based on equation 2 was
_1000
V-0 .6
made and the following results 3 800

- &DO
were obta ined: ~
u
g; 'HXl
'::,300
«
Pyrami d t~ode 1 : \;200
0
~1:50

O·0 9~
'"3?IOO
= 52.85 G~) (5) ~
u eo

Prismatic Model:
~

0
~
'"
.­z 50.
30
•
V: B.Scm/sec
V:2.2 emlsec
v: O.6cm/SBC

a • 186 zO~z--~,--.~.~.~0~,~0----ro~-110~~.~0~",~ea~'~00--'~5O~200
'(;~B = 137.12 G;) (6)
V h'B (N)

These relationships are shown in FIGURE 3

Figure 4 and 5.
PLOT OF THE FRONT FACE
""'"
'000
HORIZONTAL '-ORCE fx
vERSUS V h's
Despite the scatter of the data, 3000 FQR THE PRISMATIC
there is a definite influence of :2000
u
Mopns IN SAND

the veloci ty on the measured ~'~

-;;tIOOO
front face force. The \;000
corre la ti on coeffic ients were 2600
poor and were 0.73 for the '":<
0 '00
~
u
300 •
pyramid model and 0.57 for the ! 200
1­
prismatic models. These z '50
0

equa ti ons are va 1i d for sand

~ '00
Z
•
3 4 ~ 6 B 10 20 30 40 60 80 100 I~ 200
V hOB (N)
wi th ~ = 36.5° and for the range
of velocities tested.
FIGURE 4 FIGURE 5
pf"![raMl.(~':isT~;(8tg!lmTM fORa
OM:NS!Of!.[~RSVsl ')~!~ HQRJl(lfTAl, rQRC[
'00 100 fOR DI PRfS!1Al C MOOIlS IN SN!?
, OR HI PYB AMI) f=W{L tt S.yc>
00 '00
w 00
" '0
.0

.
.~ ...
~
1.'"
~
'0
, ro 30
~

'0
o
•
...,.I6.30lI:q/m·
"
ZO

'0
0
•
•
• 't,-1630 k!;J/f!"I'
t ..... .
~L
O·-:-·~~~~,..Lo·-:-~~~~-'O
, '-:--~~~~~\O ' I •
v'/q l

274
SANDY SILT TESTS
The method of analysis used is similar to the one used for the sand
test results. The term C/yh in equation 3 will appear. The angle of
internal friction ~ 4f C was constant. The relationship used follows:
f (
ynC (7)
To evaluate the effect of velocity, the first two dimensionless terms
of equation 7, were calculated. Figure 6 represents the results. The
amount of data was not enough to make any further analysis. Howe ver, the
vel oci ty was one of the important influencing parameters on the measured
force as was observed in sand. FIGURE 6
SILTY CLAY TESTS ~--------------------~
D'MENS'ONLESS fRONT PLAT[
4('"
300 HORIZONT AL fORCE ..
During the test series, attempts 2QO VERSUS (I Y h

were made to evaluate the repeatability 100 fOR ALL MODELS

of the collected data of two consecutive '0

60
lli...S.!.I.I
o
-..
.o.JI.
'0
runs and also the effect of the removal >0
of the model sides by using only the 10
~~ ,
-
front face of the model. The results ~
were analyzed in dimensional and dimen­ a a

sionless forms. The dimensionless number 0 .6 0 POWlS

PRISMATC HOOnS, CUAR
FROM SOlOD~U ~

DATA fROM PYRAMID

F/yl3 was given in the following form: 0.'
oUt(

F yLhB KA (8) • a v =6.5 emlsec

DI • 0 v =2.2 em/sec
where L ;s a unit length, thus K can be V =0.6 emlsec
... A
00' ....
considered equal to a constant K for the 0 .1 o .~ I • 10 '00
same soil type. Figure 7 and 8 resent (/Vh

FIGURE 7 FIGURE 8
700 PLOT OF THE FRONT FACE ,",aRII . fORCE h
VERSUS CUTT ING AREA A' ~
600 ~l QI DE IttE [Betn E~tE 1::i1J81Z EQBt.E FOR THE PRISMAT IC
g I1ERSUS CLlIIl~~ l!8Ei! l!'
~
w
000
fOR THE PYRAMIP MOPEL
Itlil.l!Y
a g
600 MODElS IN CLAY

-
u
:='"
......
z
~
.00 SQlD[)ATAPOMS ARt:

R( su. T5 01 t1OO(L

'tfmOJT S()(S
u
'"o
~'OO

;:
SOl 10 DATA PO ..TS AR[
fROM l AAG( MOD£l,CU loR.
ON(S AR[ rlltOM SMALl. .- -
2
ii<
0
300
A
a I. Z
2300
•
a _
'"
w
2QO 0 .0 0;
a A
u
~ '"
w 200
U
a
D • V::8S emlsec
:!
!z
0
:!'
100

- o •
6. ...
V=2 .2 emlsec
V:;O .6 emlsec

100 200 JOe 400 :500

MOOEl SCOURING AREA A'
100 400 6.00 100 1000 1200 1400 IG.OO
MODEL SCOURING AREA A'

275
the results of the prismatic and pyramid model s . Based on Figure 7, the
effect of the model sides cleariy show significant effect on the forces
measured on the front face. Figure 8 shows excellent correlation coeffi ­
cients. The repeatability of the tests were also excellent. Figures 9
and 10 give a dimensionless representation of the results with similar
regression correlation coefficients. It should be noted however that C
and y were constants, therefore the results are reliable only for this
range. _
FIGtJRE 9
DIMfNSIONLfSS.l.B,ONT HORIZONTAL fORCf

10

• D
Cl[AR DATA PO'HSr5 rOF!

.,20:
T~ HOOll .... JlIOJT SiO(S

FIGURE 10
2'00 DIMENSIONLESS fRONT PLATE HORIZONTAl FORCE tx
-" V ERSUS c/yn fOR THE PRISMATIC

~ . : • V=S.5 em/sec
100

.0
MOPEl 5 IN CLAY

0.8 ~ y. ,... 96 ..,/~ 0 • V;:2.2 em/sec

0,6 c ...oo P. '0

O~ A .. V:O.6 em/sec 3(J

0.'
0.08 0.10 D." 0.10 20

.
0 .30 0 .40
C/Yh
10
.,
..; {.

"­
x

Oh~~~--~~~~~~~=;;;~~~.
D .~
D. I 0 .2 0 .3 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3 .0 ~ .O
COMPARISON OF RESULTS C/Yh

A comparison between the experimental results with similar experi­

ments and analytical models developed in previous research studies was
done. An equation based upon standard soil mechanics theories has been
used by Kovacs and [·1ellor (1974) to calculate the frontal resistance
force f x given by the following equation:
fx (1/2 yh 2 IH> + 2Ch /NT) B (9)

where N<j> (1 + sin<j>/l - s;n<j»

=
the effective angle of internal friction of the soil.
<j> =
The appropriate soil properties that correspond to the sand used for
these experiments were introduced in equation 9 and presented in Figure 11
(a) and (b) along with the experimental results for both model shapes.

276
 FIGURE 11: COMPARISON OF THE RESULTS WITH PREVIOUS STUDIES
PLOT or THE rRONT rACE
HORIZONT AL rOReE f)(

Z 4000
VERSUS Yh'B
:;woo FOR THE PRISMATIC
MODELS IN SAND
~2000
~I:KXI
(al
;41000
!z800
2 £00
~ .. '
'"" "'"
:I:

~ 300

<I

.... 100
\;:
~=~~~~~~L.:.... . . . . .

" 100
~ 100 l--.. . .....'!~..................
2 J "'6 e 10 20 30 40 6080100 '~200
1/ h'e (N)

~I
0000 PLOT or THE fRONT fACE
400 PIMENSIONLESS fRONT PLATE
4000 HORIZONTAL FO~E (x 300 HORIZONT AL rORCE (x
VERSUS II h e
""'" fOR THE PYRAMID
200 VERSUS Cly h
MOPEL IN SAND 100
rOR ALL MOQElS
1000 JlI...illI
(bl 60

z:looo Yo06
40
30 (el
- 800 20

"'600
~ 10
u
~400 ~ 6
~300 ,x
>

<I
!z1OO
"
~I~
SCl.1D DATA pOlns AR( FROM
'"~100 PRISM"TC MOOUS . Cl[AR
DA1A .toR( fROH PYRAM[l
~
U

~ 02
• a V =8.5 em/sec
!zo 01 V =2.2 cm/sec
V =0 .6 emlsec
'"
2O~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~--""""'" O.~I--~-O~.~S~--~~~'~~IO'-~OO~~~,~oo~1
2 ] " . :' 6 e 10 20 30 40 60 90 100 1'50 200
CI~h
1/ h'e (N)
700 PLOT or THE fRON< fACE HORll fORCE 'x

100 VERSUS CUTTING AREA A'

fOR THE PRISMATIC

100
6DO MODELS IN CLAY
(el
••
60

,••
40 SOlI) DAtA POI'IITS ARl
30 fROM l ARG{ Moon .ct[ AR

10
orcs ARl fROM SMAll. •

"">
"'
,4
.
10

"'.
o • '1:2.2 em/sec
.0. A '1=0 .6 em/sec
0.6 O~
ID , ., 2.0 5 .0 5 .0,
100 400 600 8(X) 1000 1 200 1400 1600
MODEL SCOURING AREA A'

277
Equation 9 is independent of speed of the model. The predicted force is
significantly lower then the measured one. One of the reasons is not
considering the velocity of the interaction.
The front face horizontal force fx measured in silt and clay were
compared to experimental resul ts reported by Schuring and Emori (1964)
where a small plate was towed through cohesive soil with an angle of 88°
with the horizontal plane, the following relationship was reported.
fx _ C (10)
---yp- - 5.8 yL
Equation 10 is presented in Figure 11 (c and d) together with the data
obtained in the present study.
The results of the horizontal force obtained on the prismatic model
in clay was compared to results obtained by O'Callaghan and McCullen
(1964) and the following equation was abstracted:
fx = 5.11 C.A. (11)
Equation 12 is plotted in Figure 11 (e) along with the present study
results. The present experimental results show a resistance force twice
as high as the resistance measured by O'Callaghan and r-tcCullen.

CONCLUSIONS
Experimental testing of ice scouring has been shown to be useful in
obtaining parameters influencing the scouring process. Based on the
results of this study, the followtng were observed:
The scale factor was not found to influence the results
appreciably. A model twice as large as the small' model gave the same
results in non-dimensional form in all soils tested.
The influence of the velocity of the model on the measured force
was significant in sand. The force increased by 110% due to a velocity
increase from 0.6 to 8.5 cm/sec. In silt, the increase was also observed.
In clay, the velocity i.ncrease from 0.6 to 2.2 cm/sec resulted in force
increase, but increasing the speed to 8.5 cm/sec did not result in a
continuing increase of the forces. This may have been caused by the
liquifaction of the soil.
The resistance measured showed some correlations with previous
experimental results despite the differences in the test conditions. The
forces measured being the mean peaks of the resistance traces, is expected
to be somewhat larger than the average force necessary for an energy based
solution to the problem.

278
REFERENCES
ABDELNOUR, and LAPP, D., (1980). "I·lodel Tests of Sea Bottom Ice Scouring" .
APOA Study i·lumber 150, Arctec Canada Report 356C.
ABDELNOUR, R., LAPP, D., HAIDER,S., SHINDE, S.B., and WRIGHT, B., (1981).
"i·lodel Tests of Sea Bottom Scouring", POAC 81, Symposium .
CHARI, T. and ALLEi~, J.H., (1974). "An Analytical Model and Laboratory
Tests on Iceberg Sediment Interaction", IEEE International Conference on
Engineering in the Ocean Environment, Volume I.
FENCO (1975). "An Analytical Study of Scour on the Sea Bottom" . Report
submitted to Arctic Petroleum Operators Association, Number 69-1.
KOVACS, A. and l'lELLOR, 11. (1974), "Sea Ice ~lorphology and Ice as a
Geologic Agent in the Southern Beaufort Sea", in the Coast and Shelf of
the Beaufort Sea, Proceedings of a Symposium on Beaufort Sea Coast and
Shelf Research.
SCHURING, D.J. and EHORI, R. I. (1964). "Soil Deforming Processes and
Dimensional Analysis", Society of Automotive Engineers Report 897C.
o 'CALLAGHAN, J.R., I'ICCULLEN, P.J., ( 1964). "Soil Mechanics in Relation to
Earth i·loving j·l achinery", Proc. Inst. I·lechanical Engineers.

ACKNOWLEDGEHENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Arctic
Petroleum Operators Association Participant's, Petro Canada, Esso
Resources and Gulf Canada for funding this study.

279
NAVIGATION IN ICE

 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

REV I SED V E R SID N

ICE-MILLING LOAD ENCOUNTERED BY
A CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER

Sasajima, T. Nagasaki Experimental Tank

Proj ec t, Manager Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Japan

Mustamaki, E. Wartsila Arctic Research Cen tre

Naval Architect Oy Wartsila Ab, Helsinki Shipyard Pinland

Abstract
Ice-milling tests on a co ntrollable pitch propeller, designed
for a large Arctic tanker were conducted by use of saline ice. Thrust
and torque fluctuation, blade bending moment and blade stress were mea­
sured at various ice speed - propeller shaft speed combinations by
chnaging propeller pitch.
It was shown that the ice-milling loads were severer for smaller
propeller pitch than those for standard pitch. Examination was made on
usefulness and limitation of existing methods for estimating ice-milling
torque and blade bending moment.
Also theoretical method to calculate the ic e-milling forces based on
more realistic model were discussed.

281
1. Introduction
In view of future demand of energy resources, exploration of natural
resources has been conducted in the Arctic regions during th e last two
decades. These activities will be continued in future also, and in its
productio n s tage, transpo rtation of the products fr om the Arctic to indus­
trialized areas will be a ma tter of concern. A high powered large ice­
capable oil and gas carriers will be one of the powe rful can didates. But,
since there are many aspects, which are beyond our experiences and predic­
tions, in designing such an ice-capable tanker, extensive basic researches
are necessary (Takekuma, 1984). Among them, design of propeller and

propulsi o n plant are considered to be one of the most important items to

be studied, since severe propeller - ice floe interaction can not be

avoided during navigation in ice-covered water ways in Arctic. Die se l-

or turbo-electric motor driven system has been applied to most of ice

breakers to avoid seve re damage to propeller blade s caused by propeller ­
ice floe interaction.
Recently, controllable pitch propellers (epp) were installed t o some
ice-capable ships, t akin g into account the merit of reduci ng fluctu­

ating torque caused by propeller - ice floe interaction by adjustment of

propeller pitch together with controlling engine ou tput (Wind, 1981).

Thus, epps are considered to be powerful candidates of pro pulsion system

for a high powered large Arctic tanker. Through the ice-milling tests of

the propeller with different settings of pitch, capability of epps f o r

s uch an ice-capable tanker was discussed, together with examination of

usefulness and limitation of eXi s ting methods for estimating ice-milling
torque and blade bending moment.
In order to explaine the ic e -milling process encountered by the
propeller in detail, a method, based on the upper-bound theorem with
assumption of elastic-plastic behaviour of the ice and two ice breaking
mechanisms by shearing were proposed. This method, in which acrtual blade
form with its rotational position in ice is included, was found to be
useful in estimating ice-milling forces.

2. Design of propeller
A epp was designed for an Arctic tanker, the principal particulars of
which are shown in Table 1. The propeller geometry was designed following
the flow chart shown in Fig.1 (Sasajima, Bulat, Glen, 1981).
Table 2 summarizes the results of propeller design. At strength

282
 Table 1. Principal particulars and dimensions of a
candidate Arctic tanker

Ship Length 350.0 (m)

Width 5 2 .0 (m)
Draft 20.0 (m)
Engine Electric motor
Total output 78 x 3 MW
Shaft speed 80 rpm
Speed Cruising 15 kn
LR, ASPPR Cla s s 10
Ice condition Ice-capability at Thickness 8'
c ontiniou s breaking Ship speed 3 kn

Tabl e .2. Principal particulars of the propeller

Item s Center Propeller Wing propellers

Diameter 10.300 m
Pit c h ratio 0.620 0.640
Expanded area ratio 0.6000
Boss ratio 0.4155
Thick-chord ratio 0.05322
Number of blades 4

Design condllion Design Remarks design s tage, ice-milling torque

was checked by both ASPPR (1979)
and Jagodkin's method (Jagodkin,
19 63 ) and blade stress was
cal c ulated by use of Ignatjev's

method (Ignatjev. 1966 ) . assum­

ing both strength of the
propeller material and sea i c e
as follows.
Propeller: Mitsubishi Corro­
sion Resistance Steel
(Ueda et al .• 197 8 )
0B ~ 8 82 MN/m • 0y ~ 39 2 MN / m
Sea i c e:

0c = 3.0 MPa • Os = 0 . 75 MPa

Fig.2 and Fig.3 show the
results of calculation. Ogival
blade section was used for this
propeller.
Fig.1 Design procedure

3. Ice-milling test

A model propeller with pitch changing mechanism was made from

283
 ~ ..~
.
\
\
\ ~ ? estimaTed from

2000
,®model test result

/ -- ... '
o

-"
// Jogodkin

/ 1050 ron·m

1000

;----- - --- - - - ­
L ASPPR 350 Ion· m
Pig.4 Model propeller
°0-L-------~2~0------~4~0------~6~0-------e,-!o
N (rpm) Strain gouges

Pig.2 Ice-milling torque

600 ESTimaTed by Jgnolev's formu !o

E
§,
~ ThiCkness disrnbulion
I adopled
400

;-PoIar$ra r
Estimated

~
200 Assumed
10 be 80mm
~

o 0 0.4 0.6 1.0

r/R

Pig.5 Block diagram of

Pig.) Blade thickness distribution measurements

stainless steel. The scale ratio is 41.2 Fig.4 shows the photograph of
the model. Ice-milling tests were conducted in the low temperature room
at Warts il a Arctic Research Center.
Block diagram of the measurements is shown in Pig .5 . To measure the
blade stress and blade bending moment, 6 single strain gauges wer e put
near the midchord paint at 0.45 and 0.5 radius on both face and back side
of the blade No.1. Thrust and torque fluctuation were measured by using
strain-gauge type sensors arranged on the propeller shafting system,
while shaft speed and ice speed were measured by counting pulse signals
from the generators installed on each shaft. Propeller shaft speed was
changed, keeping the ice carriage sp ee d constant at each test run. The
ice block of about 50 cm x 40 cm x 10 cm was set und er th e model propeller
so that milling depth is two-third of the blade length.

284
 Table 3. Test Condition

case pitch rati o propeller speed speed of ice block

n(rps) Vice(m! s)

A 1 0.64 16.1 9.0 4.9 2.8 0. 45

A-2 0.32 16.1, 9 .0, 4.9, 2.8 0.45
0 .32 16. ! , 4. 9 - 0.45
B-1 0.00 4.9 0 . 45
0.00 3.8 -0 . Q5
c-! - 0 . 32 16 . 1 , 4 . 9, 3 .8 0.45
--
-0.32 lb .! , 9.0 , 3 ~8 , 3.0 - 0 . ij5 --
Saline ice (Enkvist, 1984) was used in these tests. Crushing
strength of the model ice in horizontal direction was chanRed between
0c ~ 50 - 250 KPa, in order to get suitable 1Utput from the st r a in
gauges, even t hough 72 KPa was t he target va~ue .

Test conditions are continuous i c e breaking ahead and astern I<ith

positive, neutral and negative pitch, as shown in Table 3 . At least 4
runs were conducted at one test condition to c heck the scatter of data.
All the data were analyze d for the mean value (m.v. ) and average peak
value ( a.p.v. ) a nd corrected for t he standard co ndition,i.e. 0c ~ 72KPa.

4. Test results and discussi on

4.1. Ice-milling loads at the design pit c h
The anal yz ed data are plotted against propeller shaft speed (n) and
Shown in Pig.6. Ice-milling thrust (T) and torque (Q) are pl otted for
bo th m.v. and a.p.v ., while on l y a.p . v . was plotted for blade bending
moment (M ) and stress (0). In Pig.6(1), the preliminary t e st results
b
for ice-milling torque were also included for reference.
Jagodkin's mo del consists of three kinds of ice-milling torque,
i.e. Q due to shearing of the ice by blade edge, Q due to crushing
s c
of the i c e by pr oj ected area o f the blade, and Q due to pur e crUShing
pc
of the ice by t he mean thi c kness of the blade. The calculated results by
Jagodkin's and Ignatjev's method are shown also in the figures.

The ratio o f the crushing strength to the s hearing strength was chosen

to be 1. 8 based on the test results in th is calc ulati on, even though

it is assume d to be 4 in Jagodkin's original metho d. It was Shown that :

(1) The m.v. of the ice torque are almost the same order as that pre­
dicted by Jagodkin's f ormula at the deSign pitch with no r mal pro­
ceeding condition. The a .p.v. is very high du e to dynamic effect of
ice loadings and also due to Some unavoidable noi se from thrust and
torque sensors.

285
 rn.v. P.o.v. 5 10 15
0
0 0
E 0 a Prefiminory leSI 0
1l n [rDs] \;l

20 3 Jagodokin -200 "

0 d
6
0
"
I -400 ~ o m .v.
I f- a.p.v.
I a "

~\:<;_----~
-600

Pig_6(2) Ice-milling thrust

10
0', ---- 0

20

II 0< (j 0, (j
1:. Measured
0"" n(rD;­ ~
u colcurOled from Mb (a.p.v. )
00 5 10 15 o
(D Colculoled from ° (m.v.)
~\. - ---. Ignoljev
Pig.6(1) Ice -milling torque 10
~\
b \.

J~
0 5 10 15
0

E
3
.
8
--------,.
n [rps)

0,
il

0
~ 0==05 0

~
::;;
/
-5 /
/ 01
/ 2

Qc
Measured

-10 CalculoTed (rom Mb (o.p.v.)

-10 '" Measured (o.P.v.)

EsrimaTed from ° (o.p.v.l
Calculated from 0 (m.v.)
- .... 19narjev
ESlimored from 0 (m.v.J b
Ignarev
" -20
Pig_6() Blade bending moment Fig_6(4) Blade stresses
at 0_45R at O.5R

(2) Blade bending moment and blade stress increase with de crease of
shaft speed_ Ignatjev's method gives good approximation for the
a_p_v of both blade bending mome nt and blade stress_
(3) Based on the Jag odkin' s method, full scale ic e -milling torque at
design point was estimated from model test data. The result is
shown in Fig.2_ The ice-milling t orque estimated from model test
results is 1_7 times larger than that by Jagodkin's method_

4_2_ Effe ct of propeller pitch on ice-milling loads

Fig.7 shows the effect of propeller pitch on ice-milling torque
(m.v_), thrust (m _v_) and blade bending moment (a_p_v.), plotted on ice
advance ratio (Vice/ nO) . It was shown that;
(1) Due to the limitted number of data, it is di fficult to draw general

286
 -0..6 0..4 0.2 0.6 0.
0..8 0.2 0..4
Vice/nO
Pig.7(1) Change of ice-milling torque
with propeller pitch
GOE p
P
.3 o 0.64
50.0.~ 0 0..64 • 0..32
• l-
• 0.32
• 40.~ t:. 0..0.
• t:. 0.0.
• .. -0.32
.. .. .. -0..32
20.
Vice/no
.. .. 0. 0.2 0..4
Vice/no
0.6 . u
0.2
'V
0..4
o
0.6
-0.6 -0.4 -0..2 0 0 -0..6 -0..4 -0.2
0 I o
..
• o -20.

• -40.
• •
-50.0.
•
':'-1165 -60. ':'-96.0.

Fi g.7(2) Change of ice-milling Fig.I( 3) Change of blade bending

thrust with propeller pitch moment with propeler pitch

conclusion, but there is a possibility to reduce ice-milling torque

by adjusting propeller pitch in normal operating condition.
(2) But with decrease of pro pe ller pitc h, ice-milling thrust and
blad e bendin g moment incresed considerably. Thu s the operation
mode of the propeller should be chosen carefully, taking into
account the ice-milling torque and blade str en gth .
(3) Ic e -milling loads become ver y large when direction of the sh ip
motion and propeller thrust is opposite.
(4) Estimated ice-milling torque by Jagodkin's me thod does not differ
t oo much from the test results, ev en though the method i s originally
based on the normal proceeding condition. Blade bending moment
estimated by Ignatjev's method was good approximation for p = -0.32
but not for p = 0.32. Further study is nec essary incl ud ing
improvement of existing ic e -milling model.

287
 5. Theoretical method for calculating ice-mi ll ing force
5.1. Earlier theory
In the early sixties, V Va. Jagodkin created his model concerning the
ice-milling phenomenon (Jagodkin, 1961). At the same time M.A. Ignatjev
formulated a calculation model for the determination of forces on the
pro peller (Ignatjev, 1964). Both mOdels mentioned are based on a most
simplified blade form and do not tak e into account the rotation of the
.~ropel1er. On the o ther hand the models are so easy as an ice torque
prediction for some condition may be calculated in a few seconds.

5.2. Base for new theory

Since the blade form surely is an important factor when predicting

ice forces acting on propellers, and a continuous value during th e propel­

ler r ota tion is needed for calculation of power consumption, a new model
has to be developed if us e ful predictions for shaft torque, blade bending
moment etc. induced by ice are needed.
The two requirements, blade form and rotation, can be fulfilled if
the ice forces are calculated separately for each circular section of the
blade, Pig.8. The separate section of th e blade may be taken as two­
dimensional, and a good accuracy is achieved wh en the number of sections

is increased.

Pig .8 Divided blade section

Induced forces on each section may be estimated using various calcu­

lati a n methods. By combining korzanin'e formula for ice pressure
(Korzhavin, 1962) and the upper-bound theorem by CroaSdale (Croasdale,

1980), the ice force for each section may be calculated using following

formulas:

(1) Shearing in direction to groove cut earlier:

s d
Prom Pig.9 we can see that the failure planes are sine'~ and
s2
The gliding speeds are .~ and ~ respectively. The energy
2tanS' cose cose

288
dissipated internally E. is:
1

r
Tdsw . + --S -) (1)
( eoaa,slne'COSe 28in8 '

where, T shearing strength of ice,

d depth of section,
s pitch between grooves cut,
w rational speed of propeller,
a ; angle between leading edge and radius,
e angle between shearing plane and direction of ice floe, and
r radius of actual section.

The external work E is:

e
E pbdwr, (2)
e
where, p average pressure, and
b ; width of part of blade which is in contact with ice.
Equating Ei and Ee' and taking into account that the force acting is
P = pdb, we get:

P (J)

Ice

Fig.9 Schematic explanation of shearing

in direction to grove cut earlier

289
(2) Shearing in direction to bottom of ice floe :
Prom Pig.l0 we can see that failure planes are cd and ~ The
cose·
wr
gliding speed is sine for both cases. Then energy dissipated internally

(c s)
rdwr sine + sine.casS ' ( 4)

where, C length of chord in actual section, and

s width of actual section projected on a plane normal t o
direction of ice flow.
The external work for this case is:

E psdwr. ( 5)
e

Equating Ei and Ee' we get that Pis:

P Td8(~~
sine
+ 1 )
sine·cose·
(6 )

The e x pressions for P have to be minimized on the pressure side of

the blade, and the most energy saving mechanism of the two mentioned
before, (1) or ( 2 ), is to be used. On the s uction side, mechanism (2)
is used.

lee

Pig . l0 Shehematic explanation o f shearing

in direction to bottom of ice floe

290
The relation between F and the force normal to F, defined as Pi is:

Sina + lJCOSCX)
P
Pi ( cosa - lJsincx '

where, lJ friction coefficient, and

a angle of incidence.

The total forces acting on the blade are easily obtained when the
forces on each section are known. Formulas for shaft thrust (T )'
ice
shaft torque (Qice)' blade bending moment (Ma) and blade spindle
torque (Ms) may be derived as follows (see Fig.ll):

n
i:i-Fi,sinBi + Fiai·cosBi) (8)

Q. (9 )
,ce

n
E((-Pi(ri·cos~i - rhub)·sin(Bi - $root) +
i=l
Fiai(ri·c06~i - rhub)·cos(Bi - $root» (10)

n
M .E((Pi·ri·sin~i·sin($i - Bi) +
s ,=1
Pi a i - ri·sin~i·cos($i - Bi » ( 11)

r-sp;ndle
~que : Ms
Bending mom~
M. --­ ....-r-..

Thrust: Tice

Pig.ll Definition of ice load

291
It can easily be seen from these formulas, factors, such as blade profile,
blade section, pitch at each reaction, angle of attack at catch section
and friction coefficient, have effects upon the ice-force.

5.3. Comparison of test results with calculated ice-milling forces

Using a computer program based on the new theory, ice~milling forces
for cases of p = 0.64 and 0.32 were calculated. A contact factor of 0.5
for shearing in direction to ice surface on the pressure side of the
blade, and a frictin coefficient of 0.1 were used.
Fig.12 shows the results of the calculation. Among 8 cases, 6 cases
are within 50% tolerance compared with measured data. Only 2 cases may
be considered to be incorrect, where crushing mode is expected from the
Jagodkin's mo del ing:

THRUST
0

-200 ~
Z
-400 /
f­

a -600 i /'
w
f­
a: -1100 V
-'
::J ! i/ •
u -1000
-'
a:
u -1200 :// -
-1400 Vi1200 800 400
MEASURED T (Nl

TORQUE BENDING MOMENT

14 10
~
e
12 V. E 0 V
z
~10 Y. z
., -10
I Vi
a
a 8 ~ / >:
-20 V'
w
I-
a:
L
,
// -
- a
w
f- -30
- 1// I
-
~/ •
bt/ 1/ - ,
-' a: ; I
-'
.3 4 ~ , ::J
U
-40
-' 1/ /
a: -' !
u 2 a: -50
V-:•. 6 8 10 12 14
u
I/ /!
- 40 20 .0
MERSURED Q (Nml MERSURED Mb (Nml

Fig.12 Comparison of ice loads

292
 Nprop"4 . 9 l/s Nprop - 4.9 1/ s
P/ D-.64 P / D- .32
Vlce - . 45 m/ .s Vlce"". 4 5 m/.s

MEASURED LOADS CALCULAT[D LOADS MEASURED LOADS CALCULATED LOAns

Pig . l) Comparison of time history of ice loads

In Pig.1) the measured time history for two cases are compared with
those calculated. The similarity of measured and calculated time history
of the blade bending moment is obvious. The comparison of thrust and
torque is more difficult becuase o f vibration in " measured data.
The new calculation method proposed here may be used with success,
to predict maximum loads acting on a propeller, during normal forward
running operation conditions. Purther work is needed before exact loads
in each case may be calculated.

293
 6. Concluding remarks
Ice-milling characteristics of a CPP for a high powered Arctic tanker
were studied by model tests using saline ice. Ice-milling thrust and
torque fluctuation, blade bending moment and stress were measured at
different ice speed - propeller shaft speed combinations for different
propeller pitch. Followings are conclusion obtained.
(1) At the design pitch, ice-milling torque estimated by Jagodkin's
method is considered to be almost the same order as that by the
model tests. Ignatjev's method for estimating blade bending moment
and blade stress was also found to be useful.
(2) There is a possibility to reduce ice-milling torqe by adjusting
propeller pitch. But according to the test results, blade bending
increased with decrease of propeller pitch. Thus selection of the
propeller operation mode will be important. Purther accumulation
of the data is necessary. Even though the existing methods give
rough estimation of ice-milling load, further study is necessary
to simulate the milling process in general.
(3) The new method for calculating ice forces, based on the upper bound

theory and shearing mode milling was found useful for calculating
maximum load. Further study is necessary especially for the range
where the crushing mode is dominant.

The authors wish to express their appreciation to Dr. E. Enkvist,

Director of WARC and Dr. H. Tanibayashi , Project Manager of Nagasaki
Technical Institute, MHI, for their encouragement in conducting model
tests . Thanks are due all the staffs of both Nagasaki Experimental Tank
and WARC for their cooperation in conducting model tests.

294
Reference

Arctic Sh ipping Po llu tion Preventions Regulations, 1979, Schedue VII ,

Machinery Requirements for Arctic Class Ships.
Croasdale, K.R., 1980, Ice Forces on Fixed Rigid Str uct ures , U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory , Spec ial Report 80-26.
Enkvist, E and Makinnen , S. , 1984, Experience with a New Type of Model
Ice, Proceeding s of SNAM E ICETECH '84, Calgary.
Ignatev, M.A., 1966, Propellers for Ships Navigating in Ice (in Russian),
Sudostroenie Leningrad.
Jagodkin, V. Ya . , 1963, Ana l ytic Determination of the Resistance Moment
o f a Propeller during its In te ract i o n with I ce (in Russian), Problems
of the Ar c tic a nd Antar ctic , Vol.13.
Korzhavin, K.N ., 1 962, Action of Ic e on Engineering Structures, U. S. Army
Co ld Regions Re s earcch and Engineering Laboratory, Draft Translation
No.260.
Sasajima, T., Bulat, V . and Glen, I., 1981, An Experimental Investigation
of Two Candid ate Propeller Designs for Ice Capable Vessels, Proceedings
of POAC '81, Quebec.
Takekuma, K., 1984, Te chn ical and Economic Aspec ts of Arctic Marine
Transporta tion , Proceedings of POAC '83, Helsinki.
Ueda, S., Daikoku, T. and Matsuo, S., 1 978, Development of High Strength
S teel for Propeller, Mitsubishi Ju ko Giho, VOl.l, No.5.
Wind, J . , 1983, The Dimensioning o f Hig h Power Propeller Sy stem for Arc tic
I ce breake r s and I cebreaki ng Vesse l s, proceedings of the 5 th Lip s
Propeller Symposium, Drunen.

295
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DYNAMIC ICE LOADS ON A SHIP

Alfred L. Tunik American Bureau USA

of Shipping

Dynamic ship/ice interactions have been conside re d for

different scenario s of collision using a hydrodynamic model
of sol id / ice impact . As a result, the dynamic load parameters
are expressed as products of their dimensional maximum
magnitudes and dimensionless time history factors. The
maximum ice load parameters are functions of masses and speed
of collision, dynamic crushing properties of ice and geometry
of the collided ship and ice. There are recommended design
formulae and time history diagrams for many practically
i~portant cases of the ship/ice interaction, including
ramming in an imprint of previous rams . The results can be
used both for ice induced hull girder bending moment calcula­
tions and for stress analysis of local ship s tructure
including appendages .

297
 NOMENCLATURE
A -area of the contact zone
a -paramete r of ice resi s tance to
dynamic crushing
b -as given in fig.
Cs-reduced mass coeficient for a
ship
c-e xponent in equations (5)
F-total ice force normal to ship
surface at the contact zone cen~
ter
Fmax-maxi DuD (in ti~e) magnitude of
the total force
F=F/Fma,,-dimensionles s total force
in time
g-gravity acceleration
Kf;Kp;Kt;Kp;nf;np-coefficients
l-as given in fig. I
ll-d i rectional cosine for s hip
intrusion into ice regarding s hip
motion direction
M-total mass of collision reduced
to the impact center
Ms;Mi-reduced masse s of ship and
ice consequently
m-ice spalling factor
P-ice press ure intensity on ship
surface at arbitrary point of
contact at any instance
Po-same, but at the contact zone
center
P=P/P -dimensionless pressure
di ~trlbution over the contact
zone
Pmax-maximum (in time) pressure at the
contact zone center
P=Po / Pmax-dimensionless pressure at
the center,in time
r-polar coordinate of the point being
considered within the contact zone
ro;rmax;r~r/rmax-instant,maximum,and
instant dimensionless radii of
the contact zone, consequently
ri-radius of imprint of previous
impact
R-as gi ven in fig. 1
S; Sx ;Sy-coefficients in equation (5)
T-period of impact
t;E=t/T-instant and dimensionless
time of impact
V-instant velocity of intrusion into
ice toward axis Z
Vo-mag nitude of V at the bC3 inning of
impa ct
~=V / Vo-dimensionless velocitY,in time
VI-velocity of ship motion
X;Y-coordinates of a point being con­
sidered within the contact zone
with axes shown in fig. 1
Xo;Yo-as given in fig. 1
Z-direction and depth of intrusion
Zmax-maximum depth of intrusion
6=Z/ Zmax-dimensionless depth in time
o(=r Irmax;
't; ;rx; 't y - coefficients in eq.(6)
.0. - ship displacement
:? ;o<'+(l-d)z

I. INTRODUCTION

One or two principal modes of ice destruction can usually take place
during impacts: crushing of contacting ice layer s until the ship is
stopped by the ice, or until the collided ice is broken by bending. Onl y
the first mode reSUlting in higher dynamic ice loads is discussed here.

The ice crushing starts after compressive stresses in the contacting ice
layers reach the ice crushing stren gth. Ice of the contacting zone is
cracking, breaking into small fractures and crushing. The crushed ice
mass is pressed out from the contact 20ne, while the ship is intruding
into the ice, rushing new ice layers. The crushed ice mass being forced out
of the cont a ct zone produces pressure on the ship hull much higher than

298
 the static strength of solid ice. This is similar to the impact of a flat
structure on a water surface. Dynamic ice loads can be obtained by
studying the ship/ice interaction after the crushing and by using the
ice static crushing strength as a threshold.

2. GENERAL

The crushed ice mass was considered by Kheisin & Kurdyumov [7,8] as a
viscous paste or liquid. Ice pressure intensity at the ship s·urface was
obtained solving simplified Re ynold's equations for motion of the viscous
liquid being forced out from the space between two moving rigid surfaces
(the ship shell and a boundary of uncrushed ice). This is a function of an
instant speed of intrusion, crushed ice mass properties and a locality
being considered within the contact zone. for the particular case of an
axially symmetric impact, the ice pressure intensity is [8]:
1 l
P(t;r) = aV4(r~ _ r')4 (1)
where the instant velocity V and radius of imprint ro can be considered
as functions of the intrusion depth Z. following the methodology used in
[8], an equation similar to (1) can be found for a general case of the
two-dimensional forci~ out of the crushed ice mass:

P(t;x;y) (2)

The total force normal to the ship surface at the center of contact

zone is: f = JAPdA (3)

where the contact area A and, consequently, the surface integral (3),

are functions of an instant time of impact.

The equation of ship indentation into ice

d'Z
Mdt' -F=O (4)
can be solved, if a for m of the. contact zone and its change during the
impact are known. The instant form depends both on the ship bow shape
and on a shape of ice feature at the location of the impact and on its
disposition in relation to the ship. Any shapes and dispositions can
occur. However, two principal cases can be distinguished by the direction
in which the crushed ice mass is forced into. Generally, it moves in any
possible direction, i.e. two-axial forcing out should ~ considered. An
axially symmetric impact, as for a steel ball dropping on a fiat ice

299
 surface is a perfect example (Fig.l), the most convenient for mathematical
analysis. For a real ship/ice interaction the forcing out of the crushed
ice mass is non-symmetric, and can happen more or less predominantly
along one of the coordinate axes. If th~ is the case, it can be considered
as uniaxial (a flat structure impacting with a level ice edge, as in Fig.lg),
simplifying the mathematical solution.

3. FORi1S OF CONTACT ZONES

Further solution of equations (3) and (4) depends on how the instant shape
and dimensions of the contact zone change during the impact, i.e. on the
form of contact zone as a function of intrusion time and depth. The dimen­
sions usually change from zero at the beginning to their maximums at the
finish (except for repeated impacts at previous imprints). An exponential
relationship between the dimensions and the intrusion depth, that can
be used in general, is y = S ZC
o y
(5)
or for the axial symmetry r
o
= SZc

The range of the exponent "c" can be restricted. For the ball, spheroid,
or paraboloid-like solids dropping on flat ice~igures la; Ib; lc), c = 1,
if Z « 2R for the ball, or Z « 2b'/a for the spheroid, where b and a ­
the major and minor semi-axes, consequently. With few exceptions, flat
convex (flattened out) surfaces of a ship bow (especially" spoon-shaped
bow) at locations of possible impacts by ice can be approximated by a
part of a spherOid (or, generally, ellipsoid or elliptic paraboloid).
Therefore, c = -t appears. to be appropriate for such ship surfaces interac­
ting with relatively flat ice having no edges or apexes in the contact
zone. A cone or pyramid dropping on flat ice (Fig.ld) corresponds to
c = l,as well as it is for a flat structure interacting with an ice apex
of approximately conical or pyramidal shape (Fig.le). Higher magnitudes
of c can be assumed for an interaction of a sharp structure with flat ice
or a flat structure with a sharp ice apex as shown in Figures If and lj.
In this case, c = 2 can be apprOXimately assumed. Thus, for the two­
dimensional forcing out, the exponent c in equation (5) can vary from
about 1 to about 2.

Special consideration should be given to the repeated impacts at previous

imprints. Such impacts occur due to ramming icebreaking and,usually,

300
 att+~~
. ....~'~ ~~~
~
i~:::J ~~
~ . xr ,I ro,
I
0 .
1ce
.
1 "-ISS

r
J

Fig. 1. Idealized variations of dynamic interactions of different solids with ice

~
 result in the two-dimensional forcing out of the crushed ice mass. It is
known fro~ the ice breaking experience that dimensions of an imprint left
bya previous ram (or rams) increase insignificantly during each next ram.
Moreover, the bigger the number of rams at the same imprint is, the less
significant is the increase of the imprint's size. The refore, independent
of particular shapes of the ship bow and ice featureS, a linear relationship
betwe n the dimensions of the imprint and the intrusion depth can be
as s umed for the repeated rams: t x Z) ; y0 = YI(l+~Z)
}
x x1(l +
0
(6)
or for the axial symmetry r rI(l + OZ)
0

For the uniaxial forcing out~ the fir s t of equations (5) can be used as
a relationship between the extent of contact zone toward the axis of the
crushed ice movement and the intrusion depth. The most important practical
cases are: a flat structure intruding into an ice edge (Figures Ih and Ii)
where c = 1 can be assumed, and an edge of a ship structure (rudder, ice
knife, propeller nozzle, etc.) in truding in to a relatilely fla t ice sur face
(Fig.Ip), where c = 1 or c = I can be assumed.

Another dimension of the contact zone for the uniaxial forcing out depends
on the intrusion depth,on the curvature of the edge and on dispositioos
of the contacting surfaces. Both strai:;ht and rounded edges of either ship
structure or ice fielG are discussed for their most crucial dispositions.

Using e uations (I) or (2) and (5) or (6) to calculate the surface
integral (3), it is possible to present the total force (including the ice
pressure) as functions of the instant intrusion depth and speed.
Thus, F is proportional to Vi an d zf(c).
, ~.e. F = F0 v1Zf(c) ' where
exponent fCc) depends both on c in (5) or (6) and on the edge form.
Equation (4) can be easily solved
M~
dZ
+ F
0
iz tCc ) o (7)

taking into account conditions at the beginning and the end of the impact
V V for Z 0
0
V 0 for Z
Zmax
The solution can be presented in the dimensionless form:
_fCc)+I 4/7
V (1 - Z ) (8)
and for the repeated i~pact at the previous imprint

302
As a result, all of the ice load parameters can be expressed as products
of their dimensional maximums, dimensionless functions characterizing
their time histor y and, for the pressure~ dimensionless function characte­
rizing its law distribution over the contact zone:
F(t) Fma/(Z) (9)
P(t;x;y) P p(Z)P(x;y) (10)
r (t) ~ r ~(Z) or b ~b b- ( 11)
o max 0 max '
The same equations with 2 replacing Z are G~tained for the repeated
impacts at the imprints.

The dimensionless distributions of the pressure over the contact zone are
(see Fig. 2):

or (12)

p As was shown in [8],the shear

forces on the bordering surface

I
?
f or l
0.1

0.1i
0.•
0.2
~ \
between the crushed ice layer and
the unc~ushed solid ice increase
drastically near outer boundaries
of the contact zone. Thi s results
in ice spalling at margins of the
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 o.S·
contact zone, predicted by the
Fig .. 2. Dimensionless pr~e distributioo theory and well observed in
over the contact zone, without (1) and
with (2; m=1.06) the spalling effect tests. Sizes of the spalling
taken into account. margins do not usually e xceed
5 to 8% of the distance from
the center to the edge of the contact zone. The ice spalling effect can
be taken into account by the factor "m" in (12) [7]
IV _ 1 ~ _ l
P(x) = (1 - x'/m')4 or per) = (1 - ~' /m')4 (l2A)
where m=1.06 is used in this work.

Equations (8 ) through (11) ar e given in Table 1 for the practical cases

shown in Fig. 1.

4.TINE HISTORY OF H1PACT PARANETERS

The dimensionless ice load parameters F(Z); P(Z): V(Z) characteri ze

changes of the total normal force, the ice pressure at the contact zone

303
w ICE LOAD PARAMETERS Table 1
52 Column I 2 J 4 5 6 7

Axial Syuunetry Repea ted impac t

Case Fig. la, lb, Ie Fig. Id. Ie Fig. If Fig. Ig Fig. Ih. I i
in General in an imprint

V(z)
(J
/-z
_ci/2(7
~-Z
i/'t ) '/'
. . _?/z)'t/7
(l-Z
(;I-z_6/, (I-Z_f/t? (I-Z_jY17 1//.-'1,)'1; .
~Y' ),!!~'(r.J.)2
d. 5c +2

PCl) kp (1- z- d/Z/'_C;'

Z f.f9(f-z )
. ~fY7
z
y",
1.22(1-z )
_ '12 'h !2
t /.21{ (J.z) Z.
.6 !7 . 52 Y, '/2
1.26(1. 2 ) Z 1.2"(;-2./ 2
J V7 ~
1.22(1-£ ,'1­ ~/:

F(z) Kll-L.d/2//7_Z e/2 1.425~-Z ) L!i/ f./17(;·Z *'d/, . /} ~

JZ
>/2
1.50 (1-z)
_,; 17_S
Z !.I{I((I'2.
slt/,Z f£ /l,{, (1'2)
3!1,
7 z
.e
W(;-i / ~
.~y,s,j

i ~'I J-} j ~ jy %~ !$~%Y7 ~ t; ~ %2 :f ;s. 4,f is 5't

I~ f' I -1
~ a~5~.Jy~
se o.90f'1~Vly/,
'f, fZ
s 0.75/1 ~
Pmax KIM
p
V• a o.7'IM ~ a 5 0.75 MV, 0, S o.8bfvj ~ Q S O.f 6 M~ a •
~ ~? E
!;':M v, ad Sd 132M V. a S IsoM "" 0. S 2.21/16 v'" a6 slz t.'14MVase 0.q5M1~fi.Qlfe~ 1.5ItI v,; a 5 (i-I)
~ 'f/g",y ~ ?J t ~ Sh }J-toj;} ~;Z~171"
5 41 I ~

Fmo)( 0

~ 7.£ _?e g,
~ 7;/& -~ "1
-i 7 f ~
7'7 ~'17"17
l -2 , 7 -I { -( I
t;,.,,,x 'MdV"" 1~7
7 -2
MV2. o.69M V a 5 e
ilo5s f
or bmax "'r
d
a .5
0
~g4M d
V. a 5 O.91M ~ a S 0
a 3 56 /.14MVi/'s'e'J di?o
0 D

_j _? _ -i.l -, -,
~ Z
~ -jy -~ "%
5
~ -f1, 17-~ :!. z
, -2 .; -2. (I.d*pr d2 ~ -~ ~~ _'!o 1

d 5 d i 16 f1 ~ Q ~5 y i.32M ~ a S 1.35 M 1/'"0 S Z i.J2f\1·V oa3' S~{ 1.f1M\r'2(/S·'{'

I
T r'T M" y"" a 6
0 • v ...If Ii: 1,1 (I-~ "1'''
:t;B·I~ H
s;e; ~
J2R )7:
•a iJr /' t ~e; s~5f;;2p e=fiR $_J... 5=f?ot
-5:.2} I

.., ..,
~ .:. f. 'm '~.~
'~'
Time

:~,
" , .?

" I C:~
histories
of force, , ... "1
l~ ~q i.(
I~ I~, /~ --_
I~ ~
pressu re,
Q •
velocl ty.
and contac ~ "' e '~ ,. ~ /-~.. \
J~ ~ ~
zone ex ter llJ..,~ ., V "" ~
D 16 ,,.,
, 0
0
.•• 1 0 " 11
o t ' I 0
center and the intrusion velocity during the impact. They are expressed
analytically versus the dimensionless intrusion depth 2 (or can be
expressed versus V) as given in Table 1. Expressions for the intrusion
depth versuS time (or vise versa) can be obtained from (8):
Z
_f(c)+l -4 /7 ­
t = Tmax
1o [1 - Z ] dZ

where the period of iO?3ct, from the moment when the first contact stresses
(13)

in ice reach the ice crushing strength (2=C) to the mo~ent of stoppage of
the ship intrusion into ice (2=1), is:

T = ~max J~l - Zf(c)+1]-4/7d2 (14)

max
0

o
As a result, the time history of the ice load pa rameters can be plotted

diagrammically in dimens ionless form as given in Fig. 3 for many cases

being considered including the impacts in the imprints.

The total force F reaches its ma ximum during the last third of the impact
period (except for the impacts at the imprints), i.e. significantly later
than the pressure (in the second third), and then, during the last 0.1 to
0.2T, drastically decreases to zero. The effect of the conta c t zone shape
on the time history is the most noticeable at the beginning of the impact,
while the pressure and the total force are increasing. At the instances
when the pressure and force reach their maximums, the effect becomes
relatively insignificant (except for the repeated impacts at the imprints)
and di sa ppears at the des ce nding portions of the time history curves .

