8th US/ICOMOS International Symposium

THE ESSENTIAL ROLE OF INTERPRETATION IN SAFEGUARDING

CULTURAL HERITAGE

Arlene K. Fleming
Cultural Resource Specialist
Great Falls, Virginia, USA

May 2005

I. EXPANDING THE CONCEPT OF INTERPRETATION IN THE ICOMOS ENAME

CHARTER

When we consider the interpretation of cultural heritage sites, our reference is commonly
a designated and protected area, open to visitors who need and deserve an explanation of
the significance and meaning of the place. In this context, the challenge is to enhance the
visitors’ experience by providing an interesting, fair and objective account of the site and
of its associated events and people. Given rapid and profound social, cultural and
political changes in our contemporary world, the task of interpreting cultural heritage
sites is dynamic and challenging.

Recognizing the need to articulate standards and to provide guidance for this activity, the
International Council on Monuments and Sites is preparing the ICOMOS Ename Charter
for the Interpretation of Cultural Heritage Sites. The third draft, issued in August 2004, is
presented for discussion by ICOMOS members, world-wide, and the subject is the theme
for the eighth annual symposium convened by the U.S. Committee of ICOMOS, in
Charleston, South Carolina.

The draft Charter defines interpretation as: ‘…the carefully planned public explanation
or discussion of a cultural heritage site, encompassing its full significance, multiple
meanings and values.” i The Charter’s preamble acknowledges that “interpretation of the
meaning of sites is an integral part of the conservation process and fundamental to the
positive conservation outcomes.” It is further stated that “the interpretation of cultural
heritage sites can be contentious and should acknowledge conflicting perspectives.” The
Charter aims to establish basic objectives and principles for interpreting sites in relation
to authenticity, intellectual integrity, social responsibility and respect for cultural
significance and context. Interpretation is considered to be a means of stimulating public
appreciation of cultural heritage sites as “sources of learning and reflection about the
past, as well as valuable resources for sustainable community development and
intercultural and intergenerational dialogue.” Interpretation, as envisioned in the Charter,
takes place “at, or in the immediate vicinity of cultural heritage sites.”

The opportunity to discuss and comment on the draft Ename Charter provides an
occasion to reflect on the concept, definition and process of cultural site interpretation as
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set forth in the document. The circumscribed definition of interpretation in the draft
Charter assumes that the activity is limited to transmitting information about a designated
site to a captive, passive audience. It ignores the fact that many heritage sites are not
established reserves: they may be places not yet designated for protection, or places
subject to maintenance and continual modification by a variety of property owners.
Under such circumstances, interpretation involves the timely provision of information on
heritage significance to individuals and groups whose decisions and actions may
determine the very survival and adequate maintenance of a place. Providing ‘just-in-
time’ interpretive information to decision makers may be a more complex and
challenging task than preparing material for visitors to an established site, but for the
conservation of heritage places, this is a significant function of interpretation.

If we define the interpretation of a place as an understanding of its value and meaning,

we must acknowledge that any viewer will make an assessment based on his experience,
information, values and objectives. Heritage sites throughout the world, threatened by
development projects and armed conflict, are variously interpreted by people who may
not even be aware of any cultural significance, and who have their own differing, and
often competing, values and interests. We must consider what the various decision
makers and interested parties actually see when they view a heritage site. How do they
interpret the place considering their knowledge and objectives? How are various
interpretations manifested? How do they affect decisions? What are the relative power
relationships among the decision makers?

In such cases, heritage interpretation is not planned by the custodians of a place, but can
be provided with the objective of influencing decisions that will affect the existence or
quality of a heritage site. The timely and effective participation of cultural resource
professionals may be decisive for satisfactory heritage conservation. What opportunities
and means exist to provide interpretation under such circumstances?