. For the repeated impacts at the previous imprints, the pressure and the
force are significant from the beginning and reach their maximums much
earlier. The larger the previous-to-consequent imprint area ratio, the
earlier the maximums occur. If the ratio is o(~O. 803, the maximum pressure
intensity occurs at the beginning of the repeated impact, decreasing
slowly during almost the whole ~ of impact. The ma xim um force occurs
at the beginning, i f 01. 2.0.95, staying also high during a1ro:Jst the .role~.

There are experimental data of the time histories recorded both in the labora­

tory and during full-scale trials [1,2,3,4,6,10,11,12 and others). Under

laboratory conditions, the shapes of both a rigid body hitting ice and the

hit ice are known in advance and can be constant from test to test as

well as their dispositions, mechanical properties and other parameters.

305
 Data of laboratory tests of steel balls
dropping on ice cover are reproduced in
Fig.4 from the work [6). The Arctec
Canada Ltd. has recently conducted
laboratory impact tests of a pendulum
hammer falling on ice . specimens shown
in Fig lq. The time history of the ice
pressure, force and contact area,obtained
from [3) and kindly presented by Mr.lan
Glen,are rearranged in dimensionless
form and plotted in Fig. 5 along with
analytical curves. Data of full-s cale
,trials are also shown in Fig.6,repro­
duced from Arctec's report [11). The
records given in Fig.6 cannot be plotted
i,. Fig.5 because the end of the impact
is not shown. As seen from Figures 4,5
e~d 6, an accord between the experiments
a~d the theory appears to be fair for
the total force (for both references)
and the velocity, more or less satis­
factory for the contact area, but hardly
satisfactory for the ice pressure in Fig.5.
Causes of the disagreeme nt for the ice
pressures could be understood, if more
details ~e available. However, too
small size pressure gauges used (8 mm
diameter of . the sensor's diaphragm is
about the same size as the ice grains)
could, perhaps, be one of the ~euses.

Ice load data obtained from full scale

trials do not usually contain informa­
ticn on shapes and dispositions of
Fig. 3. Dimensionless time history of ice collided ice.
load parameters for different cases given in:
Different ice breaking
1 - Fig. 1a,lb,lc; 2 - Fig. Ii; 3 - Fig. 1h;
4 - Fig. 1d,le; 5 - Fig. If; 6,7,8 - repeated
patterns which happened
impacts in imprints with 0< =0.5; 0.7 and during the trials can

0.9 consequently.

306
 4.~
.­
~Ir-----~~~~-T

'll.."

'r",

dimensionlesi 1 !:;..

Q{ ~~~--~~~~~~-----r
a:
"
1Cl, Fig. 4. Dimensionless force and velocity
o
for a steel ball dropping on flat ice,

I.. reproduced from ref. [6] .

i !r------------------------,
c
o

i
! o+---+---~ __
~~ __-+
.., 0 d1men&1onles8 time

~
i 1,t----:-ftj'frjP-!;:~=_t
....,
Plgar• • •

l =t./r
Q~~~~~~~,6~~.~8_+
o dimensionless time

Fig. 5. Arctec Canada's laboratory .,...• • 7

test data [3] plotted in the dimen­ YAtll"TIO" 0' THI

CO,naCT A.... WITH
~'A. A"O ".1111&01 PIII'.UfI. "NO TN!
fl", '0111 . . . . . . . . IllU\.n'l'I"tI ..... CT
sionless form and time histories
from Fig. 3. Fig. 6. Reproduction from ref. [11].

be recorded on rare occasions. Bulk data were obtained when ice cover was
broken by bending, i.e, the process described in Fig.3 stop s at , the
ascending branch of the curve F as soon as the vertical component of the
total ice force reaches the ice cover bending strength. In addition, direct
meas'u rements of the ice forces 'and pressures are very difficult, if possible.
They are determined us uall y from structural responses which are not
neces sar ily adequate for a particular ice load parameter. Therefore,

307
the most interesting comparison with the theory can best be obtained
from premeditated frontal rammings on large ice features,;.hich stay unbroken
by the ram, when most of impact conditions can be recorded. Such ramming
tests were reported recently by the Canadian Marine Drilling Ltd.[1,2].
A ~ history of the global ice force shown in Fig.2 of [2] as a typical
ram scenario, looks like the theoretical curves 2,3,4 in Fig.3 here,
but the comparison should be done prudently due to unreleased details
of the tests. Hull girder bending oscilations recorded in [1,2] can be
interpreted as resulting from an impulse of a shape s:imilar to thatg.ven in Fig.3.

The time history of the total force is one of the most necessary characte­
ristics for the dynamic stress analysis of the ship hull gird e r because
one of the lower natural frequences of the hull girder is often of the
same order of magnitudes as the total force's frequency. For the local ice
belt structures of the ships, their natural frequences usually are at least
one order higher than the ice load frequency. Therefore, for the stress analysis
of the local structures, the ice load can be considered static and only the
maximum load parameters could be used. However, one should r emember that
the load parameters reach their maximums at different instances. Thus, if
two or more parameters of the load are used in the static stress analysis,
appropriate corrections should be done. This can result in a reduction (10
to 20%) of design ice load parameters in comparison with their maximums.

5. t1AXH1Ut1 ICE LOAD PARAf1ETERS

All of the maximum ice load parameters in (9), (10) and (11) derived from
(7) are functions of four principal variables (M; Vo; a; and S together
with 1) expressed in the following manner:

F K~Mmfv~faafssfllf (15)
max
P K't~PVvPaaPSsPllp (16)
max p 0

Z K 't~ZVvZaazSszllzT (17 )
max z 0 max
r Zc S. or bmax = Zcmax S b ; I =Zc S· (18)
max max ' max max
where the exponents mf, vf, ....... , az, sz and the numerical coefficients
K' are given in Table 1 for all of the discussed cases. The coefficients
are computed taking into account the ice spalling at the contact zone
marg i ns. Of the four principal variables, the equated mass of collision M

308
and the initial intrusion velocity Vo are well defined in (9):
M = (.6/C s g)(1 + 1"s/Mi )-l (19)
V0 = VIII ( 20 )
It should only be mentioned that, if the ship-to-ice mass ratio is negligi­
ble in comparison with unity (Ms/Mi « l, i.e. infinite ice mass,which should
be considered as a principal design case for high ice class ships), the mass
can be identified by the ship displacement: M=I1 / (C s g)·

?arameters Sand 1 characterize the shape of the contact zone and can be
determined for any particular case. Combined with the directional cosine 11
from (20) and with the reduced ship mass coefficient Cs from (19), they
describe completely the geometry of the ship and ice, their dispositions,
an impact location on the ship hull and relative moments of inertia of the
ship with added water masses reduced to the impact location.

Parameter "a" characterizes resistance of the crushed ice mass to its forcing
out from the contact zone. It depends on the viscosity of the mass and ice
:strength for confined dynamic crushing and can hardly be obtained from
standard compressive tests of ice specimens. However, a simple technique
can be developed to detennine this parnreter both in laboratory and directly on ice cover.
Spread in test data for "a" is less than for other ice strength p8I1KEters. Evaluations of
.1
its magnitudes indicate a possible range from about a=2 MPa(s/m')' for spring
decaying first-year sea ice to about a=10 for winter Arctic mUlti-year pack.

~ designing icebreaking ships, processing test data, dev eloping structural

requirements, it is important to know the effects of each of the variables
on each of the ice load parameters. They are very different. The velocity
appears to be the most influential variable for the total force. Varying
from about 5 to 20 knots, it can result in an increase of the total force of
up to 8 times (if all other conditions are the same), while the pressure
may be only doubled. In real full scale trials in heavy ice, the speed can
vary within a narrower range, from about 4 to 10 kn or often less. If the
speeds in tests are doubled, the total force may change
from 2.3 to 2.8 times, while the pressure changes from 35 to 45% only. Thus,
when studying the velocity effect fran full scale trials by pressure gauge
data or structural responses mainly to the pressure, it is necessary to vary
the velocity at least twice.

309
The ship mass is much less influential. For a 3i ven ship i t can change insig­
nificantly during a voyage or due to a finite ice mass taken into account
(for example. by 40%). resulting in the force changing by about 25% and the
pressure changing by about 6%. which is indistinguishable in full scale
trials. However. for different ships the displacement can vary within two
orders of magnitudes resulting in a force changing up to one order of mag­
nitudes and the pressure changing up to two or three times. For ships with
a displacement difference of three times. the pressure can vary up to 20%.
This difference.although not easy to distinguish in trials. must be taken
into account in the design load definition and stress analysis.

The parameter of ice properties "a" Significantly affects the pressure and
8
to a less extent the force. 'Ire pressure is al most proportional to I·a" (from a· to
a .9). while the force depends 0/1 "a" onle s lightlyYarying within its whole range
(by about 5 times). it results in changes of the pressure up to 4 times.but
only up to 30-40% for the force. Effect of ship and ice forms and their
dispositions defined by the parameters Sand 1 (including 11 and Cs ) is
beyond the scope of this work. Some details can be found in [7.10.13].

6. RECO:It'IENDATIONS

Exponents in the equations (15) to (18) depend on the contact zone shape
(see Table 1). This means that it is principally i~possible to express the
maximum ice load parameters by formulae like (15) to (18) with unified
constant exponents mf. vf •...• sz appropriate for all of the impact scena­
rios. They vary slightly for each particular case. On the other hand. a
designer needs formulae to predict maximumm acting loads for stress anal ysis
and structural scantling definit~ regardless of the numerous aetails of
the scenarios. A compromise can be found by analysing structures of the
formulae given in Table l.and describing the most important design cases.
For the ship / ice interactions the following cases Can be considered as
causing the highest ice loads.
1. Frontal impact with thick pack ice or pressure ridges should be consi­
dered as the two-dimensional interaction. As a more severe case. the ice
should be considered as relatively flat without sharp edges and apexes.
Formulae eiven in column 2 of Table 1 appear to be the most appropriate for
the spoon-shaped bow. while column 3 of Table 1 appears more appropriate
for the the conventional bow.

310
 2. ~epeated frontal impacts at a previous imprint is described in column
7 of Table 1. Parameter oC(contact zone dimensions ratio for two consequent
rams) can be determined from trials data as a function of a number of rams.
3. Oblique impact by a ship side with an edge of level thick ice can be
better described by formulae in column 6 of Table I, while for an impact
with a pressure ridge some corrections appear reasonable. Magnitudes of the
ice load parameters depend on the impact location lengthwise of the ship.
Their highest values occur usually somewhere within the fore half of the
bow but not necessarily at the foremost section. More details on the
lengthwise distribution can be found in [10,1 2 ,13J.
4. Impacts with ice broken by bending can be described by either of the
formulae in Table 1 depending on the impact scenario, but with the total
force vertical component restricted by the ice field bending strength.
Other load parameters can be determined using their dimensionless parameters
for the instance corresponding to the ice field failure.
5. Impact by a sh~p appendage should be specially considered for each
particular structure, using the given formulae, if appropriate, or developing
appropriate ones for this application.

It is interesting to compare the formulae for the maximum ice lead param~­

ters with available design formulae by other authors. There are equations

for the design total force developed by:

Johansson et al [5J for a particular ship F = !10.9 V (21)

Vaughan [14 J F MO• 9 VI.2 (22)

and Delay [15J F K VI. 54 (23)

1
As seen, the exponent mf=0.9 in (21) and (22) is noticeably higher than
that for either case cf (15) or Table 1. It varies from 5 / 9~0 . 556 to
5/ 7';0.714 for the principal design cases and even reaches mf=5 / 6';0.833 for
a low probable case given in Fig.lf. The exponent of the velocity in (21)
is lower than in either of (15). However, in Vaughan's formula. vf=1.2 is
almost the same as in (15) for the case given in column2, where vf=11 / 9~1.22.
The Delay's formula gives almost the same exponent vf=1.54 as vf=3 / 2
given in columns 3 and 7 of Table 1.

CONCLUSIONS

1. Dynamic ice loads due to ship / ice interactions can be specified using
equations (9) to (11). as products of their maximums by dimensionless

311
time history parameters varying from zero to unity.
2. The time historie s of the ice load parameters are given in Fig.3 and
Table 1. During the impact, the ice pressure intensity at the center of the
contact zone reaches its maximum first, the total force ~ its maximum
later and the contact zone dimensions do this at the end of the impact.
Instances when these parameters reach the i r maximums vary depending on
impact conditions as given in Table 1.
3. The maximum ice load parameters can be specified from the equations (15)
to (18) and Table 1, depending on the impa c t conditions. It is principally
impossible to express the maximum ice load parameters by formulae with
unified numerical exponents in (15 ) to (18) which could be appropriate for
all of the impact scenarios. For certain design cases, which are important
for practical applications, the formulae given in Table 1 can be used.
4. The maximum force depends strongly on the impact speed (proportional to
about from yl.2 to y1.5), less on the ship displacement (proportional to
AO.45 0.71
about from u to 6 ), and to a lesser ciegree, on ic e properties ( from
O
a . 28 O 45
to a . ).
5. Maximum pressure intensity depends mostly on ice properties (close to a
linear dependance) and on the speed (proportional to about JiI ), and to a
. , •.0. 11
lesser degree , on the displacement ( proport10nal to about f rom~ to~
0.2).

6; The contact zone dimensions depend more on the speed and less on ice
properties and the displacement.
7. All of the impact load parameters depend strongly on the geometry of the
ship and ice and on the impact location on the ship hull.
8. Special simple tests of the dynamic crushing strength can be used to

determine the ice resistance to the ship/ice impact.

AKNo\-1LEGEMENTS

The author would like to express his thanks to the A~erican Bureau of
Shi?[ling making this ,;ork possible, and MY.. Ian Glen, ..no kindly made available
the Arctec Canada's laboratory test data used in Fi g . 5.

312
Bibliography

1.Ghoneim,G.A.M.,Edgecombe,M.H.,Grinstead,J.,1984. System Development of

Full Scale Ship lee Impact Forces. Proc. ICETECH 84, Calgary, Canada,pp Kl­
K15.
2. Ghoneim,G.A.M.and Keinonen,A.,1983. Full Scale Impact Tests of Canmar
Kigoriak in Thick Ice.Proc.POAC-83,Helsinki,Vol 3,pp 329-346.
3. Glen,I.F.and Comfort,G.,1983. Ice Impact Pressure and Load: Investi­
gation by Laboratory Experiments and Ship Trials.Proc.POAC-83,Helsinki,
Vol l,pp 516-533.
4. Glen,I.F.and Blount,H.,1984. Measurements of Ice Impact Pressures and
Loads Onboard CCGS LOIS S.St.LAURENT.Trans.ASME,Journal of Energy Res0urces
Technology.
5. Johansson,B.M.,Keinonen,A.J.and Mercer,B.,1981. Technical Developments
of an Environmentally Safe Tanker.Proc.SNAME . Spring Meeting ICE TECH 81,
Qttawa.
6. Kheisin,D.E.,Lichomanov,V.A.,Kurdyumov,V.A.,1975. Determination of
SpeCific Crushing Energy and Contact Pressures Due To an Impact of a Rigid
Body with Ice.Proc.AANII,Leningrad, Vol. 326,pp 210-218.
7. Kurdyumov,V.A.and Kheisin,D.E.,1974. 00 Impact Ice Loads Definition
for an Icebreaker Hull.Proc.LKI,issue 90,pp 95-100.
8. Kurdyumov,V.A.and Kheisin,D.E.,1976. Hydrodynamic Model of Ridged
Body/Ice Impact.Applied Mechanics,Kiev, Vol X11,N~10,pp 103-109.
9. Popov,Y.N.,Fadeev,O.V.,Kheisin,D.E.,Yakovlev,A.A.,1967. Strength of
Ships NaVigating in Ice. Sudostroyenie,Leningrad.
10. Rivlin,A.Y.,Kheisin,D.E.,1980. Trials of Ships in Ice. Sudostroyenie,
Leningrad.
11. St. J ohn,J.W.,Daley,C.and Blount,H.1984. Ice Loads and Ship Response
to Ice, Report N~SR-129l prepared for Ship Str .Commitee and Transport
Canada by Arctec Inc. and Arctec Canada Ltd.
12. St.John,J.W.and Daley,C.1984. Shipboard Measurement of Ice Pressures
in the Bering,Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. Proc.OTC-84,Houston,May 1984,Vol.
,pp260-266.
13. Tunik,A.L.,1983, Background to the Proposed Rules for Ships Intended
to Navigate in Ice.Appendix 2.0ct.1983,American Bureau of Shipping,New York
14. Vaughan,H.,1984. Design Formulae for the Shear Area and Section
Modulus of Ice-Breaking Ships.Trans.RINA.
15. Daley,C. ,1984. BAFFIN - a Dynamic Ship/Ice Interaction Model.Proc.
ICE TECH 84,Calgary,May 1984.,ppF1-F8.

313
,
I
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

Tlc EORETICAL STUDIES OF THE HE-DISTRIBUTION

OF ICB RiSISTA,NCE COMPONENTS DEPENDING ON

THE ICEBREAKER HULL SHAPE Aim WAIN DHiEN-

SIONS

Ionov B.P. The Arctic and Antarctic

Junior Scientist Research Institute. Leningrad,
USSR

The problem of ice resistance has not been resolved

adequately (neither quantitatively, nor qualitatively) for a
long time. At the initial stages of icebreaker performance
investigations the emphasis -was on the total ice resistance.
empiric relationships such as RlT =f( =/(8)
h-I )) R.IT Rrr=/{.D)
were determined on the basis of experiments. These relation­
ships allowed the icebreaker performance to be predicted and
their ice navigability to be compared. Their usefulness,how­
ever, rlas limited to the ships with conventional hull shapes
as ',VeIl as by pOI-fer and dimension ranges included in the re­
gression analysis.
The next stage of icebreaker performance studies includ­
ed an attempt to divide the total resistance into a number
of compone~ts. Soviet scientist Academician Yu.A. Shimansky
y;as the first to succeed. Analysine: ship hull interaction
wi th sea ice he obtained the resistance
RIT :: RIB -t- RzS -rRzv R
+ zw ( 1)
where RIB ­ the resistance to ice crushing
R.I~ ­ the resistance due to weie;ht force effects
Rrv - the resistance to ice diverging
Rrw- the water resistance
Using Shimansky scheme a number of authors (V.I. Kash­
telyan. J'. Lewis, R. Edwards. V. Milano. J. Vance) have got
ratios to determine the icebreaker resistance in continuous
sea ice, with flo es of different structure (see Table 1-). It

315
 TABLE 1
Comparison of equations used for the determination of ice
resistance of an icebreaker in continuous sea ice

authors RIB RI $ Rrv

8 I, ~ 5" h, I 1/
V. Kashtelyan C'Q fJ8hz C1PT9Bh~ C'2
2
J.Lewis,R.Edwards Co 6' 17,; (!,,~ 9Bliz C 2 Pr Bh z 1/
R.Edwards,.T.Lewis Co 6' Bh z Cf~9Bliz
2
[12 If B 1/2 vfAf
C'2?rll/,~sgQ,3Szr2
G. Vance CooBhr c1.Pr#Bh~
E. EnKvist C,,6Bhz Cj f'r ~B h-x7 Cz .RBhz l/2

is noteworthy that the ratios yield small values of Z8 in the R

ice resistanc e balance, and some authors (e.g. fli;;Xinen and
Ross) completely neglect it /3/.
In the AARI Ship Research Laboratory theoretical and ex­
perimental studies were carri ed out, some of the result s are
discuss e d in /1 and 2/. These studies indicate the RIB con­
tribution to the resistance balance to be quite larg e and for
a medium power icebreaker resistance should approximately
amount to 0.5 RIT while the friction component which cannot
be explicitly considered yet is found to be approximately
0.3 RrT •
Unfortunately the principles of determining these depen­
dences are not described in sufficient detail by all authors,
this makes the analysis of the obtained results rather ambi­
guous. The controlling factor, though, in the determination
of the structure of direct resistance components is the pos­
sibility of their full-scale prediction by the cube of the
scale. The obtained relati onships somewhat complicate the ana­
lysis of the effects of icebreaker elements and parameters on
the ice resistance value and its components re-distribution
in the total balance of resistance.
To investigate the components ice resistance is expres­
sed as

316
where Ro - the resistance to sea ice crushing proper
Rrs - the friction resistance in ice breaking
Rs - the resistance to ice submerging and turning
(proper)
Kf$- the friction resistance in ice submerging and
turning
Rv - the resistance to ice divergence
((fV' - the friction resistance to ice divergence.
Considering Shimansky's scheme Eq.(2) can be vlritten as

RIB = R6' ... R.f 6' ]

RIS == R.~ + Rp .
R1V = Rv ... Rf'l
To describe friction components a number of exp ressions
shoulc be introducedl

Rrj = Rpr + R.f$'

and
RIF = R1f +R.fv ::Rfo+RfS-rRfV (5)

where Rrf -
friction resistance in total resistance
RrF - total resistance to friction.

1'1110 dependences \'I ere obtained for the ice resistance and its

components under the integ rals on the basis of studying the

interactions between icebreaker hull and sea ice of limit

thickness (under low speed)L ~

R =-2 6h; [0 57k'jT(4,6c '-nf3 -t-O,N)tgo<.d.x -t-KII!JdXJ

IT {; I 1 sin(3
0
S
5.
B 1 JZ]) T
~r ~
h r051K'J (,f,GcoS.f3:0,11)s~ncX. dx rle'l f J:tCO,oI.d.;rl+
0 C' ).

+2t.~ IL' S-tnJ3

2 J L 2Jij) Slnp

ff [C~O;:) £DJ c::=:: d:xJ' (6)

o L , Ql 2" [ ' ] 0
+ 2fr9hrBf\ [IC; dx+IC:
o 0
and in a fin~l form, though rather approximate

;-r [a.'({;S)B
R.:f. = k,( 6' (ft)L]+ 0,3 k2 fl ~ hI BL X

TiI ])Q2

x(tjo(oT_)L'
tf)cX.° \ra1 (p)SU1o(o+{ Cl2 (j3)(I+croso<.o)7+

B II) 2'j (7)

L. -I {{CJ<X") r ]
~ (2~0l .. -
2.
-t- 0,5 k.3 fr9 hrB FrS (I + C'OSoG o f) j
1-" 1)) ,

317
 0(0 - is the stem angle at . waterline (0)
L - is the length of icebreaker on waterline (,;1)
B - is the width of an icebreaker (m)
ol. - is the angle between the tangent to the waterline
an d OX axi s (0)
J3 - is the angle between the tan ~en t to the frame an d
OZ axis (0) 1.1

Pro.8 - is the Froud number (Fre=¥jB )

~ - is the gravity (m/s2)

~ - is icebreaker speed (m/s)
hI - is the ice thickness (m)
o - is the ice bending strength (Pa)
5:tl) - is a dynamic coefficient of ice friction
J;- is the ice density (kg/m J )
fw ­ is the water density (kg/m J )

fA ==- fw - fr
(, - is a single parameter wi th the same dimensions as
the length
Ci,,{f); Q2{j}- are the form coefficients
! n. () 51
r = -~~,
a l (p,) n., sm (,'I, (~6coSfJ.i
t.=o
r +~/{);
,r

,,( n I

a z (p) = n to S'in.f3~'

n. - the number of theoretical frames

,
1(' 0.015; K(
If
0: O.OOlli K'o:
z 1.0; KJ
I
0:
IT
1 .1 ; K.}o:l . 66

k, O.Ol1i Kz = 0.5 ) kj = 14'1("-

• } :z- 0.5:
The value of K'
z coefficient is not constant nnd depends on
the waterline area. Let S denote half area of the bow Vlater­
line, then we obtain

, -s -~ 2

K2 =0)65"+4,25".10 ($) +0)11'10 (S) (8)

However, due to a small value of the component of submerging

and turning of ice (proper) in the resistance balance for
icebreakers with conventional dimensions, the error in Rrr
I
calculations appears to be quite s mall, provided k2 1.0. 0:

318
 For more efficient use of Eq. (6) and (7) with the nor­
mal con dition of the hull's coatin8 (fID = 0.08), the follow­
inG is recommended as ice bending strength (spring-summer
s ea ice)
E) = 6 10 5pa, ~ = 850 kg/m 3 , ~ = 150 kg/m 3 •
'fable 2 presents numerical values of ice resistance compon­
ents estimated by Eq. (6) and (7) for a medium power ice­
breaker and compared with the model data obtained in the
AARI Ice Tank.
Table 2
The components of ice resistance of a medium power icebreak­
er in motion through continuous sea i ce of limit thickness

l ce resistance RIs/Rrr RIs/Rn Rrv/Ru RIF

c omponents --
R~/RTr Rfc/RIT Rs/RzT Af~/A]r Rv/RzT /(!v!f?n RIT

calculations ac­ 34.3 14.8 28.0 11 .2 8.6 3 .1

c ording to Eq. ( 6 ) 29.1
')7
/0 49.1 39.2 11.7
calculations by 36 .1 15.1 26.3 10.6 9.1 2.8
an approximation 28 .5
(7 ) , !o 51.2 36.9 11.9
Ex perimental
v alues, % 46.5 40. 6 12.9 30.0

As mentioned above, it is not yet possible to examine

the effects of the ship's main dimensions and hull shape on
ice resistance without a special model experiment. Moreover,
methodic difficulties would not allow to reveal explicitly
effects of either elements of an icebreaker on the ice re­
sistance value through experiment, though it can be accomp­
lished if Eq. (6) is utilized.
To analyse the effects of hull shape on the ice resi st ­
ance and its components calculations were made for i cebreak­
ers of different types moving in sea ice of certain thickness
( h[ = 1.4), icebreakers being different in the distribution
of fo
and 0( angles along the boVi waterlin e . Table 3 shows the

319
 TABLE 3

Types ofj3_ angle (0) changes along the fore-body waterline

frame ini tial Types

c
nb-r type 1 2 3 4 .J

0 41 45 4-1 45 45 58
1 41 42 41 42 44.5 57
2 38 39 38 39 44 56
3 JJ JJ 33 33 42 50
4 27 27 27 27 38 42
5 22 22 22 22 32 JJ
6 19 19 19 19 27 24
7 18 18 16 16 24 20
8 17 17 15 15 22 17
9 17 17 15 15 21 17
10 17 17 15 15 20 17

distribution of j3 angles, they were chosen with the conside­

ration of their changes at the fore-body waterline. Thus,
for instance, type 1 and 5 relative to the initial type
would have more active angles at the stem, i.e. strongly in­
teracting with sea ice, type 5 has more active angles at the
bilge, while' angle in the midsection maintains its initial
values.
Table 4 lists estimates of ice resistance components
for different types of angle distribution of Table 3. Table
5 presents various icebreaker types differing in the distri­
bution of 0.:: angles at the bow waterline, while Table 6
shows calculated ice resistances and their components for
various types of fore-body waterline shapes: types 6, 7, and
8 in Table 5.
The analysis of calculated ice resistances and their
components for various types of j3 and ~ angles distribu­
tion along the fore-body waterline has ind.icated that .J
angle increase would result in the ice resistance decrease.
It should be noted, however, that type 5 ice resistance com­
ponent is somewhat higher that that of type 4, the latter

320
 TABLE 4
Calculations of ice resistance and its components for ice­
breakers vii th various types of j3 angle distribution

Initial 'rypes
R,ldV type 2 3 4 5
R6' 690 677 700 687 517 437
Rift 296 295 314 312 234 251
Rr8 986 972 1014 9'39 751 688
Rs 549 546 563 560 392 372
Rjs 219 219 236 235 170 191
Rrs 768 765 799 795 562 563
R. y 167 167 167 167 167 167
Rfv 60 60 60 60 60 60
R. 1V 227 227 227 227 227 227
RIF 575 574 610 608 465 502
Rrr 1980 1960 2040 2020 1540 1480

TABLE 5
Types of ol angl e (0) changes along the fore-body water­
line
Nos of
frames o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Ini tial
type 24 .0 23.0 22.0 20.0 5.0 10.0 7.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0
Types 6 21. 5 20.5 19 .5 18 .0 5.5 10.5 6 .5 4 .5 3.5 1.0 o
7 43.0 26.0 19.0 16,5r5.5 7.5 4.0 2 .5 2.0 1.5 o
8 11.0 14.0 14.0 14.014.0 13.012.5 1.0 9 .0 6.0 o
having a larger value of total resistance. This is likely
to be associated vlith the growth of the normal pressure re­
sul ting in an increase in friction resistance. That is why
type 5 Vii th smaller ice resistance friction com ponents ('YG'
and RfS )
are sli~htly higher that those in type 4. Thus,
the obtained resul ts would allow us to assume that with the
eiven main dimensions the distribution of C( angles along

321
 'f ABLE 6

Calculations of ice resistance and its components for ice­

breakers wi th different 0<:- angle distributions

R., KJV R.6 RfG RIB Rs RIP RIS Ry RfV Rrv R.,p RIT
Im. t1.aJ
types 690 296 986 549 219 768 167 60 227 575 1980
Types
6 702 296 998 565 212 777 143 58 201 566 1980
7 690 296 986 535 227 762 267 67 334 590 2080
8 840 296 1137 692 184 876 105 56 161 536 2174

the fore-body waterline and with sea ice physical and mecha­
nical properties the optimum ;S angles corresponding to the
smallest ice resistance would be in the domain of a certain
J3 increase. A considerable increase of j3 angles in the
stem waterline would result in a corresponding growth of
friction rel;listance, the latter would grow faster than R 6"
and JC s decrease and hence this would lead to the growth of
total resistance.
These findings turned out to be quite important, the use
of a calculating scheme (6) and designing an icebreaker on
its basis with the distribution ofjB angles along fore-body
waterline, according to type 5 distribution, would allow to
save about 25 % of the thrust (500 kH) which corresponds to
enhancement of ice breaking performance of an icebreaker with
the given power of propulsion system.
The analysis of calculations for types 6, 7, and 8 in­
dicates that the changes of ot angles along the fore-body
waterline will but slightly affect the ice resistance of an
icebreaker in the limit ice thickness: the initial distribu­
tion and the one of type 6 have actually the same f( IT values.
Ice resistance values for types 7 and 8 with entrance angles
of 43° and 14° differ from the initial type by 6 % and 10 %,
respectively. It should be noted here that with the entrance
angle change from 14° to 43° an extremum is reached which
for a given icebreaker and sea ice properties corresponds to
a minimum ice resistance near entrance angles~o~ 20° - 30°.

322
 Experiments in the AARI Ice Tank by V.I. Kashtelyan and
A.N. Ilchuk confirmed theoretical results and calculations
of effects of the hull shape on the ice resistance and its
componen t s •
The calculations indicate the dependence RIr=f(L)B)
in the domain of really existing values of icebreaker
length, width and LjB ratio to have no extremwn. Thus, es­
timates of the effects of the main dimensions of the ice­
breaker on the ice resistance would not permit us to formul­
ate concrete reconunendations as to what L, B, LjB should be
chosen to provide for the smallest ice resistance.
It is thus appears feasible to choose main dimensions
of an icebreaker on the basis of operational know-how and
experience.
Sununing up we can repeat that to analyse the influence
of hull shape and main dimensions of an icebreaker on the re­
distribution of the components of total ice resistance rela­
tionship of Eq. (6) has been used, while for comparisons and
evaluation Eq. (7) is more convenient, these expressions
yield sufficiently accurate results.

References
Ionov, B.P., 1981. Analytical method of estimation of ice
resistance and its components and their experimental ve­
rification. Proc~edings of the AARI. Vol. J76, p.141-150.
Pozniak, 1.1. and Ionov, B.P., 1981. The division of ice­
breaker resistance into components. Proceedings of the
Sixth Ship Technology and Research (STAR) Symposium, Ot­
tawa, June 17-19,1981, p. 249-25J.
Schwarz, J., 1977. Neue Entwicklungen in der Eis-Model-Tech­
nologie. HANSA, N 22.

323
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

A NEW BOW FOR M.V. ARCTIC

D.N. Baker Melville Shipping Ltd. Canada

Senior Naval Architect
R. Nlshlzakl Transportation Development Canada
Senior Development Officer Centre

ABSTRACT
This paper describes the design process and subsequent model testing of
an Improved bow design for the 28,000 DWT Canadian bul It bulk carrier
M.V. ARCTIC. Open water testing was conducted at the National Research
Councl I (NRC) In Canada and Ice tank testing at the Hamburg Ship model
basin (HSVA) In Germany. The data from the model tests are presented In
the paper.
The test results showed the new bow to be considerably more efficient
when breaking Ice than the original bow and equally efficient when In
open water.

INTRODUCTION
The M.V. ARCTIC Is a 28,000 DWT bulk carrier fitted with a geared medium
speed diesel engine of 14,770 BHP driving a controllable pitch propeller
In a nozzle. The ship Is classed as an Arctic Class 2 vessel In
accordance with the Canadian Arctic Shipping Pollution Prevention
Regulations (CASPPR). The Class 2 notation has been unofficIally
defined as a vessel capable of breaking 2 ft. of Ice.
The vessel Is owned by Canarctlc Shipping Ltd. and was built as a result
of a Joint venture between the Canadian Federal Government and three
Canadian shipping companlesl Fednav Limited, The CSL Group Inc., and ULS
International Inc. The original objectives were to demonstrate the
feasibility of operating a commercial ship In the Canadian Arctic.
Since the ARCTIC's construction In 1978 the vessel has been used
extensively for research Into operation In Ice covered waters as well as
In the regular carriage of ore cargoes to Europe from Baffin Island and
Little Cornwal I Is IsJand In the eastern Arctic. The commercial
operation In the ArctIc Is during the summer months of July to November
during which time the vessel can generally achieve five return voyages
to Europe per year.

325
In 1980 Malvll Ie Shipping Ltd. began to Investigate the possibility of
modifying the bow form to Improve the ARCTIC's performance. If an
Improvement could be achieved, this would give the potential to:
- extend the ARCTIC's operating season by Increasing the number of
voyages Into the eastern Arctic from five to six per year
- permit alternative trade routes to be considered
- ass I s't des I gner s of future Arct Ic vesse I s to more c I ear I y

appreciate the affect of bow form variation on Ice resistance

As a result of the potential Improvements of the vessel's performance

and the need to develop Canadian expertise In this area, the Transport
Canada, Transportation Development Centre (TOG) contracted Melvl lie
Shipping Ltd. to redesign the bow of the vessel. The design process was
targeted at reducing the Icebreaklng resistance of the hul I. However,
since the vessel spends considerable time In open water, the open water
performance was equally Important In a successful design.
Two alternative bows were designed which, together with the original
bow, were model tested by the National Research Council (NRC) In Ottawa
In open water, and by Arctec Canada Ltd. (ACL) also In Ottawa, In Ice.
The bow showing the most favourable performance was retested, together
with the original bow, at the Hamburg Ship model basin (HSVA) In Germany
and the Warts I la Arctic Research Centre (WARC) In Helsinki. The
objective of re-testlng the models at the different tanks was to confirm
the results obtained at the ACL tank.
This paper describes the design method and the results of the open water
testing at NRC and the Ice testing at HSVA.

HULL FORM DESIGN

The objective of the bow redesign was to Improve the Icebreaklng

capability of the vessel In Ice without detracting from the open water

performance. The largest potential to meet these objectives was by:

- reducing the Ice crushing, known to occur at the shoulders of the

existing vessel, whl Ie maintaining the existing beam of 75 ft. to
permit access to the St. Lawrence Seaway
- Improving the Ice clearing performance of the bow
In order to accompl Ish these obJectives, two design methods were

adopted:

- a hull parameter sensitive resistance equation was developed

- an analysis of the forebody flare and water I Ine angles was made ,
The resistance equation was developed to al low an assessment to be made
of the performance of alternative bow forms. The equation was derived
from a predictor developed by Arctec Canada Ltd. (ACL) and published In

326
a report to the CanadIan TransportatIon Development Centre (TDC) [Ref.
lJ. The equatIon was developed from ful I scale and model scale data
collected from a variety of shIp types, IncludIng the M.V. ARCTIC. The
data was regressed against a range of variables to obtain the fol lowing
expression:

. 96 5 1. 036 . 332 0.6 78

O.727~1 2 (LI B) (tanyo) (co sS s )- +
2 . 92 o 841 14 .54 v
0 . 363 Cb'f (tanyo) - ' (co sSs) --.--
(J

Yi h /gh
This equatIon Is generally similar to other Ice resistance equations and
contains:

- hul I form expressions derived by ACL based on the Shlmanskl and

KashtelJan coefficIents; these expressIons Include a frictIon

factor component

- a combined strength and velocity component

- a fractIonal negatIve exponent of tan (y) whIch assocIates higher
stem angles wIth lower resIstance.
By deleting constants which were not applIcable to the ARCTIC, the
fol.lowlng resistance equatIon was developed and used In the subsequent
bow design:

0 . 965 1.036
RT CL~1 2 L

This equatIon Is supported by ful I scale data recorded on the M.V.

ARCTIC durIng trIals In Lake MelvIlle In 1981 by the use of an
approprIate constant. More Importantly, the equatIon Is thought to
closely duplIcate the response of Ice resIstance to changes In the hul I
and Ice variables. This equatIon was used In the design process to
predict the change of ship resistance. The resIstance prediction for
the new and original bow using the equation discussed above Is shown In
Figure 1.

The calculation of the hul I form coefficient In this equation Invo l ves
an IntegratIon of the flare and waterline angles. However, the
coefficIents alone do not recognize the relationship between the two
angles at discrete positions along the bow; therefore, In order to
Investigate this effect In more detail, the flare and water I Ine angles
along the forebody were considered seperately.

The prImary Icebreaklng mechanism assocIated with a "conventional"

Icebreaklng bow Is bending failure, produced by downward forces exerted
by the bow. High downward forces can be associated with hIgh flare
angles; therefore, an effIcient Icebreaklng bow wll I generally
Incorporate hIgh flare angles. However, It Is clearly not suffIcIent to
have hIgh flare angles to promote bendIng faIlure If crushIng Is

327
 FIGURE 1

PREDICTED RESISTANCE OF THE ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BO~S

USING THE DESIGN PREDICTOR EQUATION

Z
:E

w
u
z
a:
I­
....tntn
W
0:

I
SPEED (knots)

\ . -- - - - -- - - - -- - - -- - - -- "tl.yILu: SHIPPING LTD

328
occurr Ing elsewhere on the bow. I n the case of the or Igina I M. V.
ARCTIC, the channel broken by Ice fal ling In bending Is not as wide as
the beam of the ship and crushing occurs at the shoulders. To avoid
crushing, It Is necessary to arrange that sufficient Ice breadth Is
broken by the bow with the high flare angles so that the shoulders can
move through the resultant channel without further breaking or crushing.

The analysis of the flare and water I Ine angles was based on Figure 2
which shows the water I Ine and frame angles of the original bow plotted
against the non-dimensional forebody length. The flare angles are seen
from the figure to decrease rapidly frGm the stem so that towards the
shoulder they become relatively sma I I, whl Ie there are stl I I appreciable
water I Ine angles. The new bow, or 'Malvll Ie' bow as It has come to be
known, Is also shown on Figure 2. This bow has lower waterline angles,
particularly towards the shoulders, whilst adopting much higher frame
angles, particularly In the area of high waterline angle slope. It was
expected that this bow would break primary cusps at station .7 and .8
and secondary cusps at 0.2 to 0.3 resulting In a wider broken channel.
than obtained by the original bow.

The principal characteristics of the ARCTIC "as fitted" and with .the
Malvll Ie bow are shown In Table 1.

T~lE I
PRINCIPAl PARTJ(lJlARS OF TliE IClOIFIED BeltS

EXI ST ING MEL VILLE

M.V. ARCTIC BOW

Length 196.6 206.16

Breadth 22.93 22.93

Draught 10.97 10.97

Forward Block Coefficient· 0.515 0.395

Stem Angl e 30 0 20 0

Shlmanskl Coefficient 1.650 1.244

Kashteljan Coefficient 2.620 2.962

• The forward block coefficient here Is defined as being the block

coefficient forward of paral lei mid-body at the load waterline.

MODEL TESTS

• Open Water

Open water tests were conducted with the existing and Melvll Ie bows at
the National Research Councl I (NRC) tank In Ottawa. Resistance,
self-propulsion and overload tests were conducted on a I :30 scale wocden
model. The results of the resistance tests are shown In Figure 3. From
the figure It can be seen that the differences between the Melville bow
and the existing bow are smal I. Similarly, the difference between the
tow force and effective power recorded during the tests were also smal I.
From these results, It can be concluded that, within the bounds of

329
~
o

FIGURE 2
FRAME FLARE AND ~ATERLINE ANGLES FOR THE

MV ARCTIC ~ITH THE ORIGINAL AND MELvILLE BO~S

7 - .. .- ­
I-- - ­ f--_
t-...

V ---­
60
MELVII E BOW
rRIK ~NGLTs\
m
\oJ
\oJ
II:
V/ ORl.l "-BOW V
~

-
.0
rRAlOE ~[5
~
\oJ
Q
~ // /'
V
\oJ 30
V
/ ~ ~ ---­
-I
~
Z
a: 20
V 7,\:

..-- ~ ~ K
/

.--..
~~~~N[~ES
~
V.-::::: v-::-
10

F===­
r­ ,-~lLLE BOW
MRTERLI i
FtlGLES

0 ~
o . 1 .2 .3 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
SHOULOCR STE"
NON- DIMENSIONAL FOR'BODY LENGTH

~--------------------------------------MELVlLLE BHll'I'lN~ LTD

 FIGURE 3
FULL SCALE RESISTANCE PREDICTION OF THE
MV ARCTIC ~ITH THE ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BO~S

.:000

leae RO" NRC LIlfl. TESt

OIIRELRTIOII ALLiE • . -
16B0

,.... l~eB
z
y.
1.....1 1200
ORIGI'f'­ ~
/
W
U
Z 1000
I£LYILL~ ~ / /
0::
>-­
~ 800
m ~/
#
w
II: see /
.e~
..,/ ""
2ee ~ ~
e -
=­ -= -­
F­
-
,. - - -

e Ie 12 16 Ie 20

SPEED (KNOTS]

LTD
~
'----------------------------------------------------------------------------- "~YIL~ ~I~I~
 experimental accuracy, there Is no significant difference between the
hydrodynll/llic resistance of the original bow and Melvl I Ie bow In open
water •
• Ice Tests
Ice tests were conducted at the Hamburg ship model basin (HSVA) with the
same 1:30 · scale wooden model as used for the open water tests at NRC.
Both the Melville bow and the existing bow .were tested In two Ice
thicknesses corresponding to 0.8 and 1.2 m ful I scale. A total of six
Ice sheets were tested. Model Ice target strength was 16.7 kPa which
correspo~ds to 500 kPa ful I scale, and was measured by cantilever beam
tests. Elastic modulus was recorded using the sheet deflection method.
The model Ice sheets were al I very uniform with maximum discrete
thickness deviations In the range of ,!1.5 rrvn fran target values. Ice
strength values were equally uniform within about,!1 kPa of target
strength.
The model friction coefficient was adjusted to 0.1, which Is believed to
represent the Inerta paint coating used on the ship's hul I. During the
tests propeller thrust, torque and r.p.m. were recorded together with
model speed. The tests were conducted wIth the model self-propel led
wIth no effectIve carrIage/model connectIon. The Icebreaklng action
above and below the water I Ine was monItored throughout the tests wIth
video recorders.
The "as fItted" model propeller was damaged In transIt to Hamburg and a
"stock" HSVA propeller was used Instead during the tests. As a result,
open water tests were conducted wIth the HSVA stock propeller In the "as
fItted" nozzle to obtaIn propeller and nozzle thrust and torque
coeffIcIents. SInce the HSVA stock propeller did not exactly duplicate
the "as fItted" propeller, only the thrust and speed data collected
dur I ng the tests was anal yzed further. The propu I sl on system on the
ARCTIC Includes a CP propeller operatIng In a nozzle. SInce nozzle
thrust was not recorded during the tests It was deduced fran HSVA open
water tests on the propeller/nozzle combInation. Two methods were used:
- nozzle thrust fran propeller KT IdentIty
- nozzle thrust derived from assumed wake and advance coefficient
The two methods acted as a cross check for each other and with the
exception of two points associated with the same Ice sheet, the total
thrust derIved by each method were very close.
Since the differences between the mean values of Ice thicknesses and
strengths and target values are small, and the varIation of Ice
thickness and strength In anyone sheet was also very sma I I, It Is
Justified to adjust the recorded thrust to correspond to the target Ice
thicknesses and strengths. This "normalization" of the thrust was
accanpl Ished for Ice thickness variations by the equation:

332
where:
thrust adjustment due to Ice thickness variation
thrust (propeller pius nozzle)
target Ice thickness
actual as measured Ice thickness
empl rl cal Index
The thrust was normalized to the target strength by assuming that at low
speeds, the Icebreaklng component Is 40% of the total resistance , and
that the flexural strength Is directly proportional to the breaking
component of resistance. Therefore:

where:
eTo = thrust adJustment ' due to Ice strength variation

ot = target Ice strength

Om = actua I as measured Ice strength

The normalized thrust was obtained by addition of the recorded thrust to

the Increments of thrust which were calculated to al low for the observed
differences of Ice thickness and strength.
The curves of "required thrust" are shown In Figure 4.
Power was calculated from thrust using a proprietary computer model
developed by Melvll Ie which al lows slmllatlon of the combinator pitch
control fitted onboard the vessel. Predictions of the required power
are shown In Figure 5.

RESULTS
The results of the open water tests are as expected; the change In the
forebody length has not had a detrimental effect on the resistance of
the ship. The effects on slamming of the higher flare angles and
Increased forebody length of the Melvll Ie bow are presently being
Investigated at the wave tank at NRC. Preliminary reports Indicate that
there Is a negligible Increase In the tendancy to slam at operating
speeds.
The results of the Ice tests of the original bow resulted In two thrust
and power versus speed lines, for the same Ice thickness . The reason
for this remains unclear, but video recordings Indicate that In one case
more cusps were being crushed between the hul I and the Intact Ice sheet
than In the other. The tests In the ACL and WARe tanks do not duplicate
th I s effect and those resu Its are current I y under I·nvestl gatl on. The
crushing of Ice cusps by the Melvll Ie bow has not been observed.

333
 F'H.iURE 4

MODEL TEST PREDICTION Or THRUST rOR THE M.V.ARCTIC

WITH ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BOWS

v ;t
1. 8

,~~
1.6

;!~
I .•
V ,/
V '\."
'~;,
~;
1.2
V /
q,:o~~
v ./,f)'~-
Z /
V /
V V
~
/
V
V V
L V
t-­

'"
::::J
Q:
.8
::t:
v
I­ ,
V
.6
,/
V V
. ,
I

I I
.2

SPEED (knots)

" - - - -- - - -- - - -- - - - - - - I I t L V I L L t SHI""Ito; LTD

334
 F"IGURE S
MODEL TEST PREDICTION OF POWER FOR THE M.V.ARCTIC
WITH ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BOWS
16000

14_

lfJ~
"'1".11
12000
/
/ / I I1AX C1lfITS .

~
POKR

~~~/ ~
/ V '~~
10000
;,~~ -
3:
~ I·
/ :_/ /
V
I~ I
8000
~

/
W

~ /
3:
0­
n.
6000 /
/ /'
40130
/
//
~ :/
2000
'"
/

SPEED (knots) J
I

' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - M E L y I L L E SHIPPING LTD

 CONCLUSIONS
The objectIve of the work descrIbed was to develop a new Icebreeklng bow
for the M.V. ARCTIC. ThIs has been completed and the conclusIons can be
summarIzed es:'
The use of an equation to act as a design tool to develop new
hull forms was found to very useful and relIable.
The analysIs of the relatIonshIp between the flare end waterline
angles allowed a sImplIfied appreciatIon of the Icebreaklng
mechanisms at the bow.
The model testing at HSVA demonstrated that by control I Ing the
thickness and strength properties of model Ice, consistent and
sensitIve data poInts can be generated.
The Melvll Ie bow has Increased the Icebreaklng performance of the
M.V. ARCTIC by about 30% In terms of Increased speed In sImIlar
Ice conditIons at ful I power.
The Improvements confirmed during the model testIng of the new
bow has resulted In e decision to develop structural desIgns for
the conversion of the M.V. ARCTIC. It Is hoped that the new bow
wIll be fItted to the vessel In the wInter of 1984/85.
The test program on the M.V. ARCTIC has Included model testIng In three
Ice tanks. It Is hoped that In the near future we wll I be able to
publ Ish the Inter-tank comparIsons and the model/ful I scele correlatIon
results.

REFERENCES
1. Arctec Cenada Ltd., "CompIlatIon end Anelysls of Recent
Icebreaklng Model Test Data of a World WIde VarIety of Hul I
Forms", Report No. 0500-377-1, for Transport Canada,
Transportation Development Centre.

~6
 FIGURE I

PREDICTED RESISTANCE OF THE ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BOWS

USING THE DESIGN PREDICTOR EQUATION

Z
:I:

w
u
z
a:
I­

Ul

.....
Ul

Ill:

SPEED (knots)

. . . . . .- -------------------I!E1.Y1UJ: IItll'1'l'" LTD

337
~
co
FIGURE 2
FRAME FLARE AND ~ATERLINE ANGLES FOR THE
MV ARCTIC ~ITH THE ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BO~S

70

60

....OJ 51!

101
101
II!: 40
"
101
t:I

101 30
...J
"a:
Z
20

10

0
I! .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
SHOlJ..JlEJI STEIt
NON-DlHENSIONAL FOR'BODY LENGTH

....... IIIl.YILLE SHIPI'ING LTD

 FIGURE 3
FULL SCALE RESISTANCE PREDICTION OF THE
MV ARCTIC ~ITH THE ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BO~S

2BBB I I I
I rROll NRC ItODEL TEST

I 18BBI

16001f----- f-------t- - t- - - - t-
CORRELRTION fU.OWRNCE • . _ - ­

- +- - - + -- --+-- - t - - - - - t -- ----l

~ 10400

~ 12B0
Z
ORIGINAL ~ / l
~ I ~~
~ 1BBB PlELVILLE ~ / /

~
W
8BB
~V
ff
II: SBB /

400 ./V 1
200 --~
o
o 2 S 8 10 12 14 16 18 2B

SPEED [KNOTS]

w
~
"- III:l.YILLE SHIPPING LTD
 FIGURE 4

HODEL TEST PREDICTION Or THRUST rOR THE H.V.ARCTIC

WITH ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BOWS

1. 8 r - - - - , - - - r - ­ -=........-...

1. 6 1-----\--....,4

~.~
~'''l.<;;

1. 2 ~'i!..

Z
x:
I­
III

::l
~ .8
:I:
I­

.6

.4

.2

SPEED (knots)

' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - l I l . y l L U : IHI,.,IN; ~TD

340
 . F'IGURE 5

MODEL TEST PREDICTION OF' POWER F'OR THE M.V.ARCTIC

WITH ORIGINAL AND MELVILLE BOWS

16900

-
14900

rA·'I'
12000 f. tr?~ ~~4t1I
/ ,,"'E ~;" r HAX CONTS.

~
PONER
.:..>;:~~ y '\. V­

li!1!1l11
I
~~f. :/ /
'~"#
..~
V~
~~-

:x
.".

Ill: 8000
I~
1/ }~/
V ~V
W
:x
0
a..

6999 /
/
~
/'

4111!8
/ h
~

2000

"
/
B
9

SPEED (knots)

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - / l E L y I W IHIPPING LTD

341
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF THE

HULL PLATING ROUGHNESS ON THE

PASSABILITY OF SHIPS IN ICE

A.V.Yerusalimsky,Engineer Central Scientific Leningrad,

L.~.Tsoy, Master of and Research Insti­ USSR
Science tute of Merchant
Marine (CNIIMF)

Operational experience of icebreakers and icebreaking

cargo ships shows the change of their passability in ice
during the lifetime. The older the ships the worse are
their ice qualities. The main reason of the reduction of
the passability in ice of ships in the course of operation
is the increase of the friction component in the total ba­
lance of the ice resistance owing to the increase of rough­
ness of the hull oute~ plating in consequence of the cor­
rosive and erosive wear. Thus the existed earlier point of
view according to which the icebreakers maintain their
plating smooth as a result of being polished in the course
of operation in ice is not confirmed.
The results of the performed investigation have pro­
ved the expediency to use stainless steels for the ice
strake of icebreakers. Outer plating of the icebreaking
cargo ships which operate in ice for lesser time than the
icebreakers must be protected by wear-resistant coatings.

343
 1. The study of the state of the hull plating
of ice ships in operation

The state of the ship's surface was evaluated by the

Rnlax criterion characterizing the maximum height of ir­
regularities of the profile of roughness within the base
length measured from the highest crest to the lowest hol­
low.
The analysis of the results of study of the roughness
of the ship's surface has shown that already after some
years of operation the roughness of an unprotected plating
can become several times higher than that of a new ship.
One may suppose that the leading factor of the sharp in­
crease of roughness is the corrosion because there were
no considerable differences between the hull areas effected
by intensive abrasion and those without such effect. It was
also proved that the level of roughness and the rate of its
growth depend upon the material of hull. So the roughness
of plating of high-strength steels increases more intensi­
vely and reaches relatively higher values than that of com­
mon carbon steel plating.

2. Experimental study of the ice friction

coefficients of the specimens of outer
plating

To assess the effect of the change of the hull plating

roughness on frictional ice resistance the study of coeffi­
cients of friction of a series of steel specimens with sys­
tematically changed roughness was carried out in the ice
testing tank of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Insti­
tute by Svistunov.

344
 The roughness was imitated by the artificial applica­
tion of regular cuts upon steel disks with a diameter of
150 mm. The depth of cutting varied within 500-)000~m .
To have the possibility to assess differences between the
results obtained with the help of imitating specimens and
the data corresponding to real roughness the reference
specimens from the replaced areas of the outer plating of
icebreakers in operation were also tested. The principle
of the Coulomb tribometer was used in the determination
of friction coefficients. The specimens were dragged along
the horizontal surface of the ice cover by a self-propelled
trolley at a speed of 0,1-0,4 m/sec. The dragging force
was measured by an electric strain-measuring dynamometer.
Specific load was changed within 6-18 kPa . The air tempe­
rature during the tests was about -10°C the ice tempera­
ture being about -4°C. Salinity of ice changed in the range
of 8%0-)0%0.
The obtained relationship of an averaged value of the
dynamic friction coefficient jd versus the roughness of
the steel surface sliding along the ice is plotted in fig.
1. The data of tests by Calabrese a.o. are shown in. the
same plot. As one can see, the roughness of a steel speci­
men considerably effects the ice dynamic friction coeffici­
ent which may increase several times in relation to the
smooth surface. At the same time while carrying out the
tests no appreciable influence on the dynamic friction co­
efficient of the changes in the specific normal load,
speed of sliding and salinity of ice was found. It was
also established that coefficient jd was influenced not
only by the linear parameter of roughness Rmax , but
also by the orientation and geometry of the profile. So at
equal values of Rmax the dynamic friction coefficient
for the specimenswith natural corrosive surface destruction
was some/What higher than for the imitating specimens.
 0,3

- - ....
v;.;.-'

~
2 -

---
v x- -~
V­
"x. ~
/1
........
--~r ~

It/
~
., ...

346
 3. The role of friction in the resistance
of ice to the ship's movement

To reveal the role of friction in the total balance

of the ice resistance under known ice conditions, the
ship's life time and hull material characterizing the
state of outer plating it is necessary to have a calcula­
ting scheme of the hull-ice interaction. For the case of
ships moving in the compact level ice of a maximum thick­
ness this work deals with the so-called three-point scheme
of ice breaking implying the breakage of ice simultaneous­
ly in three forward end zones restricted in length descri­
bed by Hayssin. The friction resistance here may be repre­
sented by the following sum:

(1)

where - friction resistance in the area of contact

of ice with ship's sides;
- friction resistance in the area of ice­
-stem interaction;
- friction resistance of the fragments of
the broken ice cover contacting with
underbody.
With the assumption of steady-state motion of a ship
in compact level ice without periodic chapges of trim the
areas of ice contact being situated simmetrically along
the ship's sides the resistance R); may be expressed
as follows:

where - coefficient of the dynamic friction bet­

ween the ice and sides' plating;
- bending strength of ice;

347
 h - ice thickness;
cl - angle formed by the tangent to the water­
line and the bow and buttock plane;
j3 - board inclination angle to the vertical.
As due to the random character of the positionsof the
areas of contact between the ice and ship's side Rf2 is
a random value, the mathematical expectation of this value
should be taken as the design friction ressistance near
the ship's sides:
S
Rp = J.lis
XD

Rfft (X) rr (X ) d X , (3)

where 9(X} - density of the probability distribution

of the position of contact areas in the
ship's section with random coordinate j f
- number of frame line.
At the same timesthe checking calculations have shown
that the value of Rjz · can be determined with a suffi­
cient degree of accuracy when average angles of oL and j3
relative to a certain. mean entrance frame are used.
Taking advantage of the solution by Kashtelyan for
the determination of breaking force of an ice plate with
a wedge-shaped cutting having an angle of flare of 2 oL o
the friction resistance at the stem may be expressed as
follows:

where jdz - coefficient of the dynamic friction bet­

ween the ice and the hull at the stem;
do - angle of entrance;
tp - angle of inclination of the stem to the
horizontal line;
lfo - angle of inclination of the ship's side

348
 to the horizontal line in the section
normal to the line of stem.
The friction of ice fragments is principally condi­
tioned by the buoyancy of ice~floes.Therefore the friction
resistance of ice fragments may be expressed in the follow­
ing way:
u f.
Rf'z =jd3!/.ftl h/B(X)Sinj3COSoLdx, (5)
o
where jd3 -
coefficient of dynamic friction between
the ice and the underbody;
9 -
free fall acceleration;
t;o~ -
difference between the density of water
and ice;
B(x) - breadth ~f hull as function of length.
After the transformation the following design formula
for the determination of the ship's friction resistance du­
ring the movement in compact level ice may be proposed:

( 6)

where L - ship's length on the construction water­

line;
B - ship's breadth on the construction water­
line;
oLcw~ - construction waterline coefficient.

For practical calculations in the first approximation .

we may assume that:

349
 The obtained expression (6) does not account for the
additional frictional resistance of snow while moving
through real snow-covered ice. However the experience
shows that the thick compact snow cover results in the
considerable reduction of passability. Therefore for the
case of snow-covered ice the additional resistance of snow
friction must be taken into account which may be estimated
by formula:

- coefficient of hull-snow friction;

- c~ushing strength of snow;
- depth of snow cover.
Making use of the expressions (6) and (7) one can
determine the change of ship's ice resistance depending
on the state of the outer plating of hull characterized
by the dynamic friction coefficient. As calculations show,
the share of frictional forces in the total ice resistance
for ships wit'h great hull roughness can reach 60-70% that
is approximately twice as much as for a new ship. In the
presence of snow the share of friction in the ice resis­
tance is increased by 10-20%. The dry compact snow exerts
practically the same resistance as the ice of equal thiok­
ness. The results of calculation fairly good conform with
the data of full-scale tests of the icebreakers with dif­
ferent wear of hull.
On the basis of the analysis of the results of full­
-soale trials a simple empiric expression can be also pro­
posed relating the value of maximum passability in ice
with the dynamic friction coefficient:

( 8)

350
where - maximum thickness of the compact level
ice broken by a ship in steady movement
corresponding to the friction coefficient
fd o of a new hull;
- dimensioning coefficient (m), usually
within 5.5-6.5.
To evaluate the change in the speed of ships in ice
channels caused by the change of the passability in ice
due to the corrosive wear of the hull plating one can use
the diagram proposed by Tsoy. For this purpose it is ne­
cessary for ships with different degree of wear of the
outer plating to accordingly correct the speed in open
water and passability in ice appearing in the diagram.
Described methodology of the estimation of the effect
of the ship's hull plating roughness upon the passability
in ice was used in the mathematical modelling of the ship's
movement in ice with purpose of determining the efficiency
to use various means of the protection of hull from corro­
sion. The results of the performed investigation have pro­
ved the expediency to use stainless steels for the ice
strake of icebreakers. Outer plating of the icebreaking
cargo ships which operate in ice for lesser time than the
icebreakers must be protected by wear-resistant coatings.

References

Calabrese S. 1., Buxton R., March G., 1980. Frictional

characteristics of materials sliding against ice.
Lubrication Engineering, 36, N 5. p. 283-289.

Hayssin D.E., 1973. On the passability in ice of shipe

in compact level ice of maximum thickness. Proceedings
of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, Ice
qualities of ships. Vol. 309. p. 18-26.

351
 Kashtelyan V.I., 1960. Approximate estimation of forces
breaking the ice cover. Arctic and Antarctic problems,
N 5, p. 71-76.

Tsoy L.G., 1983. Modelling of Vessel's Movement in a

Channel Broken up by Icebreaker. The seventh inter­
national POAC 83 Conference, VTT Simposium 27, Vol. 2,
p. 654-663.

Yerusalimsky A.V., Svistunov B.N . , 1984. On the effect

of the roughness of a steel surface on the ice dyna­
mic friction coefficient. Proceedings of the Central
Research Institute of Merchant Marine, Architectural
and constructive type, seaworthiness and ice qualities
of perspective ships, N. 295, p. 90-96.

352
 INSTRUMENTATION IN ICE ENGINEERING

.
I

 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

AN INSTRUMENT FOR RECORDING ICE LOADS IN AN

OFFSHORE STRUCTURE

Pukki, J., Research Scientist Technical Research Finland

Simomaa, K., Senior Research Centre of Finland
Scientist

Abstract: An instrument for registerinq ice loads in an offshore structure

has been designed and constructed in the Instrument Labo.ratory of the
Technical Research Centre of Finland. The. instrument is intended for
investigation of new methods and structures for offshore engineering and
also development of new types of I ighthouses for severe environments, to
give just two examples. The device consists of two stress measuring
channels, two acceleration measurin~ channels, a maonetic tape recorder,
plus time-keeping and control electronic circuitry . The instrument is
desi~ned to operate unattended for a period of several months in an
offshore structure, without an external power supply, and subject to the
environmental stresses met in the northernmost part of the Gulf of
Bothnla, Finland. To save electrical ener~y, most parts of the instrument
are normally inoperative. The time-keeping circuit, the acceleration
measurement channels and an activating circuit are functionin~ all the
time .
At predetermined time intervals the time-keeping circuit activates the
device. If the acceleration signal level on either acceleration
measurement channel exceeds a predetermined I imit value, the wake-up
circuit activates the device The activatinn time interval and the
acceleration limit value are determined by the user, before instrument
operation is started.
When activated, the instrument performs a set of measurements. Each of
the four channels is measured simultaneously . The processing unit then
calculates some criterion values from the measurements, and if they
satisfy the criteria it has in its memory, the measurement series (of
values) is stored on a magnetic cassette tape in digital form. The

353
computer then updates the criterion 1imit values, taking in to account
the newest measurements and the amount of tape left on the cassette. Then
the device deactivates itself. The device has been tested in KEMI 11
1ighthouse at the northern end of the Gulf of Bothnia in late winter 1982,
and again in late winter 1983, The total testing time was about six
months, during which the device operated correctly.

Introduc t ion

Offshore structures are often subjected to heavy ice loads durin~ early
spring in the shallow waters in the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia
in Finland. Spar buoys, beacons and 1 i<jht houses have occasionall'y been
damaged after being rammed by ice driven by the wind. The Board of
Navigation of Finland intends to develop new mechanical structures that
would be better able to resist loads which are generated by drifting ice.
The strength of materials used as wei I as the actual mechanical
construction have been increased and new spring systems with impact
damping devices have been introduced. Most efforts have been devoted to
modifying the resonance frequencies of the mechanical structures. The
development has been achieved in co-operation with the University of Oulu,
Finland.
The behaviour of prototype I i~ht-houses under the influence of drifting
ice was to be compared with the vibrations and reshaping of older models
in similar conditions. The Board of Navigation of Finland and the
Laboratory of Structural Engineering of the Technical Research Centre of
Finland ordered from the Instrument Laboratory an instrument for
registering ice loads in such an offshore structure.
The .instrument developed during ttle project i~ cap<Jble of operating
independently. It may be left for at least three months on its own at the
measuring site, where it acquires the force measurements of two sensors
and corresponding acceleration data and then stores the qualified readings
on a magnetic tape.

Modes of Operation

The internal structure of the recording instrument is shown in Fig. 1.

In addition to the measuring channels, the device consists of wake-up

logic circuitry controlled by the acceleration sianal or a timer, a micro

computer, a tape recorder and power suppl ies.

354
Fig. I. The internal structure of the ice load recording instrument.

The instrument is essentially a device which records force. The

acceleration values are primaly used to wake-up the instrument, i . e .
initiate the recording functions . For increased redundancy, the
acceleration data are also converted into diqital form and stored . The
subscripts x and y denote the measurement directions north/south and
east/west respectively .
The force measurements, analog/digital conversions, result estimation
and occasional recordings are only performed if the wake-up procedure
initiates the computer operations . These operations typically take
about twenty seconds, after which the computer shuts down. The timer
can be set to interrupt at intervals ranging . from 4 seconds to 36 hours.
The non-maskable wake-up is accepted whenever either channel senses an
acceleration level exce e ding 5 m/s2. If the computer is in a stand-by
state before the wake-up, it switches on the power to the force-measuring
circuitry and to the converters. The sianal values are evaluated during
a period of 4 seconds and the data pattern from each channel contains
256 distinct readin~s. After the signal conversions, the transducer

3~
 supplies are turned off and the computer then determines the mean, r.m.s.
mean, highest value and lowest value of the samples obtained. These are
stored on tape toqether with calendar data if certain conditions are
fulfilled, the arithmetic difference between the highest and lowest
value must be higher than the previously recorded di fference of the same
day. The measured data is transferred from the random access memory (RAM)
to the magnetic medium if any signal value exceeds the threshold limit.
At the beginning of each twenty-four-hour period, the limit values are
preset to a low level .
If the mea s urements are accepted to be recorded, the processor switches
the tape cassette unit on and then stores the readings ac cording to the
ECMA 34 standard. Each recorded data pattern terminates with a cyclic
redundancy check code (CRC) for error detecting purposes.

Powe r Supp lies

The recording instrument has been specified to operate for up to three

months without maintenance. Dry I ithium batteries were chosen to supply
energy in cold environmental conditions, because their enerqy capacity in
low temperatures is the highest of al I commercially available sources.
The batteries used are Eternacell 660-5AS. (Power Conversion Inc .). Thei r
nominal voltage is 2.8 V and the cel Is were combined to form packs of
60 Ah and 30 Ah for positive and negative suppl ies, respectively.
In a standy state the CMOS processor and the guarding circuits consume
only 65 mW, whereas the consumption exceeds 120 mW during program
execution. After a wake-up procedure, the stress sensing bridges
consume about 950 mW during the measurement period of 5 seconds i f strain
gauges of 120 ohms are used. The tape movement require s about 6 W. It
may be estimated that some 110 recordings are carried out during the
three-month evaluation period, which approximately corresponds to energy
consumption of 1/3 Ah and 1/10 Ah from the positive and negative suppl ies,
respectively. During the same period, about 15 000 measurements wi II be
carried out, which require about 55 Ah of electrical ener9Y, whereas the
standby consumption does not exceed 30 Ah. The total battery capacity
is high enough, because all dischar~ing is done at a rather low level.
To match the actual battery voltaqe with the electronics pnp- type
regulators have been used throughout the circuitry. The proper operation
of supply electronics was fully tested in laboratory at temperatures

356
from -55 °c to +70 °C. The batteries were tested within a range of
-40 °c to +50 °C.

Instrument Electronics

The microprocessor used in the recordinq instrument is the CMOS-type CDP

1802 (RCA). The central processin9 unit card contains 2 kbyte of pr09ram
memory, ROM, and 4 kbyte of random access memory, RAM. The interface
card consists of some additional memory and of 60 parallel interface lines
for instrument bus use .
The processor clock runs at 2.097153 MHz, which is also used for timing .
A thermostated Oven has not been used to stabil ize the quarz crystal
frequency because of its energy consumption. The acceleration sensing
circuit is shown in Fig. 2. The piezoelectric transducers produce an
amount of electric charge which is proportional to the compression appl ied
to the device.

ACCELEIlAT IOH
IJAI\[·UP
LOGICS
ACCELERATION
SIGNAL X
INTERRUPT

COHPUTU

AC((L£P.AT 10'"
SIGNAL Y

Fig. 2. Acceleration sensing circuit.

The coupling of an acceleration sensor, the Bruel & Kjaer 8308, to a

junction fet ampl ifier OP-15A (P~11) is shown in Fig. 3, where the
construction of a fourth order low-pass fi Iter is also presented. The
resistor-capacitor pair Rl =2
GQ, Cl = 40 pF, ~ive a response of 250 mV
2
for 1 g acceleration, i.e. 10 m/s . The cut-off frequency of the low-pass
fi Iter is 24 Hz to prevent si9nal al iasing, as the interval between
consecutive analog-digital conversions is 1/64 s. The operation of the
acceleration sensor tested at various temperatures, and a drift of less

357
 RI
v'

C2 L
>-.1---0 ACCELERATION 1jI GHAl
R2 ')
~ GROUKO

LM 2S8A
r
P~I OP-15A

Fig. 3. Acceleration front-end.

than % is expected according to manufacturer specs within a range of

-~O °e to +40 °e.

The qual ification of acceleration wake-up pulses is carried out using

2
Schmitt-trigger circuits with a hysteresis level of 0 . 5 g, i.e. 5 m/s •

Stress Measurements
The actual loading of arctic offshore structures is estimated through
stress measurements. Various load-sensitive frames have been used to
study the loads, but essentially they all consist of four-arm strain
gauge bridges. The stress sensin~ assembly is shown in Fig.~. Instead
of an older type zener diode, a temperature compensated band~ap voltage
reference with a low operating current of 100 ~A has been used to
stabilize the bridge supply. The original reference voltage of 1200 mV
is converted to bridge suppl ies +1.8 VI -1.8 V using thermally balanced
bipolar ampl ifiers. The same reference is used as a comparator level in
integrating analog-digital converters, which confirms the true proportion­
ately of the stress measurements.
In offshore structures, the stress evaluation is often carried out so
that the load sensors are located below the sea surface, which guarantees
that the operating temperature generally keeps within a range of 0 °e to
. +15 °e. Two instrumentation amplifiers of type BB3630 (Burr Brown) have
been used for strain gauge bridge signal conditioning . The offset volta~e

drift was found to be less than 20 ~V for the ambient temperature range
of the electrical parts, i . e. -~O °e ... +40 °e, when the temperature was
changing slowly.
Two analog multiplexers have been used for signal selection and the
final conversion into a parallel diqital form is carried out using two

358
 '0Wf1ll SIIf"lY
III.IH'III.[IIC[
rOIll 811l.OC[
VOlTA(;U
TIWISOOC[IIlS

+1,8 v ·1,8 V

ACC[l[RATlOIII S'(;HALS

Fig. 4. Stress evaluation circuitry.

integrating AID blocks of type 8703N (Teledyne). The proper operation

of electronic circuitry was verified at temperatures down to -55 °C.

Cassette Data Recorder

C-cassette tapes according to the ECMA 34 standard are used as data memory.
The cassette recorder chosen is the type MFE 250 BH (MFE Corp.) with a
parallel interface as is shown in Fig . 1. This recorder is specially
designed to be used in cold conditions: it has high-power DC motors and
no capstan tape transport is used. To stabi I ize the tape speed the tape
motor speed is regulated using the observed frequency of a prerecorded
clock signal track as a feedback guidance. The reference signal thus
occupies the B-side of each cassette tape. The data capacity of the
A-side is approximately 360 kbyte if no data qaps are used. According
to the ECMA 34 standard, about 200 kbyte of data can be recorded in the
present appl ication. This reduction is due to the fact that the tape
transport must be stopped and started between consecutive recordings,
and some length of tape is then lost because of improper speed. For
instance, a period of 500 ms is used for each acceleration of the tape.

359
 Instrument Status Display

Some kind of status display is essential in an instrument which is used

beyond the reach of normal service facilities. Three semiconductor
lamps are used for this purpose in the recording instrument. At each
restart of the instrument, the microcomputer executes a specific
diagnostiCS program. The operation of the data converters and signal
conditioners is verified and the feasibil ity of actual signal levels is
checked. The cassette tape is transported to the initial position
and possible faults in recording mechanisms are immediately observed.
The functional errOrs are classified in six ~roups which correspond to
the various operating branches of the instrument. If no error is found,
the lamp combination of each feature is I it for two second~. In case
of a fai led check, the corresponding lamp combination is bl inked at the
frequency of 2 Hz. The user can then perform some minor repairs according
to the service manual before leaving the instrument. The status display
is shown in Fiq. 5 .

Fig. 5. Ice load registerinn instrument with acceleration sensors .

360
DISCUSSIONS

MECHANICAL PROPEKTIES OF ICE AND ICE COVERS

 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

LABORATORY INVESTIGATION OF THE KINETIC

FRICTION COEFFICIENT OF ICE

Kathryn A. Forland Thayer School of Engineering

Graduate Student Dartmouth College
Hanove r, NH USA

Jean-Claude Tatinclaux U.S Army Cold Regions Research

Research Hydraulic Engineer and Engineering Laboratory
Hanover, NH USA

DISCUSSION BY: D.J. Goodman

BP Petroleum Development
Dyce, Aberdeen

Please indicate how your data compares to those of Barnes, Tabor and
Walker (Proceedings of The Royal Society of London, Vol 324 A, 1971,
pp 127-155). Adhesion and ploughing terms can be separated by doing
both experiments of the type you describe an d rolling experiments.
Only by separation of the two terms can a satisfactory explanation for
the way friction depends on thermal conductivity of the metal surfaces,
surface roughness, and ice creep deformation be understood.

AUTHORS' REPLY: The authors' data cannot be readily compared to those

by Barnes et al since the latter were obtained for an air temperature
of -11.75 ° , over a velocity range of 10- 8 to 10- 1 mIs, and for three
test materials, granite, brass and steel, two of which were not tested by
the authors . Furthermore, Barnes et al conducted their tests by
sliding the tip of a conical piece of ice over the material test
surface, a configuration somewhat analogous to the authors ' configuration
"a" except that their contact surface gradually increased because of
wear and creep. For granite, Barnes et a1 found Uk to increase with
increasing velocity from 10- 8 to 10-6 mIs, to be constant for V in the
range 10- 6 - 10-4 mls and to be slightly decreasing with V increasing
for 10- 4 to 10- 1 m/s. For brass and steel, the latter with a surface
roughness ca. 0.5 urn, Barnes et a1 observed no significant variation
of Uk with V over the whole velocity range.

DISCUSSION BY: E. Enkvist, Director

Wartsila Arctic Research Center
Helsinki, Finland

Research into friction is of the greatest concern to anyone involved

in R&D of icebreaking ships. Kinetic friction causes a substantial
proportion of the icebreaking resistance and static friction is what
keeps ships beset and helpless in ice. The authors have made an
important contribution in showing how the test configuration sensitively
influences the results of lab tests in connection with some parameters
such as roughness. velocity and hardness. Thus, we are again reminded
of the fact that friction control and testing is more frustrating
than its simple definition may make people think.
It would be interesting to receive the authors' views on the
folloWing questions.

361
 A. Which test configuration does represent the case of an
icebreaking ship most closely?
B. Was the static friction measured from the initial hump in
the records supposedly taken during tests?
C. Will the presence of water change the results radically?

AUTHORS' REPLY: The authors thank Dr . Enkvist for his kind words.
Their views on the points raised by Dr. Enkvist are as follows.
A. Test configuration (b) is most closely representative of an
ice breaking ship since it is the ship which is in motion and applies
pressure to the ice.
B. Accurate measurement of the static friction was not possible
with the apparatus used in this study. The initial hump in the
records included not only the static friction but also the acceleration
of the ice or material sample at start-up. Test configuration (c) would
be capable of measuring static friction.
C. In a few tests under configuration (a), samples of ice were
pulled over first dry, and then submerged stainless steel at 5 cm/s.
No difference in the kinetic friction coefficient was observed.
Since all the tests were conducted at high temperature, water is
present at the contact area because of drainage and frictional
melting, whether the material surface was initially dry or not.
In more recent te"ts conducted by the second author under configuration
(c) during an expedition off the coast of Labrador with the
German Polar Research Vessel "F.S. Polarstern", no effect of
the presence of water on ~k could be detected for non-wetting
surfaces (bare or Inerta-160 coated steel), but that for wetting
surfaces (sand blasted, rough steel) ~k was much greater when
the surface was wet.

DISCUSSION BY: M. Maattanen

University of Oulu
90750 Oulu 57, Finland

The paper presents good experimental data on the kinetic coefficient

of friction. It would be interesting to know if you have fitted
your data to any theoretical friction models, e.g. the energy balance
model QY Oksanen, to explain your results or to verify or disprove
friction theories.

AUTHORS' REPLY: At present the authors have not found any theoretical
models which fit the complete set of experimental data of this study.
Oksanen's analysis (1980, 1983) makes no distinction as to whether heat
is being transferred between a finite body of ice and an infinite body
of material (configuration a) or vice versa (configuration b). The
authors believe that such consideration needs to be included into
the heat transfer analysis of ice friction.

362
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DISCUSSION ON:

THE EFFECT OF GRAIN SIZE ON

THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF ICE"

by

E.M. Schulson and N.P. Cannon

Thayer School of Engineering
Dartmouth College
Hanover, NH 03755
U.S.A.

T.J.O. Sanderson
BP Petroleum Development Ltd., London, EC249BU

I am interested in your conclusion that the strain-rate at

which the ductile-to-brittle transition occurs decreases with
increasing grain size. This makes sense. Do you have any
more detailed information on the way in which this transition
point changes? I am interested in the application to full­
scale field tests containing very large grains or constituent
blocks.

Authors response:

At the moment we have no more information on the effect of

grain size on the strain rate at which the ductile-to-brittle
transition occurs. Further work is in progress.

363
-

A.P.S. Selvadurai
Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada
Why did you not make an attempt to plot your data in
dimensionless form? The many factors which seem to relate to
the problem suggest this approach.

Authors response:

If the grain size, D, were non-dimensionalized by dividing

by the sample diameter, d, then one might think that provided
the ratio D/d were constant, the strength would not change
for given experimental conditions. This is not the case.
Experiments at CRP~L (D. Cole, private communication) on ice
of the same grain size as some of our material gave values
for the peak strength almost identical to the values we
observe, even though the diameter of the CRREL specimen was
one-half of our diameter.

G.T. Timco
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa

You have shown that there is a significant effect on the

compressive strength of ice with grain size, especially at the
higher strain rates. In nature, there is almost always a wide
range of grain size in anyone sample. Since this is the case,
it is important to know whether it is the larger or smaller
grains which cause the strength in mixed grain-size samples.
Have you investigated this problem?

Authors response:

No. But we are aware of the problem and have initiated

experiments to determine the "significant grain size". Our
expectation is that the significant size will vary, depending
on test/material conditions. In a mixed grain size aggregate,
the significant size for ductile behavior may correspond to
the average grai·n size, whereas the significant size for
brittle behavior may correspond to some size between the
average and the largest size.

364
Bernard Michel
Laval Universite, Canada

We found also in our tests * that in the brittle range the

strength in compression and tension was dependent on grain
size and could be represented by Petch's equation as yours
obviously do.
However, it has been found by many authors that there is
no dependence of strength on grain size at low creep rates in
the ductile range.
In our case we were unable to have good results in the
transition in compression between 10- 6 to 10-4 s -1. Some tests
gave ductile results, others brittle. Would not a mix of
these make the grain size effect to appear when there is none
for the purely ductile results?

Michel, B. - Ice Mechanics 1978 ­

Authors response:

We have not yet fit our compressive strength data to any

function. A Hall-Petch type equation may be appropriate, but
'we will not know until we have done more tests and performed
a statistical analysis.
The authors are aware that Duval and LeGac (J. Galciology
~, (1980) 151) observe that the rate of secondary creep at
-7.2"C/ 0.5 MPa compression of both natural and artificial ice
is independent of grain size. We observed a similar inde­
pendence in creep tests at -10"C/.75 MPa (N.A. Pishvanov, B.E.
Thesis, Thayer School of Engineering, Dartmouth, March 1980)
The point is that the creep tests were performed at much
lower rates than the rates we explored here; ie ~ 10-9 s -1
versus > 10- 6 5- 1 . It is probable therefore, that the internal
structure of the ice changes more during the low-rate creep
test than during our higher-rate compression tests and that
such changes account for the absence of a grain size effect in
slowly crept ice. The effects we observe may arise from

365
stress concentrations at the heads of dislocation pileups: the
larger the grain size, the larger is the pileup and the larger
is the attendant stress concentration. If the deformation
occurs slowly, pileups tend not to develop so that their stress
concentrations no longer assist the applied stress in causing
plastic deformation.
We attribute our high degree of reproducibility to care in
preparing aggregates of grains whose size deviates by ~ 10%
from the average size, to the low porosity in our specimens,
and to accurate strain rate control and to careful alignment.
A "mix" would cause scatter which we do not see.

John Currier

ARCO Oil & Gas Co., Callas, U.S.A.

Regarding the discussion of grain growth in specimens and

the possibility that this affected Jones and Chew's results:
Is there not an important difference between stored
specimens about which statements were given that there is not
significant grain growth, and tested specimens? Testing-
especially compressive introduces strain energy to a
sample. That energy can enhance grain growth (a thermodynamic
process) where growth may not have been seen in an undisturbed,
stored sample.

Authors response:

Yes there is a difference. For the reasons you give, it

is possible that plastic strain will accelerate grain growth.
We are collecting information on this point. However, since
little time elapsed (usually one-half hour) between the end of
our tests (the longest of which took 3 hours before we unloaded
the ice) and the thin section examination, we feel that we
have reduced the influence of this (potential) effect.
Nevertheless, the possibility remains that the most finely
grained ice did coarsen during the 3-hour period of the test
at the lowest rate.

366
D.J. Goodman
BP Petroleum Development

Please remind me of the effect of machine stiffness on the

data of Jones and Chew referenced in your paper.
A different creep mechanism, diffusional creep, may
dominate deformation at very small grain sizes which has a
different grain size dependence. This has been observed in
many other materials.

Authors response:

Jones and Chew's specimens were deformed in a screw-driven

Instron testing machine of 25,000 kg capacity. The velocity
4 l
was constant. The initial strain rate was 5xlO- s- . It is
probable that the actual strain rate was lower owing to the
compliance of the system. The rate was probably constant from
test to test, however.
Calculations suggest that diffusional creep occurs too
slowly to contribute to the strain of even the finest-grained
(D ~ lmm) ice at the temperature and rates explored here.

R. Frederking
National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa

Observations and measurements at NRC in Ottawa of grain

size of fresh water ice in the range of 2-5 mm and sea ice in
the range 1-10 mm have not shown any significant change over
the time range of weeks to months. Therefore I doubt that
grain size changes would explain the scatter in Jones and
Chew's results and the apparent absence of grain size effects.

Authors response:

Three points are noteworthy:

(i) Grain growth is driven by the energy, y, of grain
boundaries. The smaller the grain size, D, the
greater is the surface to volume ratio and the
faster is the rate of grain boundary migration; i.e.

367
 where M is the grain boundary mobility which
increases exponentially with temperature. The point
is that fine grains (D <lmm) will grow faster than
coarse grains. Thus what takes weeks to months to
occur in aggregates of 2-5mm in diameter may have
occurred in one-quarter to one-tenth the time in
the finest-grained aggregates (D=0.6mm)prepared by
Jones and Chew.
(ii) Jellenik and Gouda (?hys. Stat. Sol. ~ (1969) 413)
observed grain growth in polycrystalline ice when
stored at -10°C for one week: over this period, the
average grain size increased from 0.15mm to lmm.
(iii) Generally, impurities retard grain growth, at least
in metallic materials. For instance, as little as
0.006 wt.% tin added to lead retards grain boundary
mobility by over three orders of magnitude (Aust
and Rutter, TAl ME ~ (1959) 119)! It is question­
able, therefore, whether grain growth observations
made on sea ice bear a direct relationship to the
behavior of fresh-water ice.

T. Carstens
VHL, Trondheim, Norway
Do your findings of the effect of grain growth on strength
affect the practice of collecting field samples and shipping
the samples to faraway laboratories for testing? Rumors have
come out that the US stock of Antarctic ice cores has been
undergoing grain growth to such an extent that they no longer
yield some of the results they were intended to give. What is
a safe storage time?

Authors response:
We have made only a very preliminary study of grain growth.
For the reasons noted in our response to Dr. Frederking,
however, we would be concerned about storing very fine grained
ice (D <lmm) for long periods, at least at temperatures as high
as -10°C. Lower temperatures would worry us less, because
grain growth falls exponentially with temperature.

368
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

PAPER: A Procedure to Account for Machine Stiffness in Vni-Axial

Compress ion Tests
by C.W. Timco and R. Frederking

National Research Council of Canada

Discussion by: F.D. Haynes

V.S. Army. CRREL
Hanover, NH

The authors have attempted to reconcile laboratory test results from

stiff, closed-loop machines and field test results from complaint
machines. Their results, based on a simple model which assumes con­
stant stiffnesses of both machine and ice, are encouraging. It is re­
commended that both types of machines be used in laboratory tests
using identical ice for refinement of the model. A comparison is
especially important for slower tests where the time dependence of the
stiffnesses may be crucial. This could result in a calibration of a
compliant machine for field use.

However, the simple adjustment of the sample strain rate may be only
part of the required reconciliation. A closed-loop machine is design­
ed to not only provide a true strain rate but also to prevent strain
energy stored in the machine from impacting the sample. This prevents
a premature sample failure. It is not clear how to account for this
effect in a compliant machine. The authors are to be commended for
their work in reconciling field and laboratory test results.

Author's Reply:

The authors agree with the remarks of the review, and would like to
thank him for his comments.

369
 WIR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

"CREEP OF SnfULATED PRESSURE RIDGE GAANULAR ICE" J.P. Nadreau & B. Hichel

Erratum: Vol. 1, p. 50, line 15. Read: The samples are 70 mm in

diameter (instead of 7 rnm)

Previous studies of recrystallization have recognized that between

DoC and -IOoC recrystallization is significant but is less important
below -10°C. Barnes, Tabor and Walker were able to rationalize a data
from various authors by separating data into two classes DoC to -SoC and
below -SoC and calculating two activation energies (QI and Q2) one for
each class.

Your comment on the different behavior of ice with respect to tem­

perature above -IOoC and below -10°C is quite accepted and has been
pointed out, as you mentioned, by several authors.

!1ellor and Testa (1969)* reported several examples which show that
the ice becomes more strongly temperature dependent as temperature rises
above -100C. A reason for this is probably due to grain-boundary melting
which may oc cur at higher temperatureB.

In table 1, we computed the values of the activation energies for

the whole series of tests but since we are quite convinced of a different
behavior for the ice at temperatures close to the melting point, we
mentioned that the activation energies would drop to 79,0 kJIMol for Tlb
ice and 74,J kJlmol for TI ice if the set of data at -JoC was excluded.

*Complete reference is to be found in the article

371
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: SJOLIND Stig-Goran

TITLE: Visco-elastic buckling of beams and plates on elastic

foundations
NAME AND ADDRESS D.S. Sodhi
OF DISCUSSER: USA CRREL
Hanover, NH 03755
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
I would like to congratulate the author for presenting results of visco­
elastic buckling of beams and plates.

There is no reference of any work on elastic buckling. A comparison of

the results of present work with those of elastic theory would have been
valuable. A quick calculation shows that the visco-elastic buckling load
of the floating ice sheet is slightly lower but almost same as the elastic
buckling load. Similar calculations for the case of beams would have been
valuable for comparison purposes.

Perhaps the elastic buckling loads are an upper bound at higher velocities.

AUTHOR'S REPLY

I have also done elastic buckling calculations for the same structures
with the same geometrical imperfections. For the beam problem there is an
analytical solution form known for the elastic buckling load of the per­
fect structure ie.
2 2

P =m2~ + C. L (1 )
cr L2 m2 • 1T 2

This equation gives the lowest critical loads Pcr = 773 kN for m = 1 and
m = 2. From ego (1) one can easily calculate a lower bound for the_buckl ing
load in mode m by letting EI + O. At this load the mode m becomes stable
and its amplitude cannot grow for any smaller loads.

373
For the plate problem results from an elastic buckling analysis with the
same element division as in the viscoelastic case is given in Fig. 1.

MN

25

15

11

1/

:t 5 10 15 2J 25 )0 em

Fig. 1 Elastic buckling load for the ice sheet moving against the

cylindrical pile.

The buckling load in Fig. 1 is slightly higher than buckling forces calcu­
lated by Wang /1/. This is due to the coarse element subdivision in the
model.

The elastic buckling loads are really upper bounds for the forces exerted
un the structure at high velosities. The smallest load for which a certain
buckling mode has any possiblity to grow, can in many cases be calculated
by neglecting the bending stiffness of the ice sheet. Possible growing
modes can then be found from modes between the elastic mode and this lower
bound mode, when the load is between the elastic buckling load and this
lower bound load.

/1/ \~ang,Y.5., Buckl ing of a half ice sheet against acyl inder. ASCE
J. Eng. r'1ech. Div., No. H15 October 197B, s. 1131-1145.

374
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DISCUSSIONS
of paper
BEHAVIOUR OF SEA ICE PLATES UNDER LONG TERM LOADING
by
R. Tinawi and L. Gagnon

Discussion by A. Assur : CRREL

This paper is an important contribution to our understanding of
the behaviour of sea ice, which is strongly anisotropic . The salinity of
the ice (and water) should have been given since Murat (1978) is not
readily available .
Both the maximum deflections and the shape of the deflection curve
differ from past theoretical expectations. Perhaps a combined shear and
flexural model will have to be used eventually. Fig. 5 leads simply to
G = at- b with
Temperature _50 _10 0 _20 0 _30 0
a .0046 1.14 15.0 13.2
b 1.08 .464 .449 .380
Reply to A. Assur
Thi s salinity of the water in the tank was about 14 0 /00 and that
of the ice about 50 /00 . This salinity level was kept constant throughout
the experimental procedure.
We agree that probably a combined flexure and shear model is more
realistic for floating sea ice plates. No doubt we have over-emphasized
the shear model because of the simply supported nature of the circular
plate. As for the relationship proposed G = at- b , it would be interesting
to see how close or how far this is from field measured tests.
**********************

Discussion by R. Frederking: National Research Council, Canada

Thi s paper presents an interesting contribution to the bearing
capacity problems . The authors have proposed superimposing transverse
shear effect on thin plate theory to predict short and long term

375
deflections. Linear elasticity is assumed. This approach is desirable
because computations are simple . It also recognizes the structural
anisotropy of the ice. I would like to ask whether the authors have
considered the possibility.of using non-linear elasticity, i.e.,
calculating deflections using an effective modulus which decreases with
increasing stress and/or increasing loading time. Small-scale laboratory
tests show that the modulus is rate dependent (Traetteberg et al, 1975)
and stress dependent (Sinha, 1979). Such an approach is analytically more
difficult but would appear to be more clearly related to experimentally
observed behaviour of ice under uniaxial loading.
Fo r the long term loading tests it is interesting that the
deflection results can be described with a constant effective modulus and
a time dependent shear modulus. Has an attempt been made to develop a
general function for the time and temperature dependence of the shear
modulus?
All the tests were done for a relatively small range of load and
ice thickness, and thus flexural stress. How far is it possible to
extrapolate these results to higher or lower stresses?

References:

Traetteberg, A., Gold, L.W., and Frederking, R. (1975) The strain rate and

temperature dependence of Young's modulus of ice. Proc. 3rd Int.

Symposium on Ice Problems, Dartmouth College, Aug, Hanover, N.H.,
U.S.A., Int. Assn. Hydraulic Research, p. 479-486
Sinha, N.K. (1979) Grain-size influence on effective modulus of ice. Proc.
Workshop on the Bearing Capacity of Ice Covers, 16-17 Oct. 1978,
NRC Technical Memorandum No. 123, p. 65-77.
Reply to R. Frederking
Non-line ar elasticity has been used on beams subjected to fle xural
loads but not to plates (See Ph.D. dissertation by Lainey 1982). Our
experience with non-linear elasticity to include stress dependent and rate
dependent effective modulus, is that the actual shape of the theoretical
curves will not match the experimental results. Hence any refinements to
include such effects may not be as significant as the effect of shear
deformations due to transverse anisotropy.
A general function for the effective shear modulus will be
attempted when all the testing program will be completed. This will

376
include a different range of loads in order to see the effect of higher
and lower stresses. However, the thickness of the plate will be kept
constant in order to minimize the number of parameters involved.
********************
Discussion by A. D. Keer, University of Delaware
The question of the proper mechanical model for an ice cover
(bending or shearing mechanism) was raised in 1976 in a survey paper "The
Bearing Capacity of Floating Ice Plates Subjected to Static and Quasi­
Static Loads" by A.D. Kerr (Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 17, No. 76, 1976)
in the section entitled "Effect of Bending and Shearing Forces on the
Deflections of an Ice Cover" (pp. 253-255).
The discussion there was based on data of tests conducted in the
field by Bernshteyn and Shmatkov. In 1929 Bernshteyn compared the
deflections of an ice cover on the river Volga subjected to loads of short
duration, at air temperatures of -15 0 C < T < _7 0 C, with corresponding
results based on the elastic plate bending equation
DI7"w + yw • q (1)
Since the agreement was very close (reproduced as Fig. 23 in above paper),
it was concluded that the use of eq. (1) was justified for cold river ice,
for loads of short duration.
About forty years later Shmatkov compared test data of an ice
cover on Lake Baykal, subjected to a vertical load of short duration at
air temperatures of about OOC, with analytical results based on the
bending plate theory (eq. 1) and the shearing plate theory governed by the
equation
-GI7 2 w. + yw • q ( 2)
On the basis of this comparison (reproduced in above paper as Fig . 24),
Shmatkov concluded that at air temperatures of about OOC the deformations
are caused mainly by shearing forces.
These observations suggested the question regarding the proper
differential equation(s) for describing the response of floating ice
covers. One possibility is a E. Reissner type plate formulation with
plate parameters which dependent on the ice temperature and crystalographic
structure. The above survey concluded that "A comparitive study involving
more test data, especially at air temperatures near OOC, is urgently
needed to clarify this important question."

377
 The paper by Tinawi and Gagnon is a first step in this direction.
The authors should be congratulated for conducting their tests. It is
hoped that other tests of this type will follow until the problem of
proper equations for ice covers is satisfactorily resolved.
Reply to A. Kerr
Any conclusion that could be reached for fresh water ice regarding
the bearing capacity problem is difficult to extrapolate for sea ice.
This is the main reason for conducting our own flexural tests on sea ice
plates.
We agree with your suggestion to use a Reissner type plate
formulation. However the number of exact solutions available for Reissner
type problems are not many. On the other hand, a three-dimensional Finite
Element solution would provide the same desired physical phenomena as in
Reissner's theory except that the solution would be a lot simpler to
obtain . Again the major difficult is still at the level of defining the
proper constitutive relations for sea ice.
********************

Discussion by Donald E. Nevel: Dallas, Texas, USA

The appearance of a discontinuity in the derivative of the
deflection profile from your experimental results is certainly interesting.
Your explanation of this discontinuity by shearing deformation is
plausible, especially for a transverse anisotropic plate. At warm ice
temperatures, the shear modulus between the vertical and horizontal
directions could decrease which would make the deformation due to vertical
shear forces increase relative to the deflection due to pure bending.
There however may be another explanation for this discontinuity.
That is the formation of a crack in the ice sheet, which may be difficult
to detect. Perhaps performing a test with a load distributed over a
circular line load may distinguish which explanation is correct. The area
inside this ring load has no vertical shear forces, only pure bending
moments. In this case a discontinuity due to shear forces would occur at
the ring load while discontinuity due to crack from bending should occur
somewhere within the area inside the ring load.
Reply to D. Nevel
We agree with your comments and our problem has always been the
lack of access at the bottom of our tank to see if the first crack does
occur under the load.

378
 For some of the more recent tests at -SoC, where a large
displacement of about lS cm was observed under a sustained load, there is
physical evidence that the loading was more .likely to be a ring load
rather than a uniform pressure load. However under a short term loading
the deflections are small and tests under a ring load do offer certain
advantages not only from the theoretical but also from the experimental
point of vue. We still believe that even if a ring load is applied for
short term loading the discontinuity will still be there because the
effect of transverse anisotropy on shear deformation is probably much
greater than the difference between ring and uniform loads.
********************
Discussion by G. Grabe, Technical University, Hamburg
I like to know the detail of your supports of the ice plate. How
was it designed to get the desired boundary conditions? Was it a sharp
edge or rounded? Did there occur any friction?
Reply to G. Grabe
Our circular support beneath the plate has rounded rather than
sharp edges. The circular support is placed in the tank prior to freezing
and the ice plate could cover part of that rounded edge. Details of the
experimental set-up can be found in the Proceedings of the PDAC 77
Conference in a paper by Murat and myself.
********************
Discussion by D.S. SO[)H : CRREL
During our experiments on bearing capacity of ice in our Test
Basin, we have observed fewer radical cracks in comparison to
circumferential cracks which indicates that shear deformation was perhaps
predominant.
Reply to D.S. Sodhi
We were never able to see any radial cracks because there would
occur at the bottom surface of the plate which is not accessible in our
case. It would be very interesting to compare the results of your test
basin with a theoretical shear model.

379
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

01 SCUSSION FOR~I

AUTHOR: A. P. S. Selvadurai

TlTLE: FLEXURE OF A NON-HOMOGENEOUS FLOATING ICE PLATE

NIIME AND ADDRESS Professor Arnold D. Kerr

Dept. of Civil Engineering
OF DISCUSSER: University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716

DISCUSSION

In 1972, A. D. Kerr and W. T. Palmer published a paper on the analysis of

the non-homogeneous floating ice plate, for which E varied across the plate
thickness (tiThe Deformation and Stresses in Floating Ice Plates" by A. D. Kerr
and W. T. Palmer, Acta Mechanica, Vol. 15, pp. 57-72, 1972). There it was shown
that the resulting formulation (differential equation and boundary conditions),
is the same as the one for homogeneous elastic plates, e xc ept that

h-z
D
2
J 0 z2 E (z)dz (I)
I-v -z o

and z is determined from the condition

o
h-z
"
ro zE(z)dz o (II)
-z
o

The model used by Sel v adurai assumed a layered system with displacement
continuity at the layer interfaces. Thus, for the case v = canst and an ice
cover consisting of many layers, the results should be essentially the same.
It appears that for such cases, the use of (I) and (II) is simpler than the
corresponding expressions in the presented layered analysis.