Some answers will be found in the following four case studies, each illustrating the
critical role that timely interpretation can play in the designation, protection, conservation
or reconstruction of cultural heritage places. The experiences recounted are from projects
planned or financed in part by the World Bank. ii Although the examples differ markedly
in content, each illustrates the necessity of creating awareness through timely, targeted
and effective interpretation, while appealing to the interests of all relevant decision
makers. In the first case, a historic bridge at Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina, for
centuries a symbol of local pride and unity, was destroyed during ethnic conflict, and
then rebuilt with international support. Second, is the city of Asmara in Eritrea,
constructed as an Italian colonial outpost, now requiring protection and conservation as a
symbol of Eritrean pride and unity. Then there is the case of surviving historic structures
in Ningbo, China, which were saved, restored and given a place in the modern city. And
finally, a story concerning the waterfalls of Bujagali on the Nile River in Uganda, home
to spirits worshiped by the local inhabitants and threatened by a proposed hydroelectric
project.
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II. THE BRIDGE AT MOSTAR IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA: A Case Study

People throughout the world watched helplessly in November 1993, as cameras recorded
the collapse of the beautiful 16th century bridge at Mostar on the Neretva River, following
weeks of shelling by Croat forces. Although hundreds of heritage structures in Bosnia
and Herzegovina had been damaged or obliterated since the outbreak of civil war in
1992, the destruction of this picturesque bridge captured the world’s attention. For
centuries it had served as a passageway between western Mostar, a predominantly
Croatian enclave, and the eastern sector of the city, peopled mainly by Bosniaks. In its
demise, the bridge, and the gaping hole that remained, became a symbol of the violent
conflict between the two groups and the Serbs, as the former nation of Yugoslavia
disintegrated.

Cultural heritage, in the form of valued historic buildings and objects had become a target
in the series of Balkan conflicts of the 1990s, as one objective in the struggle over
territory was to erase all evidence of habitation by opposing groups. The deliberate acts
demonstrated that the combatants understood the meaning and value of cultural heritage
and the powerful effects of its destruction. Although the intense civil conflict between
Serbs, Croats and Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina from 1992 through 1995 was
often characterized as an expression of ancient ethnic hatreds, it was a war based mainly
on 20th century experience and ideologies. The close proximity of historic Muslim,
Christian and Jewish religious and civil structures, as well as intermarriage between
groups, attest to previous centuries of harmonious relationships.

Mostar is strategically sited on the trade route between the Adriatic Sea and the Balkan
interior. The famous stone bridge, completed in 1566 by the ruling Ottoman Turks, was
an important link in this chain. Supplemented in subsequent years by modern bridges
built for vehicular traffic, the Stari Most, or old footbridge, was treasured as an aesthetic
landmark and a cultural symbol by the inhabitants of Mostar, the region, and travelers
from abroad. The bridge had social and cultural significance as a meeting place, and the
spot where young men proved their courage in special contests by diving into the icy
Neretva River.

As the ethnic strife intensified during the early 1990s, the Croat military sought to sever
this connection by destroying the bridge. As an edifice of the Ottoman Turkish period,
the structure was viewed by Croatian nationalists as a Muslim icon and a tangible
impediment to the objective of ethnic separation. A Croat fighter stated bluntly: “It is
not enough to cleanse Mostar of the Muslims; the relics must also be destroyed.” iii After
months under siege, the bridge was finally completely demolished by Croatian gunners
after two days of concentrated point blank attacks, recorded on videotape. Appeals by
the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the United Nations Security Council,
UNESCO and the Council of Europe for assistance in protecting the old city of Mostar
and the bridge had been in vain. iv
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For many people, the bridge was a treasured icon, transcending ethnic conflict as a
symbol of unity. One of the most eloquent expressions of mourning following the
destruction came from a Croatian journalist who wrote:

The bridge in all its beauty and grace was built to outlive us. Its identity was the
product of an individual’s creativity and the collective experience. It transcended
our individual destiny. The death of a man is one of us; the bridge is all of us,
forever. v

The demise of Stari Most received international media coverage, and almost
immediately, plans were underway for its reconstruction, beginning with the project
Mostar 2004, conceived and widely promoted by the Bosnian architect, Amir Pacic.
Detailed plans were available from restoration work during the 1980s, which had made
Mostar an economically successful tourist destination. (Figure 1.)

Figure 1. Mostar Bridge under siege, 1993

Annual planning workshops, convened in Istanbul and Mostar, attracted an international

group of architects and preservation experts. Governments and non-governmental
organizations expressed interest in providing financial and technical support. Following
the end of conflict and signing of the Dayton Accords in late 1995, the Government of
Bosnia and Herzegovina requested a credit of US$ 4 million from the International
Development Association of the World Bank to enable the Pilot Cultural Heritage
Project. Co-financers included the Council of Europe Development Bank and the
governments of Italy, the Netherlands, France, Croatia and Turkey, bringing the total to
US$ 15.5 million. Additional support, advice and technical assistance came from
UNESCO, the World Monuments Fund and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture.

The major objective of the World Bank’s Learning and Innovation Loan was to improve
the climate for reconciliation among peoples in Bosnia and Herzegovina through
recognition and rehabilitation of the common cultural heritage. This was seen as a pre-
condition for social and economic rehabilitation. The project investments included:
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reconstruction of the old bridge and its two flanking towers, and of selected cultural
monuments in the historic district of Mostar, as well as preservation of the old town’s
historic character through small-scale upgrading of infrastructure, open spaces and
facades. A social assessment conducted prior to the project ascertained that the majority
of respondents in both the Bosniak and Croat sections of Mostar supported rebuilding the
bridge and restoring historic neighborhoods and monuments. A number of people were
interested in participating by contributing their opinions, making donations and
volunteering to help. At the same time, they stressed the need for transparency and
consultation by the local government, for economic development, job creation and
housing, as the war had created a sharp drop in living standards and high unemployment.

The process of reconstructing Stari Most was broadcast worldwide by daily video
transmission on the Internet. Hundreds of international experts and local crafts people
participated as stones from the same local quarry as those used in the original bridge were
put in place. On July 23, 2004 the ‘new Old Bridge’ was dedicated in a spectacular
ceremony broadcast internationally. Dignitaries and preservations from many countries,
and over 2,000 participants from Bosnia and Herzegovina witnessed the resumption of
the traditional diving contest from the 90-foot high central point of the bridge’s arch.
Tourism is resuming in Mostar, bringing the hope of economic development, but all
agree that restoration of the symbolic bridge, dramatic and remarkable an
accomplishment as it was, is only one step in the difficult process of healing the wounds
of ethnic conflict in Mostar and the rest of the country. (Figure 2.)

Figure 2. Mostar Bridge reconstruction, 2004

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III. THE HISTORIC CITY OF ASMARA IN ERITREA: A Case Study

The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project in Eritrea began in 2001, as one in a small
portfolio of loans from the World Bank for conservation and economic use of cultural
resources in its client countries. Eritrea is a new nation, having gained its independence
from Ethiopia in 1993, following an armed struggle which began in the 1960s. It is intent
on forging a national identity, by melding a multi-ethnic population. Although Eritrea
lacks significant natural resources, it has a rich cultural legacy, including the unique
capital city, Asmara. This highland settlement is a rare ensemble of Rationalist
architecture designed by Italian architects during the colonial occupation from the 1920s
through the 1940s, and built by Italian and Eritrean craftsmen. Asmara is a source of
pride among Eritreans, of nostalgia for Italians who knew it during the colonial period,
and a focus of interest for specialists in architectural history throughout the world.
(Figure 3.)

Figure 3. Fiat Tagliero service station, built in 1938, Asmara

The US$ 5 million credit from the World Bank’s International Development Association,
provides support for several facets of cultural heritage, including archaeology, oral
history, archival management and conservation of historic structures and sites.
Approximately one half of the investment is dedicated to documenting, conserving and
planning for the protection of Asmara’s historic center. The colonial city survived
largely intact during the second half of the 20th century, due in part to preoccupation of
Eritreans with the liberation movement and a lack of financial resources. Many of the
colonial structures are sorely in need of maintenance or restoration, and protecting the
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historic character of the city is essential in the face of current urban expansion. There is
an urgent need to upgrade the infrastructure, including water, sewer and transport
systems, but such improvements are beyond the scope of the relatively small Cultural
Assets Rehabilitation Project. (Figure 4.)

Figure 4. Renovated building houses the World Bank office in Eritrea.

The World Bank financing is in the form of a Learning and Innovation Loan, designed to
allow for developing and testing various means of integrating the conservation and
management of cultural assets into local and national economic development. In the case
of Asmara, this means considering the conservation challenges in relation to the
livelihoods and aspirations of the inhabitants, as well as preparing for domestic and
foreign tourism. The project addresses several major challenges for conservation and
constructive development of Asmara’s historic center. These include: establishing a
planning process and regulations for managing, conserving and presenting the historic
architectural ensemble; setting standards and specifications for any new structures to be
built within the city’s historic perimeter; stimulating private owners to conserve
structures so as to preserve authenticity of the historic city; creating a cadre of skilled
craftspeople qualified to restore and maintain the colonial architecture; conserving
specific sites and structures in Asmara; and developing open spaces as public parks.