381
 Author: A.P.S. ~elvadurai

Title: Flexure of a Non-homogeneous Floating Ice Plate

Name and Professor Arnold D. Kerr
Address of Dept. of Civil Engineering
Discusser: University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19716
U.S.A.
Reply to Discussion by Professor A.D. Kerr
The author would like to thank Dr. Kerr for drawing his
attention to the work of Kerr and Palmer. The scheme
proposed by Kerr and Palmer would certainly be simpler
and more effective than the laminated plate theory dis­
cussed in my paper in the particular instance when only
the elastic modulus varies with depth in a continuous
or discrete fashion. In fact the discretized evaluation
of D can be replaced by a straight-forward integral
and t~t two methods yield the same result. The distinction
arises, of course, in the situation where Poisson's ratio
changes within the thickness of the layered plate. There
is no universal agreement as to the typical variations
in v that can be encountered within an ice sheet. Changes
in brine content, existence of microcracks etc. can yield
significantly variable values of v within an ice sheet.
Whether such changes alter the results of engineering
interest (e.g. deflections, bending moments) in a signifi­
cant manner needs further investigation.

382
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

FAILURE CRITERIA FOR SEA ICE

AND LOADS RESULTING FROM CRUSHING

M.D. Coon Coon & Associates, Inc. USA

R.J. Evans University of Washington USA
D.H. Gibson Amoco Production Company USA

Discusser: D.J. Goodman, BP Petroleum Development Ltd.

Discussion/Questions:
I am surprised that you have applied a plastic limit analysis to a
problem in which the material is creeping. You are forced to assume
a representative strain rate of F/4D without real justification.
Ponter et al have set out an analysis of the indentation problem
to incorporate the creep behavior . They recognize that the maximum
loads a structure may see are probably determined by the onset of
fracture processes. Once a crack forms, new free surfaces are intro­
duced to the problem which make it very unlikely that a plastic

solution can be used to estimate the load.

Reference :

Ponter A.R.S., Palmer A.C., Goodman A.J., Ashby J.F., Evans, G.G.

and Hutchinson J.E., 1983. The Force Exerted by a Moving Ice Sheet

on an Offshore Structure . Part I. The Creep Mode. Cold Regions

Science and Technology, Vol. 8, pp 109-118.

Discusser: T.J.O. Sanderson, BP Petroleum Development Ltd., London

EC24 9BU

Discus s ion/Question s :

I feel uneasy about the use of continuum plasticity models for the

treatment of crushing, which is a process dominated by fracture. I

gather you may share my unease. However, would you please comment on

the scalability of your small-scale yield criterion--might it be quite

383
 different at large scale, owing to the difficulties in scaling fracture
properties?

Discusser: B. Ladanyi, Ecole Poly technique de Montreal, Canada

Discussion/Questions:
1) Use of the term "angle of friction" in the brittle fracture domain
of ice behaviour is questionable, if it means the slope of the failure
envelope of ice around the origin of the Mohr plot, because the slope
is known to be due to a continuous change in the failure mode of ice
with increasing normal stress, up to the brittle-plastic transition
point.
2) For the same reason, one should also question the use of any Prandtl­
type plasticity solution for describing the in-plane indentation failure
of an ice sheet in the brittle failure domain. A better mathematical
model for that purpose seems to be the one based on an expanding
cylindrical cavity with vertical axis, (Ladanyi, 1975). The latter
describes more closely the phenomena observed under such conditions,
i.e., radial cracking of the ice sheet, followed by crushing.
Reference:
Ladanyi, B., 1975. Discussion on "Ice forces on vertical pile, inden­
tation and penetration" by Hirayama et a1. Proc. IAHR Int. Symp. on
Ice Problems, Hanover, NH, pp 442-445.

Discusser: D.S . . Sodhi, USA CRREL, Hanover, NY 03755, U.S.A.

Discussion/Questions:

The dependence of ice forces on aspect ratio is similar to that which

we have found in our small-scale experimental study. The results of

this study are presented at this conference. We have also found a

strong dependence on velocity-to-thickness ratio and not on velocity­

to-diameter ratio.

Discusser: Vitoon Vivatrat, Brian Watt Associates, Inc., 2350 E. North

Belt Drive, Houston, TX 77032 U.S.A.
Discussion/Questions:
1) Please clarify the manner by which the example solutions are
obtained--whether you actually used the proposed yield surface model
or just used the separate Mohr-Coulomb (w/o cutoff) and Tresca

384
(constant everywhere) solutions in attempting to bound the problem.
2) There are some data on compressive strength at various inclinations
with respect to the grain in case of columnar ice. How would your
anisotropic model fit these data, especially with regard to the lower
0
strength at 45 ?
3) You used a discontinuous velocity field to obtain the solution for
indentation. How would you define the strain-rate in this case when
the shearing deformation is supposed to be confined in a very narrow
cone? The definition of E = V/4H is arbitrary or, at best, empirical,
isn't it? In this case it may not be correct to use the same rule in
different loading problems.
4) Even in granular (isotropic) ice, experimental results indicate a
significant compression in front of the indentor. Experimental work
in the '60s and '70s in glasses indicates that when this happens the
rigid plastic solution overestimates the indentation load. So more
realistic velocity fields from experimental observation may be
required with your failure model. In this case, you have to be able
to define the "local" strain-rate at each point in the field. What
is the strain-rate influence in your yield surface model?
5) How do you get rigid-plastic solution for anisotropic material
(~ and c unequal in different directions)?

Discusser: Y.S. Wang, Exxon Production Research Co., PO Box 2i89,

Houston, TX 77001, U.S.A.
Discussion/Questions:
The plasticity method is simple and conservative and can predict the
breaking load of a crushing problem rather well. After the initial
break-out, the ice deformation goes into a continuous mode. In
this case, the ice is already damaged, and the crushing load is
significantly reduced. It would be desirable if a plasticity model
or any other model could include the "work-softening" behavior of the
ice so that the continuous crushing load can be theoretically predicted
without adjustment by an empirical contact factor.

Author's Reply:
Several discussors question the validity of our use of plastic analysis
to model crushing failures in that it considers neither fr'acture
(Sanderson, Ladonyi) nor creep (Goodman). I-Ie do not dispute the

385
 validity of these criticisms but wish to state the point of view from
which the work described here was approached. Bulletin 2N of the
American Petroleum Institute on planning, designing, and constructing
fixed structures in ice environments, which provides guidance for the
design of offshore structures in ice-laden areas, gives formulae for
ice crushing loads and strain rate determination; these formulae are
based on plastic analysis. For columnar ice, the failure mechanisms
come from in-plane motion; the strain rate, as discussed in the text,
depends on structure diameter. As we have tried to explain in the
paper, we feel that available evidence suggests that, except for
narrow indentors, failure results from out-of-plane motion and that
the characteristic strain rate (if it exists) depends on ice thickness
rather than structure diameter. (We are pleased that Sodhi's obser­
vations support this). We have thus been addressing the plastic solution
procedure recommended by API rather than discussing the more general
question of ice crushing. This question is still open, but we do
feel that the plasticity solutions can be useful in determining both
global and local ice loads due to crushing at low velocities.

The first two authors are presently involved in continuing work on the
application of anisotropic plasticity theory to crushing of columnar
ice, but the application here has been to isotropic ice.

With regard to Sanderson's specific question on scalability, we certainly

believe that small-scale strengths are far too high for application to
large-scale indentors, but we are not aware of scientific methods for
obtaining . appropriate scale (or contact) factors. We should have
emphasized that the examples given were to illustrate the theme of
the paper and were not meant to represent actual structure loads.

Vivatrat poses specific and worthwhile questions. Our solutions used

a single yield surface, either Mohr-Coulomb or Tresca. There certainly
may be closer upper bounds which would be obtained using the combined
yield surfaces. Hopefully our continuing work will provide answers to
the second and fifth questions. With regard to strain rate definition,
we agree that it is empirical and arbitrary but feel that it is
important simply to distinguish between V/t and V/D as measures. Our
solutions are upper bounds. We have not found lower bounds for the

300
Mohr-Coulomb failure, so we cannot dispute the suggestion that our
solution may overestimate the indentation load.

Wang raises an interesting point regarding modeling continuous crushing

with a "work-sof tening" model. The authors' interest in the present
work, however, is in determining the maximum load on a structure due
to the crushing of ice, and we have not addressed what happens after
the initial breakout.

387
 W£R Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: Pl!LKKH!EN Erkk i

TITLE: Finite ele~ent analysis of ice forces during failure
by crushing against structures
NAME AND ADDRESS T.J.O. Sanderson
OF DISCUSSER: BP Petroleum Develonment Ltd.
London EC2Y 9BU '
ENGLAN["l

DISCUSSION :

I have a general comment to make concerning finite-element analysis ap­

plied to ice. You are applying a highly sophisficated analysis to compute
stresses, but you are then applying a plastic failure or yield criterion
which may be very crude. We have heard many criticisms this week of the
sim~le plastic limit criterion, which incorporates no consideration of

brittle fracture. It seems to me that you may be computing a very precise

answer to a poorly defined problem. do not see the advantage of a finite­
element approach over and above the analytical solutions which already
exist.

AUTHOR'S REPLY:

I agree that a yield criterion used in calculation is very crude, because

it only takes stress?s into account. When we will get more and more informa­
tion about the behaviour of ice in different conditions we could make the
better and better yield criterion for ice which we could also utilize in
creep analysis. I agree that a simple yield criterion incorporates no con­
sideration of brittle fracture. If we use little more sophisficated yield
criterion which perhaps takes into account the states of stress, stress
rate, strain and strain rate we can very easily consider brittle fracture
in the finite element method. The technique is similar as in plastic anal­
ysis. vJhen the analytical and the finite element solution give sa:me results
we know that our the finite element program works well. Ifwewouldtakeinto

389
account more and more compl icated material model (e.g. creep simultaneously
with britte fracture) then analytical solutions are impossible while the
finite element solutions are possible as easy as earlier. I think that the
advantages of the finite element method compared with the analytical ones
are superior. We could calculate ice forces by the finite element method
against structures of different shape and anything material model.

AUTHOR: PULKKINEN Erkk i

TITLE: Finite elementanalvsis of ice forces durina failure
by crushing asainst' structures
NAME AND ADDRESS John Currier
OF DISCUSSER: ARCO OIL & GIIS Co.
PRC-3075
P.O. Box 2819
Dallas, TX 75221, U.S.II.
QUESTION:

The application of discrete element techniques to ice problems addresses

the issue of accounting for brittle fracture of the material during the
failure process. Is the concept of the infinite element one that could be
applied with the discrete element techniques.

AUTHOR'S REPl.Y:

Yes we can apply the infinite element with the finite one. There is no
problems in the discretization on somewhere else.

390
 WiR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

Hydraulic Characteri s tics of Frazil Fl oes

by
C. Park and R. Gerard

Discussion by G.D. Ashton, USA CRREL, Hanover, NH, U.S.A.

The study is a useful one and allows some insight to be ga ined of the
Erazil evolution process . The equation of the 'best fit' line would be
useful. Also, while Figure) shows no consistent deviation for the 'best fit l

line, an alternate interpretation of the roughness effect is that it is the

roughness that causes the deviation from the results obtained for the fixed
sphere. A plot of that deviation vs. roughness Reynolds number wou ld also be
useful.

Response

In the paper the effects of surface roughness , porosity and shape factor
were investigated by plotting the deviation of the results from the 'best fit'
line through the data. 'l1lis is a standard graphical regression technique and
allows convenient enlargement of the deviations and perception of any trends
in the 'scatter'. However, this intent is not clear in the paper,
particularly wi th regard to the porosi ty and shape factor.

Because the deviation of the results from those for a fixed smooth sphere
is finally ascribed primarily to the influence of surface roughness, a plot of
this deviation would be an appropriate next step, as sugg e sted by Dr. Ashton.
This plot is given in Figure 4 below, where the deviation is taken as (CO for
freely falling floc - Co for fixed sphere). Additional data in the low
Reynolds number range, collected since the original paper was prepared, has
been added.

A point worth noting is that several investigations have found a similar

deviation for the drag coefficient for a freely falling smooth sphere ( see,
for example, Boillat and Graf, 1981). This seems to be quite reasonably
attributed to the action of the shed vortices on the motion of the freely
falling sphere. This may explain part of the deviation noted for the floes as
they also 'oscillated' in various ways during their descent .

391
 PERCENT DEVIATION FROM STANDARD SPHERE DRAG
lOO,-----------------------------------------------------,
~~--I

~
o (>O,~.~H~O.~!
200 ,. (~O. ~:~H .. O.) I
Q {(a.~.~H>O.)

'l ( .. O.).~H'O'~.J

z 100
Q
!;;'
:>
w
o
r­
es
u
~ -100

-200

-lOO-~~~~~~~mr~~~~~~~r_~~~~~~~~--rl
0.001 0.01 0.1 , 10 100 1000
FLOC ROUGHNESS REYNOLDS NUMBER(DV/J/)

Figure 4: Deviation of drag coefficient of a freely-falling artifical floc

from that of an equivalent fi~ed sphere.

Discussion by S.F. Daly, USA CRREL, Hanover, NH, U.S.A.

This paper is a very good initial contribution to defining the hydraulic

characteristics of frazil floes. Could the authors comment on the means of
floc formation in natural water bodies, its causes, rates, expected size,
etc.? HQIH' do the floes they modelled compare? 00 they have any measurements
of actual frazil floes, either in the laboratory or the field? Do they expect

that flocculation theory as deve loped by sani tary engineers and/or chemical
engineers will be useful?

Response

The points raised by Or. Daly in his question should perhaps have been
addressed in more detail in the introduction to the paper. As Dr. Daly is

392
aware, there is very little quantitative information availabl~ on any of the
items mentioned, and the objectives of the broader investigation of which the
present paper forms part is to make an essentially empirical study of these
features in the laboratory. Although we do not yet have any measurements of
actual frazil flocs, those we have observed qualitatively in the laboratory
seem not unlike the artificial floes used in the experiments described in the
paper except, of course, in size. we have carried out a reasonably thorough
review of the environmental and chemical engineering, and. the meteorological,
literature on flocculation and although there have been many studies (albeit
fewer than would be imagined) the trends identified are of only limited
qualitative assistance to the present study.

Discussion by Vaclav Matousek, Water Research Institute, Prague

Hydraulic characteristics of. frazil flocs affect the evolution of ice

phenomena in rivers with frazil production. It is very difficult to
investigate the hydraulic characteristics of frazil flocs in nature.
Therefore it is very useful to search for a laboratory method. The approach
in the paper is very interestinq and I think it would be useful to continue
the investigation. What are your plans in this field?

Response

As mentioned in the paper the investigation reported was a preliminary

one. The main aim of the study is to investigate the flocculation of actual
frazil particles. Our particular interest is in how the cooling rate (and
hence degree of superCOOling) and turbulence (both scale and intensity)
influence the nature of the floes formed. It is al~o thought that perhaps the
nature of the floes formed in standard turbulence may provide a quantitative
measure of the active-passive characteristics of the fraziL A natural
extension of the floc formation study will be to investigate anchor ice
build-up and frazil adherence to various objects such as bars and grids. It
is envisaged that all these experiments will be carried out in a large
cylindrical tank, open at the top, with a flat, roughened floor with a
'washing machine' (reversing rotational) motion being used to generate the

393
turbulence. This should provide a close simulation of the turbulence and
frazil generated in a stream- without the accompanying mean flow, and without
the floc destruction that wOllld likely occur if an oscillating grid was used
to generate the turbulence.

Reference
Soillat, J.L. and Graf, W.H., 1981. Settling velocity of spherical particles
in calm water. American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 107, no. HY10,
October, pp. 1123-1131.

394
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

AUTHOR: J.-H. Hellmann

TITLE: Basic Investigations on Mush Ice

DISCUSSED BY: Robert Ettema

Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research
The University of Iowa
Iowa Ci ty
Iowa; 52242, USA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
I would advise caution in directly applying rock mechanic theories
(as was suggested by earlier questioners) to the study of the shear
strength properties of mush ice. There are several reasons why mush
ice, or an aggregate of ice fragments, cannot be treated as a mass of
fractured rock. For example:
* An aggregate of floating ice fragments, as mush ice, is very porous
and contains a significant proportion of liquid water.
* For high rates of deformation, mush ice likely behaves more as a
viscous fluid than an aggregate of solids.
* The fragments are subject to freeze-bonding, whereby freeze bonds
may develop between ice fragments that are pressed together.
As an . additional comment, your data on the navigation of shear strength
with deformation rate appear to be quite similar to those obtained
by Merino (1974) and by Cheng and Tatinclaux (1977).

References:

Cheng, S.T. and Tatinclaux, J.C., 1977, "Compressive and Shear

Strengths of Fragmented Ice Covers - a Laboratory Study", Report No.206,

Iowa Instit. of Hydraulic Res., The Univers. of Iowa, Iowa City, Ia.

Merino, M.P., 1974, "Internal Shear Strength of Floating Fragmented

Ice Cover", M.S. Thesis, Department of Mechanics and Hydraulics,

The University of Iowa, Iowa City, Ia.

395
 Author: J. -H. Hellmann

Ti tle Basic Investigations on Mush Ice

Discusser: Y.. S. Wang

Exxon Production Research Co.
P.O. Box 2189

Houston Tx. 17001

Discussion/ Questions:

Does the test speed affect the failure pattern of the ice?

Author's reply:
For all types of ice tested the shear failure strongly depends on the
shear velocity. While for the highest velocity investigated the gene­
ration of a boundary layer flow was observed, the low velocity tests
did not show a comparable behaviour. Rather a deformation of the total
ice mass was observed for the lower velocities. At the beginning of
the displacement the behaviour was similar to a solid material of high
plasticity.

396
Author: J.-H. Hellmann

Title: Basic Investigations on Mush Ice

Discusser: R. Gerard
Dept. Civil Eng.
Univ. of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

Discussion/Question:
1. What were the friction angles found?
2. In similar tests carried out at the Univ. of Atlanta it has been
found that the time, or period (of the order of an hour) of appli­
dation of the normal stress, prior to the shear test, has a strong
influence on the shear strength. Given the creep susceptibility of
ice this is prabably not surprising, but it is a complicating factor
Was this time of loading influence found or considered in the tests
described in the paper?

Author's reply:
Item 1
Different friction angles were found for the various types of ice
tested. Furthermore the friction angles depend on the shear
velocity and the phase of displacement. The various friction
angles can be picked up from the plots presented in the appendix
of the paper. The general tendency found is increasing friction
angles for decreasing shear velocity and decreasing size of ice
particles.
Item 2
All the shear tests on which this paper has been based were carried
out immediately after application of the normal load. The relation
of shear stress and period of application of normal stresses prior
to the shear tests has not yet been investigated. But it is indeed
an important point and should be investigated in the future.

397
 Author: J.-H. Hellmann

Title Basic investigations on mush ice

Discusser: B. Ladanyi

Ecole Poly technique de Montreal

Canada

For rubble ice such as you have described, which is essentially a random
assemblage of irregular ice blocks, the general shear behaviour can be
found not only by a reduced scale experimental method, but also by mathe­
matical simulation. In fact, a pile of ice blocks is in many ways similar
to a pile of rock blocks or, in a more dense configuration, to a fractured
rock mass, for which a mathematical simulation method was developed in the
early 1970-ies (Ladanyi and Archambault. 1970). The advantage of
this latter method is that it takes into account properly the three basic
sources of strength of such a mass, which are the interblock friction and
cohesion. and the work done when the mass dilates against the normal stress
during shear. For example, from the test results you have shown in your
paper, it seems that the large "friction" angles you have obtained are ac­
tually the result of dilatancy against the applied normal stress, rather
than of interblock friction. As the dilatancy rate decreases with increa-'
sing normal pressure, one would expect for ice rubble to have a curved
failure envelope. On the other hand, differently from the rock mass, the
ice rubble is expected to have an interblock cohesion which is likely to
increase with the rubble consolidation time. Finally, I would like to
mention that the approach described in this discussion is being used in an
ice rubble behaviour study being presently conducted at the University of
Alberta in Edmonton, Canada.

References
Ladanyi, B. and Archambault, G. 1970. Simulation of shear behaviour
of a jointed rock mass. In "Rock llechanics - Theory and Practice"
(W. H. Somerton, ed.), SME-AIlIE, New York, pp. 105-125.

398
ICE FORMATION

 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

Discussion of Daly, S. F. and K. D. Stolzenbach,

"The Dynamics of Frazil Ice Formation,"
by George D. Ashton,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
Hanover, NH, U.S.A.

The paper presents a major improvement in the description of the

physics associated with frazil ice formation by outlining the mathematical
forms associated with the number of crystals and the heat transfer.
At this point what is needed are measurements of the size distribution
by either experiment or field observation. This reviewer wonders
if the size distribution that results after time is sensitive to the
initial conditions, that is, does a different size distribution result
from different initial conditions or do different initial conditions
converge to a common size distribution.
The energy input per unit mass in industrial crystallizers (~l
_1 3
w kg lis generally much greater than that of most rivers (~2 x 16
-1
w kg ). What is the effect of this difference? Does it make crystal
growth processes more important than collision effects?

My hope is that the final size distribution that results from a

given turbulent disSipation rate, and heat loss rate will be independent
of the initial conditions. However, because of the large non-linearities
in the secondary nucleation rate and the feedback nature of frazil
ice dynamics this hope may not be realized. Only future work can
clarify this question.
As indicated in my paper, the energy input is an important parameter
which influences the rate of secondary nucleation and the crystal
growth rate. The relative magnitudes of these rates will change as
the energy input varies. Secondary nucleation is especially dependent
on the average crystal size, and to a lesser extent on the energy
input. The growth rate, at larger sizes of crystals is strongly influenced
by the energy input. Again because of the feedback nature of frazil
ice dynamics it is difficult to speculate as to how the relative values
of the process will vary. This is an important question, however,
and the development of numerical models as well as experimental results
will be needed to provide the answers.

399
Discussion of Daly, S. F. and K. D. Stolzenbach,
liThe Dynamics of Frazil Ice Formation,"
by Andreas Muller

In a very interesting paper the authors analyze the concepts

describing the dynamics of frazil ice formation on turbulent flow.
They also came to the conclusion that very much can be learned
from industrial cryitallization.
Their concept is based on two differential equations. As
always in particulate systems one has to check whether quantities
like the crystal distribution n(r), which is defined only in a
finite volume, is consistent with the assumption of an infinitesimal
control volume in a differential equation. A typical density of

6
frazil ice particles is of the order of 10 particles/m 3 , therefore

a volume of 10~m30r one liter is needed to define nCr). Within

such a volume the dissipation rate, however, varies strongly.

A similar consistency check is needed on th~ time space. Time
mean quantities like the heat transfer and the dissipation value.
must be introduced in such a way that the time scale of their corresponding
"instantaneous" quantities are short compared with the time scale
of the growth of frazil particles.
I agree with the authors that much more information on the

size distribution is needed for a better underatanding of frazil

ice formation.

Generally, in industrial crystallization, it can be assumed

that the time scale of crystal growth is large compared to the
time required to transport the crystal throughout the crystallizer
volume. Therefore, the crystal growth rate and secondary nucleation
rate can be estimated using the mean value of the dissipation rate,
which can be easily calculated. However, in natural waterbodies,
the turbulent dissipation rate may vary considerably in space.
In this case consideration of transport of the crystals through
regions of varying turbulent dissipation will be necessary. Such
transport terms are present in the equation presented in the paper.
This complicates the problem immensely and demonstrates an additional
complexity encountered in nature.

400
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: Lars Bengtsson

TITLE: Forecasting snow and black ice growth from tempera­

ture and precipitation

NAME AND ADDRESS OF DISCUSSER:

Randi Pytte Asvall, Norwegian Water Resources and

El.board, Boks 5091, Oslo 3, Norway

QUESTIONS:

1) Are the coefficients used in your formula based on

theoretical or empirical methods?

2) You said that capillary effects of water intrusion into

the snowpack has not been considered. Since this normally
is more important with thicker snowpack, and thereof
larger submergence of the ice, it would be interesting
to know at what combinations of ice thicknesses and
snow depths the formula has proved to be satisfactory.

ANSWERS:

1. The coefficient can be theoretically determined,

although
of course the coefficients for snow may vary with the
properties of the snow.

2. The model has been tested on i .c e growing in thickness

up to 0.90 m. The largest snow depth observed during a
test period is 0.40 m.

401
 DISCUSSION FORM

Author: Bengtsson, Lars

Title: Forecasting snow and ice growth

Name and address of discusser: George D. Ashton

USA CRREL, 72 Lyme Road
Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA

Discussion/Questions: How do you handle periods of above-freezing

air temperatures?

Answer:

As long as the ice is snow covered, snowmelt is simply dete rmined by a

linear temperature-index method. The degree-day coefficient is made
season dependent but is in the range corresponding to 10-25 W/m 2 .

Since ice absorbs solar radiation to a higher extent than snow, melting
of ice, when the ice is free from snow, might require a more advanced
approach than a temperature-index method. However, the intention was to
use a simple algorithm requiring only precipitation and air temperature
as input data. Therefore, also snow free conditions were handled with
a linear temperature-index method, but, considering the low short wave
albedo of ice, a higher degree-day coefficient than for snow covered
conditions was used, 20-40 W/m 2 .

DISCUSSION FORM

Author: Bengtsson, Lars

Title: Forecasting snow and black ice growth from temperature and

precipitation

Name and address G. Frankenstein

of discusser: CRREL
Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA

Discussion/ Questions: Does your theory consider the possibility of a

total snow ice cover; that is the black ice
disappear

Answer:

A very thin black ice cover, less than 1 cm, must form initially but
from then on the ice may grow entirely from the top and form snow
ice. An example is shown in the paper. Already formed black ice can
be computed to disappear due to heat transfer from the water to the
ice.

402
 Discussion form

Author: Bengtsson, Lars

Title: Forecasting snow and black ice growth from

temperature and precipitation

Name and address Peter Larsen

of discusser: University of Karlsruhe

Discussion/Questions :

In the vertical force balance the water entraining the snow is of

importance. The snow is known to exhibit capillarity so that the
water will rise perhaps some centimeters into the snow, and there­
by add to the weight. Is this effect taken into account in your
algorithm?

Do you feel that this effect is of significance?

Answer:

The effect of capillary rise at the base of the snowpack is

not accounted for in the algorithm. The consequence of the
capillary effect should be that a slush layer of increased
thickness is produced when there is a new snowfall when the
buoyancy force from the ice just about can support the snow
load. Since the effect of capillarity in increasing the
thickness of the slush layer is just as significant when the
snowfall is light as for heavy snowfall (provided the
buoyancy force jus t barely balances th e snow load), the
effect may be of some importance during winters of frequent
light snowfall more than during winters of events of heavy
snowfall.

~3

-
 DISCUSSION FORM

Author: Bengtsson, Lars

Title: Forecasting snow and black ice growth fr om temperature

and precipitation

Name and address Klaus Strlibing

of discusser: Deutsches Hydrographisches Institut, Hamburg
Postfach 22 0
D-2000 Hamburg 4

Discussion/Questions: To which kind of lakes (shallow and/ or deep)

are the calculations related?

Answer:

The applications in the paper are to a lagoon o f an evenly distributed

depth of about 10 m. The algorithm outlined in the paper has been tes­
ted ' on many lakes all of them ranging in depth between 5-15 m. The al­
gorithm should work just as well for deeper lakes but f o r extremely
shallo w lakes with a thin ice cover heat transfer fr om the lake bottom
via the bulk water to the ice cover may have to be considered in s ome
detail. However, as stated in the paper a heat flow of 2 W/ m2 would
r~tard the ice thickness o nly about 1 . 5 cm/month.

Author: Bengtsson, Lars

Title: Forecasting snow and black ice growth

Name and address R. Gerard

of discusser: Dept Civil Eng.
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, USA

Discussion/ Questions :

Just a point of information:

I believe B. Michel has published a related paper o n predicting ice

cover growth at Sachs Harbour, Canada, at the 1972 IAHR Ice Symposium.
Because of the windy environment and low snowfall I think this conc erned
only blac k ice growth. More recently he and Gille Revard have applied
a similar approach to that used in the paper to simulate ice cover
growth in southern Quebec, where snowfall plays a very significant
role. I d o n-t believe this latter investigation has been published
but is doubtless available as a report.
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

REGULARITY OF THE FREEZING UP OF THE WATER SURFACE AND

HEAT- EXCHANGE BETWEEN WATER BODY AND WATER SURFACE

Vaclav Matousek. Water Research Institute Prague.

Czechoslovakia

DISCUSSION

Discusser: Lars Bengtsson, Uppsala University, Sweden

In the paper freeze-up is determined by comparing heat

loss to the atmosphere with heat transfer from the bulk
water to the water surface. First I have three questions
concerning the heat transfer within the water,
1) You use a surface water temperature of -1.1 °C; should
this value really be used as a true temperature? Since
you derived to that value from regression it seems to me
that it should be looked upon as a fictive temperature.
2) There exists theoretical formulas, with coefficient de­
termined from laboratory experiments, for estimating
heat transfer from the bulk water to the surface. How
does your formula compare with these thermodynamical
formulas.
3) When ice growths from the shore and gradually freezes
over it seems to me that lateral transfer of heat must
be accounted for. Can you comment?
4) Further, the author introduces a heat loss equation of
his own. How does it compare with other eqs. appearing
in the literature ?
5) Verification of the theory of freeze-up is based on
comparison between computed atmospheric heat loss and
computed heet transfer from the bulk water during
observed freeze-up. Both equations used are empirically
equations derived to by the author, and I assume partly
on observations from the verification period, so the

405
 verification can not really be stated to have been made
on measured independent data.

Author's answers:
The author should like to thank Prof. Bengtsson for his
comments and his interest.
1. The surface temperature value of -1.1 °c at which freez­
ing commences was theoretically derived and has not been
measured yet. For this reason for the present it cannot
be conSidered as a true value. The true surface tempera­
ture of the moment of freezing-up would, however, not
differ greatly from derived value. The difference would
be probably less than + 0.1 °C.
2. The derived coefficient of heat transfer between water
and the surface has not been compared with the theoretic­
al formulas determined in laboratory tests. These formu­
las do not include the effect of wind velocity and of the
surface width in wind direction. Another reason is also
the fact thet formulas for the calculation of the coef­
ficient include values that cannot be measured in nature
with sufficient precision.
The derived formula for the heat transfer coefficient
was indirectly verified in more than hundred field mea­
surements while verifying the regularities of freezing-up
of the surface and verifying the theory of frazil and
skim ice formation. In both cases the coefficient of heat
transfer plays an important role and the precision of the
equation for its determination significantly affects the
verification results. If the equation for the heat tran~­
fer coefficient were not correct, it would not be possib­
le to reach an agreement between the mathematically mo­
delled and the really observed ice phenomenom, which we
did reach in our verifications. Verifying measurements
and observations are carried out on rivers with various
hydraulic characteristics, meteorological situations and
water temperatures. In the author's papers presented at
the Ice Symposium 1984, only a very small part of the

~6
 number of the conducted measurements and observations are
mentioned. The complete set of measurement and observa­
tion results as well as their evaluation is included in
the research report of 1984.
3. The static way of freezing-up occurs as a result of the
rapid growth of ice crystals of dent ric shape in horizon­
tal direction that firmly intergrow. Such crystals are
formed at great supercooling of the surface (t h = 1 . 1 o C).
The supercooling of the surface is the result of heat ex­
change on the surface. The heat transfer between water
and the surface is affected by the vertical water veloci­
ty that is not constant in the riverbed cross-section and
therefore also the surface temperature is not constant.
However, there are only slight temperature differences in
transverse direction. Under freezing-up conditions the
lateral heat transfer can manifest itself mainly by con ­
duction and since it is very small, it need not be consi­
dered in the formation of the ice cover.
4. The simplified equations (15) and ( 16) for the calcula­
tion of qo were derived in the author's equations for ql'
q2' and q3. These equations were compared with all equa­
tions that appear in the available literature . Equations
for ql and q2 show almost identical results with the ver~
fied and tested equations. Great differences in the re­
sults appear in the equation for q3' especially with some
types of clouds. Equations appearing in the literature do
not consider cloud density that markedly affects the
value of q3.
5. Equations for atmospheric heat loss were derived from en­
tirely different observations and measurements than the
equations for heat transfer from the water to the surfa­
ce. Measurements and observations conducted in order to
obtain data about heat losses were carried out on another
river and at another time than the measurements and
observations from which the equation for the coefficient
of heat transfer, and the theory of freezing-up were de­
rived. For the verification of the theory of freezing-up

407
 observations were used from other rivers that differ
mutually in their characteristics and both differ from
the river from which observations for the derivation of
the theory were used.

408
 JAJm Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

Discussion of: Pilarczyk K.W.

Prediction of Ice Formation for the Eastern ScheIdt in the Netherlands

1° Assur A. (U.S.A.)

Assessment of potential ice problems in marginal ice zones such as

Netherlands is inherently d i ff icult. The author coped with the
situation in a very able fashion. Just a few co~nents:
The equation of Stefan (1881) should not be represented as empirical,
wi th empi r ical cOliff ic ients c>(. and B. In fact Stefan's equat ion is the
correct theoretical solution with B=O,5 provided the surface
temperature of the ice (or snow) 90 is equ al to the air temperature
( e(1), provided the correct physical constants are being used. See
Assur (1951). In case ad snow an equivalent additional ice thickness
must be assumed. See Assur and Weeks (1964), which also discus ses the
necessity of introducing the overall coefficient of surface heat
transfer' e I, since 8.;6 ea,-
Safar as the evaluation of Smin is considered several additional usetul
references are listed under Bilello in USA CRREL (1975 and supplements)
and Assur A., (1971): Growth of ice thickness (in German), Deutsche
Hydrographische Zeitschrift, vol.4:42-74.

2° Bengtsson L. (Sweden)

The paper represents a straight formulated and a logical way in

estimating simple ice conditions. Since only meteorological data is
available a very simple approach is necessary.
The parameters used in the paper for computing ice thickness are for
snow-free conditions, so growth of ice may be overestimated.
In the modified degree-formula for ice growth the temperature at the
interface between the atmosphere and the ice snow cover is used instead
of direc tly using the air temperature. This is of course a

409
theoret ically sound approach, but computed ice thickness differ s from
ice thickness computed by using air temperature only for very light
winds and when the air temperature is just below the freezing
temperature of water. I think it is more important to concentrate on
the insulating effect of snow and try to estimate snow depth on the
ice.
When using a degree-day approach to determine ice thickness it is
n,ecessary to determine the number of degree-days from freeze-up and
onwards. Not knowing when freeze-up actually Occurs, this date may be
extimated from accumulated daily temperatures. The simple linear
approach for estimating the number of degree-days required for
freeze-up seems to work quite well. However, a cold spell during calm
weather in the fall is likely to cause freeze-up after fewer
degree-days than continous moderately low air temperatures during an
extending period including high winds.
The simplified approach in computing ice thickness is well justified
since a frequency analysis is made on 100 years of data.
To calculate local degree-days measured air temperatures at other sites
are corrected. But why use a multiplier. Should not a factor be added?
The results from the computations are presented in a statistical way in
pig.6. In what way are the expected ice stages defined? When is
navigation considered not possible?
Although the possibility of thick ice may increase after completion of
a dam, this may not necessarily cause a worse navigation situation than
what would have occured with no dam. The ice cover in the presence of' a
dam may be much more stahle than when the tidal effects are felt.

3" Daly S. (U.S.A.)

In your fiqure 2, it indicates that the maximum water temperature

exceeds the max imum air temperature and both max imums occur
simultaneously. Is this correct? Is there any external heat Source to
the water, and if so, was this taken into account?

4" Frankenstein G. (U.S.A.)

Did you design any anti-icing method in your gated structure? I am

refering to ice formed by wave spray.

410
Reply by Pilarczyk K. (Netherlands)

,. agree completely with the comment of Or .Assur. Because of the

space limitation it was not possible to give the complete background on
Stefan's solution in the paper.

2· In the degree-days formula the general air temperatures have been

used for analysis (and not a theoretical definition). The multiplier
used to calculate local degree-days at other sites was established
throughout the correlat ion between the local degree-days for cooling
periods and these at reference stat ion. The cor relat ion was rather
well.
The snow was not considered because of two reasons: Firstly, the ice
cover starts mostly to form at shallow water during a low-water. During
the tidal flood (associated with higher sea-water temperatures), the
ice-cover will be flooded before the ice will be 1 if ted. Because of
this effect, the existing Snow-cover will be mostely removes. Secondly,
for design purpose, it was more safe to calculate ice thickness without
protecting effect by snow. The ice stages and navigation conditions in
Fig.6 correlated to Sg (accumufated degree-days) were establ ished by
using the past data hereabout from the ice-maps produces by Dutch Ice
Forecasting Office.
The conclusion, that the navigation conditions behind the secondary
dams will be worst than before is based, among others, on the fact
that, in the actual situation, ice is lifted by the flood and partly
removed to the western parts of the Eastern Scheldt and to the sea by
'eastern winds where it melts quickly. In the future, this drift-way of
ice will be blockaded by the dams.

3· The region of the large estuaries in the south-west part of The

Netherlands is favourably affected by the Gulf Stream whose influence
reaches inland. This effect is also evident in the correlation between
the water- and air temperatures and depends on location. This effect is
taken into account in establishing the Smin-values (degree-days) needed
for freeze-up (see also S The conditions under which ice formation
takes place).

4· The ice formation in the Eastern Scheldt is associated with eastern

(seawards) winds. At these consitions no high floods and waves can be
expected and the gates will be kept open. For dependable operation of
gates during cold winters the use of warm water is considered.

411
 W1R Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

THE EFFECT OF AIR TEMPERATURE ON

THE DURATION OF LAKE ICE COVER

011 i Laa sanen National Board of Waters Finland

Research hydrologist Water Research Institute
Hydrological Office

DISCUSSIONS AND QUESTIONS

R.P. Asvall (Norwegian Hater Power and Electricity Board, Norway): We heard
that only air temperature has been used in the computations due to lack of
other meteorological parameters . The effect of some of the other parameters,
especially wind conditions will be reflected by the depth of the lake. Do
you have sufficient variety in lake depths, and thus approach the problem of
influence of other meteorological parameters this way?

O. Laasanen: In general, Finnish lake s are rather shallow. To find suffi­

ciently long observation series from lakes with a large variety of depths
is very difficult. The proposed approach is thus not possible in Finland, if
we want to evaluate the effect of other parameters over a long time period.

D.H. Champ (Atmospheric Environment Service, Canada): With respect to break­

up it seems to me that most of the non-correlation between break-up date and
air temperature could be explained using a correlation between break-up date
and solar radiation (or sunshine, even as a diary entry). Of course, both
would be needed as the insolation and temperature are also correlated. Would
this be feasible, or have you considered it?

O. Laasanen: I agree, that additional information of radiation conditions

could increase the correlations . The only .useful way might be to use some
index of sunshine, because the observations are in many cases only descrip­

413
tive. Anyhow, I have not yet considered it because of the many difficulties
involved with it.

E. Engelke (Technical University ' of Dresden, DDR): In the relation between

autumn and spring air temperatures and the duration of lake ice cover wind
was not mentioned. But the consequences of wind and especially storms in the
beginning of winter and spring are evidently to the waterbody and the ice
cover of lakes.

O. Laasanen: In my study I tried to find out the connection between air

temperature and duration of ice cover. That is why no other meteorological
factors were considered. Another problem is the difficulty to find other
observation series which are long enough for this kind of analysis.

P. Larsen (University of Karlsruhe, BRD): In your conclusions you state

that a ,OC increase in air temperature in autumn will cause a 6.4 day delay
in ice covering. A ,OC increase in the spring will clear the ice 2.7 days
earlier. The sum is 9.' days. But when you raise the air temperature ,oe
over the whole winter the ice duration is shortened by only 7.5 days. Why
is that?

O. Laasanen: In fact, there are three different time series: break-up dates,
freeze-up dates and durations of ice cover. We can not compare them as you
suggest. Also the number of estimated data is different in these series.
Finally, the regression method used in the computations typically gives
this kind of results.

~4
ICE HYDRAULICS AND ICE CONTROL

 IAJm Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamhurg

FIELD INVESTIGATION OF ST. LAWRENCE RIVER

HANGING ICE DM1S

by H.T. Shen and W.A. VanDeValk

Discussion by George D. Ashton, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and

Engineering Laboratory
The major finding of the paper is that the frazil accumulations in
a large river tends to be a reflection of the bottom topography with the
greatest thicknesses occurring at places of maximum depth. These are
also the locations of maximum velocity in the cross section. The result
is in contrast to what would be expected for rivers that are small enough
to allow analyses using only cross sectiona.l average depths and
velocities, in which one expects frazil to be deposited at locations of
maximum depth and minimum velocity. The result of the paper depends more
upon the logic of the sequential process of accumulation than on the
results that would be expected based upon experiments of anyone of the
component processes such as initial entrainment, or deposition or
entrainment at the underside of the deposit.

Discussion by Robert Gerard, University of Alberta

(Any correct notions in the first comment owe much to a discussion
with the first author just after this paper was submitted.)
1. In the ice engineering literature it has usually been accepted that
hanging dams form in regions of ~ velocity, the implication being
(at least to the writer) that this meant low average velocities. The
most interesting point made in this paper is that the documented
hanging dams formed in the region of the maximum average velocity in
the cross-section. Once pointed out, this does indeed seem quite
reasonable (although perhaps not quite for the reasons mentioned in
the paper). The maximum surface velocity in the open water section

415
 upstream of the leading edge of the ice accumulation occurs at the
pOint of maximum depth. This high surface velocity will maintain
entrainment longer than any other point in the section. However,
immediately after passing under the leading edge of the cover the
surface flow slows markedly as it moves into the boundary layer
formed under the ice cover. It is presumably this lower velocity
zone near the ice cover that allows the entrained frazil pans or
slush to deposit, rather than 'the velocity of entrainment being less
"than the critical velocity of deposition'.
The fact that progression of the ice cover is restrained most at
this point of maximum velocity should result in the leading edge of
the accumulation taking on a 'V' shape, pointing downstream, with the
point of the 'V' at the maximum velocity position. It would be
interesting to know if this has been observed in the reach discussed.
If such is the case it should cause further concentration of the
frazil deposition downstream of the point of the 'V', as the
approaching frazil pans and slush are guided towards this point by
the sides of the 'V'. In such a situation expansion of the deposit
laterally would be largely due to dispersion and any outward lateral
components of the flow under the ice.
2. Is any information available on the extent of open water upstream
(and its variation with time), and/or on the rate of progression of
the accumulation through the reach of interest?

~ by Authors
The writers would like to thank Dr. Ashton and Dr. Gerard for their
constructive discussions.
Hanging dam formation is an integrated part of the ice cover
formation process. It is important to consider both the two-dimensional
effect and the time-dependent nature in order to understand the ice cover
and hanging dam formation processes. The maximum depth-averaged velocity
plays an important role in the impedence of ice cover progression and the
initial hanging dam formation.
The writers agree with Dr. Gerard on the effect of slow down on
surface velocity under the leading edge. However, based on existing
theories of initial entrainment and deposition/erosion one can show that
in a deep river the velocity (depth-averaged) of initial entrainment is
less than the critical velocity of deposition/erosion (Shen, et al. 1984).

416
This is enough to prove that the particles entrained at the leading edge
will deposit under the ice cover.
Additional field study and analysis have been carried out after the
submission of this paper. The formation of ·V-shape leading edges have
also been observed and analyzed. These results were presented in the
Symposium. Detailed information are presented in report by Shen, et al.
(1984).
A complete set of reports (Shen, et al. 1982) which summarize flow
and ice condition data on the upper St. Lawrence River for ten winters
have been published. In these reports the extent of open water area and
all other related data can be found .

References
Shen, et al., 1982. Winter Flow, Ice and Weather Conditions of the Upper
St. Lawrence River, 1971-81, Vols . I-VI. Technical Reports , Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson College, Potsdam, N. Y.
Shen, et al . , 1984. Field Investigation of St. Lawrence River Hanging
Ice Dams, Winter of 1983-84. Report No. DTSL55-84-N-C0085A, St.
Lawrence Seaway Development Corp., U.S. Department of Transportation.
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

BACK\1ATER PROFILES ON HYDROELECTRIC RESERVOIR

WITH ICE COVER

Wojciech MAJEWSKI The Polish Academy Poland

Doc. dr ing. of Sciences
Institute of Hydro­
Engineering, Gdansk

Discussion:
S. Beltaos, National Water Research Institute, Burlington,
Ontario, Canada.

The author should be commended for a very interesting

presentation and the excellent documentation of the 1982 ice
flood. The cross-sections shown on the slides indicate occa­
sional grounding of the ice accumulation. Is it possible
that this grounding occured when water levels dropped after
the peak of the flood ?

Reply by W. Majewski:
Thank you for kind words concerning my paper. Cross­
sections were measured during 10 days after the peak of the
flood. The gro~~ding of hanging dams in some cross-sections
was actually due to the drop of water level after the peak
of the flood. In some cross-sections, however, partial
grounding occured already during the peak of the flood.

George D. Ashton, USA CRREL, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH

03755-1290, USA
The detailed measurements of the ice volumes provide the
possibility of evaluating the capability of predicting ice
production from the upstream reaches using heat transfer
principle. Has this been attempted?

419
 Reply by W. Majewski:

We made some attempts to calculate ice volumes using

heat transfer principle. Unfortunately the meteorological
data from this period were not sufficient to carry out
detailed calculations.

Eok Reimnitz, US. Geological Survey

Detailed diving observations in a 6 m deep arctic lagoon

shoved that the undersurface-relief of frazil "accumulations
is extremely steep even vertical and overhanging". Within
25 m distance I observed several "billows" extending to
within 0.5 m of the lagoon floor with intervening "hollows"
about 4 m higher. This rough relief was not due to accumu­
lation of frazil against a pressure ridge keel.

Reply by W. Majewski:

In my presentation I did not say that rough ice surface

with humps and ridges was caused by the accumulation of
frazil underneath. Ice cover measurements indicate, however,
that large amounts of frazil ice accumulated under solid
ice cover were accompanied by rough relief of the upper
surface. We did not perform measurements or observations
during peak time and the mechanizm of such ice cover for­
mation is not yet well understood.

420
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

STRATEGIC HYDRO POWER OPERATION

AT FREEZE-UP REDUCES ICE JAMMING

by Lennard Billfalk

Discussion by: Rene Hausser

Lasalle Hydraulic Laboratory

Lasalle, Quebec, Canada

would first like to congratulate Mr . Billfalk for this

frank and detailed de scr ipti on of the step-by-step difficulties that he
has run into on his project.
The use of ice booms has long been one of our preferred
methods for generating ice covers, so I was interested to read of Mr.
Billfalk's experience. The location of the ice boom that was tested up­
stream from the Trangfors Bridges should be effective in maintaining the
cover on the reach upstream. However, I was wondering if consideration
had been given to placing other, shorter ice booms across the critical
reach downstream of the bridges; for example, between Sections 33 and
34.5 km? Is it hydraulically possible for booms in this reach to generate
local covers?
Experience on the 25 km long Beauharnois Canal near Montreal
has shown that several ice booms were necessary to develop and maintain a
satisfactory cover. As many as seven booms are put in place before
freeze-up, and each develops its own local cover . Slush ice can therefore
only develop limited hanging dams under each of these before being
carried further down s tream . At the powerhouse, the slush ice accumulation
under the terma 1 cover can 5 ti 11 cause problems, so an ice breaker is
maintained there to break up the cover and evacuate the slush over a
spi 11 way .
In addition the trash racks of the powerhouse are removed to
prevent getting them plugged with frazil ice .
Cutting back on the discharge during the freeze-up period is
always a distasteful procedure from the power author ity's economic view­
point. However, we have always found this necessa ry at Beauharnois, as
well as at the powerstations further upstream, on St. Lawrence River.
The procedures described for breaking and cuttin9 the shore
ice that developed early, and letting it go downstream to nourish the co­
ver there is a good approach too and could assist the ice cover
formation.

421
 Strateqic Hydro Power Operation

At Freeze-up Reduces Ice Jamminq

by

Lennart Billfalk

Swedish State Power Board

Discussion by: R. Perham

U.S . Army Cold Regions Research
and Engineering Laboratory
Hanover, N.H., U.S.A.

The Swedish State Power Board has to be commended for their efforts
in combating Lule River ice problems which cause flow reductions and
therefore loss of revenue .

Their methods of ice control and formation are very similar to those
developed by Hydro-Quebec for the St. Lawrence River. Hydro-Quebec break s
ice in the reservoir to fill the area behind the booms as well as reduc­
ing the flow in their power canal. Once an ice cover is formed the flow
i s returned normal.

The author gives no information on velocity, depth or slope of the

river so one has to assume that the large broken off or sawed floes
resist underturning at the downstream end of the open water reach and
therefore form a cover. This compares to the hanqing dam that is formed
more slowly by the frazil accumulation at the same location. The addition
of another boom would only act as the upstream edge of an ice cover and
would still require the broken ice to assist ice cover formation.

422
 The best approach, based on the information presented in the paper,
would be to continue moving the broken ice into the open water area.
Also, the ice cover above the boom should be broken up into large floes
and moved into the area as well. A new ice cover should form rapidly in
the area above the boom.
Efforts should continue in predicting when the flow should be
reduced to accelerate ice cover formation. It may be possible to install
a force gauge within the boom which could be used to determine when ice
starts to collect and when the load stabilizes would indicate complete
ice cover.
Another thought would be to place a heavy duty line set (Perham,
1983) in the rapids area. This might help accelerate ice cover formation.

Reference:

Perham, R. (1983) ~~ sheet retention structures, U.S. Army Cold

Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
CRREL Report 83-30.

Answer to Hausser:

Yes we have considered placing of further· ice boom downstream of the

bridges and from an hydraulic point of view this could be done. However,
our experience is that ice cover formation proceeds fairly easy up to the
critical sections you ~ention. An ice boom at this location ~ight then
delay this process and result in an undesired open reach downstream of
the boom.