Planning required research, and during the first two years of the project consultants
mined archives in Asmara and Italy to thoroughly document the development of the city,
as well as to locate architectural plans and ownership records for individual structures.
The products of this research included the first detailed guidebook and map for historic
Asmara, published locally, and a major study of the city’s development and architecture,
Asmara: Africa’s Secret Modernist City, published in 2003 in London, and distributed
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internationally. The documentation served the dual purposes of providing a firm basis for
conservation and publicizing the existence of historic Asmara through interpretation of its
uniqueness, character and value. In 2004, UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre convened a
regional meeting in Asmara for the purpose of stimulating interest in Africa, and it is
likely that Asmara will be nominated as a World Heritage Site.

In a heritage site with a diverse population and multiple property owners, interest in
conservation depends to a considerable degree on personal aspirations of the inhabitants
and on their understanding and appreciation of the historic attributes of the place.
Interpretation is thus a dynamic process reflecting many views and interests, both
personal and communal. Perceptions of a historic urban environment by its residents
stem from attitudes shaped by such factors as work, income, education, social position,
age and gender. During the course of the Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, there
was an effort to determine how Asmara is viewed by several distinct groups including:
officials and experts who oversee preservation, administration and urban development;
the adult inhabitants, who belong to various social groups; school-age children
throughout Eritrea; and 20th century writers and poets. vi

The architects and urban officials had divergent ideas on the development of Asmara, but
agreed that historic preservation without modernization in this active city is not an option.
Beyond that consensus, there were numerous ideas, including: construction of a new
business district outside of Asmara; planning for an integrated living and working
environment for all social classes within the historic city; and modernizing the Italian
colonial buildings while preserving their form and character. All stated that the urgent
task is to provide housing, urban infrastructure and modern facilities. It was suggested
that preserving culture and the colonial urban character of Asmara extended to integrating
its distinctive features into new construction outside the historic perimeter so as to create
a unified city. These features would include Modernist or Rationalist elements of the
1930s as well as Eritrean vernacular architecture.

Asmara’s residents and property owners tended not to distinguish between preservation
and modernization, but viewed the city as a locus for contemporary life rather than as an
emblem of architecture or history. They unanimously opted for ‘cleanliness,’ which
connotes clean, well-maintained and equipped houses, streets, public facilities, stores and
office buildings, as well as public safety. European architecture of the 1920s to 1940s
may be familiar and pleasing, but the main preoccupation of citizens seemed to be quality
of life, including the basics of sewage facilities and water supply. Renovation of houses,
cafes or bars in Asmara often has been inappropriate from the standpoint of
preservationists. Thus it is clear that conserving the character of historic Asmara, will
require public education for the inhabitants and instruction in the maintenance of historic
structures.

For the city’s future, it is important to nurture in the young an appreciation and
understanding of Asmara’s historical and cultural value. To this end, the Cultural Assets
Rehabilitation Project launched a national campaign to make students aware of the
necessity to conserve cultural heritage by maintaining the built environment. This was a
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collaborative effort with the Ministry of Education, supported by grants from the World
Bank President’s fund and the governments of the United Kingdom and the Netherlands.
During 2004, students in schools throughout the country were invited to express
appreciation for any example of the built environment in their communities by creating
pictures, essays or poems. Individual winners and each school with contest entrants
received a copy of the book, Asmara: Africa’s Secret Modernist City and an illustrated
supplement summarizing the book in local languages. vii Over 500 students entered, and
their interpretations express deep regard for a variety of historic and modern structures in
Asmara and other Eritrean towns.

References to Asmara in literature have two common themes: the liberation war; and the
indigenous peoples of ‘native’ Asmara viii . Texts from the war and the Eritrean Diaspora
tend to characterize Asmara as a symbol of peace, and to nurture the dream of returning
to a liberated city, which connotes the good life in the past and future. The city is
romanticized. Other works depict Asmara during the harsh conditions of the Ethiopian
occupation, emphasizing crowded conditions, poverty, incomplete families and anxiety
about the future.

IV. URBAN RENEWAL IN NINGBO, CHINA: A Case Study

Ningbo is among many cities in China where rapid modernization threatens preservation
of cultural heritage. Located on the Bay of Hangzhou, in the coastal province of
Zhejiang, Ningbo was one of the first places in China to be designated a Cultural
Heritage Protected City of national importance. Settlement at the site dates back to the
8th century B.C. and today, the city contains cultural property built during the Tang,
Song, Ming and Qing Dynasties. Ningbo maintained active trade with Europeans
beginning in the 16th century, became an official treaty port in 1843, and was named one
of China’s 14 open cities for direct foreign investment in 1984. ix

Today, Ningbo is the second largest city in Zhejiang province, after Shanghai, with a
metropolitan area population of over five million. It is a major transportation hub for
railways, roads, waterways and air traffic. The Master Plan for Ningbo, created in 1986,
recognized that the development boom had left the old city center in need of upgraded
housing, transportation facilities, roads and basic services. Provisions for these
improvements were included in the Ningbo Basic Urban Services Upgrading component
of the Zhejiang Multicities Development Project, financed in part by the World Bank
during the 1990s. The allocations within this component included US$ 35.3 million for
civil works; US$ 59.7 for demolition and resettlement; and an additional US$ 2.3 million
for cultural heritage conservation.

At the outset, the project design did not provide for heritage conservation. The
proponents were entirely focused on civil works in the central city, which included
widening eight principal roads, and constructing urban services within the road reserve,
such as lighting, power cables, water and sewer works and landscaping. The project also
provided for demolishing structures not considered economically useful and for
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construction of modern housing for people who were to be moved from the old center of
the city. The terms of reference for the engineering design were limited to transportation
and traffic management objectives, and did not anticipate the impact of road widening on
historic structures and neighborhoods.

But as planning progressed, the project staff realized that valuable historic property
located along the road alignments would be sacrificed. Despite the designation of
Ningbo as a national Cultural Heritage Protected City; however, the city officials were
indifferent to the loss, maintaining that the threatened property was not more than 400
years old, and thus not worthy of conservation. x In an effort to explain the value of
Ningbo’s surviving heritage structures to the project proponents, a small team of Chinese
and international historic conservation experts engaged by the project called on Zhu
Zixuan, an eminent Chinese professor from Tsinghua University in Beijing. He led the
group in assessing the importance of the historic structures threatened by the project, and
together they convinced the city officials that conservation was both feasible and
advantageous. With the recognition that urban modernization and historic conservation
were compatible objectives, a cultural heritage component was added to the project in
order to protect and utilize historic properties along the roadways.

The World Bank agreed to provide conservation specialists to work with city agencies
responsible for infrastructure development and maintenance, particularly the Planning
Bureau and the Institute of Preservation and Administration of Cultural Relics. The
challenges included building political support and leadership; establishing inter-agency
coordination; enforcing laws and regulations regarding development; finding an
economically viable use for restored historic structures; and working with the public to
create awareness of their cultural heritage. In essence, the success of the conservation
effort would depend on how effectively information on the character and importance of
the heritage could be presented to a variety of interest groups. This diverse audience
included: city administrators and developers interested in economic return on investment;
local entrepreneurs looking for retail space; tourism agencies; and the population at large.

City officials, when convinced that their historic structures had value, acted as
facilitators. The Mayor’s office and the Ningbo Planning Bureau lent support by quickly
approving adjustments to the original plans for road realignment, which allowed for
relocation or restoration of historic property. A Municipal Cultural Heritage Protection
Committee was established to serve as an inter-agency coordinating group. It included
the heads of the Planning Department; Infrastructure Development Office; Engineering
and Public Utility Bureau; and the Institution of Preservation and Administration of
Cultural Relics. At regular meetings, the Committee set priorities, approved plans,
discussed issues relating to urban development and historic property, and considered
individual projects that would affect cultural sites. Specialists and citizens’ groups
participated in the meetings. Thus, historic preservation became a shared objective in
Ningbo.

In China, there are national, provincial and municipal laws for protecting cultural
heritage. Ningbo, as a nationally designated protected city, is subject to both local and
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national laws. xi However, in China, as in many other parts of the world, intense
pressures for modernization and development often override preservation laws and
regulations. The interest of Ningbo’s public authorities in cultural heritage conservation
led to a more careful adherence to national and municipal laws for protection. In one
instance, the Planning Bureau decided to revoke a previous agreement allowing real
estate developers free reign in building on a lake-front conservation area in order to
preserve scenic and historic features and provide space for leisure activities. Developers
in the Lake Yue area are now required to contribute toward general improvements,
including construction of public areas and landscaping. (Figure 5.)