Answer to Perham:

1) Information on velocity, depth, slope etc. of the river is given in

reference of my paper. (Jensen 1981).

2) The ice boom at Tran~fors is equipped with a force gauge and the boom
force is registered continuously on a chart recorder.

423
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

THE LA GRANDE RIVER

A FULL SCALE ICE HYDRAULIC LABORATORY

Marc Drouin James Bay Energy Corporation

Head 800 de Maisonneuve Blvd. East
Hydraulic Dept. Montreal (Quebec) Canada H2L 4M8

Rene Hausser LaSalle Hydraulic Laboratory

President 0250 St-Patrick Street
LaSalle (Quebec) Canada H8R lR8

DISCUSSION BY PROF. TORKILD CARSTENS

River & Harbour Laboratory
Norwegian Institute of Technology
Klaebuveien 153
N-7000 Trondheim, Norway

Was there any snow precipitation on drift entering the river during
the freeze-up you showed on excellent set of slides?

AUTIlORS REPLY
There was no snow precipitation during the freeze-up shown on the
slides. The more pronounced white color resulted from the thickening
of the ice sheet.

DISCUSSION BY DR. SPYROS BELTAOS

Research Scientist Hyd. Div.
National Water Resch. Inst.
P.O. Box 5050
Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6
Canada

This is a comment concerning your relationships between ~i and

(~)
gi
1/3 L :
Bi
it can be shown that your Figures 4 and 5 imply that

f a ~ -0.6
o

425
 in which ~ = (~)1/3 ~ and f = composite friction factor of the

gi Bi 0

flow under the ice cover (a simular result was obtained by Beltaos (1983)
for flow under ice jams). The above relationship is equivalent to your
relationships between C and h/Bi but physical reasoning suggests that
C (and fo) also depend on hydraulic resistance characteristics of the
ice cover and the channel bed. Therefore, the C - h/Bi relationships
and the relationships of Figures 4 and 5 may not be unique but could
change from year to year.

AUTHORS REPLY

We have traditionally used C rather than fo' however either of these

resistance coefficients could be used, and it is exact that our results

correspond to the following relation:

f a S -0.6
o

The relationships on Figures 4 and 5 were established for the 1982-83

winter, but seem to fit pretty well to the 1983-84 winter, and we

expect to check them again with the results o f the corning wi nter.

DISCUSSION BY DR . LE~~ART BILLFALK

The Swedish State Power Board
The Hydraulic Laboratory
S-8l0 71 Alvkarleby, Sweden

The author's series of slides from dOI.nstream of LG 1 showed the

formation of ice floes having the size of the river width. Close to

LG 1 the floes were very thin. On their transport downstream the floes

thickened and finally came to rest and a fragmented ice cover with a

smooth underside were formed.

The floes obviously need a certain distance to develop enough strength

to withstand the impact when impinging against the ice cover front.

Therefore, I suppose that a certain reach downstream of LG 1 will

remain open water.

426
Have you observed frazil formation on that reach and thereby formation
of hanging dams further downstream?

AUTHORS REPLY
Presently, the dam of LG 1 does not exist. Only the temporary diversion
has been built, and there is an open water area extending approximately
1.5 kilometre downstream from the temporary diversion. Frazil is
obviously formed on this area, however the resulting ice particules are
probably too small to deposit under the cover and are transported
further downstream. Observations show indeed that except for small and
very local ice deposition there is no hanging dam formation in the
vicinity of the leading edge. However, 25 kilometres further downstream,
large ice deposits under the cover have been observed.

DISCUSSION BY PROF . BERNARD MICHEL

Department of Civil Engineering
Laval University
Ste-Foy (Quebec) Canada
GlK 7P4

We are always pleased as ice engineers to see that ice may have an
important economic value in an hydro-project. How much would you
evaluate the benefit of the head increase caused by the smooth ice
cover compare to the rough one for which the project was designed?

AUTHORS REPLY
The annual marginal increase in revenue provided by r ecover ing two
metres of head due to better ice cover management at the LG 1
6
powerhouse is about $28 x 10 (CAN .).

~7
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984
A
•
Hamburg

AUTHORS: Per F. Andersen and N.F.B. Allyn

TI TLE: Ice Management for Beaufort Sea Production Harbours
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: George D. Ashton
USA CRREL
72 Lyme Road
Hanover, NH 03755
U.S.A.
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
The comparison between air bubblers and wave machines is somewhat
misleading. In some cases bubblers are very efficient (when a large
thermal reserve exists) and in other cases very inefficient (when
negligible thermal reserve exists). It would be useful to know the power
consumption of the wave-machines relative to area cleared and air
temperature so as to provide a specific index for comparison with the many
other possible techniques of ice-clearing.
NAME AND ADDR ESS
OF DISCUSSER: Prof. W.M. Sackinger
University of Alaska
Geophysi cal Institute
Fairbanks, Alaska 99701
U.S.A.
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
Have you given any thought to methods for alleviating the possible buildup
of ice on the mechanical parts of the wave generators which are penetrating
the waterline, under conditions of low air temperatures.
NAME AND AD OR ESS
OF DISCUSSER: Hung Tao Shen
Clarkson University
Potsdam, NY
13676, U.S.A.
Have you analyzed the effect of wind if the wind direction is oppOSite to
the direction of the waves generated.
CLOSURE:
The authors would like to thank Dr. Ashton, Professor Sackinger, and Or.
Hung Tao Shen for their thoughtful comments. We have written a computer
program to calculate mass transport, horsepower and open water areas, and
that work, presented below, addresses the questions of Or. Ashton and Dr.
Shen. In response to Professor Sackinger's question, a new type of wave
generator has been developed that incorporates a submerged truss, so that
only the supporting stem goes through the water surface, which should
virtually eliminate any freeze-up problems. Heat tracing can also be used
to prevent freeze-up of the equipment.

429

-- .­
 The concept of ice management in harbours, using machine generated
waves, requires an understanding of a second order effect, namely
the generation of mass transport or surface drift current when
steep waves are used. ~ave steepness is measured as the ratio of
wave height (H) to wave length (A)' The surface current generated
is shown in Figure 1 for the three wave steepnesses of H/A = 1/10,
1/15, and 1/20. The surface drift current for the steeper waves
of H/A = 1/10 at a wave length of 5.0 m exceeds .25 m/sec. or .5
knots, but drops quickly to less than .07 m/sec. at H/A = 1/20.
The depth of the surface drift current exceeds 1.0 m for 5 m long
waves, as shown in Figure 2.
The unit horsepower requirements for generating the waves is shown
in Figure 3, and is calculated from:
P 1/2 EC
where E E/A = pg H2/8
A wave 1ength
'pg 1000 kglm::l
H wave height
C wave celerity (AfT)
T = wave period

As an example, a 5 m long wave with a steepness of H/A = 1/10,

requires a power input of .575 HP per m of wave generated. For a
30 m wide wave front, the total power requirements are less than
20 HP.
The amount of water kept open using this method is a function of
the heat loss and of the thermal reserve,as given in the following
equation:
L = LH (pc) Va Za!3Q
where C.T thermal reserve in 0c
(pc) 10 6 ca~/oC_m3

Va (7I'H/A) C [1- A/41noI0]

Q heat loss

Za thickness of mass transport 1ayer

WD water depth

Assuming a thermal reserve of 1 degree, the length of water kept

open is shown in Fi gure 4 for vari ous heat loss rates, wave
steepnesses, and water depth. As an example, 933 m of water is
kept ice free with a heat loss rate of 100 Cal/m 2/sec.
(corresponding to about -20 Deg. C conditions) for H/A = 1/10 and
a water depth of 6.1 m. Even under a 50% greater heat loss rate
of 150 Cal/m 2/sec. an open water length of about 625 m will be
achieved, again assuming a thermal reserve of 1 Deg. C.

430
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431
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

TYPES OF ICE RUN

AND CONDITIONS FOR THEIR FORMATION

vaclav Matousek, Water research Institute, Prague,

Czechoslovakia

DISCUSSION

Discusser: Bernard Michel, Universite Laval, Quebec, Canada

I would like to congratulate Dr. Matou~ek for his ex­

cellent film on ice processes and to say a few words on his
most original and broad approach to ice cover formation.
The first question I would like to touch is that of
supercooling at the water surface to a value of -1.1 °c be­
fore crystal nucleation. I think this is a fair value that
we have measured in the laboratory with natural nucleating
particles, but I have not seen many field measurements to
prove it in flowing water. Do you have any of these?
I think that your heat exchange process in the water it­
self, combined with the velocity of entrainment of surface
nucleated crystals is the first theory in the literature
that explain the formation of skim ice. May I say that we
have observed many times in our large canadian rivers the
formation of very large and thin drifting ice flats at velo­
cities of 0.6 to 1 m.s- 1 , where you would have expected fra­
zil to form. Your theory does show that these can be explain­
ed for the first time.
Finally we have been doing work in Canada on border ice
growth. We found that your limiting conditions apply at
rather low velocities corresponding to static growth only.
With dynamic growth caused by the sticking of frazil clusters
in rows, the border ice can progress in much higher velOCi­
ties, sometimes up to 1 m.s­ 1

433
 Author's reply:
First I should like to thank Prof. Michel for his
appreciation of my work and for his congratulations to my
film.
To his questions:
In our field measurements we did not measure the tempe­
rature of the water surface. The temperatures of the surface
presented in the paper are calculated values.
The presented regularity of the border ice formation
includes only its statical growth.

Discusser: Lars Bengtsson, Uppsala University, Sweden

The theory presented is entirely based on the water
surface temperature being -1.1 °c, which, of course, is very
controversial. From the physics derived to in the paper and
particulary from the shown ice run observations it is not
very clear that there is any other relation than that to
flow velocity.

Author's reply:
The presented theory is based on the fact that the
greatest supercooling of water in a river takes place on
the surface where primary ice crystals are formed, their
size corresponding to the supercooling of the surface, and
these crystals - in relation to the vertical fluctuating
component of flow velocity - either remain on the surface
or are entrained into the flow. According to this either
skim ice or frazil ice is formed; whether frazil or skim
ice is formed is not given only by the flow velocity, but
also by the Chezy coefficient C, water temperature tv' wind
veloCity w, the width of the surface in wind direction B,
and by parameters that affect the value of the net heat flux
per unit area due to heat exchange between the surface and
the atmosphere qo'

434
Discusser: Steven F. Daly, CRREL, Hanover, U. S. A.

Have you measured supercooling in the field? What

instruments did you use? Have you considered a Richardson
flux number type correlation in calculating surface heat
flux ? This correlation compares the buoyancy flux at the
surface with turbulent mixing. If the turbulent mixing
dominate. the water temperature will be uniform in the ver­
tical direction. Generally it will be found that turbulent
mixing will dominate.

Author's reply:
We did not measure supercooling in the field. We did
not consider a Richardson flux number type correlation in
calculating surface heat flux.

~5
 WfR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

AN UNSTEADY FLOW MODEL DF RIVER ICE HYDRAULICS

by P.D . Yapa and H.T. Shen

Discussion by J.C. Tatinclaux, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and

Engineering Laboratory
This paper is obviously a short synopsis of the doctoral disser­
tation by the first author. The discussor did not have the opportunity
·to read this dissertation where the answers to the questions and comments
which follow may well be found.
The proposed model for river ice hydraulics is essentially
empirical, and the following questions arise:
1. Were the forms of Equations 4 to 13 obtained from pure sensitivity
and regression analyses of field measurements, or do they have any
analytical basis ? The form of Equation 8 in particular is quite
odd .
2. In view of the very l arge number of empirical coefficients, or
turning knobs, in the model, good correlation between "predictions"
and observations should indeed be expected. In this respect, were
these coefficients for the Upper St. Lawrence obtained from field
data for the same five winters to which the model was applied?
3. As for the numerical values of these coefficients, are there any
which are universal, others site specific, i.e. only a function of
the river morphology, others yet which may vary from year to year
for the same river?
The hydraulic engineering profes sion has some deeply entrenched
traditions, one of them being the Hanning Un"! This writer would rather
see the roughness k be used to characterize the resistance to flow of
boundaries, be it river bed or ice cover, especially in a paper from an
academic institution.

437
 Reply by Authors
The writers would like to thank Dr. Tatinclaux for hi s discussions.
We will reply according to the order of hi s question s .
1. Equations 4 to 13 are empirical equations developed based on physical
considerations. Considering the complexity of the physical processes
involved, particularly in the case of hydraulic resistance coef­
ficient, it would be unrealistic to expect analytical or numerical
simulations . Readers may refer to the first author's dis sertation
(Yapa, 1983) for details on development of these empirical equations.
Copies of the dissertation can be obtained from the authors .
2. At this stage of development, formulas developed may be more

appropriately considered as for "simulation" or "hindcast" rather

than "predictions" as Or. Tatinclaux sugges ted.

Considering the time and spatial variations of the resistance

coefficients, the authors do not agree with Dr. Tatinclau x' s
criticism that the number of "turning knobs" is very large and "a
good s imul ation shoul d be expected". Empi ri ca 1 coeffi ci ents shoul d
not be viewed as "turning knob s ". They are coefficients determined
from field data. For a comple x hydrological phenomena such as
hydraulic resistance of river ice, the number of coefficients used
is not 1arge.
The empiri cal coefficients were not obtained for the same five
winters to which the model was applied.
3. Coefficients A, y, 6 and T are universal, i . e., site independent for
all subreaches in the upper St. Lawrence River. Other coefficients
vary with site but not from year to year .
4. The authors agree that roughness hei ght k characterizes the boundary
resistance more explicitly and conveys a direct measure or feel for
the roughness involved. However, it should be pointed out that for
fully rough flow in natural rivers the use of Manning ' s n is no
worse than k. In addition, the coefficient n is not used to quantify
the effect of k alone. The coefficient n is used in the present
study to reflect the combined resistance due to effect of the
roughness of the bottom surface of the ice cover (may be viewed as
skin resistance due to k), the effect of hanging dams (may be viewed
as form resistance), and the effect of entrained frazil particles.
On a more philo sophical aspect, the writers believe that all

professionals in the engineering community should strive for correct

438
understanding on fundamentals, yet should not divorce themself from
reality in problem solving. Hence, there should be no dividing line
between academic institutes and the rest of the engineering community.

Discussion by G.D. Ashton, u.s. Army Cold Regions Research and

Engineering Laboratory
The paper presents an unsteady flow model that includes the effects
of ice. Rather extensive use is made of formulae for describing the
roughness coefficients, and the ice thickness variations, and these are
necessarily empirical in nature since inclusion of all of the physics of
the problem would yield an extremely cumbersome and intricate numerical
simulation . Nevertheless the attempt to include the many varied effects
of ice throughout the season is a major step forward, particularly with
regard to the formational and decay periods. One suspects the coef­
ficients are site-specific but at this stage of development successful
coefficients, albeit site-specific, are extremely useful to others who
would attempt to develop similar models, or apply this one to other
rivers.
While too extensive for the present proceedings it would be useful
to have the results of a sensitivity analysis of the various component
coefficients.

Reply by Authors
The writers would like to thank Dr. Ashton for his comment. A
sensitivity analysis will indeed be useful. Such an analysis is now
being done.

Discussion by W. Majewski, Institute of Hydroengineering, The Polish

Academy of Sciences
In river flow covered with ice, ice cover flows over water surface
and follows any changes in water elevation. In case of unsteady flow
there is some kind of inertia of the flowing system in comparison to open
channel flow.
In your initial equations this parameter is not included. Could you
please comment on this subject.

~ by Authors
It is not clear what particular inertia term Mr. Majewski means,
presumably it is the inertia effect related to the rapidly varying flow.
The paper did not consider this effect. The present model considers
unsteady gradually varied flow only.
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamburg

ANALYSIS OF CAUSES FOR FLOODS DURING ICE RUN

ON THE LOWER REACH OF THE YELLOW RIVER

by Chen, Z., Sun, Z., and Wang, W.

Discussion by H.T. Shen, Clarkson University

The paper presents an interesting description of causes of flood
during ice runs in the Lower Yellow River. The authors pointed out the
importance of the effect of the channel stora~e and the effect of river
morphology, of flood stages and magnitude. Although their discussions
are limited to the Lower Yellow River, much of their experience can be
app lied to other northern ri vers. The writer hOlJes that, wi th the da ta
and experience accumulated by the authors over the last 30 years, more
quantitative analyses will be developed in the future.

AUTHOR I S REPLY
BY,
Sun Zha nchu, Hefei Polyt ecbnic Uni versi <;~', Chin~.

Til"! auth"rs would like to thar.k Dr. Shep for his discussion
o!:. thp. pa!7'~r.

'II~ ~c rE'e 1'lit!! D:t:-. S!1f'~ in his viewA. I'le tb:!.n~~ thE).1; SOMe

an r.\. l:,ses \vil). be ueyel')!"le~. i~ r.ea.r futll:re.

441
 AUTHOR: Zanting et al.

TITLE: "Analysis of Causes for Floods During Ice Run

on the Lower Reaches of the Yellow River"
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER : Robert Ettema
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research
University of Iowa
Iowa Ci ty. Iowa 52242
USA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

This paper is a useful contribution of field data and observations on

the formation and problematic consequences of ice jam formation. It
is interesting to note that the authors have steadily. over the past
three or four years. been publishing a sUbstantial body of documented
field experience on ice jams as they form along the Yellow River in
China. For example. Zanting et al. (1981) describe the effects of
reservoir operation on ice jam formation along the Yellow River.
An important feature of ice jam formation along national waterways is
the role played by channel curvature. This feature has. surprisingly.
received little attention from researchers. I noted with interest.
therefore, that the authors refer to the bend in the river course as
being the dominant factor for producing flooding during ice run on the
Yellow River.
My question to the authors is: What. if any. analytical or experimen­
tal work are they doing to supplement their field work in the study of
ice jams?

AUTHOR'S REPLY:

The authors would like to thank Mr. Ettema for his discussion of their
paper.
We have not done any experiments in the laboratory because of place
limits on test facilities. However. we shall study the relations
between water flow state and ice jam on river by hydraul ic model
experiments.

442
 WIR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM
AUTHOR: Alger and Santeford
TITLE: A Procedure for Calculating River Flowrate
Under an Ice Cover
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: J. C. Tatinclaux
CRREL
72 Lume Road
Hanover, NH 03755

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
In his oral reply to the discussion by Wuebben, Dr. Alger
indicated that the flow depth, F.D., is that thickness of the ice
cover below the water, i.e. F.D. = D - D.; however Eqn. 5 in the
written paper (Vol. I, P. 396) the f~oat ~epth is defined as: F.D.
GH - GH .. When the depth D is related to GH by a relation of the
ty~e at the bottom of p. 395.
D = GH - a
--b­ or GH = bD + a
thus
D - D.
w 1
or
The difference in water depths is not equal to the difference in gage
readings.
I have also a strong objection to the authors' claim that their
technique "has a sound theoretical basis". It is in fact based on the
Manning equation which is empirical, on a relation between D and GH
which is empirical and as the symplifyin9 account for that X./X is
constant for which there is no analytical or theoretical justif9ca­
tion.

443
 IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM
AUTHOR: Alger and 'Santeford
TITLE: A Procedure for Calculating River Flow Rate Under
an Ice Cover
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: James L. Wuebben
U.S. Army CRREL
Hanover, NH 03755-1290

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
It is intere sti ng to see a model called theoretically sound when
an empirically derived, uniform flow equation is rearranged, simpli­
fied, and then applied to a nonuniform flow situation. Further , the
claim of computer compatibility seems to consist of using an
empirically determined ratio of terms in the Manning's equation to
adjust an ice-covered stage reading so that the open water rating
curve can be used to estimate discharge.
Although the authors "winter regime coefficient" is developed
differently than the K-factor used in the discharge ratio method, it
is unclear how the two approaches differ in substance. The K-factor
is obtained by comparing a measured discharge to that indicated by an
uncorrected open water rating curve. During the time between measure­
ments the K-factor is found by interpolation with some adjustment for
significant meteorologic events. In the present paper the authors use
the energy ratio, XR, as an empiric input (which the authors claim is
a constant for a given gage location) as well as a physical measure­
ment, float depth, which must be estimated by linear interpolation
between measurements. It is unclear why the X ratio should remain a
constant except perhaps on small streams where the expected range of
Manning's n would be far less significant than ice thickness in deter­
mining water levels. The presence of irregular ice accumulations
would certainly affect X, but this condition was excluded from consid­
eration in the paper. Although linear interpolation is proposed for
F.D., I would expect that a large snowfall or a sudden cold snap would
cause a discontinuity requiring adjustment. Thus, we seem to have the
empiricism.and variability of the K-factor spread between X and F.D.
Perhaps it is a minor point, but why is a new term, Float Depth,
defined instead of just using the submerged ice thickness? In fact
the definition of F.D. given in Equation 5 appears incompatible with
the equation relating hydraulic depth to gage height used in the
example. Application of the two equations leads to the result that
float depth differs from the submerged ice thickness (~ t) by 30%.
Does F.D. have some special, unexplained meaning, or w~ the
mathematical incompatibility simply not noticed?

444
 IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR : Alger and Santeford

TITLE: Calculating River Flowrate Under an Ice Cover
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: R. Gerard
Dept. of Civil Engineering
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta
CANADA

DISCUSSION/ QUESTIONS:
1. Except for the specific allowance for "float depth", how does the
procedure described differ in substance from simply determining
a winter rating curve from the monthly discharge measurements?
2. With regard to the role of the "float depth" a point made pre­
viously by the authors is worth restating. This is that in many
cases the 'float depth' is usually determined at the site of
winter discharge measurement, rather than at the actual gauge
site.
Yet the float depths at the two sites may differ substantially
(indeed there may be open water at the discharge measurement
site). It would therefore seem useful i f streamflow gauging
authorities began paying attention to the "float depth" at the
gauge site. --­

445
 IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM
~THOR: Alger and Santeford
TITLE : A Procedure for Calculating River Flow Rate Under

an Ice Cover

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER: V. R. Schneider

U.S. Geological Survey

415 National Center
Reston, VA 22092

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
As indicated in the report, the U.S. Geological Survey is inter­
ested in and supportive of the work of the writers. The method ha s
been developed and tested at Sturgeon River near Sidnaw, Michigan, and
the ratio (Equation 6) was found to be a constant with a remarkably
small variation for this station.
Do = Gfl o - 2.54
0.99
Di GH i - 2.54

or
GH o
0.99 GH i + 0.025 .
For practical purposes,

GH o = GHw - F.D .
Thus, the float depth is the most important adjustment. It is a
shift adjustment in this case. The ratio probably assumes other
values at other sites. Fontaine (1983) who developed winter ratings
for Maine using regression techniques, showed that the important vari­
ables could be different for different stations. The weather data
tested were maximum and minimum daily temperatures, total daily
precipitation, previous day's preCipitation, average monthly maximum
and minimum temperatures, and heating degree days for the month .
These are the variables that determine float depth. Thus, in order to
use and further develop the method, it may be neces sary to collect
additional weather data at the station in order to correctly calculate
winter record and that the data necessary may be site or region
specific. The results to date are encouraging and are certainly worth
additional research.

Fontaine, R. A., 1983, Uncertainties in Records of Annual Mean

Discharge in Maine: U. S. Geological Survey Water-Resources

Investigations 83-4025, 108 p.

446
 IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 19B4

DISCUSSION FORM
AUTHOR: Alger and Sante ford
TITLE: Predicting Flowrates in an Ice Covered Stream
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: George D. Ashton
USA CRREL
72 Lyme Road
Hanover, NH 03755-1290
U.S.A.

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
On what basis is the empirical Manning's equation for steady
uniform flow applied to the nonuniform flow conditions associated with
control sections?
Do the authors have any data to validate the rather extreme
excursions of Equation 6 as shown in Figure 2?
Finally, a comment. The USGS procedure of considering the
context of any particular stage reading so as to identify anomalous
stage recordings is essential since there are many ice-associated
events that occur on ice-affected streams that cannot be accounted for
with a simplistic empirical stage-discharge analysis such as proposed
by the authors.

M7
 IAHR" SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM
AUTHOR: Alger & Santeford
TITLE : A Procedure for Calculating River Flowrate Under an Ice Cover
NAME AND ADDRESS REPLY TO
OF DISCUSSER: DISCUSSION BY: G. R. Alger and
H. S. Santeford
Civil Engineering Dept.
Michigan Technological
University
Houghton, MI 49931
U.S.A.

The authors of the paper are grateful to all those who have
offered comments and suggestion s.
Dr. Schneider's comments are very encouraging. As a result of
contacts with the U.S.G.S . we have established a field research effort
on three Michigan streams in cooperation with the U.S.G.S. and others.
The fir s t data collections will be made during the winter of 1984-85.
There have been some questions raised concerning the term Float
Depth (F.D.). Float depth, as stated in the paper, is equal to the
gage height recorded (during the period of stable ice control) less
GH . or FD = GH - GH .. Since it is GH. that we wish to determine, the
relationship i~ more1conveniently stat~d as GH. = GH - FD. One must
remember that the manipulation of Manning's eqJationw(Eqn. 4) in terms
of the ratio of hydraulic mean depth was accomplished with the
necessity of utilizing the water area under the ice cover which is
available for flow. Thus, the value GH . must be a gage height which
when applied to the given channel sectiOn provides the correct water
area available for flow. The illustrations provided below should help
in differentiating between the so called average ice thickness and
float depth.

M8
Total wetted area = 12/
Submerged ice area =~
Area available for flow 7y
Then:
7/ = (GH i - y)2y + (GH i - y)2(GH i - y)
or
2(GH )2 - 2y(GH ) 7y2 0
i i
and the positive root for GH i is
GH i = 2.44y or FD = 3y - 2.44y = 0.56y
If one had used average floating ice thickness as Float Depth then:
5 2
T = ---.2L = 0.5y
B=10y
and GH i = 3y - .5y = 2.5 y
and this gage heigh when applied to the cross-section, would provide
2
a flow area of 7.5y. Thus use of the average floating ice thickness
has overstated GH. and the area available for flow. One should
realize that the ~icen thickness generally varies across the width of
the river and that the river banks are not perpendicular, thus average
floating ice thickness does not correctly represent GH i .
Once the proper value of GH. has been determined it may be
converted to hydraulic mean dept~. The conversion of GH. to hydraulic
mean depth generally involves a two variable function, o~e involving
the channel geometry and the other the fact that GH is not generally
referenced to the channel bottom. This relationship has nothing
directly to do with float depth.
The term Float Depth is also appropriate here in that the extent
to which the total wetted cross-section is reduced in the winter
varies regionally. It may be in some geographic regions that some
sort of ice density value could be appl ied while in other regions the
non-moving floating mass may be comprised of ice, slush and snow. The
"density" of the composit would be a highly variable and unpredictable
quantity.
Of course the procedure outlined in the paper could be used to
construct a winter rating curve (period of stable ice control). How­
ever from a practical point of view it would mean providing the
computer with a second rating table for flow rate computations. The
technique , described in the paper allows one to use the summer rating
table with a simple multiple adjustment.
As mentioned in the paper there are several empiric techniques
that have been tried for flow rate determination (see 1966 paper by
Rosenberg and Pent I and). One of these is the so ca 11 ed "K" factor or
discharge ratio method. If one considers a ratio of discharges
utilizing one of the empiric discharge equations the ratio of the
flows would be

449
 where the subscript R denotes a ratio of terms . The method uses the
o as the ratio of a winter measured flow to the flow that would have
ogcurred for the given gage height, thus OR is a number less than one.
One could select many pairs of locations on a rating curve and obtain
the same 0 value. However, the X ratio would not be the same and
this ratioRis furthermore an e x pod~ntial function. Also the terms AR
and R require under ice flow areas or a subtraction must be made to
accou~t for Float Depth. Thus estimating "K" between measurements
utilizing only temperature data could only provide correct flow est i ­
mates as a matter of luck. One must also realize that none of the
techniques suggested in the literature, including the one in this
paper, are applicable throughout the entire winter period. (See the
1983 and 1984 papers by Santeford and Alger).
It has been suggested that our reference to "theoretically based"
oS applied to the technique developed in the paper is inappropriate
since part of the technique involve s use of a long standing empiric
relationship. In retrospect we can only agree that the choice of
these terms alone was misleading. Those utilizing this paper together
with the 1983 and 1984 papers by Santeford and Alger on related topics
can sort as individuals what is perhaps "theoretical" from that which
may be empi ri c.
There has also been some reference to "Manning's Equation" as a
uniform flow equation. It is certainly that, however, it, as well as
the Chezy Eqn., are widely used for purposes of computing water
surface profiles in that they provide empiric estimates of average
energy slopes.
The authors feel that this method will prove to be very useful in
making flow rate estimates during periods of stable ice control. Cer­
tainly there may be times (winters) and places, when or where, there
may be little or no stable ice control and one would have to re sort to
current practice until something better may be developed.

450
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

Discussions and questions by:

Dr. Bruce Pratte
Hydraulics Laboratory
National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada

The author is to be congratulated for developing this version of a frazil

concentration instrument. It is hoped that the commercial version will
prove successful. Not knowing all the details of the design, I would
like to ask the following questions:

1. Does the instrument really measure concentration of frazil?

If each
spike on the signal output has height "hi" and width or duration
"tiM, then for a record of length T, is concentration of frazil
Cf = Ehiti!T? I would think that height hi of a spike is a
measure of the size and density of the agglomeration between the
probes, rather than the number of flocs.
2. In Fig. 2, could the meandering of the baseline also be due to
changes in the buildup or erosion of frazil particles sticking to the
probes? Alternatively, could there have been slow flow condition
changes through the frazil-free reference probe volume?
3. To obtain what Dr. Tsang calls actual frazil concentration cfa one
needs to divide the instrument reading Cft by the calibration
constant F. However, F is very sensitive to velocity which is not
measured duri ng the frazi 1 run. Is this the reason you were unab 1e
to correct Cft values for the Beauharnois Canal test to obtain
cfa? How will the commercial instrument solve this problem? Can F
not be kept constant by sensing velocity using one probe as a
thermistor and feeding its signal back to the resistance bridge?

An electromagnetic velocity sensor such as a Marsh-McBirney probe

should work under frazil conditions.

Alternatively, if a second pair of your resistance probes a very

short di stance downstream of the first pair were used, then time of
transit of an agglomeration spike between probes would give the
velocity.
4. Was low cost an important consideration for this instrument?
Although more costly it is possible to use a tube aligned with the
flow direction, which is made to vibrate ultransonically at a natural

451
 frequency proportional to the difference in density (or cfl between
the material passing through the tube and a second frazil-free
reference tube.

The Associate Committee for Research on Shoreline Erosion and

Sedimentation (ACROSES) is testing an acoustic probe which measured
suspended sediment concentration. Could such a probe also work for
frazil ?
5. What happens when your plates are not aligned in the flow direction?
Wi 11 you not get a buildup of stagnant frazi 1 in the separation zone
behind one plate leading to a too high, although steady Cf?
6. Are the probes temperature compensated? Does the heat given off as
frazil forms affect the readings?
7. Finally, I suspect it is well known that seawater frazil flocs demon­
strate less cohesiveness than freshwater frazi 1. Your instrument's
ability to sense this is a good test indeed.

Author's reply:

1. Dr. Prat te is correct that the instrument measures the size and
density of the frazil agglomerations rather than the number of floc~.

The averge concentration in a time period T is indeed given by

where cf is the height of the signal output.

2. The meanderi ng of the base 1 i ne is not due to the buil di ng up or
erosion of frazil sticking to the probe. The meandering is there
whether there is frazil in the water or not. During the experiments,
no frazil was seen sticking to the probes. The flow condition
changes inside the reference probe were also not the cause of the
meandering. During the experiments, both probes had been placed in
the mai nst ream under ice free cond it ions and the meander i ng of the
baseline could still be seen. The meandering, therefore, is caused
by the instability of performance of the electronics.

452
3. As I said in the paper, F is the product of a shape factor which is
about two and a velocity factor which is caused by the retardation of
the frazil flocs in passing through the sensor probe. Our e)(peri­
ments showed that if the flow is fast enough (greater than 22 cm/s),
then the frazi 1 flocs will flow through the sensor probe with little
retardation and the velocity factor will be about unity. Therefore,
one way to get rid of the velocity effect in measuring frazil is to
limit the use of the instrument to flows faster than 22 cm/s. Under
such a condition, the calibration coefficient will be simply reduced
to the shape factor which is a constant. Of course one may also
solve the problem more positively by continuously correcting the
retardation effect of the frazil flocs in the sensor probe. This
means the measuring of the velocity of the frazil flocs by putting
two sensor probes streamlinewise a short distance apart and the
velocity of the ambient flow with some appropriate means and working
on these two signals to eliminate the effect of the prolonged stay of
the frazil flocs in the sensor probe. However, this is easier said
than done because until today we still do not know how to measure the
ve 1oc ity of a frazil 1aden flow at one poi nt. I doubt whether the
Marsh-McBirney electromagnetic velocity sensor can do the job seeing
that the dielectric constant of ice is many orders of magnitude
greate than that of water.

The instrument is not bui It on ares i stance bri dge but on a more
advanced state-of-the-art electronic technology.

The calibration problem, I think, will be with the future commercial­

ly developed instrument also. The Beauharnois data could not the
corrected has nothing to do with the above mentioned retardation of
flocs in the sensor probe, but that with a measured concentration of
fractions of one percent, a value that is of the same order of
magnitude of the noise level of the instrument (i.e., the meandering
range), it will be meaningless to integrate the frazil signal.
4. The cost was not the main criterion of the development. The ultra­
sonic way may wel' be a potential means to measure frazi 1. But the
damping property of frazil, the sticking of frazil to the tube, etc.,
must be considered. This is beyond the scope of my paper. I am not
sure whether the ACROSES acoustic probe can measure frazil (in fact I

453
 doubt it) but I do believe my frazil instrument can measure the
concentration of sediment.
5. The prob 1em does not ari se. The probes are supposed to be ali gned
with the flow.
6. Yes, please see my other paper quoted in the references.
7. Thank you for the compliment.

Discussion and questions by:

Dr. Andreas MUller
Institute of Hydromechanics, ETH-ZUrich
ZUrich, Switzerland

I have two questions.

1. What is the principle the instrument is based on?
2. Which is the spatial size of the peaks in the time records?

Author's reply:

1. Please see my paper quoted in the references.

2. It can be measured from the chart recording.

Discussion and questions by :

Mr. Steve Daly
U. S. CRREL
Hanover, NH 03753, U.S.A.

1. What is the sampling volume and time constant of the instrument?

2. The instrument is based on the concept that the conductivity of the
water will increase with the concentration of frazil ice . This
involves mass transfer effects on the solutes. Mass transfer is a
complicated and relatively slow process. Have effects of turbulence
intensity been noted? Also what of the fluid trapped in the frazil
flocs? The concentration of solutes may be higher within the flocs.
3. This is a very promising instrument. Its acceptance would be greatly
improved and has tened if some independent means of determ in i ng the
frazil concentration were found, and the results of this instrument
independently verified.

454
Author's reply:

1. The sample volume is 100 em 3 and the time constant of the instrument
had not been eva 1uted.
2. The turbulence level of the experiments was quite high. There seemed
to be no problem for the tumbling and rumbling frazil flocs to
diffuse their trapped brine into the main flow. For slow flow or
when the flocs become so thick that the diffusion of the brine to the
ambient fluid became difficult, there may be error in the
measurement. However, for most practically important cases, I do not
feel this will be a problem. We just invented the car, so let us
give it time to go to 100 miles per hour.
3. I hope you can come up with a method to calibrate the instrument more
effectively.

Discussion and questions by

Dr. George D. Ashton
U.S. CRREL
Hanover, NH 03755
U.S.A.

1. Could you describe the method of calibration? How ;s the

concentrat i on of frazi 1 in the sample determi ned?

Author's reply:

1. It is shown in my paper quoted in the references.

455
STRUCTURES IN ICE

 wm Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamburg

CRUSHING ICE FORCES ON CYLINDRICAL STRUCTURES

Carl E. Morris Thayer School of Engineering

Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH USA

Devinder S. Sodhi U.S. Army CRREL

72 Lyme Road, Hanover, N.H. USA

DISCUSSION by R. Frederking, NRC of Canada

Ottawa, Canada

Could the authors please explain over what range of strain rates or at
what rate the uniaxial compression tests were conducted and how this rate
compares with the rate at which the indentation tests were run? Also in
general how much did 0u vary from test to test and in sheet to sheet?

DISCUSSION by T.J.O. Sanderson

BP Petroleum Development Ltd., UK

At what strain rate was the compressive strength of your model ice
measured, and is it at all strain-rate dependent? Your results suggest
that i~ strength may decrease with increasing strain-rate.

Real ice, both pure and saline, is strongly strain-rate dependent but
generally shows increasing strength as strain rate increases from 10- 1b to
10- 3 s-l. Only at strain rates exceeding 10- 3 g_l is there any evidence of
decreasing strength.

Because of this I doubt the general applicability of some of your

conclusions, especially concerning the well-known U/D laws, first proposed
by Michel & Toussaint (1977). The dependence of indentation pressure on
U/D reflects the strain-rate dependence of ordinary ice, and it does not
surprise me that model ice does not support this lal<.

Your results may, however, be a~plicable to real ice for very high
indentation rates (exceeding 10- 3 s- ).

DISCUSSION by Vitoon Vivatrat

Brian Watt Associates, inc.
2350 E. North Belt Drive
Houston, TX, USA 77032

Three parameters, v, d and h, were considered and two normalized para­

meters were used (v/h and v/d). You made a statement about the preference
between v/h and v/d as an indication of the strain rate, based on the
data. Since the data were obtained for a given value of the aspect ratio
(d/h), what difference is there between the use of v/h or v/d as a measure
of strain-rate? Both of them appear to me to be equally valid in terms of
applicability as a measure of the velocity effects. There may be physical
reasons for choosing one over the other, but I am not sure your data can be
used to decide this issue.

457
DISCUSSION by R. Gerard
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

This paper describes the results of a thorough and badly needed inves­
tigation. The problem of reliably defining the variation of effective
pressure with aspect ratio and velocity is near the top of the list of
needs for the rational design of piers for ice forces.

In the paper the reduction in dimensionless effective pressure with

velocity was attributed to a decrease in contact area, or a reduction in
simultaneous failure zones over the apparent contact area. It is not clear
from the text, but it is presumed the authors intend these to be equivalent
rather than alternate explanations. However, both seem contrary to intui­
tion (at least the writer's). With a higher velocity is it not more
reasonable to expect the effective contact area, or the number of simul­
taneous failure zones, to increase? Perhaps an alternate explanation of
the decrease may be that a greater proportion of the failure zones have
gone beyond t he ductile-brittle transition at the higher velocities and the
resulting brittle failure in these zones somehow decreases their contribu­
tion to the effective pressure.

It is unfortunate the velocity effect had to be expressed in dimen­

sional form. Without some indication of what the missing parameter is -­
the one required to make the group dimensionless -- it is difficult to know
quite how to ?cale the results up to the prototype situstion. On the basis
of the point made above, one possibility for the missing parameter may be
the strain rate corresponding to the ductile-brittle transition of the
ice. In any event do you feel the missing parameter is likely a reasonably
scale-invariant ice property so that your results can be scaled up on the
basis of v/h alone?

A major feature of the discussion in the paper is the appeal to the

role of the columnar structure of the model ice, and its influence on the
confined/unconfined compression strength, to achieve reasonable agreement
with the results of past studies. Are any studies planned using a granu­
lar, rather than columnar, model ice to ve~ify this explanatiOn of the dis­
parity between past and present results.

DISCUSSION by A. Person

Global Marine Development Ltd.

P.O. Box 4577, Houston, TX 77210, USA

A well done, enlightening paper and discussion; however, I have a few

~uestions that I hope you can take the time to cocrment on or answer.

1. The paper states that the test track was approximately 2 m long and
that the pile diameters ranged from 100 to 500 mm. Does this mean,
that the test track length range was 20 to 4 pile diameters? If so,
are the results at the low end of this range, say below 10 diameters,
as good as those at the high end? This is significant when one recog­
nizes that most of the sea ice movement instances, which current off­
shore structures must contend with, consist of relatively short
distances.

458
2. The paper proposes that the normalized maximum force is a function of
aspect ratio and a "flaking strain rate." The normalized maximum
force, however, is also a function of unconfined compressive strength
and most of the published data show that sea ice strength is a func­
tion of "strain rate." For example: Cox, et a1. "A Summary of the
Strength and Modulus of Ice Samples from Multiyear Pressure Ridges,"
Proceedings of Third International Offshore Hechanics and Arctic Engi­
neering Symposium, New Orleans, 1984, Vol. 3, p. 126-133; Lainey, L.
and R. Tinawi, "Parametric Studies of Sea Ice Beams Under Short- and
Long-Term Loadings," International Symposium on Ice, IAHR, Quebec,
Canada, 1981, p. 440-452. How then can a practicing engineer apply
the results of your tests as is implied by the opening sentence of
your paper? Should the compressive strength vs "effective strain
rate" be used to modify equation 5?

AUTHORS' REPLY:

We thank the discussers for their comments and questions. In the

following, we attempt to answer their questions and to clarify our point of
view.

Frederking, Sanderson, Person and others have asked us about the

strain rate (£) during the compressive strength (au) tests. We apologize
for not including this information in the paper. The unconfined compres­
sive strength tests were conducted in-situ by axially loading a cantilever
beam which were 120 mm wide and approximately 200 mm long. The velocit of
the carriage-mounted, instrumented platen was kept constant at 20 mm s­ 1
which translates to an axial strain rate of about 0.1 s-I. The failure of
ice during these tests took place along the X-shaped vertical plane (Fig. 2
of the paper). These tests were conducted near the test track immediately
after each test to avoid any influence of spatial and temporal variations
of compressive strength. We have not yet conducted any study to determine
the dependence of au on ~, and we know of no such study for urea model
ice. However, it has been our experience that variation of platen speed
between 10 rom s-I and 20 mm s-I does not affect au to any appreciable
degree.

Vivatrat and Sanderson have questioned the validity of expressing the

dimensionless effective pressure in terms of velocity-to-thickness ratio
(v/h) instead of velocity-to-diameter ratio (v/d). A dimensional analysis
between five variables - maximum ice force (Fmax ), structure diameter
(d), structure velocity (v), ice thickness (h) and unconfined compressive
strength (au) - can lead one to either of the following two relationships
between groups of variables:

459
 F
fl(~ ~)
max
, (1)
a dh
u

F
max
a dh
u
= f z(~ , J) (2)

As Vivatrat has pointed out, the above two equations are equivalent, and it
remains to be seen to which form of equation the experimental data fit in
the best possible way. We have chosen equation (1) partly due to the
manner in which we varied different parameters in our experiments and part­
lyon the basis of observations and experimental results. In later experi­
mentation on impact of cylindrical structures against floating ice sheets,
we observed that ice failed by flaking even for aspect ratios as low as
0.6. Moreover, the frequency analysis of ice force records in the experi­
mental program revealed that the characteristic frequency of ice failure is
strongly dependent on structure velocity and ice thickness, and its depend­
ence on structure diameter was found to be small (Sodhi and l-k>rris, 1984).
We have inferred from these observations that the ice thickness is an
important parameter affecting the ice failure and thereby the ice forces.
Theoretical considerations for flaking type failure of columnar ice sheets
have been presented by Coon et al. (1984) in this symposium.

In responding to comments by Gerard, we would like to clarify that our

explanations offered in the paper for the reduction in dimensionless effec­
tive pressure with increasing velocity. Either a decrease in contact area
or (less likely) simultaneous failure zones around the structure are
equivalent in the sense of reducing effective pressure. However, the
approaches to these are different because the first is based on kinematics
and the second on summation of ice forces for simultaneous failure zones.
Since these explanations are only tentative, they are open to criticism and
improvement. The alternate explanation offered by Gerard that ice may fail
in the brittle mode at higher velocity is well taken. Inertia effects
coupled with brittle failure may have the same effect as that of reduced
contact area, which in our opinion should decrease due to irregular
surfaces generated during flaking failure of ice sheets.

The efforts to make the velocity-to-thickness ratio dimensionless have

been fruitless. For creep indentation failure of ice sheets, the velocity­
to-diameter ratio is usually taken as strain rate. Similarly, we are pro­
posing that velocity-to-thickness ratio may be taken as strain rate for the
flaking failure of ice sheets since thic.kness is an important parameter for
this failure mode. Gerard has suggested the use of the strain rate corre­
sponding to the ductile-brittle transition 'of ice for making v/h dimension­
less. However, this transition strain rate is not well defined, and its
determination will require a whole series of tests. Moreover, it is not
known whether the transition strain rate remains invariant with respect to
scale and type of ice.

In answer to the last question by Gerard, we believe that a similar

test program using granular, isotropic ice is desirable to answer some of
the questions raised in this study.

460
 In response to Person's first question, we would like to state that
the range of pile diameter was from 50 to 500 mm and not from 100 mm to 500
mm. The length of the test track actually was limited either by the 2-m
travel of the apparatus or the duration of time that was required to fill a
certain size of memory in the computer. Thus, for a low velocity test, the
track length was only a few diameters long. However, the duration of any
test was long enough to get sufficient penetration of structure into the
ice for a steady state situation to develop. The data for buckling events,
which took place with large diameters at low velocity, have not been
included in our analysis. Since the ice failure (flaking as opposed to
indentation) and the resulting ice force depended on ice thickness, we
believe we got sufficient data for each test run.

References

Coon, M.D., R.J. Evans and D.H. Gibson (1984) Failure criteria for sea
ice and loads resulting from crushing. Presented in the 1984 IAHR Ice
Symposium.

Sodhi, D.S. and C.E. Morris (1984) Ice forces on vertical cylindrical
structure. A CRREL report in preparation.

4~
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamhurg

DISCUSS IO~! Form

AUTHOP.: 11auri
1~J<.)(TTr.tl[t'

TITLE: The effect of structural properties on ice-induced

self-excited vibrations
NAME AND ADDRESS R. Gerard
OF DISCUSSER: Dept. Civil Eng.
Univ. Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta, CANADA
DI SCl;SS IDr!/QUESTI aI's:
1. On p. 12 you state that Liosett et al. (1geO) concluded that "the
structure does not affect on the ice force". As the et al. in the
above publication, I would like to emphasise we were well aware of
the possibility of ice-structure interaction, but 9iven the natural
frequency and dampin9 of the pier involved it was felt there was no
significant influence on the ~easurements for this pier, oarticularly
for the low frequency loads of major i nteres tin th is renort. Th i s
was subsequently confirmed by a full dyna~1c analysis of the events
by Goodman and I~ontgomery (Internal Report, Dept. Civil En~., Univ.
Alberta) .

2. Given the acce~ted importance of ice-structure interaction an impor­

tant question is what pier dynamic characteristics should be used in
desi~n. Is it reasonable to assume the structure and foundations
remain elastic under design situations with the same characteristics
as under the usual 'low load' calibration and/or measurement circum­
stances these characteristics are measured. This question would seem
particularly important for brid~e pier design.

If elastic assumptions are not appropriate, what dyna~ic characteris­

tics should be used to allow for ice-structure interaction.

AUTHOR'S REPLY:
1. I appreciate your comment and admit that the mentioned bridge oier is

463
 so stiff and there is so much damoing in the foundation that enerry
interchanQe between the pier and ice is minimal. Hence dynamic ice­
structure interaction is not to be expected.

2. I believe it is justified to treat both the structure and foundation

as an elastic media during dynamic ice-structure interaction. ~on­
linearities are due to dampin9 and ice stren9th deoendence on loadin~
rate. As dampin9 is usually less than 10 % fro~ the critical the con­
cept of equivalent linear damping is justified. The ice stren9th de­
pendence on loading rate is important when there is significant dynamic
response of the structure so that relative velocity is significantly
varying around the average ice movement velocity.

In design one should calculate the natural frequencies and modes of

the structure in addition to static deflection at the ice action point.
If the deflection is of the order of ice crystal size or areater ­
few millimeters - then the possibility for ice-structure dynamic inter­
action exists. In that case one should calculate the reouired internal
damping for natural modes with frequencies from C,5 to 15 ~z to Dre­
vent ice-induced self-excited vibrations (Ref. r:e:att2:nen 1977). If
the required damping is more than what is available the nier should
be redesigned to reduce sensitivity for ice-induced vibration or the
pier should be di~ensioned for resonant loadings.

464
AUTHOR: MI\)\TTI':NEN ~lauri
TITLE: The effect of structural properties on ice-induced
self-excited vibrations
NAr·1E AND ADDRESS D.S. Sodhi
OF DISCUSSER : USA CRREL
72 Lymer Road
Hanover, NH 03755, U.S.A.
DISCUSSION/QUESTIO~S:

He have conducted test with a much rigid structure, and we have found
that the dominant frequency (f) in the ice force variations is orODor­
tional to the relative velocity (v) of ice with respect to structure.
Such proportional relations indicate that the size of da~age zone (T)
is constant, and when it is normalized with resoect to ice thickness,
it (v/f) turns out be about jrd of ice thicknes~. These results have
been presented in a forth-cominQ CRREL Peport. In the present paper,
the situation is complicated by the low stiffness and natural frequency
of free vibration of the structure.

AUTHOR'S REPLY:
I appreciate your cow.w.ents and I agree that with very rigid structures
one has to find a different ~echanisr to control the crushing frequency
than the frequency of a dynamically unstable natural ~ode of the struc­
ture. In these tests with flexible structures the crushinQ freouency
always followed the natural freauency of the structure when structural
configuration was chan~ed and oersisted at a wide velocity ranoe which
makes it imoossible for a constant damaqe zone to be the exolanation for
crushin~ frequencies.