Figure 5. Historic city center, Ningbo, China.

A fundamental concern in historic conservation is the practical consideration of economic

feasibility, which involves finding appropriate contemporary uses for structures. Among
several examples of restoration and adaptive re-use in Ningbo, is the Fan Center a
complex of shops selling books, antiques and art, located in an area of 15th century Ming
Dynasty houses. Formerly a group of deteriorating buildings, with families crowded into
unsanitary courtyards, this historic ensemble is typical of the traditional Chinese domestic
architecture now being sacrificed to high-rise construction in numerous cities. In Ningbo,
the historic structures were conserved and the families resettled into more modern and
spacious housing. The Jun Temple, which had been converted to a machine factory, then
used for shops, was restored to become part of a commercial complex containing a new
department store designed to blend with the historic temple’s exterior. The He Zhang
Hall, built on an island in Lake Yue during the Ming Dynasty, had deteriorated into a
poorly maintained residence for municipal employees. Following resettlement of the
occupants, the building was restored to house the Ningbo Culture and Arts Association,
its former quarters having been moved to the lake shore for use as a tea house. Attention
was not limited to individual structures and small architectural ensembles, but also
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focused on the urban fabric, including demarcation of conservation zones, provision for
pedestrian links between such zones, and regulations for new structures to ensure
harmonious design.

Public support was essential for the conservation activities. An educational campaign
accompanied the process of preserving historic structures and creating conservation
areas. Through a variety of media, including brochures, audio visual materials, radio,
scale models, dramatic presentations and special cultural heritage days, the Preservation
Institute stimulated interest and garnered public support. Specialists and the residents of
Ningbo were invited to express their opinions on current conservation issues and specific
places. This emphasis on public education by drawing attention to the cultural and
historic significance of structures and the urban landscape has motivated citizens to
demand more preservation work from the city and stimulated private groups to launch
conservation projects. In turn, public interest encourages city officials to institutionalize
a concerted approach to valuing, enhancing and maintaining the cultural heritage.
Observing the results of historic preservation in the city, the Vice Mayor commented:

Ningbo has one of the richest cultural heritages in the country and we have a
responsibility to preserve this heritage for generations to come. By doing this we
enrich the quality of life for our people, now and in the future. xii

V. THE PROPOSED DAM AT BUJAGALI FALLS IN UGANDA: A Case Study

As the Nile River flows north from Lake Victoria through land-locked Uganda, it
descends over 2,000 feet, providing considerable potential for generating hydroelectric
power. It is estimated that a mere five percent of Uganda’s population has access to
electricity, and the quality and quantity of power are deemed a significant constraint on
private investment necessary for the country’s development. xiii The World Bank Group,
having financed two power projects in Uganda, was asked to finance a third, the Bujagali
Hydropower Project. This was be the largest private structural development project in
East Africa to date, including installation of a 200-megawat power plant at Bujagali Falls,
on the Nile, construction of a 90-foot dam with a small reservoir, and approximately 100
kilometers of transmission lines and substations.

The total cost was estimated at US$ 582 million. The International Finance Corporation
(IFC), the arm of the World Bank Group supporting private investment in the developing
world, was to provide a partial risk guarantee for the project. Financing would come
from the African Development Bank and from private investors, mainly the AES
Corporation, a U.S.-based company, and the largest independent power producer in the
world. Its subsidiary in Uganda, the AES Nile Power (AESNP), designed the plans for
the dam and transmission lines, and during project preparation, provided an
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), as required by the World Bank Group.

As its name implies, an EIA investigates the effects of a development project, focusing
on physical and biological concerns such as the quality of soils, vegetation and air, as
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well as on the flora and fauna. The EIA also considers social matters, including the well-
being of people in the area of a project’s impact, and the effect on cultural heritage. EIA
investigations have specific requirements for consultation with people who will be
affected by a project, so that their concerns are weighed fairly in final decisions regarding
the proposed development.