In dynamic ice-structure interaction with ripid structures a possibility

for ener9Y interchange from elastic ener9Y to ice crushing can take place
in the ice itself. There are two nossibil ities: flexural waves and in­
plane waves. Flexural waves have been observed several times in ice
crushing model tests but their frequency is relatively constant . . In­
plane vibration in the ice sheet will always be present durin0. ice crush­
ing and their freauency depends on the len~th of ice sheet, on the rigidi­
ty of ice driving mechanism and on the exc'itation which is caused by the
ice drivin9 mechanism. Hence the question re~ains unanswered for ri~id
structures whether there exists a constant size failure zone or if vib­
rational waves in the ice sheet control the crushin9 frequency.

465
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

'A
•
Hamburg

Authors H.L. Jessberger and K.-H. Bassler

Title Model tests and in situ behaviour of prestressed anchors

in snow and ice

Discusser B. Ladanyi
Ecole Poly technique de Montreal
Canada

First, I would like to congratulate the authors for their new and ingeni­
ous design of anchors in snow, which can probably also be used with suc­
cess in other materials, such as frozen soils and ice. The prestressing
system gives not only an excellent contact along the anchor length, but
produces also a shear prestrain in the surrounding material, which impro­
ves considerably the creep behaviour and the bearing capacity of such an­
chors. This can be clearly seen if the results shown in the paper are
compared with those obtained by Johnston and Ladanyi (1972) when testing
non-prestressed rod anchors in frozen silt. In that study, it was found
in fact, that around such ordinary anchors the soil was stressed in shear
uniformly along the anchor length, which resulted in the anchor failure
after a constant total shear displacement was attained.

Now, although the described anchors in snow behaved much better with res­
pect to failure than our anchors in frozen silt, there is nevertheless
some concern that a shear slip may occur after the total anchor displace­
ment due to creep attains a finite value of several centimeters. Could
you comment on this possibility?

Reference
Johnston, G.H. and Ladanyi, B. 1982. Field tests of grouted rod anchors
in permafrost. Canad. Geotech. J., 9, pp. 176-194.

467
 Answer

We appreciate that Professor Ladanyi mentioned in his discussion his work

on non-prestressed rod anchors in frozen silt. In developing our anchor
system we are well aware of the results of his experiments which can be
used as lower limit of analysis. It would be worth-while to compare the
short term and long term behaviour of non-prestressed and prestressed
rod anchors for better understanding of the load transfer mechanism be­
tween the anchor body and the surrounding material.

In his question Professor Ladanyi expressed his concern that a finite

amount of shear creep displacement of the order of several centimeters
may be available. There is no doubt that the material behaviour of snow
or ice always will cause time dependent deformations of the loaded
anchor. But we found that our anchor system leads to a decreasing de­

formation rate. Carefull inspection of the deflection pattern of our

long term model test shows that during a longer time period within the
prestressed snow stopper an increase of density has to be assumed which
is in contrast to the opinion we expressed in the written version 0f our
paper. In addition to the density increase, probably the stopper volume
is also increased and both effects are certainly responsible for an im­
provement of the bearing capacity of the anchor with time. Because this
effects cannot be predicted exactly the anchor deformation has to be
watched during the life time of the anchor and in cases similar to them
which are reported in our paper from time to time readjustments are
obligatory.

Discusser R. Frederking

Geotechnical Section,

Division of Building Research,

National Research Council of Canada,

Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A OR6

This paper presents an interesting new anchoring system for use in snow
or ice, model tests to obtain data on long-term deformation of the
anchor in snow, and performance experience from a system put in place in
the Antarctic.

468
Equation (1) is based on an assumption of linear viscosity describing the
creep deformation of the anchor in snow. Analogous work in ice (Stehle,
1970, Frederking,1974) shows creep to be nonlinear with respect to stress
(n ~ 3). could the authors discuss this difference and suggest at what
snow density creep behaviour would begin to diverge significantly from
linear viscous.

In the typical load time curves of Figures 13 and 14 there is a decrease

in load and then an increase. Is there an explanation for this? Also from
Figure 13, what is the explanation for the large initial displacement?

References
Stehle, N.S. 1 970. Holding strength of piles in ice. u.S. Naval Civ.

Eng. Lab., Port Hueneme, Calif ., Tech Rep . R-700.

Frederking, R. 1974. Downdrag loads developed by a floating ice cover:

field experiments. Can. Geo. Journal, Vol. 11, No.3, August 1974, 9 p.

Answer

In our paper we did not develope equation (1) for the shear viscosity ~

but we used this simple relation for interpretation of the result of our
long term test V2a with consta nt shear stress.
The stress dependency of the shear viscosity, which is mentioned by the
discusser, could not be detected in our experiment because during the test
an unknown change in density took place. This new finding is in contrast
to our knowledge we hdd when we wrote the paper. We expect that for our
anchor system the influence of the change of density is more significant
than the influence of the varying shear stress. Further investigations
could verify this hypothesis.

The second question of Dr. Frederking is related to Fig. 13 and 14 of our

paper and can easily be answered in that way that P and PH are repre­
v
senting the prestressing load of the tension wires of the meteorological
mast. In the first time after construction a relative- high prestressing
load was applied in order to ensure the stability of the mast . During the
antarctic winter it was difficult to readjust the prestressing load.
Therefore P and PH droped down . After the winter it was decided to
v

469
increase the prestressing load, but not to the level of the first period
in order to reduce the creep deformation.

For the third question related to the large initial vertical displacement
unfortunately we do . not have a satisfying explanation.

470
 WIR Ice Symposium 1984
IA
•
Hamburg

ICE SCOUR AND ICE RIDGING STUDIES

IN LAKE ERIE

James D. Grass Ontario Hydro

Senior Engineering Geologist Geotechnical Engineering Department
700 University Avenue
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, MSG lX6

Questions, Answers, Discussion and Comments

CORRECTION

I apologize for a minor error in the wind velocity reported on page 10

of my paper. The wind velocity at the time of the ice ridging process
filming was about IS knots or 7.7 m/s.

Dr. T.J.O. Sanderson

BP Petroleum Development Ltd.
London, England

Question: Did you see any radial cracks?

There were radial cracks forming as the ice was riding up

and then breaking into smaller pieces. The most
prominent open cracks in the moving ice sheet was a
singular crack which formed under bending stresses about
4-S m in front of and parallel to the ice ridge.

Comment: I appreciate you sending me the beautiful picture of the

ice sheet bending down beneath the ridge. I think this
is a rare and wonder picture. Thank you.

471
Dr. R. Gerard
University of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta
Canada

Question: In your verbal presentation you stated you came across

ridge circumstances that could not be explained by the
often quoted keel-sail ratio of 4 to 5. Could you
elaborate a little on these circumstances? If it is
significantly different do you have any feeling about why
a larger ratio would occur in Lake Erie than in the
Arctic?

In the early part of my studies of ice ridging and ice

scouring in Lake Erie I noted the published 4 to 5 for
keel-sail ratios for Arctic ice ridging. had observed
ice scours in up to 25 m of water in Lake Erie but at
that time I had not observed exceptionally high ridges to
explain the deep keels from which the scours must have
been formed. From the standpoint of a free floating ice
ridge I could not, based on my observations, explain
these deep keels. It was at this point that I felt the
only other way to form deep keels was by the subduction
of the ice sheet beneath the ice ridge. So in this Sense
the quoted ratio of keel-sail was not always appropriated.

472
Dr. Donald E. Nevel
Mobil Research and Development Corporation
Dallas, Texas
U.S.A.

Comment: Your film on pressure ridge formation is very good, and I

compliment you on documenting this important event.

My paper in POAC '83 predicted much lower forces required

to push the sheet ice under a ridge than over it. Your
film helps demonstrate this process.

Question: Have you any idea how the initial pile of ice became
grounded?

Answer: I thank you for your comments. The initial ice ridge
process probably began from ice riding up and the ice
sheet being thrust down much in the same way as the movie
shows. It could have become dislodged and moved out into
the mid-lake area in the ice pack. The ice island could
then have grown rapidly in size by the multiple
collisions of other ice ridges. As the ice island grew
laterally it also added to its depth. The island when we
filmed it was grounded in a shallow area of the lake
known as the Norfolk Sill. The ice island got hung-up on
this sill. and ground its way for 2.5 km before stopping
or melting and floating free of the lake bottom and
movin·g into deeper waters to the east of the sill.

473
Dr. S. Beltaos
National Water Research Institute
Burlington, Ontario
Canada, L7R 4A6

~: First, I would like to express my appreciation for a most

interesting presentation and your documentation of an
important natural event. I have two questions and a
comment.

The same phenomenon seems to occur in rivers near ice jam

toes, though on a reduced scale. In this case the rubble
moves and the ice sheet is stationary. The rate of
advance is about 0.3 m, much as you reported.

Question 1: Could you elaborate on your interpretation of the

mechanism of grounding?

Question 2: Would you be able to give an estimate of the distance of

the cracks (shown on the video) from the edge of the
pile, at the time of their formation?

Author's
~: I appreciate your comments very much. The rate of ice
movement in your comment is an interesting coincidence
with ice movement in this study.

Answer 1: I only have some theories on the grounding mechanism from

which I could partially explain the ice scour occurrences
in Lake erie. Firstly, I don't believe you need to push
a single ice keel 4.5 km to produce a 4.5 km scour. You
can have a 4 km long ridge that moves only a short
distance (i.e. observations of ice ridges on American
shoreline). In contrast we saw a singular large ice
island pushed by lake pack ice that did produce a
documented ice scour 2.5 km in length.

474
 The grounding as observed from ice scours appeared to
initiate in deep water and either follows sub-parallel to
the bathymetric contours (i.e. parallel to the shoreline)
or moves perpendicular to the contours thus forming in
all cases a narrow scour at the impact point and becoming
wider as the water becomes shallower. This ice scour
morphology in combination with the terminal soil piles at
the end of some scours gave the direction of ice movement
at that moment. Detailed analysis of the point of ice
contact on the lake bottom and the end point of the scour
in very soft muds (i.e. on the Canadian side) indicates
that if the grounded ice keel moved only horizontally
through the mud that the scour depths at the end would be
about 4-5 m. The actual depth is less than 2 m. This
believed is an indication that the ice is tending to
float rather than digging into the mud. The natural
buoyancy of the ice would account for this drastic
difference between theory and real scour depths.

Answer 2: I can't say for sure how far from the i ce ridge the crack
formed parallel to the ridge but a guess would be about
4-5 m.

475
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR Eiichi Kitami, Kazuaki Fujishima, Yoshiaki Taguchi,

Takuo Nawata, Tetsuro Kawasaki, Fumikazu Sakai
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Japan

TITLE Iceberg collision with Semi-submersible drilling unit

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSOR : Robert Frederking
Geotechnical Section
Division of Building Research
National Research Council Canada
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS

This paper presents a theoretical analysis of an ice/structure

collision.

The movement of the strucutre is elastic in two dimensions with no

damping but the added maSS of the water is taken into account.

The iceberg is treated as having a constant strength and a plane

surface being indented by a cylindrical column. An " example of

load-indentation curves is presented in Figure 2.3. It would be

helpful if the structure diameter (2R) and crushing strength (fcr)

used for this case be spelled out. Also referance [3] dose not seem

to be complete.

The penetration test results in Figure 2.4 and 2.5 are quite

interesting. Again the crushing strength used for the predicted

curves in these figures should be given. Could the authors explain

the larger rate effect seen between the two cases since rate does

not appear in equation (2)? Also how do the authors explain the

limiting values 2.5 ton indicated in the test illustrated in Figure

2.4?

477
 Local deformation of the structure is also taken into account, both

elastic and plastic.

Several examples of small icebergs (bergy bits) importing on a semi­

submersible are then treated and results presented. These results

indicate the versatility of the analysis in looking at the effect of

berg mass. thickness, speed and strength. The results are quite

interesting but not enough information on the characteristics of the

semi-submersible, as required in equation (1) to permit duplication

of the results. This should be done. Also one of the conclusion is

that the crushing strength of the ice dose not have much effect on

the deformation of the column. This seems to be the case for increasing

the strength, but not decreasing it.

Again could the authors give (fcr) cal? Finally could the authors

comment on the effect which allowing the ice strength to change during

the import would have on the results?

478
REPLY :

Thank you for having much interest on our presentation.

1) The following values not described in the paper are used in this

analysis •

a) Structure diameter (2R) = 12,500 mm

b) Crushing strength (fcr) cal. - 605 t/m 2 for ice thickness

over 3.Om.

c) Weight of SIS unit - 27,000 ton

2) The cffects of the penetration velocity on the crushing strength

are taken into account for the predicted curves in Fig. 2.4 and

2.5, since the crushing strength used for these curves are obtained

from the results of the uniaxial crushing strength test carried

out for the various velocity. And the triaxial factor in conjunction

with the ice thickness is also 'taken into account in both figures.

3) Although the ice crushing strength would change during the

penetration and would be expected to decrease, it would be the

conservative assumption for the dent of the structure to use the

constant max. ice crushing strength which is applied in our analysis.

479
 DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR Eiichi Kitami, Kazuaki Fujishima, Yoshiaki Taguchi,

Takuo Nawata, Tetsuro Kawasaki, Fumikazu Sakai
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. Japan

TITLE Iceberg collision with Semi-submersible drilling unit

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSOR : Richard Hayes

Ice Operations Division

U.S.Coast Guard Headquarters

Washington, DC 20593

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS :

Comments on your iceberg definition and choice of parameters for the

iceberg:

1) Thickness: A I m to 13 m iceberg 1s not defined as a "bergy bit"

which 1s outdated terminology for a-sDmewhat larger iceberg.
Rather an iceberg from 1 m to 10 m in its longest waterline
dimension is called a "growler".

2) Shape : Only the largest of icebergs ean be of the tabular form;

an iceberg of the size you describe a growler cannot be tabular.
They are irregularly-shaped and are sometimes domed or pinnacled
or dry-do eked.

3) Penetration tests : In this report you state that you carried out
your tests on sea ice.
Icebergs by definition come from glaciers.
Hence, they are fresh water ice of much greater hardness than
the hardest multi-year sea ice. Your values for "crushing
strength" would most probably be different if you were to use
iceberg ice.

4) Mass My calculations show that a 3 m3 iceberg will have a mass

of < 1000 tons

5) Velocity : Normaly icebergs are advected at a maximum velocity of

2 to 2.5 knots.
However the smallest icebergs, growlers, are small
enough to be directly affected by storm waves such
that the growlers will surge with the velocity of the
large swell under those conditions.

480
REPLY :

1) Thank you for your kind suggestions on the basic matter of

iceberg, which will be very useful for our further study.
The main purpose of our study on Iceberg Collision with Semi­
Submersible is to roughlY investigate the limitation of the
operation of SIS unit in sea ice areas, and parameters applied
to our study are chosen by the way of example of various sea
ice condition.

2) The result of penetration tests are only refered in order to

verify the proposed equations describing the relation between
load and deffection of the tabular ice. The crushing strength
of iceberg used in the collision analysis is 605 t/m 2 for
thicker iceberg in warm season and it is confirmed in 3.3.4 in
our presented paper that the effect of higher crushing strength
is not so significant.

4~
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DISCUSSION ON "ANALYSIS AND MODEL TESTS OF PRESSURE RIDGES

FAILING AGAINST CONICAL STRUC TUR E S," BY Y. S. WANG

Yung-shih Wang E xx on Production Research Company USA

Research Associate Houston, Te xas

Discuss ion by D. S. Sodhi, U.S. Army Co ld Regions Research and Engineering

Laboratory, Han over, NH 03755-1290, U.S.A.

The author makes a comparison between the results of two theoretical methods
- ela s ticity and plasticity and the test results for ridge loads on conical
s tructures. Most of the exper imental results were obtained from tests with wax
model ice . The comparisons shown in Figures 3 and 4 indicate that the calculated
loads from the pla sticity method provide a better estimate of the ridge load than
t ho se fr om elasticity method. The elasticity method underestimates the forces
whereas the plasticity method provides an upper bound of the ridge loads. Due
to ductile nature of wa x model ice, it is not surprising to find a good agreement
of experimental results with that of plasticity method. The comparison of results
with saline ice m odel t es ts is based on too few tests to base any confidence, but
there is s till good agreement between the calculated and experimental ice loads.

Unfortunately, only an outline of the plasticity method is given in the paper, a

detailed description is prov ided in a cooperative research study (AOGA 96, 1979)
which may not be readily accessible. Could the author provide the derivation of
the equations? Moreover the details of the experiments are given in another
proprietary report (Edwards and Abdelnour, 1977). Further evaluation and
application of the plasticity method is therefore difficult.

In spite of the above work, a test program with saline or urea ice would be
de si rable. Such ic e would be more brittle than wax model ice and also provide
a more realistic coeffi c ient of friction between the ice and structure.

Au thor's Rep ly by Y. S. Wang

The author wou ld like to point out a typographical er ror in the paper first. Eq.
(1) should read

483
The derivation of the upper bound equations is provided in the Appendix following
all discussions to this paper. r agree with Dr. Sodhi that more tests with saline
or urea ice ridges would pro vi de further evaluation for the plasticity method.

Discussion by J . R. Kreider, ARCTEC, Inc., 9104 Red Branch Road, Columbia, MD

02145, U. S.A.

The plastic limit solution outlined by Dr. Wang is a significant enhancement over
elastic theory for predicting multiyear ridge loads on conical structures. I
congratula te the author on developing the solution and providing a good
comparison between theory and experimental results which were appropriately
screened for bad data. I would encourage publication of the full plastic limit
solution.

Based on compar ison to data presented, I have the following questions:

1. In Test Numbers 4, 7, 9, and 17 the ratio of ridge to sheet thickness was

large and Rv predicted from elastic theory agreed very well with the
measured Rv in 3 of 4 tests. In tests 20-27, the ratio was smaller and
elastic theory underpredicted R y . Is it possible that the elastic model
incorrectly modeled the ridge/sheet attachment a nd that this error
contributed signi ficantl y to underpredictions?

2. Did the observed failure mode of the ridge (0, 1, or 2 cracks) agree with
the failure mode predicted by the plastic limit theory? In Tests 13, 14, and
15 rid ge length increased while other parameters remained the same. The
rate of increase in predicted Rv with L is faster than measured. Is this
re latp.d to Change in failure mode, and what are the implications for an
infini te ly long ridge?

3. Hav e yo u extended model to include reduction in moment as cracking

proceeds? If so, are predicted load s sensitive to this effect?

4. Compa ring Te st 27 to 24 and 26 to 25, the ridge length increased and the
sheet fle xura l strength decreased. Measured Rv increased, but predicted Rv
decreased in both comparisons. Can you comment on the sensiti vit y of Rv
to sheet properties for the e xperimental data and for the plastic limit
solution?

Au thor's Reply by Y. S. Wang

1. Indeed the elastici ty model incorrectly modeled the ridge/sheet attachment.

The elasticity method treats the ridge as an elastic beam on an elastic
foundation with the attached ice sheet being considered as flanges of
limited width attached on both sides of the ridge. It assumes that the ridge
fails by pure bending with no twisting as is provided in the plasticity
method. These assumptions are in greater error when the attached sheet is
relatively thick or strong which can both take up a sizable portion of the
failure load and induce twisting of the rid ge by altering the orientation of
the hinge cracks. This however, does not account for all the underpredic­
tion of the elasticity method. The elasticity me tho d treats the formation
of center c racks and hinge cracks se paratel y. At the formation of hinge
cracks, no residual strength of the ice a t the center crack is assumed to
have left while the plasticit y method still assumes a full strength at the
center crack. This further results in the underprediction of the elasticity
method.

484
2. The observed failure mode of the ridge appeared to have agreed with the
predicted mode in most cases. However, this is not required for the
plasticity method to be valid. It was observed t hat for longer ridges, the
plasticity method showed more overprediction of ridge loads than for
shorter ridges. This could be due to any of the following rea so ns: 0) The
assumed velocity fields for long ridges might not be as good as that for
shorter ridges. (2) During test preparation, long ridges were more suscepti­
ble to damage. (3) The strength of long ridges might not be as st rong as
short ridges. The strengths of short ridge s were not measured because of
insufficient length after testing. (4) The mechanics of long ridge failure
might be different from expected. For example, the hinge cracks and the
center crack might not have occurred at the same time .

3. If reduction of moment due to cracking of the ridge were co nsidere d, the

predicted ridge load would be reduced .. I don't think the ridge load is very
sensitive to this effect because only about hal f of the total rate of energy
dissipation is due to ridge bending and only the reductio n of the center
crack moment in long ridges appears plausible. However, this might be the
reason why the calculated results showed more conservatism for longer
ridges. I have not extended the model to include reduction in moment due
to cracking.

4. The difference in measured and predicted loads for these tests could ha ve
been due to inaccuracies in property measurements. I am not sure there is
a trend. In any case, the predicted loads are reasonably close to the
measured ones. I would expect that if the strength of the surrounding ice
sheet increases, the ice load will increase too. But s ince the sheet bending
failure only contributes to a small portion. of the total energy dissipation,
the load should not be too sensitive to the sheet property.

Discussion by John Currier, ARCO Oil and Gas Company, PRC-3075, P.O . Bo x
2819, Dallas, TX 75221, U.S.A.

In plasticit y anal ysis, consideration of a kinematically admissible ve locit y field

will gi ve an upper bound of ice force. Isn't thi s true, st rictl y speaking, onl y if
the material mechanical properties are accurate? To what extent does this
affect the conservatism you use in choosing ice mechanical properties? Also,
which properties do you feel are the most critical to know accurately?

Author's Repl y by Y. S. Wang

The upper bound theorem can provide a good upper bou nd when the material
behavior is trul y "perfectl y plastic" with an "associated flow rule" for the stress­
strain relationship. Assuming a perfectly plastic material behavior for a work­
softening material (i ncluding elastic-brittle) overestimates the material property
and hence overestimates the failure load. This is in addition to the upper bound
due to the assumed velocity field. However, as wa s mentioned earlier, the
reduction of the limit moment due to cracking (a n equivalent work-softening
effect) of the ridge should not have too much effect on th e failure load because
ridge bending contributes only about hal f of the total energy dissipation. In this
paper, the limit moment was taken as the maximum moment achieved in beam
tests with no adjustment for the post-yield strength reduction. The limit moment
of the ridge (both upward bending and downward bending) and that of the
surrounding ice sheet are the most important mechanical properties to know
accurately.

485
 APPE NDIX

The derivation of the upper bound equations is provided in the following for the
failure modes considered in this paper.

1. Long Ridge,~

This velocity field is shown in Figure 2 of the text. It is symmetrical with

respect to the vertical plane passing through the middle point of the ridge and
normal to the ridge axis. The vertical velOCity, w, in the region ABeD is
expressed by
x a-b
w
a aBT y), (AI)

where a = AD, b = Be, and Wo is the vertical velOCity at point A. For the
triangular region BeE, the velocity field is

= w [~~ _ ~_ b 1 (A2)
W
o ad a ad~'

where d = BE.

The discontinuities in the rate of angular rotation are

(A3)

The individual rates of energy dissipation are calculated as follows:

a. Dbr (due to ridge bending)

~ Wo \ Md + ~~2[BT2 + (a -b)2J!, (A4)

in which Md and Mu and the downward and upward limit moments for the
ridge. If afr is the flexural strength of the ridge material, then it can be
shown that

(AS)

486
where IR is the moment of inertia of the ridge cross section and Y n is its neutral
axis measured from the ridge bottom surface:

(BT 2 + 4 BT BB + BB2) H3
IR = (A6)
36 (B T + BB)

(2BT + BB) H
(Al)
3 (BT + BB )

The two equations of (A5) are elastic relationships between the bending moment
and the flexure strength, and it appeared that they should not be used for
plasticity analysis. However, the flexural strengths of the ridges were actually
reduced from the measured upward or downward bending moments using these
formulae, and the resultant flexural strengths reduced from both equations also
happened to be close. Therefore, using them to calculate back the limit moments
does not imply that the ridge behaves elastically.

b. Dbs (due to sheet bending)

Dbs = mo 'i>BE + 2 mo 'i>BC + 2 mo 'i>CE

2 m w [ 2 (b 2 + d 2) _ b (a-b)] (AB)
a a ad aBT J'
where mo is the limit moment per unit length of the ice sheet given by

G
fs T2
- -6- - (A9)

T is the thickness of the ice sheet, and G fs is the flexural strength of the ice
sheet. Following the same argument as in the discussion of (A5), the use of (A9)
does not imply that the ice sheet is elastic.

c. Dwr (due to ridge weight)

To be consistent with the plasticity concept, we consider the foundation as "rigid­

plastic". So that for the upward-moving portion of the ridge, Dwr is given by

Dwr = Pig
'lvru wdv, (AlO)

and for the downward-moving portion,

Dwr = (Pwg - Pig) r

')Vd
wdv (All)

where Pw9 and Pig are the weight density of water and ice respectively.

For the velocity field described here, Eq. (AlO) applies. Thus,

487
 wdv

a-b
(l - ~ aBT y) h(y) dxdy , (A 12)
a

where x = a - [(a-b)/BT)y is the equation for the line of discontinuit y CD.

The expression for the thickness function 0 f the ridge h(y) is

Omitting the detail of the integration, the result reads

(A l3)

where

(B T-BB)(a -b) + (BT-BB)2 (a -b)2 ]

6 BT 32 aBT 2

; 4BTBB 2 + BB 2)(a-b)Oa-b)
4 BT 6a

(A 14)

d. Dws ( due to sheet gravit y)

Dws "31 Pi g T Wo b 2 d / a (A15)

e. Of (due to friction)

For simplicit y, let's assume that the frictional effect can be derived by
considering the to tal force on the cone as being applied at point A in

488
Figure 2. Then it can be shown that the frict io nal energy dissipation rate
is given b y
}J.RH Wo
Of (A 16)
(s ina +}J.cosa ) ~

This expression is appro ximate and it should be reasonably good if }J. is

small.

Now, employ the upper bound theorem, Eq. (1), and we have

1
+ 2 Pig Wo F(BT, BB, H, a, b) +
"3 Pig T Wo b 2d/a

,u. RH Wo
+ (Al7)
(sino + }J. cos a sina

If Wo is small, then Wo = V tan a , and the pre vious equation becomes

a
M ( a-b )2 ]
RH ~ [ cota - -sino (sina }J. + }J.cosa )f l ) 2 [ Md + Mu + u BT

[2 (b 2+d2) _ b(a-b )l+ P ( )

+ 2 mo L ad aBT J
2 i9 F BT, BB, H, a, b

+ 3 Pig T b 2d/a!. (AlB)

Hence, we obtained an upper bound for the horizontal forc e RH a s a

function of a, b, and d. An optimization procedure wa s then constructed
to minimize the value 0 f RH with respect to a, b, and d.

2. Long Ridge , Type [J

This velocity field is shown in Figure Al. It differs with type I in that the
hinge crack line OF is perpendicular to the ridge a xis. Because of
continuity in displacement, the section OFGH rotates s lightly downward
about DH and the adjacent ice sheet also deforms accordingl y.

- ~ - ~ ]
In ABFO, w = Wo (1 - ~ -a~-~ y), in BCE, w -- w 0 [b(BPd)
ad a ad y ,

in DFGH, w -wo
(a-b)
a8 T y in CFI, w Wo [!!.a _2a + (a-b)
ae
(y-BT )]
'

in FIJG, W
f(y-BT)
[-- e- - J
1 (a-b)/a in GJK, W

in HGK , W Wo [ (x - L /2) - _ y_ ] (a-b)/a

e 8T '

489
 where r is the radial distance from G, a AD, b BC, d BE, and e
GJ.

The discontinuities of the angles of rotation are

1 +_1_)
<PIJ wo (a-b)/ ae , <P FG wo ( (a -b )/ a ,
e BT

<PCI wo V(a -b )Z + eZ /ae , <PHK wo YBT Z + e Z (a-b)/aeBT '

<PGH wo (a -b)/ae , <PJK wo (a-b)/ae , <PGK wo (a-b)/aBT .

The rest of the analysis is similar to the previous case and is not repeated.

3. Short Ri~pe I

This is the same velocity fie ld as for the long ridge, t ype II, except that
D and H coincide so that th e hinge cracks occur at the ends of the ridge.
It is shown in Figure AZ and the analysis is similar to the previous case.

4. Short Ridge, Type II

This ve locity field is shown in Figure A3. It is the same velocit y field as
long ridge, type I, except that C moves toward th e right and coincides with
G. Moreover, there is no ve loc it y discontinuity acro ss the ridge/sheet
intersection line GH. The de sc ription of the velo cities in different regions
is the same as in long ridge, type I.

5. Very Short Ridge, Type I

Thi s velocity field is sh own in Figure A4. The ridge moves lik e a rigid
body.

In ABGH, w (l --y )

BT

In COH, w ( 1 _ (x - LiZ)
a

where a = HD.

The di sco ntinuities of the angle of rotation are

In the dissipation rates, D br = O. The upper bound for ce is

490
 [ cota ­ + 4a BT )
sina (sin Q + ,ucos Q

+ 4"1 Pig (ST + BS) H L +"3

1 I
Pig TaBT . (A19)

This upper bound can be minimized i f

(A20)

u DJA ,
E;
I
.~.

"
FIG . A1. VELOCITY F IELD FOR LONG RIDGE . TYPE II

FIG . A2. VELOCI TY FIELD FOR SHO RT RIDGE , TYPE I

FIG. A3. VELOCITY FIE LD FOR SI-ORT RIDGE . TYPE II

FIG . A4 . VELOCITY FIELD FOR VERY SHORT RIOGE , TYPE I

491
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: G. Engelke, U. JUrgens, W. Leske

TITLE: Ice formation and prevention on subzero
cooled hydraulic structures

NAME AND ADDRE SS

OF DI SCUSSER:
G. Frankenstei n
CRREL
Hannover, N.H.

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

Did you consider the snow cover in your

ice thickness prediction method?
If so, how did you do this?

Answer: Snow cover was not considered, for the

measured values of ice thickness did'nt
contain any specifications of this.
The scattering in fig. 2 is a result of
the different thickness for black and
snow-covered ice.

493
 DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: G. Engelke, U. JUrgens, W. Leske

TITLE: Ice Formation and - Prevention on Sub-zero
Cooled Hydraulic Structures

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER:
0. Starosolszky
Budapest
Hungary

DISCUSSION / QUESTIONS :

1. What is the reason for the brake in the lines on

fig. 3?
2. On figure 4 several paints were plotted. It would be interesting to
clarify, whether the scattering of paints is correlated to the
altitude or to the geographical latitude of the reservoir.
3. There is, however, the question whether the ice formation in
turbulent water (containing frazils), follows the procedure
simulated by the test stand in fig. 5.
ANSWER :
1. Fig. 3 is calculated by using dates from the literature "Klimadaten
der DDR", ein Handbuch fUr die Praxis, Reihe B, Band 1
"Lufttemperatur" MHD der DDR 1980" for the years 1951/75. The
reason for the brake cannot be declared. Further investigations are
necessary.
2. Fig. 4 is the result of measuring ice thickness at three reservoirs
during 30 years. The three points in a vertical line are values for
minimum, medium and maximum ice-thickness.

494
The test stand shown in fi2. 5 was built for low
t~rb~lenz in the sub-cooled bBsin. Some holed pipes

ftS inlet-structures were installated to produce ~ets

and to prevent ice formation at the surface and at

the walls.

495
 lAHR lee Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

PAPER: Hodel Tests of Ice Forces on a Wide Inclined Structure

by G.W. Timco

Discussion by : K.R. Croasda1e

The author is to be commended on the careful experiments performed and

the large amount of data which can be used to correlate with various
theories.

It is of course not surprising that the 2-D theory underpredicts the

experimental data when the ice sheet is wider than the structure
width. In association with the 2-D theory a correction factor was
supplied by Croasdale (1980) to approximate this situation. The
correction factor was (1 + 0.2S rr2t ) where 1 is the characteristic
B
length of the ice sheet and B is the structure width. (Incidentally,
a truly wide structure would be one for which 1 is small compared with
B which was not the case in these experiments.)

If this correction factor was applied to the results, then typically

the force levels calculated would be higher by factors in the range
1.8 to 3 . 0; this would bring the calculated and experimental data in
much better agreement.

Finally, would the author care to comment on data presented by Kry

(1980) for a conical structure, where Ralston's (1979) analysis was
compared with experimental data from the Esso ice basin. This data
(attached) showed that the calculated forces were generally larger
than the measured forces.

References:

Croasdale K.R. (1980) Ice forces on fixed rigid structures.

In CRREL Special Report 80-26 p. 34-106. Hanover, N.H . USA

Kry P.R. (1980) Ice Forces on Wide Structures. Canadian Geotechnical

Journal 17 1:97-113

497
 References (cont'd)

Ralston, T.D. (1977) Ice force design considerations for conical

offshore structures. 4th Inti. Conf. on Port and Ocean Eng.

under Arctic Conditions (POAC) Vol. II

Author's Reply :

The author would 1ike to thank the reviewer for h is comment s. It is

true that if the correction factor is applied to the simple 2-D model,
there is a better overall correlation between theory and experiment.
However, if one examines the agreement between the tests involving the
low freeboard of 0.09m, it is clear that the simple theory does not
predict the correct trend . Frederking's treatment, which is more
informative in terms of the physics of the interaction process seems
to be more reliable for these wide inclined structures. With regard
to the second comment, the classification of this structure as a
"wide" structure was based on the more conventional definition in
terms of the ratio of structure width (8) to ice thickness (h). For
these tests, this ratio varied between 12-40. Finally, the author is
not sufficiently familiar with the results of the tests on the co.nical
structure in the Esso test basin to be able to comment in detail on
the comparison between the data and Ralston's theory. However,
Ralston's plastic limit analysis is generally considered as the upper
bound load on the structu·re, and it therefore should overpredict the
actual load in most cases.

Comment by: R. Frederking, National Research Council, Canada

I am familiar with the Esso test data. Comparing the cone test data
with Ralston's plastic limit analysis shows good agreement when the
failure is described as plastic, i.e. warm ductile ice. For the cases
where the ice is described as being elastic/brittle, the plastic limit
analysis overpredicts by about a factor of 2.

498
Question by: F.G. Bercha, F.G. Bercha and Assoc., Calgary, Canada

Do you have any plans to expand the testing program, specifically to

increase the effect of an increase in the width of the plane? It

would be excellent to gather more data on sequential failure effects

as a function of structure width to ice thickness (i.e. aspect ratio).

Author's Reply:

Some further testing in this area may be performed at a later date .

We tested only to a width of 1.5 m in order to avoid edge effects from

the side walls of the tank (the tank is 7 m wide). In the data pre­

sented in the paper, the results of tests for structures of width 0 . 5

m, 1.0 m and 1.5 m are given for ice thicknesses ranging from

3.1 em to 5.5 cm. These data cover a wide range of aspect ratios of
12-40.

Question by: V. Vivatrat, Brian Watt and Assoc., Houston, USA

You showed a slide indicating only a small effect of flexural strength

on the loads. You only mentioned that you and Frederking have been
working on an improved predictive model. wonder what the
contribution of the flexural strength is in this model (the ice
breaking part).

Author's Reply:

The relative importance of the breaking load is a function of several

parameters. For the range of test parameters reported here, the
breaking component is of the order of 15-20 % of the total load. The
paper by Frederking and me on this subject will be published in the
Proc. of the 4th Int. Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering Symp.,
Dallas, USA, Feb. 1985.

499
 Question by: E. Wessels, HSVA, Hamburg, W. Germany

Did you obs,erve any buckling events during the test series depending
on speed range, plate inclination or roughness? If not, do you think
that buckling would be conceivable with a test set-up as you used it,
if the range of parameters had been wider?

Author's Reply:

There was some slight buckling of the ice sheet during the interaction
process, but the failure mechanism was always as described in the
paper (i.e. flexural failure). Buckling could become important if the
angle of the plane was made steeper, or the friction of the plane was
greatly increased .

500
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg I

AUTHOR: F. Thunbo Christensen and P. 7ryde

TITLE: Extraction of piles by repeated water-level

fluctuations.

NAME AND ADDRESS C. Allen Wortl~y

OF DISCUSSER: University of Wisconsin.

432 North Lake Street
Madison, WI 53706
U.S.A.

DISCUSSION - The authors state that only the pile-ice

interaction is considered in thei+ paper, and that a de­
tailed analYsis should also include the soil-pile inter­
action. The" discusser agrees; and ) has reviewed the geo­
technical engineering literature with respect to skin
frictional resistance of pilings under uplifting. (Wortley,
19(4) •
There is very little field data on piling u?lift tests
for saturated sands and clays; and, ~ore data and labora­
tory studies are needed. The discusser believes that ice
action on !?ilings may "lrliggle" pilings free from harbor
bottoms; but, does not presently ~nOlrl hO\~ to estimate the
reduced "wiggle forces". "Static uplift forces" may
approach 300 kN before well-founded harbor pilings are
lifted.

REFERENCE - \'lortley, C,.A. 19114. Great Lakes I small-craft

harbor and structure design for ice conditions : an engi­

neering manual. Sea Grant Advisory Report WIS-SG-D4.

l1adison; University of Wisconsin Sea Grant Institute.

AUTHORS COMMENT - The authors agree on the need for field

tests concerning the skin frictional resistance of pilings

in saturated sands and clays.

The authors also agree on the "lrliggling" being important,

501
 since it reduces the pulling resistance. As the pile is sub­
jected to varying horizontal f o rces at the ice level it bends
and may create a funnel shaped hole in the clay that sUr­
rounds it. Thus, the effective driving depth is reduced as
s ho~'rn on figure 1. This effect may account for the discre­
pancy between theoretical and measured uplift forces.
In the field study by L.Zabilansky on the Connecticut River,
which was covered in the authors presentation at the sympo­
sium, maximum uplift forces of 30 kN were measured on an
8 inch diameter wooden pile. The pile was pulled up 3-4 feet
by the ice. Soil borings were made adjacent to the pile and
revealed soil conditions that should provide for a pulling
resistance in the range 180-270 kN. That is 6-9 times the
measured maximum uplifting farce. In a similar study, per­
formed some years ago by R.J.Hodek on the Great Lakes, large
discrepancies were found between estimated and measured
pulling capacities, thus supporting the findings of Zabilan­
sky.

Original
driving depth driving depth

1 1
Figure 1; Funnel shaped hole around pile (exaggerated width) .

502
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

MODEL FOR PREDICTING GLOBAL ICE LOADS ON WIDE ARCTIC OFFSHORE

STRUCTURES DURING IMPACTS OF SUMMER MULTI-YEAR ICE FLOES

DENIS BLANCHET, M. Sc. DOME PETROLEUM LIMITED CANADA

RESEARCH ENGINEER

MICHEL METGE, Ph. D. ·I.S.E. ENGINEERING CANADA

PRESIDENT LTD.

Discussion By: K.R. Croasdale

The authors are to be commended for extendi ng the mult i -zone crush i ng
model of Kry for gradual penetration of a floe and structure (which is
typical of a summer ice impact) Also for including methods to allow for
ice thickness effects and the possibility of some zones failing in
flexure.

The input data for Kry's model requires statistical information on ice
crushing pressure for a single zone as a function of penetration. In
their paper the authors have used data from laboratory test and
relatively small-scale field tests. What work is required to generate
with some confidence input data which corresponds to large volumes of
ice being fractured? In this regard, the authors might care to comment
on the usefulness of the large-scale measurements at Hans Island.

Lastly a question relating to Figure 4 where thickness data is shown to

a maximum thickness considered in their calculations and for the results
shown in Figures 5 and 6? If so, how can the ·effects of local
thickeni ngs such as multi -year ri dges be accounted for, and are they
likely to give larger forces than shown?

Rep ly By: D. Bl anchet

The discussion by Mr. Croasdale is most welcome. The two questions
raised are very fundamental. The use of small scale (Michel and

503
Toussaint 1977) pressure data as statistical basis for a single zone
1eads to ' very conservati ve members when appl i ed to full scale impact
scenari os. The method wi 11 over-estimate the number of peaks resulti ng
in a higher probability of exceedence as a function of penetration for a
given stress. Typically, for multi-year ice floe impacts against a
wide structure as defined by Kry (1978) the single zone will be
varyi ng between 5 and 50 m2 depending on the structure width and the
ice thickness. If all the available ice strength data are plotted on a
pressure/area plot, it can be seen easily that no data are available in
the 5 to 50 m2 range. The only reliable method to derive the single
zone statistics is to calculate them back from the Hans Island full
scale data. This method is however still inaccurate but more realistic
than the method base on the small scale data. It is thus suggested that
semi-local ice pressures should be measured by means of ice panels
during future large scale experiments.

Fi gure 4 was extrapol ated up to a thi ckness of 15 m in the present

calculation of ice loads (Figure 5 and 6). In addition, Figure 3 was
extrapolated from 10 8 to 10 7 and lOll to 10 12 . Since events to
cause failure are likely to be located around the end of the
distributions, it is very important to extend the data sets when the
data are available. As indicated in Figure 4, the data set based on the
USS Sargo Cruise are points data. The point data distribution means the
distribution of all local thicknesses recorded by the USS Sargo during
its cruise including all the multi-year ridges encountered. Some
thicknesses were measured over 25 m but their probability were very low.

We assumed that the distribution of thicknesses of multi-year ice around

the edge of the floe is the same as measured. We assumed that the poi nt
of initial contact is randomly distributed therefore the distribution 6f
the thicknesses at the point of contact is the same as measured. The
effective thickness for the impact is a sort of average thickness around
the point of contact. The vari ance of any average random variabl e is
less than the variance of the original random available. Therefore, the
probability of exceedence of a given average thic'k ness must be less than
the probability of exceedence of the local thickness. Then, by assuming
that the data points represent the local thickness, the assumption leads
tn ~""servati ve numbers over us i ng the average di stri buti on of 1oca 1

504
thicknesses.

Discussion By: R. Frederking

The authors are to be congratul ated for presenting in this paper some
new insights into the problem of loads associated with ice floes
impacti ng on offshore structures. The "1 imit force" and "1 imi t stress"
approaches of Croasdale have been supplemented by the "1 imit momentum"
approach described here. This approach considers the case where full
envelopment of the structure does not occur because of a 1imitation of
the momentum of the fl oe. It is appl i cab 1 e to the summer impact of
multi-year floes. A probabilistic prediction of global loads based on a
modification of Kry's concept of failure zones is made. In total the
paper presents a 1 ogi c for estimati ng the ri sk of exceedance of the
global design load for summer ice forces.

In the first step of the modification of Kry's model it is stated that

equation (1) was modified to better correlate the design pressure to the
instantaneous probability of exceedance using the normal probability
table. Could the authors state what the basis was for this modification?

In the limit momentum impact model it was indicated that a correction

was made for the higher effective ice pressure at small aspect ratios.
What was the indentation function used here and how sensitive was the
solution to the function used? The predicted design load seems to be
quite sensitive to mean stress and geometric standard deviation (Figures
5 and 6). Could you say something about the sensitivity of the solution
to the number of zones assumed.

The paper points out that both bending and crushing modes of failure are
observed in nature. Only crushing has been assumed in the paper. Could
the authors offer an estimate as to the proporti on of bend i ng 1ike1y to
be observed in summer and the effect it would have on the maximum global
load?

Reply By: D. Blanchet

1) In his original paper, Kry states that two parameters are required

505
 to completely define a particular log-normal distribution; the
medium stress (m ) and the geometric standard deviation ~g.
s
Given these two values, the stress exceeded with a probabil ity
Pi is:
S (1)

where y is the "variate" following, with its relationship to Pi'

the definition of the log-normal distribution by evaluation of the
probability integral. If equation (1) is rearranged in the form
of:
1 n _S_/l n O"g y (2 )

ms

and knowing that the mean pressure in one zone $1 equals the
mean pressure in "N" zones Sn= S, we have:
ln _S_/ln O"gn = y (3 )

which corresponds to the expression shows in equation (8). The

results from the above equation (3) can be used directly in the
normal probabil ity tables to cal cul ate the instantaneous
probability of exceedance Pits).

2) The function used is based on published and proprietary data and

relates the design ice pressure with the contact area and aspect
ration O/t. Unfortunately the function used can not be publ ished
in this paper (Ref.l).

3) The sensitivity of the number of zones defined as the contact

width divided by four times the thickness of the ice sheet is
quite low. We varied the number of zones from 3 to 5
thicknesses. The results showed a variation of 5% and less in the
ice loads.

4) A percentage of zones failing by bending and varying with the

aspect ratio O/t was effectively included in the present results.
Unfortunately, the data set and observations are proprietary.
These "bendinQ zones" assumed are quite important and al so help to

506
differentiate between winter and summer impacts.

Finally, I would like to apologize for the missing references:

Blenkarn, K.A. (1970). "Measurements and Analysis of Ice Forces

on Cook Inl et Structures". Proceedi ngs, OTC, Paper No. 1261,
Houston, Texas.

Dunwoody, A.B. (1983). "The Design Ice Island for Impact Against
an Offshore Structure". 15th Annual Conference OTC, Paper No.
4550, Houston, Texas, May 2-5.

Gold, L.W. (1978). "Ice Pressures and Bearing Capacity". In

Geotechnical Engineering for Cold Regions. ed. O.B. Andersland
and D. C. Anderson, McGraw-Hi 11, pp. 505-551, SBN-0-07 -001615-1

Hirayama, K., Schwarz, J. and Wu, H. (1974). "An Investigation

of Ice Forces on Vertical Structures". Iowa Inst. Hydraul ic Res,
Rep. No. 158.

Iyer, S.H. (1983). "Size Effects in Ice and Their Influence on

the Structural Oesign of Offshore Structures". POAC, 7th Inter.
Conference, Hel sinki, Finl and, Vol. 3.

Kry, P.R. (19811. "Scale Effects in Continuous Crushing of

Ice". Proceedings, IAHR Symposium on Ice Problems, Quebec,
Canada, Vol. II pp. 565-579.

Michel, B. and N. Toussaint (1977). "Mechanism and Theory of

Indentation of Ice Plates". Journal of Glaciology. Vol. 19, No.
81, pp 285-300.

507
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: HOIKKANEN Juhani

TITLE : Measurements and analysis of ice pressure against

a structure in level ice and in pressure ridges
NAr~E AND ADDRESS Denis Blanchet

OF DISCUSSER: Dome Petroleum Ltd.

P.O. Box 200 Calgary, Alberta T2P 2H8, Canada
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
When an elastic medium such as a sensor is embedded in an other elastic
medium of different stiffness, such as a concrete wall, problems such as
bridging, stress concentration and cracking occur in front of the sensor
disturbing the measured stress (Hamza and Blanchet 1984). Was the stiff­
ness of the sensor the same as of the structure? Was the sensor flat with
the face of the structure? What was the average peak/mean pressure ra­
tions?

AUTHOR'S REPLY:
The pressure sensing surface of the sensor is embedded at the same level
as the face of the structure. The ratio average peak pressure/mean pres­
sure varies in different regions of the structure. In the region of the
level ice and the consolidated part of the ridge the rat i o average peak
pressure/mean pressure is about 7 and varies in different data sequenses
(of length 10 min).

509
 DISCUSSION FORN

AUTHOR: HOIKKANEN Juhani

TITLE: t~easurement and analysis of ice pressure against

a structure in level ice and in pressure ridges
NAt~EAND ADDRESS Mauri t~aatUinen
University of Oulu
OF DISCUSSER: 90~70 Oulu 57, Finland

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
Answer to the question of the stiffness of pressure transducer by Mr. Denis
Blanchet:

The pressure transducer is having a pressure sensing simply supported cir­

cular steel plate with the diameter of 200 mm and the thickness of 15 mm.
The deflection of this plate under ice pressure is small (max < 1 mm),
comparable to the contact pressure deformation of the concrete in the
lighthouse itself. As both are significantly stiffer than the ice there
should be no difference due to arching in ice pressure against the pres­
sure transducer of the surrounding concrete.

510
 WfR Ice Symposium 1984

IA

•
Hamburg

AUTHOR: Cormeau, A., Jordaan, I.J., Nessim, M.A., and Tomin, M.

TITLE: Ice Structure Interaction: A Fundamental Energy-Based Approach

NAME AND AODRESS

OF DISCUSSER D.J. Goodman

BP Petroleum Developr,lent Lir.lited

Dyce, Aberdeen

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

In our Hanover paper we analytically estimated the load required to prop­

agate a radial crack. It is surprisingly low. Once the crack reaches a
significant length, the stress field from this crack dominates all others.
Is it correct to use K = 115 kN m- 3/ 2 for this large crack? What failure
Ic
criteria did you use to allow crack growth in your finite element model?

REPLY :

we are grateful to Dr. Goodman for his discussion. The crack propagation
loads obtained by our FE analysis are of the same order of magnitude as
the ones estimated by the discusser in his very interesting Hanover paper.
Our analysis was based on the equivalence within the linear elastic range
between the Griffith energy release rate, GIc and the critical value of
the J-integral J lc ' so that the standard J-integral option in the FE
program A6AQUS could be used. The Glc = 0.9 J/m! was used for the crack
initiation, assuming an ice temperature of -2°C and a 25mm grain size
(Urabe, Yoshitake, 1981). It is agreed that the crack tip can get blunt­
ed at some local nonhomogeneities (grain boundaries, brine pockets, holes,
etc.) which may lead to differences in KIc value. For the analysis it
was, however, assumed that there is an ideal (sharp) crack of a given
length and that the stress intensity at the tip after reaching K ini­
Ic
tiates the crack propagation.

511
 REFERENCE:

Urabe, N., and Yoshitake, A., "Fracture Toughness of Sea Ice In-Situ
i~easurementand its Appl ication", POAC 81, Vol. 1, pp. 356-365.

NAHE AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER Vitoon Vivatrat
Brian Watt Associates, Inc.
Houston, Texas 77032

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

You mentioned that you used quasi-static finite element analysis in crack
force prediction. What are the boundary conditions on the floe? Is the
applied force balanced by body force in the actual analysis? If you put
in some boundary conditions, how would they affect the prediction?

REPLY:

We thank Dr. Vivatrat for his interest in our paper. In answer to his
question, we confirm that uniformly distributed body forces are applied
to the floe, so that. an equal and opposite reaction force is generated at
the tip of the indentor. Other boundary conditions were not applied, as
they would misrepresent the floe's deformational behaviour.

512
 lAHR lee Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DI scuss Ion of _"".dad I ce PlOds As Dr 11 "ng 8 _ I. The Be... fort Sell-

Discussion by K.R. <:roesdllie

It Is Interesting to controst some of the d..to given In this poper with d<Jto given

lost year by Neth ond others (1983) on the Ice pod constructed near the Torslut

Islond.

1. The buI'ldlng rete of the Tarslut pllId wes en Dverage of onty 7 em per day, cempered

wIth the Alerk r..te of 30 to 40 cm per doy. Presumobly thIs dIfference wos due

solely to the hIgh copoclty sprOV nozzles?

2. Also, lower bound Ice force colculoted by the outhor of 0.38 MN/m controsts with

obout 0.78 MN/m design force for the Torslut pod.

In vIew of the sensItivity of the Ice pod desIgn portlculorly freeboord to the

desIgn Ice 'mId, does the author have llIny canments on the v81ues used for the

Terslut p8d design canpered to the v81ues dIscussed In the peper?

3. One fUrther point, the author suggests thet e lerg8 proportIon of the weter sprayed

dId not contribute to the Ice build-up. If most of thIs wos lost In wInd

dispersion, then the surrounding sheet Ice mey hllve been wetlkened by the brine

"fell-out". In -nleh cess the fce strength velues used by the 8uthor In his Ice

force celculatlons might be consIdered conservetlve. Was the strength of the

surroundIng Ice maosured1 Furthermore, does the euthor consider the concept of

_:

purposely weokenlng the surroundIng Ice by limIted sprovlng (ond hence JustIfyIng

10wer Ice forces) e reosoneble proposition?

Neth, V.W., T. SmIth, ond B.D. WrIght (1983). DesIgn, constructIon ~nd monItorIng of

the

Tersfut relief Ice ped. Seventh POAC Conference, HelsInki (yn Symposium 38, Yolume

4, 1983).

513
 Respo..... to Discussion by K.R. cr-oasdale

1. The build-up rate at the Alerk Ice pad was only for the sprayed Ice deposited on the

pad surfece. The dl fference fran the T8r5 Jut pad WtlS the resutt of the hIgher

ctlpeclty pump and sprayfng nozz1es used.

2. The tower bound ca1cutated Ice force used tilt "Ierk dIffers 1rOOl T8rslut beceuse of

assumed rlde-up heIghts. the Influence of the Alerk rubble field, the locatIon of

the Merk site withIn landfest JC8J1 and the purpose of the structure. The A1erk Ice

ped was an experlmentaf reS8M'ch structure with higher ltCceptebfe rIsks to Iwter81

falture_ The she' lower water depth end the tower desIgn Ice force also account for

the dIfference In freeboerd between the no Ice plids.

3. No strength mellSurements were carried out In the surrounding tce sheet. If In feet

the sprayed Ice does weaken the surroundl ng I ce sheet then the 8dded conservlIItl sm 'n

the desIgn ceiculetlon Is e bonus to the ped's resIstance. The procedure of

sprayIng Ice to purposely weeken the Ice sheet to reduce desIgn Ice force wouid be

reasonmle In sha110w water arells of the landfast Ice. It woutd not be approprIate,

however, In deeper rells where Ice movement In the order of hunct-eds of metres am

occur.

514
 Ol,"""ssiOll of -Grounded Ice P_ As Dr,," ng 8_Is In The Be_tcrt Se. .

I. Could the author cOlM18nt In more detail on the volu... losses during spraying which

amounts to 2/3. This Is attributed to wind dispersion and brine drainage. Is It

possible thet these wou1d lItso be 10sses due to evepor-lftfon.

2. There ere some Pl!Pers In the Soviet fltertrture on the spr8)' Hooding techniques.

They shoul d be eXlInlned.

3. A production rate of 0.3 - 0.4 m/day was quoted. Ice pad construction by flooding

achieve rates of ""out 0.1 m/day. This Is signifIcantly lower stilI from the 50

times dl fference between the two methods wh letl you mentioned_

4. You descrIbe the spreyed Ice meter' lit liS Mohr-COulomb with the c •• Y81ues determined

fran sheer tests or estlmeted from the compress Ion tests.

5. Settlement lII'Iounts of 0.2 to 0.5 m were mentIoned. Wh8t .lIS the source of the

settlement lind why were they dl fferent1

Repons.. to Discussion by R. F..-rttlng

1. Some 6v8poretlon of the spr8yed w8ter does occur while the weter croptets ere In the

8T,. lind not frozen_ As 8 resuft of the hIgh porosIty of the newly from spreyed Ice,.

unfrozen brIne does not pool but draIns through the pad. EV"Pora1"lo n on the pad

surf lICe's therefore smn1 t.

}. The productIon rate of the sprayed Ice should be between 5 t o 10 tl ...s grea1"er than

flooded lee ra1"her than the 50 to 100 times quoted In the abstract. The

construction rntes at Aterk. given lJPproprlate wind and tempereture conditions, were
however found to be limIted by pumpIng ra1"e rather than freezing ra1"e. Additional

pumpIng equIpment could therefore further Increase the productIon rates of the

sprayed Ice.

515
 4. The c lind ,. v81ues Quoted In the pllper were estlm~ted from the ccrnpresslon tests.

5. It Is felt th.t settlement .os the result of the canpress Ion of the notur.1 Ice
rubble. Measured void splices within the Ice rubbfe were slgnlflcllnt1y tower thlln

sImi tllr measurements In nrlur1l1 Ice rubble fields. Also, tot 1I 1 sett1ements vlIrled

lit e8Ch survey movement wh Ich mlly ref teet the heterogeneity lind the vlIryl ng

th Ickness of the Ice rubble.

516
 W!R Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

ICE INTERACTION WITH ADANS ISLAND, WINTER 1982-83

R.M.W. Frederking National Research Council Canada

M. Sayed of Canada
E. Wessel s Hamburgische Schiffbau­ West Gennany
Versuchsanstalt GmbH.
A.J. Child The British Petroleum Company England
p.l.c., BP Research Center
D. Bradford Fisheries and Oceans Canada Canada

517
DISCUSSION BY: K.R. Croasda1e, K.R. Croasda1e & Associates, Calgary,
Canada
The authors are to be congratulated on their continuing thorough
examination of ice action on Adams Island. It is noted that the maximum
ice stress measured of 370 kPa was during a storm. Was anybody present
during this period, and if so, was this event accompanied by any noticeable
deformation between the ice and the island? The time lag between wind
build-up and stress build-up has also been noticed in measurements around
islands in the Beaufort Sea. Incidentally some of the Beaufort Sea Island
measurement studies are now becoming public and in fact Sanderson (1984) in
his paper to be presented at this conference refers to some of the results.
It is interesting to note that at Netserk F-40 in 1975 stresses of up to
1.0 MPa were measured during a major ice event (Stri1chuk, 1977).

Getting back to Adams Island, you note the lack of correlation between wind
direction and ice movement direction. In fact your data seems to sh"'" a
very consistent movement direction away from shore, not only at the island
but close to Borden Station. I kri"", you have observed similar phenomenon
at other Arctic locations e.g. the Nanisivik Dock, and you have explained
this as a tidal "jacking" effect (the tidal crack repeatedly freezing and
breaking). Would you care to comment on this as a possible explanation for
the ice movements in the Adams Island region.

Finally, do you consider that gradual thermal expansion of the ice sheet
during March to June could be another possible explanation for the apparent
steady ice motion away from shore?

References
Sanderson, T.J.O., 1984. Theoretical and measured ice forces on wide
structures. Paper to be presented at IAHR Ice Symposium, Hamburg,
August, 1984.
Stri1chuk, A.R., 1977. Ice pressure measurements, Netserk, F-40,
1975-1976. APOA Project No. 105-1 Esso Resources Canada Ltd., Calgary,
Alberta.

RESPONSE TO: K.R. Croasda1e

Thank you for your comments and particularly for drawing attention to SOme
of the Beaufort Sea Island data which is now becoming available.

518
Comparison of results from the Beaufort and the Eastern Arctic should be
helpful in developing a better understanding of the nature of ice processes
generating forces.

The storm which led to the maximum ice stress was very severe, i.e., wind
up to 60 km/hr, so no one was able to leave the camp during its course.
Examination of the ice cover following the storm showed no noticeable sign
of deformation. The photograph in Figure 2, taken April 7, 1983, shows
that buckle features were already visible at that time. These features
gradually increased with time.

One explanation for the observed ice cover movements is tidal "jacking";
however, the process does not seem to be a simple one of reaction to the
nearest shore line. Observations at Nanisivik indicated movements of
30 mm/day outwards at the dock and about 15 mm/day outwards on a natural
shore in March, values substantially smaller than those measured at Adams
Island and Borden Station at a similar time of year. It is our conjecture
that the movements represent the response of the ice cover to the entire
shore line of the northern part of Navy Board Inlet.

Thermal expansion of the ice cover is another explanstion for the ice
movement; however movements were largest in March when ice temperatures
were still quite stable and the rate of movement decreased as the ice cover
warmed up in the spring. Nevertheless, it is quite likely that thermal
expansion is also a factor in determining ice movements. Some work has
been initiated under a contract with C-CORE to measure thermal strains in
the ice cover.

DISCUSSION BY: T.S. Kemp, Esso Resources Canada Ltd., Calgary, Canada
The philosophy for offshore structures in industry is to have cost
effective designs without endangering lives. The degree of acceptable risk
associated with various environmental design conditions is very important
in developing these designs. The classical debate over whether to use the
limit stress or the limit driving force design technique approach has
recently been extended to ice loading on Arctic structures. In literature
there is a substantial amount of information on limit stresses based on
theoretical, laboratory and field measurements. There are few studies
which can be used to quantify the limiting driving forces. The work around

519
Adams Island is a step towards determining the limiting driving forces and
resolving this issue.

The paper describes an imaginative and thorough attempt to meaSure

environmental conditions, and ice sheet stresses and strains around Adams
Island. The author concluded that the movements around Adams Island did
not correlate well with environmental driving forces. The movements could
possibly have been the result of thermal expansion and growth of the ice
sheet. The effects of tides on measured strains should also be taken into
consideration.

An interesting aspect of the paper is that the majority of the stress was
carried only in the top quarter of the ice cover. An average stress across
the entire ice sheet thickness has classically been used to calculate loads
on islands. One might infer that the authors are recommending that, for
design purposes, we should assume that the ice sheet is loaded only in the
top quarter of its thickness. Secondly, later in the paper, when the
authors calculate the stresses in the ice sheet which might be expected
from wind drag on its upper surface, they assume thst the stress is
uniformly distributed throughout the entire thickness of the sheet.

The initiative to measure stresses and strains around offshore islands in

the Arctic is well received by industry. For future programs around Adams
Island it would be useful to see the stresses and strains from earlier in
the winter and for a longer period.

RESPONSE TO: T.S. Kemp

Thank you for your comment and the suggestion that ice cover movements may
be related to thermal expansion and growth of the ice cover as well as
tidal effects. As pointed out in the reply to the discussion by
K.R. Croasdale, these factors are being examined to see how they affect ice
c.over movements.

The results of the stress measurements indicate that the majority of the
ice cover stress is transmitted through the top quarter of the ice cover.
This is not -surprising, given the temperature and modulus gradient in the
ice cover. For consideration of local loads on structures, attention

520
should be given to non-uniform stress distributions in the ice cover. en
the other hand, for global loads and the response of the ice cover to drag,
it is reasonable as a first approximation to assume that stresses are
uniform in the ice cover.

In reply to the final suggestion, we are now carrying out our measurement
program from November (shortly after freeze-up) through to May so as to
cover the entire winter ice season.

DISCUSSION BY: T.J.O. Sanderson, British Petroleum, London

With your simultaneous measurements of average velocity U and average
strain rate ~ you should be able to test the law that ~ U/20 (or U/40)
where 0 is the structure diameter. Have you done this calculation? Your
results may at any rate be precise enough to establish whether we should in
this case be calculating E as a function of U/O or of U/t, where t is the
ice thickness.

RESPONSE TO: T.J.O. Sanderson

Average horizontal ice movement rates ranged from 100 to 20 mm/day. This
yields strain rates in the range 3 x 10- 9 s-I to 3 x 10- 10 s-1 based On
structure width, versus 6 x 10- 7 a-I based on ice thickness. Average

strain rates determined from ice deformation over short and long gauge
lengths were of the order 10- 9 s-I to 10- 10 s-I. Therefore it would appear
that strain rates based on structure width rather than ice thickness agree
more closely with measured strain rates.

DISCUSSION BY: O.S. Sodhi, Cold Regions Research and Engineering Lab.,
Hanover, N.H., USA
Please comment on the following:
(1) The stresses as measured by stress gauge are thermally induced. I base
this comment on the fact that the principal stress p and q were almost
equal, increased slowly and lagged behind the storm. The warming was
due to the increase of temperature during the storm.
(2) In-plane creep is not likely to occur near the island due to presence
of pre-existing buckles in the ice sheet. Perhaps creep buckling was
prevalent.

521
RESPONSE TO: D.S. Sodhi
(1) It is possible that temperature is also playing a part in the ice
pressures measured during the storm period on April 17-18. Air
temperature did increase by SoC from April 17 to April 18; however
temperature is not the sole factor. In my opinion the measured ice
pressure represents the response to a number of factors, which will
only be unravelled by thorough and careful measurements. The important
thing is to approach the problem with an open mind to other factors
which could be affecting the process.
(2) It is true that creep buckling is also occurring in the ice cover, at
least close to the island. Measurements made in a subsequent season
show that bending was occurring in the ice cover, but its magnitude
decreased with increasing distance from the island.

DISCUSSION BY: Erk Reimnitz, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park,

Calif., USA
1) Please explain the mechanism of tidal jacking.
2) If tidal jacking were the driving force for the observed ice sheet
motion, would you expect to see a correlation between rate of motion and
tides?

RESPONSE TO: Erk Reimnitz

1) The mechanism of tidal jacking is discussed in an earlier paper
(Frederking and Sinha, 1978). It is briefly repeated here. To the
onshore side the ice cover is hinged or fixed to the shore and on the
offshore side the ice cover is freely floating. Cracks parallel to the
shore allow the relative differences in vertical movements due to tide
to be accommodated by rotations and displaced by pieces of the ice
cover. Flooding and freezing occur at the crack interface between the
ice pieces being moved upwards and downwards. This freezing increases
the width of the ice pieces, as does rotation, gradually pushing the ice
cover away from the shore.
2) One would expect to see some correlation between ice pressure and tides
and this has in fact been seen in Some measurements made at Nanisivik
(Croasdale, 1984).

522
Reference
FrederkingJ R. and Sinha, N.K. 1978. Ice action on wharf at Strathcona
Sound. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. on Port & Ocean Engineering under Arctic
Conditions, St. John's, Nfld., Vol. 2, pp. 707-717.
Croasdale, K.R. 1984. Personal Communication.

DISCUSSION BY: Denis Blanchet, Dome Petroleum Ltd., Calgary, Canada

First, I would like to congratulate the authors for their excellent paper
on large scale measurements of landfast ice properties, pressures,
movements, deformations and driving forces at Adams Island. Since driving
forces and associated ice deformations and failure modes are important,
such studies are very welcomed. would like, however, to discuss some of
the major results presented in the present paper:
1. The ice pressures mentioned were not associated to particular failure
modes. Was creep the only deformation mode observed at the site Or
some local bending or buckling of the ice sheet also occurred? Were
some cracks observed during the April 18 event?
2. Often frozen-in conditions are felt to represent one of the upper bound
limit for a structure embedded in a F-Y ice sheet. Since the ice sheet
starts to move at a very slow rate, first at low pressure levelS,
before accelerating and breaking around the structure, do you think the
so called frozen-in conditions can really exist having in mind also
that tidal cracks always exist in the ice field surrounding the
structure?
3. What was the wind speed threshold at which movements of the ice sheet
were observed?

RESPONSE TO: D. Blanchet

Thank you for your thorough discussion of this paper. Good points have
been raised and they will be answered in turn.
1. From the photograph in Figure 2 it can be seen that the ice cover is
failing in bending and buckling immediately adjacent to the south side
of the island. At the location where the ice pressures and Delta
strainmeter strains were measured (about 200 m south-west of the
island) level surveys confirmed that no buckling or bending was
occurring so that deformation here could be considered to be

523
 predominantly in~plane creep. No new major cracks were observed after
the April 18 event.
2. The frozen-in condition is unlikely to exist in tidal waters. The
development of a tidal crack or cracks to accommodate the relative
vertical movements between the ice frozen fast to the structure (ice
foot) and the free floating ice cover always occurs. These cracks
cause the loading across them to be eccentric, which favours failure by
bending, buckling and local crushing. The presence of the tidal crack
also ensures that no tensile loads are transmitted to the downstream
side of the structure. In areas where there are no water level
variations for long periods of time, the frozen-in condition would have
to be considered.
3. Unfortunately no instrumentation was available for making continuous
ice movement measurements over the 1982/83 winter season, so it was not
possible to establish if a threshold wind velocity existed. No
correlation was found between ice movements determined from the
periodic (every two days) EDM surveys and wind. A threshold velocity
for wind-induced ice movements would very likely depend on local
conditions, i.e., fetch, wind direction, amount of grounding, nearness
to shore, etc.

524
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
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DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: Wessels, E.

TITLE : Model Test Investigation of Ice Forces on Fixed and

Floating Conical Structures

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER :

Raze k Abdelnour

Arctec Canada Limited

311 Leggett Drive,

Kanata, Ontario

K2K 1Z8

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS :

During your presentation you did not mention any comparison of

your results with available data in the literature related to ice action
on fixed conical structures.

As your probably know, Esso carried out a study in their Basin

in Calgary, Alberta which was summarized in an APOA report and published
by Verity (1975) where a model with a scale of 1/ 5 was used. The results
of these experiments were then compared to model tests carried out at
Arctec laborator ies in both MOD-ICE and Saline ice and the results were
published by Edwards et al (1975) and Kwangse et al (1973) . Ralston
(1977) presented and analytical model to predict ice forces on conical
structures based on the plastic i ty theory. Edwards (1981) presented a
comparison of the results of various model tests on conical structures
and compared the results to Ralston model.

I believe the comparison of your results to the above work would

be very useful to the user of this work results . Also the comparison will
help in better future planning for the required research in this
particularly interesting subject .

525
 REFERENCES

1. Kwangse Kim, J. and Kotras T., (1973) "Mathematical model to describe

the behaviour of a moving ice field encountering a conical structure"
Revised Technical Report 07, Arctec Canada Limited.

2. Edwards, R.Y., (1981) "Assessment of the Validity of Physical Model­

l ing of the process of Penetration of Level Ice by conical structures"
Energy-Sources Technology Conference and Axhibition, Houston TX.

3. Edwards, R.Y., and Croasdale, K.R. (1976), "Model Experiments to

Determine Ice Forces on Conical Structures", (unpublished preprint)
Symposium on Applied Glaciology, International Glaciological Society,
Cambridge, England.

4. Edwards, R.Y., Wallace, W.G., Abdelnour, R. , (1975), "Model Experi­

ments to Determine the Forces Exerted on Structures by Moving Ice

Fields (comparison with small prototype results), Final Report 42C

5. Verity, P.H., (1975) "APOA Project 65 - Small Prototype Cone Tests"

Winter 1973-1974, IPRT-8ME-75.

6. Ralston, T.D., (1977) "Ice Force Considerations for Conical Offshore

Structures", Fourth International Conference on Port and Ocean

Engineering Under Arctic Conditions.

Authors reply:

Thank you for drawing attention to other relevant work on determining ice
forces on conical structures.

It may have been overhead in my presentation, that I mentioned

reasonable good agreement of most of the test results with the plastic
limit analysis approach . However, the quality of correlation was not
homogeneous for all tests, but has to be evaluated from case to case. In
the printed version of this paper more comparisons of the test results
are presented with the emperical approach of Edwards and Croasdale (1977)
and with the analytical approach of Milano (1982).

526
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

AUTHORS: R.E. Potter, J.C. Bruce and N.F.B. Allyn

TITLE: Rubble Protection-An Alternative for Arctic Exploration
NAME ANO ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: T. Kemp
Esso Resources Canada
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
1. Freeze up with no ice rubble development has occurred twice in 12
years. To say that freeze up with no rubble development is a rare
event is not justified.
2. Placement of rubble generators for water depths greater than 14 m will
exceed the capability of existing equipment. Also operational concerns
with removal of generators should be addressed. If the submersible
units are used how will this affect the cost effectiveness of the
.rubb1e generating system compared with conventional islands.
NAME AND ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: R. Haspel
Dome Petroleum
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
The paper is an excellent review of research which has been done on
concepts of using artificially generated grounded rubble pads as protection
system of arctic offshore structures, comments on following questions might
be included in the review.
1. What does . the ice-soil interface look like after rubble formation.
2. How is the ice load resistance on the seafloor activated on
a. cohesive soils
b. non-cohesive soils
3. Which theory is used to calculate the soil resistance so that the
grounded rubble can truly protect offshore structures. This question
implies also rubble shear strength and overall stability consideration.
4. Is there a relationship between minimum ice movement versus rubble
volume.
5. Is there sufficient statistical information to warrant sufficient ice
movement in water depths up to 20 m.
Above questions are considered as very important in the potential future
use of rubble generators as a protections system in Arctic Offshore work.

527
CLOSURE:
The authors woul d like to thank Mr. Kemp and Mr. Haspel for thei r input.
The following general comments have resulted from their discussions:
1. The authors agree with Mr. Kemp that ice movements cannot always be
relied on to form a large grounded rubble field. Indeed, part of the
reason for the 1983/84 tests was to evaluate if the protection could be
provided entirely by spraying if rubble did not form. The results
indicated that during those winters with little early winter ice
movement the spraying can form the bulk of the ice pad.
2. The ice movements outside of the landfast ice edge are substantial, in
the order of several kilometers per day, with extreme movements in the
order of tens of kilometers per day. Providing an area does not become
landfast early, the ice movement data, and experience so far around
artificial islands in the Canadian Beaufort Sea indicate that during
most winters there is sufficient movement to form a substantial rubble
field. This does not apply to areas in very shallow water or sheltered
bays where the ice can stabilize early.
3. In a dynamic ice field, the use of rubble generators is considered
useful in reducing the window between freeze-up and the time when a
firmly grounded ice mound is formed. This is accomplished by
accumulating as much of the early winter thin ice which would normally
move past the site. The ice is encouraged to ground out early by using
downward deflecting booms and this volume of ice so formed in a rubble
field will not have to be made from sprayed ice.
4. The rubble volume formed is directly proportional to ice movement,
provided it does not float away during a change in ice movement
direction.
5. For deep water sites, a fast deployment semi submersible unit which uses
ballast water for set-down has been developed. Preliminary analysis
indicates that the cost effectiveness for certain sites appears to be
favourable when compared with artificial islands, when amortized over a
number of wells.
6. The ice-soil interface will comprise warm ice blocks of fairly weak
ice, with voids between the blocks, resting on the seabed or berm.
Scouring of the seabed or berm may result if the rubble field moves.
7. The ice load resistance will be the minimum of the ice rubble
interblock bonding and internal friction resistance, and the soil
strength, whether the soil is cohesive or non-cohesive.
8. An ice rubble/berm friction coefficient of about 0.6 is generally used
for the case of a grounded rubble on a sand berm. This is, of course,
variable, and may not apply to natural seabed conditions. The internal
rubble friction coefficient is ab.out 1.0.

528
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

"ICE PROPE!l.TIES IN RELATION TO ICE FORCES" by J.P. Nadreau & B. Michel

With fresh water i c e an infinite strength under hydrostatic pressure

c an be expected. In sea ice the porosit y can lead to a limited strength
under hydrostatic co mpression.

Could you please tell us your opinion on the behaviour of sea ice
under higher hydrost atic pressure?

In response to F.U. Hausler question concerning a limit in compres­

sive strength under purely hydrostatic loading, I believe that this
possibility is a very real one when ice contains a Significant number
density of heterogeneities (such as gas bubbles and brine pocke ts). In
mind here is some early work on steel (I forget the reference) which
showed that the upper yield point could be eliminated by first hydro­
statically loading the material.

During triaxial tests performed by Jones (1978)* he noticed that

the "sma ll amount of air in the original sample had disappeared". It is
kno"~ that in glaciers the air bubbles are modified by pressure (and
temp e rature gradient) so that they can virtually disappear.

Since brine is, as water, incompressible, we can assume that once

hydrostatic pressure becomes high enough, saline ice would behave as
fresh water ice.

The only difference which should be looked at carefully, is the

phase diagram for saline ice. This leads to a different phase change
pressure. This pressure limits (in a certain range of temperatures) the
existence of ice as such (l1ellor, 1979)*.

This cransition pressure at which ice becomes water (or brine) under
hydrostatic stress state, appears to us as being important to be explored
due to the tempera ture range at which this phenomenon takes place; on
the ot~er hand, the infinite strength of ice remains a purely theoretical
question which is not likely to be encountered in practical design.

\fuen considering the physical processes underlying the strength of

i c e in compression, I think that it is important to recogni ze that (at
constant load) the strain which corresponds to the minimum strain rate is
not a constant (i.e. is not always 10- 2 ), but decreases with increase in
grain size (D. Cole, K.Sc. thesis, Darthmouth College, 1984). Also, the
strain corresponding to the peak in stress (under constant strain rate)
decreases with increa sin g grain size (E.!!. Schul Son and N. P. Cannon, this
conference).

529
 This paper being a general review of the ice properties, the effect
of grain size has been brought up only for its influence on the ice
tensile strength.

There is no doubt that your comment is quite appropriate and the

recent studies you mentionned on the size of the grains bring weight to
early works on ice which were not as systematic on this particular subject.

Minimum strain rate (nominal failure) under creep occurs at the Same
strain provided carefully prepared ice is being used (Mellor and Cole).
The failure strain is different for sea ice and depends in a very simple
way upon grain size.

It is more advantageous to plot I(j versus rv

for streng th and \ iE
versus v for Young's modulus which for small v results in linear rela­
tions of a versus rv
in strength and E versus v as plotted by most
investigators. Only at high v discrepancies result doing it the old way.

The way ice strength a and Young modulus E have been presented is
one of the plottings used in the litterature (Weeks and Assur, 1967)*.

Our purpose was to report the evolution of parameters with respect

to some others. In a more extensive study, some other representation
should probably be thought of in order to pin point special relations
between parameters; especially the effect of grain size.

* Complete references are to be found in the article

530
 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

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PAPER: Ice Forces on Structures : Physical ~delling Techniques

by G.W. Timco

Discussion by: J. Currier, Arco Oil and Gas Co., Dallas, U.S.A.

Fracture toughness, KIC, seems to be an important parameter in

correctly modelling ice interaction events where brittle ice fracture
is a dominant mechanism. Have you made an attempt to incorporate
KIC into a new dimensionless scaling parameter to help in accounting
for the difference between KIC in ice in the field and KIC in
mode 1 ice?

Author's Reply :

This question is discussed in the written text of the paper. The

technique for accounting for the fracture toughness of the ice is
through the "Ice" number which was proposed by Atkins in 1975. For
accurate scaling, the critical stress . intensity factor KIC must be
scaled by ).3/2.

531
J
 WIR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

THEORETICAL AND HEASURED ICE FORCES

ON WIDE STRUCTURES

T. J. O. Sanderson, BP Petroleum Development Ltd. UK

DISCUSSION BY: Denis Blanchet

Dome Petroleum Ltd., Canada

I would like first to congratulate the author for his excellent paper.
I would like to mention, however, that the measured "global" pressures
presented by the author were actually pressures measured by 1 x 2 m
pressure panels which mean that these pressures were local pressures.
Also these panels were not very reliable and functioning well. The
only global loads measured on a very large contact area are the ones
recorded at Tarsiut Island by means of strain gauges mounted in the
diaphragms of the caisson. The width of the caisson was about 70 m.

REPLY BY: T. J. O. Sanderson

Although the panels used at Netserk did strictly measure local

pressures only, they were in general installed more than 25 m from
the contact zone. They were therefore probably seeing a smoothed
stress field representative of at least 25 m width of contact zone.
I accept, however, that their reliability may be in doubt.

At Tarsiut 1981-82 (APOA 197) the instrumented caisson gave good

measurement of load, but the ice causing the load was poorly defined:
the load was transmitted by the rubble pile, not directly by uniform
first-year ice. The rubble pile was of inhomogeneous composition and
its velocity, strain-rate and failure behaviour was unknown. It is
difficult therefore to incorporate the measurements into a theoretical
framework.

DISCUSSION BY: R. Frederking

NRC, Canada

I would like to draw your attention to a paper by Vittoratos and Kry

(1979) in which small-scale (~ 0.1 m) and large-scale (~ 1 m) uni­
axial compression tests were performed. They showed a similar
strength vs strain-rate relation, but the large specimens went to a
brittle failure mode at a lower strain-rate. These data also support
your observations.

533
Reference: Vittoratos, E.C. and Kry, P.R. 1979.
Comparison of in situ and laboratory uniaxial freshwater
i ce strength. POAC ' 79.

REPLY BY: T. J . O. Sanderson

Thank you: it is interesting that evidence for a theory can often be

found already in the literature, if you know where to look.

534
 1AHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
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ICE FORCFS ASSOCIATED WITH ICE RU'E-UP AND PILE-tiP

Devinder S. Sodhi U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and

Austin Kovacs Engineering Lahoratory
72 Lyme Road, Hanover, ~~ 03755, USA

DISCUSSION by Prof. W.M. Sackinger

University of Alaska
Geophysical Institute
Fairban,s, AK 99701, USA

With respect to the ploughing of beach gravel during ice ride-up

events as a mechanism for producing gravel piles and gravel ridges on
heaches, it should be remembered trat (a) Shapiro et al. have reported
their observations of ice ride-up in the spring, when thick annual ice was
driven across an open-water welted region onto a gravel beacr (,,'hich "'as
probably thawed near the ground surface at the tiwe), and only a gravel
depth of the order of 30-50 ~ ~as ploughed, for a relatively short ride-up
distance; (b) other mechanisws can be responsible for ~ravel piles and
ridges on the beaches. One such event, which I have observed personally,
was on the Chukchi Sea beach at Point Barrow, Alaska, in the first weeks of
November in the mid-1970's, when hundreds of kilometers of open water
towards the west were combined with a bigh wind from the west, and a
5uh-freez1ng air temperature, to produce breakinF waves of more than 2 w
height coming onto the shoreiine. The turbulence and frazil ice in the
wave zone made it possible for the frazil ice particles to adhere to large
particles of sands and gravels, offshore, and these ice-rafted sediments
(black in color, from the gravel) were carried by tre hreaking wa ves to a
very high level on the beach, ~'here each ~aveload of ice-rafted sediment
froze immediately. Thus, successive waves deposited much gravel quickly,
which remained until spring when melting removed the ice cont~nt, leaving
an impressive gravel deposit. Such an additional gravel deposition
mecranism, although infrequent, could contribute to net beach accretion,
and may help explain the fact that the coast of the Chukchi Sea does not
seem to be eroding as rapidly as that of the B~aufort Sea; the presence of
a westerly exposure, open water in the late summer, and a large fetch
distance to the west, as descrihed in the Chukchi Sea event above, is not
matched in the northerly-exposed Beaufort Sea coast of Alaska, nor is it
common to have onshore winds with large open-water fetch - such winds
rapidly bring the pack ice back near the shore and barrier island chain on
the Beaufort coast. Ice-rafted sediment deposition effects as descrihed
ahove could, however, occur during early winter on exposed artificial
islands in the offshore regions of both the Beaufort and Chukchi Seas.

535
DISCUSSION by Erk Reimnitz
U.S. Geological Survey
~enlo Par_, CA, USA

The photograph of an ice pile-up along the seaward edge of a heach in

summer shows the typical heavy cover of sand and gravel. This sediment
cover is representative of the large amount of sediment in the spaces
hetween the ice slabs throughout the rubble pile. Most of the pile-ups are
formed in early winter, when beach surfaces are frozen solid. The sediment
therefore is derived from the thawed, submerged foreshore.

In several places it has been established by sampling and diving

seaward of pile-ups that at least the coarse components - pebhles and
cohbles - were scooped from the seafloor at distances of > 50 m, and water
depth > 4-5 m. Thus some of the forces generating shore pile-ups are
expended by churning of the seafloor in a belt seaward of the ice pile. It
seems to me that the Hudson (1983) scheme you presented has some merits for
the above reason, as it allows for such bot tow interaction.

DISCUSS ION by Vitoon Vivatrat

Brian Watt ftssociates, Inc.
2350 E. North Felt (\r., 11450
Houston, TX 77032, USA

You showed several expressions for estimating ice forces due to

ride-up and pile-up, hut did not include any comments re~8rding the failure
at the toe of the ice pile and the suhsequent propagation of the ice
pile-up seaward. What is your opinion regarding these suhj e cts'

DISCUSS ION by T.J .0. Sanderson

BP Petroleum Development Ltd.
London EC24 9SlI, UK

I helieve that recent experience in the Canadian Beaufort Sea has

shown that ice pile-ups of height 15-20 m above sea level have occurred.
Do you have any views on the theoretical maximum height of an ice pile-up?

DISCUSSION by Fazek Abdelnour

ftrctec Canada Limited
311 Leggett Drive
Kanata, Ontario K2K lZ8, Canada

During your presentation you presented a relationship based on field

observation of pile-up ~'here the broken piece diameter was r.lice the ice
thickness. In doped model ice, and based on the slide that you presented,
the diameters of the bro_en pieces were at least eight times the ice
thickness. During model test experiments, using MOD-ICE, of ice ride-up

536
and pile-up on artificial islands reported by Arctec Canada in 1975
and later presented in 1982 (I), the diameters of the bro"en pieces
measured after the tests were fives times the ice thickness, although the
size of the circumferential cracks observed ~as about ten times the ice
thickness. The analytical model proposed by Croasdale (1978), was based on
beam-on-elastic-foundation theories which predict circumferential .crack
formation at a distance 0.8 times the characteristic length of the ice
sheet or about 8 to 10 times the ice sheet thickness.

It is evident that there are significant differences between field

observation, where small piece sizes are observed and the analytical and
physical models, where wuch larger piece sizes are predicted and observed.
Do you believe that the scenarios considered in modelling to describe the
process of pile-up formation seen in the field are adequate?

References

(I) Ahdelnour, R., Sayed, ~. and ~etge, ~. (1982) "Ice ride-up on a man
made island", Proceedings, 14th Offshore Technology Conferen ce, Houston,
TX, OTC 4313, pp. 141-152.

AUTHORS' REPLY

Sackinger did not pose a Question in his discussion of our paper but
he did present his thoughts on an observation he made on nearshore seabed
gravel transport onto the beach~ We would like to cow~ent that the process
he observed has heen discussed by others, e.g. Hartwell (1972), as reported
in Kovacs and Sodhi (1980). Gravel can be transported onto the ice-foot or
the beach by >'ave action. Under high wind conditions, this gravel can also
be driven far inland. However, th e inland accumulation of gravel due to
this process is extremely small. The sands and I"ravels .'hich can be
deposited on the beach through the process discussed by Sackinger way on
occasion add a small layer of debris but we do not believe that such a
deposit has any significant effect on the rate of coastal erosion alonl" the
northern Chukchi Sea coast. Yearly "ave enerl"Y dissipated along the
Chukchi Sea shore is generally higher than alonl" the Beaufort Sea coast.
Even so, the Beaufort Sea coast is eroding up to an order of magnitude
faster than the Chukchi Sea coast. A major reason for this is that the
lower-lying Beaufort Sea coast comprises of ice-rich material that is very
prone to mass-wasting under wave and current action, while the higher
tundra cliffs along the Chukchi Sea coast are generally ice-poor and thus
more resistant to thermal and mechanical erosion. A more complete overview
on this subject can be found in, for example, Owens and Barper (1977) and
Owens, Harper and Nummedal (1980).

537
 The openin~ statement of Rei~nitz is, in ~eneral, correct as it
relates to Arctic shores. However, it is important to also reco~nize that
when the beach or tundra be~ins to freeze in the fall, a frozen surface
slah first forms over an unfrozen subsurface interface. The resulting
frozen surface layer can be pushed as a slab, buc~led upward, or folded
back under the drivin~ force of ice being pushed onto the land. During
this process, thick layers of frozen dehris can he incorporated into the
resultin~ rubble of a shore ice pile-up.

We also agree with Reimnitz relatin~ to onshore sediment transport hy

sea ice. We have mentioned this phenomenon in our paper. Further comments
on this transport can be found, for example, in the reports by Kovacs and
Sodhi (1980), Kovacs (1983), and Kovacs (1984). The latter discusses
sediment from two offshore seabed provinces which was incorporated in a
shore ice pile-up on Spy Island, Alaska, in 1983.

We do not suhscribe to the Hudson (1983) scheme wherein an ice sheet

is first driven into a rubhle pile and is then deflected upward at a steep
angle to rise throu~h the top of the rubble pile, where it then begins to
fragment.

In response to Vivatraat's C011'ments, "e would Jike to state that the

ice failure at the toe of an ice pile is very complex. What exactly goes
on at the toe can only he speculated upon, as there are very fe.' field
observations of ridge building or ice pilin~ proces ses . Our experience
with small-scale model tests has been that there is generally little
penetration of the ice sheet into the rubble except in cases where the
flexural strength of the ice sheet is very high. "~ere an ice sheet tended
to penetrate ice rubble in model experiments, it failed in localized
buckling instead of continuing into the rubble. Nevertheless, we have
observed one model test where the ice sheet was dr i ven through the ice
rubble and sowe distance inland before failure again occurred at the toe of
the ruhble. Our concept of ice pile-up is that ice breaks into finite size
blocks as it rides up on the side of an ice pile-up, and the blocks may
fallon the seaward or shoreward side. If many blocks fallon the ice
sheet itself, it may appear to have penetrated the rubble. When the
fri c tional force on the incoming ice sheet increases to such an extent that
it can not progress any further, i t way seek another path by riding up on
the side of the rubble on the ~ward side.
J'C4
Sanderson has commented on the height of ice pile-ups around
artifi c ial islands in the Beaufort Sea. Theoretical considerations
indicate that the maximum height of a pile-up is limited by the thi ckness
and properties of the ice being turned into a rubhle mass. The exact
reasons why the height of an ice pile-up is limited have not been clearly
understood. Further, the reasons for seaward progression of an ice pile-up
11'ay depend on the thickness variations in the ice sheet, which may contain
small rid~es, as well as on the sea bottom topography. Flaws and cracks in
the i c e sheet may also contribute to the concentration of environmental
forces at a particular location for ice pile-up or ridge formation, and
when this process stops at that location, the forces may concentrate at

538
some other location and start this process. It is this particular aspect
of the ice pile-up process that is not modelen in small-scale experiments.
In theoretical considerations, one-dimensional analysis is conducted,
whereas this process is clearly a two-dimensional phenomenon as the ice
failure is non-simultaneous. The energy considerations for estimating
average ice forces do not depend on the process hut on the end states.
Thus its estimation is fairly accurate. Sut the estimation of other
forces, e.~. frictional, ice breaking, etc., requires an exact knowled~e of
processes.

Re~arding the comment by Ahdelnour on the size of ice blocks in our

experiments, we conducted experiments at different flexural strengths to
see its effect of the formation of the ice pile-up. When the flexural
strength of urea ice is scaled to its proper value, the size of the ice
blocks in the rubble were 2 to 8 times the thickness, though the size of
the initial circumferential crack was only 1/3 to 1/2 of the characteristic
length.

References

Hartwell, A.D. (1972) Coastal conditions of arctic northern Alas.a, in

Terrain and Coastal Conditions on the Arctic Alaska Coastal Plain,
Arctic Environmental Data Package, Supplement I, by P.V. Sellmann,
K.L. Carey, C. Keeler and A.D. Hartwell. U.S. Army Cold Re~ions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Special Report 165.

Kovacs, A. and D.S. Sodhi (1980) Shore ice pile-up and ride-up: Field
observations, ~odels, theoretical analyses, J. Cold Regions Science
and Technology, 2.

Owens, E.H. and J.R. Harper (1977) Frost-table and thaw depths in the
littoral zone near Peard Bay, Alaska, Arctic, 3(3).

Owens, E.H., J.F. Harper and D. Nummedal (1980) Sediment transport

processes and coastal variability on the Alaska North Slope, 17th
International Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE/Sydney, Australia.

539
 lAHR lee Symposium 1984
Hamburg

l:ISCUSS lOt! rOR~'

AUTHORS: KRM'KKALA Timo and ~W\TT)\NEN tlauri

TITLE: Pressure ridge loads

NAt1E AriD ADDRESS Vitoon Vivatrat

OF DISCUSSER: Brian !'Jatt Associates, Inc.
2350 E. North Belt Dr,
Houston, TX U.S.A. 77032

DISCUSSIOM/QUESTIONS:
The difference between what you referred to as the simole beam theory and
the beam on elastic foundation theory is due primarily to the distribution
and value of the reaction force on the beam fro~ the surroundin~ ice. In
the beam-on-elastic-foundation method, the failure load is fairly sensi­
tive to the location of impact between the ridge and the structure since
an eccentrically loaded beam has a higher failure load than a centrally
loaded one. What is your ooinion regarding this?

AUTHOR'S REPLY:
We agree that with a beam of finite len~t~ the failure load is sensitive
on the location of load action and that the failure load ~ay be hi~her
than with an infinite beam. Therefore a failure load analysis for bea~s .
of finite length and eccentric loadina has to be conductec as well. The
presented small difference in the paper between the simple beam theory
and the theory of bea~ on elastic foundation is in this case only a result
of a very small stiffness ratio: L -vir
\'Ihere L = lenoth of hear: (1'1),
k = foundation coefficient (~/m2) and EI = flexural stiffness of beal'1 (~m2)

541
 WfR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

THERf1AL ICE FORCES AGAINST

ISOLATED STRUCTURES

T. J. O. Sanderson, BP Petroleum Development Ltd. UK

DISCUSSION BY: Erik Reimnitz

US Geological Survey, USA

I assume that periodic thermal expansion and contraction is associated

with freezing of water entering the cracks, simila r to processes in the
active layer of the tundra covered coastal plain adjoining the Arctic
Ocean. Could such a cyclic phenomenon, acting on an extensiv e ice
sheet restric ted from expansion on one side, result in long distance,
uni-directional movement in the opposite direc tion?

REPLY BY : T. J. O. Sanderson

Yes I believe this is possible, though I have never personally observed

it to happen. It would be analagons to frost-heave processes.

543
 DISCUSSION BY: K.R. Croasdale

334, 40th Ave. SW

Calgary, Alberta, CA~ADA

You note that structures currently in use in the Beaufort Sea could
not withstand (and are not designed) for ice forces calculated using
classical indentation theory and small-scale ice prooerties. I agree
with your explanations and sU9gestions as to why classi cal indentation
theory cannot be applied to brittle failure. The desi9ners of Beaufort
Sea structures have recognized the proble~ for some time, and have
tried to develop approaches which took account of observed real pro­
cesses. Present structures are in fact based on ice load models which
assume, non-simultaneously zones of failure; some zones failinq in
crushing and some in flexure. Also, factors to account for lower ice
strength on a large scale have been included (arbitrarily). All
these aspects of ice load orocesses need further work.

You mentioned that the SSDC has a sliding resistance of about

75,000 tonnes, wherea s indentation theory would predict at least a
500,000 tonnes ice load. It should be noted however that a larae ice
pad was built next to the SSDC at Uviluk, which increased its total
sliding resistance by at least a factor of 2. Also there was 9rounded
ice rubble on the berm which also contributed to increased resistance.

Finally, you referred to the ice panel measure~ents at Netserk South

and noted that the maximu~ ice pressure wa s only 1.0 MPa durinq a
mayor ice event. I agree with you that this exoerience is a nood indi­
cator that the ice forces are considerably lower than oredicted by
indentation theory. However, the 1.0 MPa value should be used with
care, one reason being that ice panels used in 1975 were fairly rudi­
mentary and subject to measurement error .

RESPONSE TO: K.R. Croasdale

Thank you for your co~ments. I agree that the oroble~ is still not
solved, but I am grateful for the oooortunity to point out the large
actual discrepancy between sma ll-scale and full-scale pressures.

544
The SSDC is indeed surrounQed by a grounded ice Dad for much of the
winter season. During December - January, however, it is often fully
exposed to fast-moving ice of 0.5 - 1.0 m thickness. This "should"
exert a force of 250,000 - 500,000 tonnes according to continuum
indentation theory.

You are right to point out the errors which may be associated with
pressure panels. I think that the errors bars 'are not worse than
~ 100 %, which still leaves a maximum pressure of at about 2 MPa.

DISCUSSION BY D.S. Sodhi

USA CRREL
72, Lyme Roa d
Hanover, NH 03755

You have tried to explain the discrepancy between the theoretical

and measured ice force on wide structures from the 90int of view of
crack propagation and non-simultaneous failure of ice. There are
other modes of failure, e.g. buckling and flexural. Since ice can
fail in anyone of the failure modes, the discreoancy may be better
explained by these other failure modes which require much less force.

RESPONSE TO: D.S. Sodhi

I aaree that flexural failure may occur during interaction with a

wide structure. However, I do not believe that elastic buckling pro­
cesses are responsible when the ice thickness exceeds about 0.5 m.
Two other processes spring to mind:

1. Creep buckl ing, in which "viscous" behaviour may lead to

permanent buckle formation. This typically occurs only at
low stresses and low indentation velocities.

2. Bendin~ failure, due to application of eccentric vertical

loads at the contact zone. This may be particularly pre­
valent when the ice properties vary markedly through the
thickness (stiff at the surface , soft at the bottom) .

545
 DISCUSSION BY; Marc A. Maes
DnV
Ca l<)a ry, CANADA
I very much enjoyed Dr. Sanderson's review of ice forces on structures
caused by temperature variations in the ice.

I would like to point out that the normal component of thermal force
or expansion, dependinG on restriction, can be substantially altered
due to both temperature dependence of creep together with differential
thermal creep, and the dependence of thermal exnansion on grain-size
and ice composition. The resultinQ thermal stresses can cause increased
flow and ice field velocities.

RESPO~!SE TO; Marc A. Maes

It is certainly true that the stress caused by a certain ril.te of tem­

perature change is stron~ly dependent on ice temperature and crystallo­
9raphy. This means that if an ice cover tries to exoand at a uniform
strain-rate, the stress at the surface (typically hard, cold granular
ice) will be very much hi~her than the stress at the ice bottom (typi­
cally soft, warm columnar ice). I have niven a schematic nicture of
this effect in Figure 13 of my earlier paoer in this session.

On the question of thermal expansion coefficient - I believe that the

coefficient is not strongly dependent on temperature or ~rain-size
(Hobbs, 1974). Certainly, in the normal temperature ran(]e (- 5° to
- 15 ° C), it is a second-order effect.

546
STATISTICS IN ICE ENGINEERING

-
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

AUTHOR : Maes, ~.A. & Jordaan, I.J.

TITLE : ProDaoili s tic Analysis of Iceberg Loads on Offshore Structures

NAME ANO ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER John Currier PRC-3075
ARCO Oil & Gas Company
P.O. Box 2819
Dallas, Texas 75221

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

Designers of offshore Arcti c structures prefer to design them with the

conventional distinction of 'design' or 'serviceability' criteria and
'ultimate' criteria. Do you agree with this approach to design for ice
loads ? If so, in making the distinction between serviceability and ulti­
folate, to what extent would you draw from probability of encouter of ice
features, and to what extent would you draw from the uncertainty in the
calculations of ice loads given that an encounter has occurred?

REPL Y:

We agree with Mr. Currier that design loads on Arctic offshore structures
due to ice impact, correspond to certain selected risk criteria (Hagen,
J.E., and Jordaan, I.J., 1984). If a probabilistic analysis of the occur­
rence of ice features at the site of the structure is carried out and if
at the same tir,le all the uncertainties are properly accounted for, then
the resulting probability distribution contains complete information
about the risk of exceedance of a given ice load per unit period of time.
Accordingly, different criteria such as serviceability an ultimate state
can be accor,lodated by electing a proper and accepted value of risk, and
using the results of the analysis to find the corresponding design ice
load.

547
 REFERENCE:

Hagen, J.E., and Jordaan, I.J., "Risk Analysis, Safety and Certification
of MODlJ's", Risk Analysis Seminar, Royal Commission on the Ocean Ranger
Marine Disaster, May 1984.

548
ICE MODELLING

 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

•
'A Hamburg

PAPER; Observations on the Growth of Urea Ice on a Small Ice Basin

by R. Ettema, A. Mueller and A. Cook

Discussion by: G. W. Timco

National Research Council
Ottawa, Canada

The authors are to be complimented for carrying out this study which
helps to define the thermal characterist ics of urea ice and the pro­
blems which can be encountered if the underlying solution becomes uni­
formly supercooled. Tests of this type are very informative since
they lead to a better understanding of the growth characteristics of
model ice. The occurrence of the D and E type dendrites are interest­
ing, although they are very rarely seen in the larger ice tanks. In
contrast to the present experiments which were performed in a small
tank which was elevated on blocks (and therefore had a cold bottom),
most large ice tanks have a warmer bottom which helps to prevent
supercooling of the solution. The present experiments clearly point
out both the need for careful design and consideration of heat flow
for the production of uniform model ice in large tanks, and the neces­
sity to constantly monitor the solution temperature to avoid the
supercooled state.

549
I

 WlR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM
------- --------

AUTHOR: Dr. E.Enkvist

TITLE: A FINE-GRAIN MODEL ICE

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER: D.Baker
f4ELVILLE SHIPPING Ltd

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

A quest ion was asked earlier in this session concerning friction. We have
recently conducted a se rie s of model tests in three tanks, Arctec Canada,
HSVA and your own tank. In the two former tanks our es ti mate d friction
coefficient at full scale of 0.08 to 0 .1 was duplicated on the model . In
the WARC tests a much lowe r coefficient of 0.03 was used and a friction
correction factor applied in the analysis.

Can you please comment on the reasons for this and your confidenc e i n the
friction correc ti on factor.

ANSWER (by author)

I t is true th at WARC was unable to treat th e model in such a way as to

reach a fri ction coefficient close to 0.1 at the time of the tests
referred to by the c ust ome r . Diffi c ulties with the s tability o f such
treatments had just been experienced. Now there are pr omising in­
dications, that a paint system has been found which allows more or less
free selection of the model fri ction coe ffi c ient, but before it is
accepted finally further tests ha ve to be carried out.

In any case it is appreciate d, that the friction coefficient most

sensi ti vely infl uences the model tes t resul ts, and standard mode l fric­
tion tests are always performed.

551
 The confidence in friction co rr ect i on fact ors varies from ca se to case as
the factor is obtained from full-scale test comparisons using correlation
cases of res e mbl ing type and size whi c h are c ompared by interpolat io n
between made l t est resul ts wi th two different. friction treatments of the
model.

AUTHOR: E.En kv ist

TI TLE: A FINE-GRAIN MODEL ICE

NAME AND ADRESS

OF DISCUSSER: Y. S .Wang

'EXXON PRODUCTION RESEARCH Co.

P.O.BOX 2189
HOUSTON Tx 77001

DI SCUSS I ON/QUESTIONS:

In the Arcti c , you may fin d both predom in a ntl y g ranular a nd co l umnar i ce
existing in different places, or at th e same place but in different
yea rs. Th e r efor e to simulate cr ush ing beh av ior of fiel d ice, it is
important to be a ble to simulate th e beha vi or o f both types o f ice. Th e
fin e-gr ained ice appears to be able to si mu l ate only the behavior of
g ra nula r ice in crushing.

AN SWE R:

It is true that the ratio between ve rtical a nd horizo ntal compressive

stre ngth of t he fg-ice does not simulate that of co lumnar s e a ice, S till,
it simulates it better than the two-layer t raditio na l mode l ice, which
often fails in bending when l oade d horizontally and the top lay e r of
which eas ily pee ls off d uring the indentati on pro ces s.

552
!lUTHOR: E.Enkvist,
S .MB.kinen

TITLE: A FINE-GRAIN MODEL ICE

NAME AND ADRESS

OF DISCUSSER: G.W.Timco
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OTTAWA, CANADA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

The introduction of a new type of mode l ice is always welc ome S1 nce it
invariably evo kes discussion and investigation of both it and the
other types of model ice. This always serves to advance our kno wl edge
about model ice properties and the general technique of physic a l model
testing. This new fine-grained ice of the WartsiHi Arctic Re s earch
Centre appears to offer realistic simulation of the crackl ng ac tivity
of ice and more brittle-type model ice failure. This is imp ortan t
since i t leads to more accurate simulation of secondary cracki ng In
the ice which results in better conformity of the i ce piece si ze s both
during and after the ice-structure interaction proc ess. This tendency
for a material to fracture is usually described by the fr ac t ure
toughnes s (or critical stress intensity factor K )' It would be very
IC
informative to know the K values for this type of model ice.
IC

Although the cracking activity appe a rs to be well si mu l ated, it is

somewhat di s turbing that the rati o of compressive-to-flexural str ength
is so low f or th is ice. Al so, the fac t tha t the ice i.s granula r j n
structure prevents proper s imulati on of the failure e n ve lope of sea
ice (which is mostly columnar). Both of the se inaccurac ies in scaling
will lead to premature ice failure in crushing and corresp ond i ngly
lower stress levels. Because of this, tests of ice-struc ture
interactions using this type of model ice may tend to under es t i.mete
the actual l oa ds on the structure.

553
 ANSWER:

The fracture toughne ss of model- and sea ice seems to be more

frequently mentioned today than a few y ears ago. I ts measuring
technique, howe ver , is in its infancy, and it has not yet been tested
at WARC .

The uniaxi a l unconfined compressive s trength te st with model i ce

delivers a nominal result in the brittle range which se ems to be l o w.
When testing a vertical cylindrical indentor, the compressive strength
seems to be higher or then. by definition, the contact coefficient is
abnormally high. Anyhow, f or som e reason, the indentatiqn force is
realistic wh en testing structures in the FG-ice.

Our ge nera l experien ce is, that any se riou s attempt to rise the
standards of ice control tends to highlight the ins ufficiency of the
tradi tional reference va lue s used to describe the mechanical proper­
ties of ic e .

554
 WfR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamhurg

PAPER: Recent Experience in Conducting Ice Model Tests Using a

·Synthetic Ice Modelling Material
by L.A. Schultz and A.P. Free

Discussion by: G.W. Timco, National Research Council, Ottawa, Canada

It is encouraging to see that Arctec Inc. has published some infer­

mation on the mechanical properties of their patented MOD-ICE. This
will allow the scientific community to evaluate critically the suit­
ability of this type of ice as a modelling medium. In the comparisen
of MOD-ICE te conventional urea-doped or saline-doped model ice, how­
ever, there are several un-substantiated and incorrect statements
which should be clarified. First of all, a casual comparison of the
Eto ratios obtained at different ice basins ·(as shown in figure 1 of
the paper) is essentially meaningless since this ratio can easily be
varied by an order of magnitude by altering the growth procedures,
dopant concentrations, freezing conditions, etc. For a proper compa­
rison, these parameters must be stated and optimized. In the papers
of Timco (1979, 1981) referred to by the authors, all potential
dopants were cempared under identical test conditions using the same
test techniques. These tests showed that urea-doped ice was superior
to saline-doped ice as a model ice. All ice tanks which now use urea­
doped model ice have independently made comparisons with saline ice
and have demonstrated urea ice superiority to saline ice. Secondly,
although the authors state that the crushing strength of urea-doped
model ice is too high, a comparison of scaled prototype values with
measured model ice values for urea ice are in good agreement. Ratios
of crushing strength to flexural strength can be altered over the ap­
propriate range of 2 to 5 by simply adjusting the scale factor (see
Timco, 1983). Thus the unsubstantiated statement that the crushing
strength is over-scaled is incorrect. In fact, in terms of both the
uni-axial compressive strength and the correct simulation of the
failure envelope of the ice, urea-doped ice is far superior to MOD-ICE
due to the latter's granular structure (see Timco, 1984 for details).
Thirdly, in my own tank as well as most others that use refrigerated

555
 model ice, there is not usually a problem in being prepared and test­
ing when the ice reaches its target strength value. The properties of
the ice are quite predictable so that the time of the test can be
forecast well in advance. Moreover. for urea ice, it is known that a
constant strength of the ice can be maintained over long periods of
time (up to 12 hours) by keeping the temperature of the room at an
appropriate constant temperature.

References

Timco, G.W., 1983 "Uni-axial and Plane-strain Compressive Strength of

Model Ice", Annals of Glac. !!..' p. 289-293.

Timco, G.W., 1984 "Ice Forces on Structures: Physical Ibdelling

Techniques" Proc. IAHR Symp. on Ice, Vol. 4, Chap . 2, Hamburg,
W. Germany

556
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984
IA
•
Hamburg

SEGr·IENTED ICEBREAKING SHIP ~10DEL TESTING TECHNIQUE DEVELOPI·1ENT

BY: A.M. Nawwar, D. Howard, I.M. Bayly

DISCUSS IO;~ BY:

Ernst Enkvist, WARC, Kaanaantie 1, Hel sinki 56.

The difficulties in obtaining a consistent friction coefficient from

the ratio between measured tangential and normal forces are probably due
to real physical phenomena rather than experimental shortcomings. This
conclus ion is drawn from recordings of a similar kjnd from a full-scale
friction panel tested by WARC. The shock when the ice edge hits the
hull causes violent transient phenomena.

DISCUSS ION BY:

J.C. Tatinclaux, CRREL, 72 Lyme Road., Hanover, N.H. 03755

Since the three components of the force exerted on each segment were

measured, it shou ld be possible to resolve the force vector into normal

and tangential components , FN and FT, and calculate the friction

factor ~ = FT/F N. Have the authors done so, and if so could they give

the calculated average values of ~ for each segment, and compare them

to the value obtained from traditional friction tests?

DISCUSSION BY:

Kaj Riska, Technical Research Centre of Finland, Ship Laboratory

It has been commented also in this symposium that model testing is more

an act than an exact science. This does not mean that more thorough

investigations of ice resistance are futile. The present paper proves

this by sheding light on division of ice resistance into components.

557
 MY comment concerns the breaking resistance. We have made similar
tests [1J where the instrumentation was such that the forces due to ice
breaking could be directly measured. We found out in the model tests
that the breaking component has a clear velocity dependence. Have you
noticed in your tests the same?

The other comment concerns the breaking pattern. The authors discuss
the effect of ice thickness on breaking pattern. In our full scale
trials we have noticed that ships speed has a very strong influence on
breaking pattern. Would the authors comment on this.

[1J T.Nyman and K.Riska: Some Recen t /·leasu relJen ts on Ice Res is tance.
VTT Seminar on Ship Strength 'and I~inter Navigation 1984.

Authors' Reply
By:

A.M.Nawwar, Arctec Canada Limited, Kanata, Ontario, Canada.

The difficulties in obtaining a consistent friction factor may well be

due to a real physical phenomenon as suggested by Dr. Enkvist. Pre­
vious experiments which were conducted in the laboratory and in the
field [1,2J indicate some differences between friction factors obtained
under simulated ice crushing conditions and those obtained using
conventional methods and smooth samples. However, the transient
response can indeed be caused by the natural characteristics of the
instrumentation system. Difficu1 ties ari.se when the range of ice load
frequencies coincide with the natural response of the instrumented
panel or segment of the ship hull. In the present study we have
attempted to maintain the natural frequencies as high as possible by
minimizing the mass of the segment and usi.ng a stiff support system.
The following table lists the independent niltura1 frequencies, wN' for
each segment:

558
 Segment r~ass wN' Hz
kg X Y Z

1 1 415 954 954

2 6 169 389 457
3 28 78 180 157

These frequencies were higher than the expected frequency levels of

icebreaking and were not expected to interfere with the icebreaking
process.

At the present time we cannot offer any rigorous statements on the

development of friction component during ice action on the ship hull.
However, in response to Dr. Tatinclaux's comment, I would like to
mention that the calculation algorithm, as indicated in Section 4 of
the paper, determines the direction of frictional force assuming that
its magnitude is proportional to the normal force or alternatively by
calculating the friction factor. The calculated friction factor and
direction cosines of the friction force vector during the preliminary
test exhibited large variations which were interpreted with reference
to experimental errors. For instance assuming errors of -10%, +10%
and -10% in the measured resistance, horiz.ontal and vertical force
components would produce the following errors in friction measurement
on Segment 2 for a normal force of 44.6 N:

Actual Friction Indicated Friction

Fac tor Force, N Factor Force, N

0.00 0 0.098 4.38

0.1 4.46 0.078 3.48
0.5 22.30 0.422 18.82

The error in estimating the fricti.on force or its direc.tion can signi­
ficantly be reduced by reducing the experimental errors in ro1easurement.
The corresponding error in indicated normal force is within ±0.3% for
the lower friction cases but increases by an order of magnitude for the
high friction case.

559
 In future tests we will be observing the var iation of friction forces
along the hull during the va rious stage s of the icebreaking process.

Th e authors agree with Dr. Riska that the ship spe ed has an effect on
the oreaking comp onent of i ce re s istance, provided that the definition
of the break ing component includes static breaking and dynamic effects
associated with icebreaking. The l atter also in fl uen ces the breaking
pattern as they influence the length and width of broken cusps along
the hull. While the speed dependence of breaking patterns was
recogn ized, only pub lish ed experimental observation on Staten Island,
Finnca rrier and Jelparri were used to establish the cusp patterns as
noted elsewhere [3, 4J. The breaking pattern s were used in the present
work as a means of rationally developing a se gmentation plan fo r the
model segmentation. The resul ts indicate good agreement between the
expected and observed l oc ation s of prevailing maximum loads. Thi s
corroborates the segmen tation rationale utilized in the present work.

REFER EN CES

[ 1J Comfort, G. , and Ilawwa r, A.i1., "Field tlea surement of Kinematic

Fri c ti on Between Ice and Rigid Struc tures", Proc. of the
,1orks hop on Sea Ice Field 11easurer.Jents, St. John's,
Nel-ifoundland, Canada, Apri 1 29-~iay 1, 1980, pp.303-320.

[2J ilawwar, A.II., "Test Report on Friction Tests Conducted on the

Ice Tribometer", Arc tec Canada Limi.ted Report No . TR332C-2,
i10vember 1978.

[3J i1aegle, J.rI., "Ice Resistance Prediction and i1otion Simulation

for Ships Operating in the Continuous Ilode of Icebreaking",
Ph.D. Thesis, the Uni.versity of i-1ichigan, 1930.

[4J Lewis, J.W., Bulat, V., Glen, I.F. and Kotras, T., "Developr.Jent
of a Semi-Empi rical Model for Predicting Resistance and
Determining Thrust Requirer.1ents for Ships in Level Ice", Arctec
Canada Limited report 140. DR 444C, July 1382 .

560
NAVIGATION IN ICE

 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DI3CUSJION FORM
AUTHOR: Dr. Tronin

Problems of niver .:.ihipping in Ice-bound

Conditions in toe U3~R

NA1iE AND ADDREJ3

OF DLSCU033ER : Torsten Heideman

Wartsilii. Helsinki 3hipyard

- I would like to thank Dr.'l'ronin for a very

interesting lecture about river traffic in the U33R.

My question concerns toe time at woico tl1e design

and. construction of the icebreaking devices were

started.

lceb,r eaking devic es LP3-I4 type whico have the beam

14 m were designed, constructed and tested in 1373­
-1975. un the basis of the results of these tests
icebreaking-iceremoving devices LLP-I8 type were
designed, constructed and tested in 1':)76. The train
\Vito this device can cut; ice coalUlel \Vito the width

11:1 m.

561
 DI3CU&>ION FORM
AUTHOR: Dr. 'l.'ronin
TITLE: Problems of ~iver Jhipping in Ice-bound

Conditions in the UJJR

~ur.·~ AN] AD)R ";;3,;

'l'orsten Heideman
Ndrtsil1l. lfe1.3inki Jhipyard

This question is not ~irected to Dr.Tronin,

rather it is directed to people involved in the so

c.J.lled Tt}.yssen-·,7aas concept;,
liow can the ':Iaas concept be p .3 .tenl;eJ \,ben it
seems to be the same as tbe UJJR icebreaking device.
Both concepts use the same icebreakin; principle,
that is shearing and bending whereafter the pieces
are deflected under tile pCl.rent ice sheet by the hull.

562
 DISCUSSION FOR~l

AUTHOR: TRONIN

TITLE: PROBLEMS OF RIVER SHIPPING IN ICE-BOUND CONDIT IONS

DISCUSSED BY: A. Freitas, G. Varges

Thyssen Nordseewerke GmbH.
Er.tden, FRG

DISCUSSION:

We have the following to say in response to Mr. Heideman's question:

(1) The fact that patents for our concept have been granted in U.S.A.,
Canada and Finland, among other countries, is a self-explanatory
answer to Mr. Heideman's question.

(2) Referring to the concept itself, there are, of course, distinct

differences with regard to the hull shape and the ice cutting
and floe displacement techniques used: E.g. the THYSSEN/WAAS
shape has only one widest section at the foremost station of
the icebreaking waterline an d has a side and bottom shape which
is very different from the shape developed in the USSR and which
facilitates sideways displacer.tent of ice floes with low energy
consumption. Details can be found in the patent description as
well as in the OTC 83/Houston paper by ~1r. Freitas.

563
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: Colonel Raymond T. Beurket, Jr.; Carl Argiroff

TITLE: Great Lakes Limited Season Extension Operation of Sault Ste.

Marie Locks, Michigan, U.S.A.

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER: Torkel Solve

Trollh~tte Canal Administration

Box 3020

46103 Trollh~ttan, Sweden

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

Have you planned any specific resources like icebreakers, air bubbling

systems, etc., when you extend the operational period?

RESPONSE:

The measures used for the 8 January ± 1 week extension are cited on Page 5

of our paper . There are also air bubbler systems and heating devices

within the lock facilities at Sault Ste. Marie. Any ice breaking neces­

sary to support season extension is anticipated to be provided by the

existing fleet of icebreakers, dependent on Federal policy on ice

breaking assistance at the time of extension. No additional ice manage­

ment measure S are pre sen tly foreseen to be necessary for extension of

the season to 31 January + 2 weeks.

565
 IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON I CE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: Colonel Raymond T. Beurket, Jr.; Carl Argiroff

TITLE: Great Lakes Limited Season Extension Operation of Sault Ste.

Marie Locks, Mic hi ga n, U.S.A.

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER: R. Ger a rd

Dept. Civi~ Engg.

Univ. Alberta

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

1. In the paper it is sta ted th e 7 day lead time is required to allow

a ship to proceed from Lake Erie to Lake Superior, but only return to

downstream of the Soo Lock s . Why doesn't the lead time include time fo r

the ship to return to Lake Erie ?

2. Do you have any comments on the troubles experienced la s t winter

near Detroit? Further, what might be the implications of such events on

only allowing time for the sh i p to return to just below th e Soo Locks

instead of further down the system?

RESPONSE:

1. The seven day lead time i s allowed because s ignificant ice does not

generally develop in the lowe r portion of · the sys tem from the St. Clair

River into Lake Erie until mid to l at e January. The St. Marys River is

located several hundred miles t o the north and i s nearly always frozen

over well befor e th e lower system. Once vessels clear the St. Marys

River, they are unlikely to encounter ice conditions in the lower system

which would impede navigation.

566
CONTINUATION OF DISCUSSER: R. Gerard

2. The i ce jam which occurred in the St. Clair-Detroit Rivers system in

April 1984 was a rare event, with approximately 1 chance in 100 of occur­

ring in any given year. Th e last comparable event occurred in 1903.

The April 1984 event occurred after ice breakup in the spring and was not

a winter navigation condition. Jams are caused by shifting wind condi­

tions which push the ice floes from spring breakup on Lake Huron into the

St. Clair River at Port Huron.

It is most unlikely that conditions would occur at the closing of the

8 January season that would be similar to the April 1984 event. The

criteria for the 7 day lead time was ba s ed upon vessel traffic under
,
winter conditions for season extension in January, not early spring

operation. It should also be noted that vessel traffic occurs year

round through St. Clair-Detroit Rivers system by U.s. and Canadian

vesse ls.

567
 IAHR "SYMPOSIUM ON ICE", HAMBURG 1984

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: Colonel Raymond T. Beurket, Jr.; Carl Argiroff

TITLE: Gr eat Lakes Limited Season Extension Operation of Sault Ste.

Marie Locks, Mi ch igan, U.S.A.

NAME AND ADDRESS

OF DISCUSSER : G. Frankenstein

CRREL

Hfu~OVER, N.H. 03755 U.S.A .

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

The freezing degree day method to determine a closing date is simple and

very practical. However, it is not very useful in determining environ­

mental damage to the shoreline during thin ice conditions. Have you

considered other approaches that might be used to predict when thin ice

shore damage might occur?

RESPONSE:

As stated i n our paper, the extension to 8 January is a conservative

evaluation. Specific details are available in our environmental impact

statement, cited as Reference No. I, Page 10. This is supported by our

test and studies during the Demonstration Program from 1972 - 1979.

Based upon our investigation carried out since implementation of the

8 January ± 1 week season, we have not found any significant shoreline

damage which is attributable to navigation in thin ice during the 8

January season. As part of our investigations on a 31 January season

extension, we will be undertaking a shoreline damage modeling study

which would assist us in predicting at what point significant navigation

induced shore damage might occur.

568
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

AUTHOR: Sasajima, T., ~1ustamaki, E.

TITLE: Ice Milling Load Encountered by a Controllable

Pitch Prope 11 er

DISCUSSED BY: Razek Abdelnour

Artec Canada Ltd.
311 Leggett Drive
Kanata, Ontario
K2K 1Z8

DISCUSSION:

Model testing of propeller milling is a complex task to carry out,

especially of accurate predictions and optimization of torque versus
blade moment is to be carried out.

For conventional ship testing in ice, bending strength and the friction
factors are the most important parameters to consider for scaling.
During ice milling, the mode of failure of the ice includes crushing,
indentation (with various levels of confinements), shear, flaking,
cracking, etc., that must be known for the model ice in use.

I would like to know if these properties have been measured for the
saline model ice used for this test program, that scaling laws are
respected.

The choice of a crushing to shear strength ratio of 1.8, rather than

Jagodkin's value of 4, also presents some confusion. Jagodkin con­
sidered his value as a limiting case based on property tests on full
scale natural ice from strong pack ice at the Arctic and Antarctic
Institute. Does the magnitude of the difference between the two
choices reflect fundamental assumptions about the type of sea ice
milled, mechanism of ice failure, or possibly a compromise in model
ice properties attainable? Additional clarification at this level
would be helpful in assessing the contribution of the investigation

569
 resul ts.

AUTHOR'S REPLY
by: T. Sasajima and E. t·lustamaki

The authors appreciate r·lr. Abdelnour's contribution to our paper.

Regarding the ice properties, we only measured crushing, indentation

and shearing strength of ice. At this moment, we are trying to establish
analytical method to explain ice- milling loads measured on the model
propeller. Scaling law, which is the most important to estimate full
scale ice loads, as pointed out by the discussor, is still out of
scope of this study.

The choice of a crushing and shearing strength ratio of 1.8 was made
only for the explanation of the model test data by Jagodkin's method,
since the ratio of the model ice was 1.8.

If a full scale prediction is made based on model test results, the

difference between model ice and fullscale ice properties must be
taken into account.

570
 ICE-MILLING LOAD ENCOUNTERED BY

A CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER

DISCUSSION

By:

Kaj Riska, Ship Laboratory,

Technical Research Center of Pin land (VTT)

The present paper focuses on the propeller-ice interaction which

is approached by model scale milling tests. The tests have been
throughly performed and the results lucidly presented thus leaving only
limited room for comments.

The propeller-ice interaction in the Jagodkin and Ignatjev methods

is based on ice intendation and compression or shear strength of ice. The
model scale results compare well with the calculated values which holds
also true if the interaction is modelled based on plasticity theory.
Does this pOint to the fact that the ice load is basically an indentation
load? Was there any indication that the contact problem could be more
complicated and e.g. the ice pressure on the blade could be influenced the
propeller being immersed in water.

Another point concerns the measured quantities which were basically

the response of the balde i.e. blade bending and shaft torque and thrust.
Did the authors consider of measuring from the blade the interaction
quantities i.e. ice force and its direction and location? This would
have made a comparison with some full scale measurements, anyway 1n the
Baltic (I), possible.

The authors should be congratulated in tackling a difficult subject

in an unbiased way and it can be anticipated that the analysis of these
tests will make the design of propellers for arctic ships more reliable.
I would like to thank the authors of an interesting paper.

(1) M. Jussila, Ice loads on the propulsion system of an ice breaking

tug. 7th POAC, VTT Symposium 28, Espoo 1983. Vol. 2.
 ICE-MILLING LOAD ENCOUNTERED BY

A CONTROLLABLE PITCH PROPELLER

AUTHORS' REPLY
b:
T. Sasajima, Nagasaki Technical Institute, MHI
E. Mustamaki, Wartsila Arctic Research Center

The authors would like to thank Mr. Riska for his contribution

to our paper.

Jagodkin's and Ignatev's methods are considered to be based on

indentation compression and shearing, and usually design point is chosen

at the shaft speed where the ice-milling torque by indentation of pro­

jected area of the blade and by shearing by blade edge.

Observing the milling proces8 and groove and milled ice. we could

easily identify both indentation and shearing processes depending upon th e

ice advance angle.

In our tests, ice block was fixed in the box and mounted on the
lathe. So, in our tests, effect of the surrounding water on ice milling
process is not included. But in actual phase of ice-milling, the existing
water would affect the friction of ice and the force acting on the blade
will get affected.

As to the design stage of these tests, we considered the measurement

of ice pressure or the blade surface, during milling. But due to the
difficulty encountered by ins tally pressure tape on the small blade,
measurements were not conducted this time. In order to measure the ice
pressure on the blade, we think it better to use a bIde shaped wing with­
out pitch but with pressure tapes on the surface and push it into ice with
different attach angle. In this case, signal process will be much easier.
Also in this case, measurement of force and its direction will be also
done. But any way, our model tests were the first step to understand ice­
milling forces acting on the CPP blade as a whole. Next step is to under­
stand ice-milling mechanics in detail and build a sophisticated model.

572
 wm Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DISCUSSION

NAME AND ADDRESS J.G. Tatinclaux

OF DISCUSSER: U.S. Army GRREL

Hanover, NH

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
This paper is indeed an interesting contribution to the
I iterature on icebreaklng design and model testing. I would I ike
to address a few questions or rather requests for clarification
to the authors.

I. Barring typographical errors I cannot see how the second equation

of page 3 can be obtained from the first one. The exponential
power of the variables hand do not match, and no term
containing the product .V Is present in equation 2. I have

assumed that the last term of equation 2 represented the

resistance in open water.

2. Thrust corrections or adjustments were made to account for the

reportedly sl ight differences between measured and target values
of h and Ship motions in Ice and related quantities,
resistance, thrust, power, r.p.m., velocity etc., are never truly
steady but rather quaSi-steady and quasi-periodic. Therefore,
measurement results In Ice are always obtained as averages with
associated standard deviation (Including ice strength from
several smal I canti lever beams). I am curious to know what was
the relative magnitude of the thrust corrections with respect to
the standard dev i at Ion of the measured thrust. In other words,
were those correct Ions rea 1.1 y Just i fled?

3. Comparison between Figure 4 and Figure I (the latter

unfortunately lacking a scale for the resistance axis) show that
the thrust prediction from model tests is a much faster
increasing function of the velocity than the resistance predicted
by equation 2, page 3. For example, for an ice thickness of 0.8
m, Figure 4 shows the thrust to double (an increase of 100%) when
V varies from 2 to 8 knots, whi Ie Figure I indicates that the
resistance increases by only 30%. Variation of the thrust
deduction coefficient with velocity cannot account for this

573
 difference. Could the authors comment on this discrepancy since
it was stated that Figure 2, page 3 was supported by ful I scale
t d al data? Incldentially I am always puzzled by full scale
resistance data usually derived from thrust measurements, which
Implies knowing, or rather assuming an appropriate deduct ion
factor.
As a researcher in model testing of ships in ice, I wished the
authors had presented actua I test data. I do hope that they are
not proprietary since the study was sponsored by TOC, and that
they can be made available. I am al so looking forward to the
inter-tank comparisons promised by the authors.

In response to the questions by Dr. Tatlnclaux,

1. The equation In the text developed by Melvi I Ie did not solely

originate from the Arctec equation. A number of other equation
forms were studied including the equation developed by Melvll Ie
for the ful I scale performance of the ship (Ref. 2). As a result
of this, the form of the Melville equation is different from the
Arctec equation. credit was given to the Arctec equation since
it contributed the most to the final equation form. As Indicated
In the text, the objective of the equation was to dupl icate the
response of resistance to variations in the primary ice/hul I
variables.

2. The corrections made to the thrust data points recorded during

the tests are generally of the same order of magnitude as the
peak to trough variance in the real time test output. However,
since the correction Is of an acceptable form and hence wll I not
deter from the value of the data the analys i s procedure Is
considered appropriate.

3. The question of speed dependancy raised by Dr. Tat l nclaux is

interesting and unfortunately I do not have an answer. The speed
dependancy shown in Figure I is representative of the ful I scale
data and, clearly from Figure 4, Is not dupl icated by the model
tests. Dr. Tatlnclaux also mentions the thrust deduction effect
and correctly pOints out that It is unlikely to be caused by the
Increase of thrust deduction with speed. This phenonomen is
presently being Investigated.

Reference 2 - "Exper imenta I Voyage to Lake Mel v ill e, Labrador In

February/March, 1981", Report by Melvil ie Shipping
Ltd., for the Transport Canada, Transportation
Development Centre.

574
 DISruSSION

NAME AND ADDRESS Capt. M. MlkhaJllchenko

OF 0 ISruSSER: Zhdanov Str. 1/4

103012, Moscow

01 sruss ION/QUESTIONS:
Can you show us principal scheme of Melville type bow? (It means

a new typ of bow for M.V. ARCTIC).

RESPONSE
Unfortunately the I ines plan of the Melville bow is the property

of the Canadian government and I cannot publ Ish it without their

permission. I would advise you to contact them directly.

NAME AND ADDRESS Andrew Kendrick

OF DISruSSER: German & Milne Inc.

Montr ea I, Ca nada

DISruSSION/QUESTIONS:
After thanking the authors for their interesting paper I would

I Ike to ask a question about another aspect of the M.V. ARCTIC's

performance; her manoeuvrability. Even now she is known to have

considerable difficulty turning in thick Ice, and with the new

bow she will be operating In stil I thicker Ice with a longer

' waterllne length. Do the authors feel that the manoeuvrability

problem is I ikely to I lmlt the ship's ice translttlng capabl I Ity
after the new bow is fitted?

RESPONSE
One of the most onerous manoeuvring tests for an Icebreaker Is

breaking out of its own pre-broken channel. This was

Investigated during recent Ice tests at the Warts I la tank in

Helsinki. The rudder was put hard over whilst the vessel was

procedlng down Its broken Ghannel. The results demonstrated that

whilst the existing bow could not move out of the channel the new

bow broke out In about 3 ship lengths.

As a result of these tests, we are confident that although the

new bow results In a marginally longer ship, the Melville bow

will result In a greatly Improved manoeuvring performance.

575
 WfR Ice Symposium 1984

Hamburg

DISCUSS IOn },'ORll

AUTHOR: Yerusalimsky A.V. and Tsoy L.G.

TITLE: Investigation of the effect of the hull plating

on the passability of ships in ice.
JUliE Al"llD ADDRESS
OF DISCUSSER: J.C.Tatinclaux
CRREL
72 Lyme Road
Hanover, N.!l. 03755, USA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:
This is more a comment than a question. The hull­
-ice friction proportions do greatly affect the ship
performance in ice. As shown in one of the slides, the
friction coefficient does increase rapidly with rough­
ness, but just, if not more, important, the morphology
of the roughness of the hull affects this frictinn coef­
ficient. For example, an inerta-160 coated plate will
have a much lower friction coefficient than bar s"eel of
same or larger averaee roughness height.

AUTHOR'S REPLY:
As it is stated in the full text of the report, in
addition to the height of irregularities other morpholo­
gical characteristics of roughness affect the coefficient
of friction. Indeed, while carrying out the present work
it was proved by experiment tilat at equp.l values of ~
the dynamic friction coefficient for the specimens with
natural corrosive surface destruction was higher than
that for the imitating specimens with artificial regular
cutting. At the same time the differences in values of fd
for the smooth steel specimens and for the specimens
coated with "Inerta 160" were relatively insignificant
the values of Rmax being equal.

577
INSTRUMENTATION IN ICE ENGINEERING

 lAHR Ice Symposwm 1984

•
'A Hamburg

DISCUSSION FORM

AUTHOR: I. Mayer and ~. Starosolszky

TITLE: Application of Subsurface Radar for

11easurement of Ice Thickness

NAME AND ADDRESS OF DISCUSSER:

Dr. George D. As hton
USA CRREL
72 Lyme Road
Hanover, New Hampshire 03755-1290
USA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS: Is it possible to use this

ins trument with relatively untrained tech­
nicians to measure ice thicknesses or does
it require considerable experience in in­
terpreting the results?

ANSWER: The interpretation of results is rather

complicated indeed, however, a good tech­
nician with about two weeks experience
can successfully accomplish it.

AUTHOR: I. Mayer and ~. Starosolszky

TITLE: Application of Subsurface Radar for

Measurement of Ice Thickness

579
 NAME AND ADDRESS OF DISCUSSER:
Randi Pyth Asvall
Norwegian Water Resources and
Electricity Board
Norway

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

1. Can you distinguish alternating layers of snow,

slush, ice, water layers, ice and so on, and what
is the accuracy?

2. The under hang of ice - can that be measured when

this is frazil accumulated under an ice cover. I
mean frazil in open areas upstream the ice covered
measuring site and transported downstream and ac­
cumulated underneath the ice cover.

ANSWER:

1. Layers of snow, slush, ice, etc. can be distin­

guished provided the upper and lower interfaces
of a given layer aren't too close to each other.
This minimum distance, i.e. the thickness of the
layer depends on the characteristics of the trans­
ducer and on the dielectric coefficient of the
given material and usually is between 100-200 mm.
The accuracy of measurement is less than 10 per
cent provided the dielectric coefficient is pre­
cisely known.

2. Frazil ice thickness under an ice cover can be

measured, however, the dielectric coefficient of
frazil ice can be determined or estimated with
great difficulty, e.g. by in-situe sampling. Con­
sequently, the accuracy of thickness measurement
is rather limited.

580
AUTHOR: I. Mayer and tl. Starosolszky

TITLE: Application of Subsurface Radar for

tleasurement of Ice Thickness

NM1E AND ADDRESS OF DISCUSSER:

Hung Tao Shen
Clarkson University
Potsdam, N.Y. 13676, USA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS:

1. What is the speed that you drag the antenna on

the ice? Have you experienced some problems by
using helicopter survey?

2. We have found it is more difficult to obtain

good data when the hanging dam composed of mix­
ture of frazil and .ice plates. Do you have the
same problem?

ANSWER:

1. The drag velocity of the antenna on ice depends

on the desired degree of resolution. For a high
degree of resolution a rather slow speed is ne­
cessary /0.2-0.3 m/s/, however, if the signals
are tape recorded the drag speed can be increas­
ed and the high resolution is achieved by a
slower velocity of playback. Helicopter might
be used if the d~sired degree of resolution is
not too high and an appropriate tape recorder is
applied. So far, we do not have experienced with
measurement from a helicopter.

581
 2. The special problems of measuring hanging dam
thicknesses are known to us. We tried to over­
come this difficulty by in-situ measuring the
dam thickness in one point and calculation the
dielectric coefficient from the thickness and
radar data. The thickness of other parts of the
hanging dam is then determined from the radar
signals using the previously calculated dielect­
ric coefficient.

AUTHOR: I. Mayer and O. Starosolszky

TITLE: Application of Subsurface Radar for

Measurement of Ice Thickness

NM1E AND ADDRESS OF DISCUSSER:

Richard Hayes
Ice Operations Division
U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters
Washington, D.C.
USA

DISCUSSION/QUESTIONS: Could you tell us what the

specifications are for the radar?

ANSWER:

The radar set operates off a 12 Volt battery

and draws about 1.5 Amps. It weighs about 10 kg.
A control cable of 60 m connects the radar set to
the antenna-transmitter unit. The minimum field
system contains the radar set and antenna. The power
supply furnishes a regulated DC voltage to the trans­

582
mitter which, when triggered, generates a base
band voltage pulse of approximately 3 nanoseconds
in time duration. The radiated signal is a brief
electromagnetic transient having band with of ap­
proximately 120 MHZ in the low VHF range /100 MHZ/.
The transmitter pulse repetition rate is 50 KHZ,
peak power is 35 watts, and average power is 5.2
milliwatts.

583
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

EVALUATION OF A BIAXIAL

ICE STRESS SENSOR

Gordon F. N. Cox, U. S . Army Cold ReGions USA

Geophysicist Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, N.H.
03755-1290

DISCUSSION BY: R. Frederking

Division of Building Research,
Naticna l Research Council, CANADA
This paper presents a , thorough laboratory evaluation o f the per­
formance of a biaxial stress s ensor under short and 10nt; term uni axial
and biaxial loading and also temperature cha nGes. Yne results help
establish a definitive manner the confi den c e level with which field
measurements made using this sensor can be interpreted . They show t hat
the senSor performs very well over a wide range of conditions. The author
is to be congratulated for this very clear and open evaluation of the
sensor.

Experience with the use of the sensors by the HSVA group in the
field at Adams Is land 'has been very satisfactory and this paper certainly
gives us confidenc e in the results .. e bave obta i ned there .

I would l i ke to raise the follo ..ing questions:

1) Figures 3 and 4 show the effect of Ei and v on the constants

A and B which relate the radial deformations to the principal stresses .
In an a ctual application Ei and v are not known. Could the author es timate
by how much the values of p and q determined from a particular set of
radial deformation measurements vary as a result of variations in Ei
and v.

2) The effect of temperature on the output of the s ensor is s hown

in Fit;Ure 5 in terms of period. What i s the equivalent effect in terms
of stress? In doing the temperature check ..as any difference in the
output of the sensor noted ..hi le the temperature ..as chant;ing; i.e.,
the case of wire temperature being different than that of the cylinder?

3) At what temperatures ..ere the loading tests done? Also were

the same va lues of Ei and v used in evaluating the results from all four
blocks? Further t o an earlier question , by ho .. much "ould the measured
results in Figure 7, for example, differ if a higher value of Ei were
used? How quickly were the loading steps done a nd how soon after the
load s tep were the radial deformations meas ured?

585
 4) Have any attempts been made to evaluate the performance of the
sensor under rapid load ing conditions?

5) If the sensor "'ere to be used exclusively for measuring stresses

in the range 0 to 100 kPa, what measures would you suggest for improving
the resolution beyond the current stated value of 20 kPa? What level
of resolution do you think is attainable?

RESPONSE TO; R. Frederking

I sincerely thank you for your thorough revie", of the paper and
your interest in the biaxial ice stress sensor. Each of your questions
are answered below in the order in whic h they were given .

1) In all our laboratory verification tests ",e arbitrarily assumed

an effective ice modulus of 0 . 68 GPa (1. 0 x 10 5 Ibf/in 2 ) and a Poisson's
ratio of 0.33. Good aereement "'as obtained bet"'een the applied and
measured s tress regardless of ice type, oA/oB load ratio and loading rate.
By varying the modulus from 0.68 to 6.8 GPa (1. 0 x 105 to 1. 0 x 10 6
Ibf/in 2 ) and Poisson's ratio from 0 . 33 to 0 . 50, either one at a time
or together, a maximum difference of 10% is obtained between calculated
stresses for a given set of radial deforfl'B.tions under uniaxial loading.
Under hydrostatic- loading condit ions ",here p = q, a maximum difference
of 15% is obtained. As demonstrated in Figures 3 and 4, calculated
stresses are more sensitive to variations in the ice Poisson's ratio
in the range of realistic moduli values. Using a Poisson's ratio of
0.5, instead of 0.33, can increase the calculated stresses from a given
set of deformations by up to 13%. Despite these findings, a Poisson's
ratio of 0.33 is assumed in field measurements since good agreement was
obtained using this value in the l aboratory verification tests for
different i c e types and loading conditions.

2) The stress sensor has a temperature sensitivity of about 5 kPa/oe

(0.4 Ibf/in2 /oF). The results shoYn i n Figure 5 illustrate how the output
of the sensor varies with temperature. All the measurements from the
differential therIl'.al expansion tests indicate that the wires in the gauge
and the gauge wall are at the same temperature, even during rapid changes
in temperature.

3) All the loading tests were performed at -lOoe (14°F). As

discussed above, constant values of Ei and Vi were assumed in the test
program regardless of ice type or loading rate. If a higher value of
Ei were used to calcu l ate the measured stresses in Figure 7, say 6.9
GPa (1.0 x 10 6 Ibf/in2), p ",ould be increased by 7% and q would indicate
some slight tension. Load steps were applied and measured in about 10
seconds.

4) . From all our experience to date, it appears that the sensor

r esponds immediately to loading and unloading. The only limitation is
the time to take the readings.

5) The resolution of the sensor can be increased to about 5 KPa

(1 Ibf/ in 2 ) by using a higher resolution data lOgGer. Even greater
resolution can be obtained by time averagi ng in situations where the
stress varys slowl y with time.

586
 lAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

Paper: An Instrlmented Auger for a Vertical Survey of Ice

Hardness CBy Harmon and Parsons)

Discussion By: K.R. Croasdale

Ice practitioners have always sought a quick in-situ

method of determining ice properties, and the authors are to
be commended for pursuing this difficult goal.

As they point out in their paper there are a number of

problems associated with the augering technique, not the
least being the need to keep the auger flights clear of ice,
and the need to keep the cutting ~lades sharp.

1. Could the authors tell us how frequently the auger had to

be lifted (or rotated without cutting) to obtain reliable
data?

2. Al so, how of ten shoul d the auger cutting 01 ades be

resharpened? In other words how long does it take in say
average time per metre to obtain these measurements?

3. Also the authors discuss the apparent correlation between

specific energy and compressive strength; was any strength
data obtained for the ice rubble, and did the authors
attempt any correlations?

4. Lastly, would the authors care to speculate on the future

promise of the method, and what work should be done (if any)
to improve it?

Authors' Response:

1. In general, the augering data was collected at

intervals of 0.5 to 0.75 meter lengths. The data
acquisition system would be shut down and the hole

587

-
-
 · igorously reamed. Depending on the ice condition this
depth would normally require no longer than 40 seconds to
ream - a slushy zone would take considerably longer;
whereas in the area of soft ice the drilling of a 0.5 to
0.75 m length may take only 5 seconds. Relatively, neither
the drilling nor the reaming proved to be time consuming.
The addition of successive auger flights was the time
costing exercise. After shearing various styles of
connector pins a simple bolt and nut arrangement was found
to be most reliable. In an Arctic environment, the act of
disconnecting and reconnecting auger f 1 !ghts by way of
threaded bolts and nuts was a lengthy and frustrating
process.

2. Three geometrically identical drill bits, all sharpened

in a similar manner, were prepared before each ' day of
augering. Drilling began with a sharp bit in the morning,
another for the afternoon and changed again in the evening.
In the event that the bit came in contact with the seabed it
was repl aced.

3. To date no correlation has been attempted between the

values of specific energy derived from the instrumented
auger and the compressive strength of the ice drilled.

4. To make this method more than just a tool for measuring

the reI ati v e ice hardness, the axi al thrust appl ied to the
drill and auger unit must be controlled and measured. It
woul d be necessary to el iminate the variabil ity the of axial
force applied and to keep this constant. For
impl ementation, an axial force transducer and a control
system would be required. A control system consi 's ting of a
frame holding the drilling unit would be necessary to
monitor the penetration rate. With such a device and
perhaps equipped with a larger diameter auger (see
discussion below by Hausler) more precise data, as a

588
consequence of the controlled constant axial torce, could be
collected quickly. Tnis would however destroy the portable
nature of the present unit.

Discussion by Erland Schul son

When correlating your specific energy with mechanical

properties, I would like to suggest that you keep fracture
toughness (Kl c ) in mind. In other words, I think that you
may find a better relationship between energy and toughness
than between energy and compressive strength. Such a "K lc ­
energy" correlation will be difficult, unfortunately,
because data for the Klc of ice of different "types" are not
yet available.

Authors' Response:

The C-CORE field program to obtain in situ fracture

toughness values was initiated in the winter of 1983. These
resul ts will be publ ,ished in a iorthcoming C-CORE report.
Along side the Klc experiment limited augering was done but
unfortunately this data is not fel t to com pI etely ground
truth the auger. Future plans are to supply Klc values for
several types of ice (Le. various salinities and grain
sizes) and this will continue to define the relationship
betweel) the two parameters.

Discussion by Franz Ulrich Hausler

Do you see any possibility to instrument the bit itself

in order to avoid the effect of friction between the auger
fl ights and the sides of the borehol e and so to avoid the
need of often clearing the flights?

589
 Authors' Response:

The present system uses 2 inch diameter auger fl ights.

with such a small auger diameter the difficul ty to
instrument the drill bit and flights, thus bringing the
information to the surface, does not appear to be practical.
Tnis would certainly be a costly, complicating and time
consuming addition. An insulated wire equipped with
waterproof connectors would be required in each flight.
Also it is felt the awkwardness and time required to connect
flights would not be a positive addition.

590
 IAHR Ice Symposium 1984
Hamburg

DISCUSSIor FOr.tl
'

AUTIIOR: Landanyi, nura t, fiuneau 1t

TITLE: "A parametri c study of lon9 term borehole

dilatometer tests in ice"
rtAr-1E M'D AODflESS
OF DISCUSSER: P.ans L. Jessberger
Ruhr University, Bochum

01 SCUSS lOri/QUEST lOllS:

I like to encourage people to use the dilatometer - pressure~eter

method more frequently because there is gooe. experience with other

~aterials than ice.

:1y questions:

1. Is the method applicable to measure the properties of a

mixture of rubble and slush ice?
2. Is it possible to oeasure the in situ stress?

591
Answer
Thank you for your comments. We would also like the method to be used by
more geople under different conditions in order to get a more genera l ex­
perience with the determination of cree~ parameters and their use in prac­
tice. Now for your two questions:
(1) In orinciple, the method is a9plicable for testing a mixture of rub­
ble and slush ice . However, for that purpose a much larger borehole
probe should be c onstructed because of larp,e size of ice fragments.
If a borehole is not stable, one can consider using a push-in dilato­
meter. Nevertheless, in general, the interpretation of borehole dila­
tometer test results in compressible media is mo re difficult than in
incompres sible ones.
(2) As for the possibility of using the dilatometer for measuring in situ
stress in ice, two options may be considered:
(a) If one is interested only in stress changes with time, the dila­
tometer can be put in the borehole a nd loaded to a low stress.
After stress stabilization under closed system conditions, the
pressure gages will record any stress changes occurring with time.
Clearly , the system should be temperature compensated or proper
temperature corrections should be ma de. This is the way th~ sys­
tem is being used for recording stress changes in mine pillars.
(b) If the absolute average stress in the ice around the borehole has
to be determined, the borehole relaxation method described in
Ladanyi (198~) seems promiSing, for that purpose, but it will still
need some in-situ verification.

Reference: Ladanyi, B. 1982. Borehole creep and relaxation te s ts in ice­

rich ~ermafrost. Proc. 4th Canadian Permafrost Conf.,
Calgary, R.J.E. Brown Memorial Volume, ACGR-NRCC, Ottawa, pp.
406- 415.

592
Discussion of
A PARAMETRIC STUDY OF LONG-7ERM

BOREHOLE DILATOMETER TESTS IN ICE

by

B. Ladanyi, J-R. Murat and P. Huneault

Discussion by : R. Frederking

This contribution is another in a series on the use of the borehole

dilatometer to determine the in situ strength and deformation properties
of ice and frozen ground.
In this paper the operation of a borehole dilatometer interacting
with sea ice in the creep range is simulated using the finite element
method. A parametric study was then run for a range of values of creep
parameters band n in the Andrade creep equation and E and v elastic
parameters. The main purpose of the parametric study was to establish
the length of time which a step load should be held to obtain a
reasonably accurate estimate of values of the creep parameters.
For the parametric study the creep parameters band n were given
and then calculations were done for different values of E and v. In
an actual experiment b, n, E and v are all unknowns. The effects of
E, v and Pi on the required transformed stress-distribution term,
have been discussed . Could the authors comment on the sensitivity of
the required time to variation in the values of band n, particularly
n approaching 3?
Although it is not the subject of this paper, could the authors
say something about the measurement accuracy in VIVA and Pi achievable
in the field and how sensitive the determination of band n is to them?
The borehole dilatometer has not yet seen extensive use in field
investigations of ice properties, however it has seen more use in frozen
ground investigations. It is an instrument which has potential for
further use in ice investigation.

593
Answer
Thank you for your comments . We understand quite well your in terest in
knowing more about th.e sens i tivity of the required time under load to so­
me other parameters. This information is in fact available in Mr.
Huneault's M.Sc . Thesis, but could not have been included in the paper
because of the la ck of space .

QUite 8enerally, it is found that the convergence towards true creep pa­
rameters is faster, or the time of stress redistribution shorter, the
hir,her the applied pressure in the borehole and the more rigid is the ice.
However, the time increases with increasing values of nand b. For exam­
ple, for n 3, b = 1 and all other parameters as in Fir,. 4, it is found
that after 1000 min, b is still underestimated by 30%, but both curves
are converging towards true b value more rapidly than in Fig. 4 (where n ­
2 and b = 0.75). Clearly, one should be aware of this fact when perfor­
ming such a test in ice, and loading times u~ to 24 h per stage may be
justified.

On the other hand, the measurement accuracy of several presently available

dilatometers is quite acceptable for testing the ice, because some of
them, such as the CSM Cell, were actually designed for testing rock, whe­
re the needed accuracy is at least one order of magnitude higher. In ad­
dition, some types of dilatometers measure lateral borehole deformations
by three radial displacement transducers, so that they do not depend on
the accuracy of the volume change measurements.

594
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t,