In July 2001, nearly five months before the Bank’s Board of Executive Directors was
due to consider financial support for the Bujagali Hydropower Project, the Inspection
Panel, a high-level oversight committee at the World Bank, received complaints
regarding the project from several non-governmental organizations in Uganda. The
disaffected parties included the National Association of Professional Environmentalists
of Kampala (NAPE), and the Uganda Save Bujagali Crusade (SBC) among other local
institutions and individuals. Complaints included claims of failures in the design,
appraisal and implementation of the two previous hydropower projects financed by the
World Bank, as well as in preparation for the Bujagali project. Regarding the latter, the
claimants maintained that the World Bank was not in compliance with several of its own
safeguard policies and procedures, including those for environmental assessment, natural
habitats, safety of dams, involuntary resettlement, indigenous peoples, and cultural
heritage.

Since 1986, the World Bank has had a policy designed to avoid destruction or damage to
physical cultural heritage in any project where it is involved. xiv This policy covers
archaeological and paleontological sites, architectural structures and ensembles, as well
as natural features with cultural or spiritual significance. The policy is generally
implemented through the EIA, which requires consultation with peoples whose lives will
be affected by a development project. The complaint to the World Bank’s Inspection
Panel, in regard to safeguarding cultural heritage, stated that the EIA and its consultation
process did not give due consideration to the religious beliefs of the local Basoga people,
who number 2.5 million and worship powerful spirits whom they believe inhabit the
waterfalls of Bujagali. xv The Basoga fear these spirits and maintain that disturbing them
may lead to havoc, including famine, sickness, death, and other hardships. Families have
small altars in their houses, where on behalf of ancestors buried nearby, they appeal to
the spirits thought to inhabit rocks, trees and the waterfalls. A high priest, the Budhagali,
is 39th in a succession of religious priests serving as the Basoga peoples’ intermediary
with the spirits. (Figure 6.)

The AESNP, claims that the Basoga were consulted during the EIA and gave assurances
that the spirits could be moved to a new location provided that required rituals were
performed. The EIA enumerates the project’s ‘Effects on Cultural Property’ as follows:
inundation of household graves; inundation of dwelling sites of spirits, including those
inhabiting the Bujagali rapids; and potential for construction employees to offend spirits.
The EIA report concludes that any disturbances caused by the project and the relocation
of the spirits would be minor and short term, and that the spirits inhabiting the Bujagali
Falls could be moved to the Kalagali Falls on the Nile. The World Bank’s Inspection
Panel found that the Government of Uganda had not given legally binding guarantees that
no construction would be undertaken at Kalagali in the future, and stipulated that such an
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assurance would be necessary in order to keep faith with the local population. For other
reasons, involving financing arrangements, the project is in abeyance as of mid-2005, but
should it be revived, the issue of the spirits will need to be addressed.

Figure 6. Bujagali Falls on the Nile River, Uganda

VI. CONCLUSIONS

The four case studies indicate the critical role of timely interpretation in the designation,
protection, conservation, restoration and reconstruction of cultural heritage structures and
sites. The historic bridge at Mostar, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, was deliberately
destroyed during ethnic conflict because of its symbolic and actual value as a unifying
edifice. Immediately following the destruction, proponents of heritage preservation
sprung into action, providing a vision for reconstruction, educational workshops and
detailed architectural plans that helped to convince lenders, donors and technical experts
that the project was feasible. The bridge, when destroyed, had received widespread
media attention as a ruined symbol of unity in a war-torn country. Investment in
reconstruction was seen as a logical facet of the post-conflict healing and rebuilding
process. Thus, in the case of Mostar, the interpretation that resulted in creation of the
‘new Old Bridge’ can be attributed to a combination of the international communications
media and dedicated, well-prepared and knowledgeable heritage professionals who
responded quickly and effectively to stimulate financial and technical assistance. The
restored bridge stands as a testament to the centuries of multi-ethnic habitation in its
locality, the aspiration for reclaiming this harmony, and the importance of preserving
prime examples of the historic built environment.

Asmara, the Italian colonial city, now the capital of Eritrea, survived intact during three
decades of the Eritreans’ armed struggle for independence from Ethiopia. The historic
 15

area now urgently requires planning for protection and appropriate maintenance in order
to conserve its character. Given the current expansion and growth of Asmara, cultural
heritage experts in Eritrea recognized the need to educate municipal authorities, private
property owners and the general population as to the unique value of the historic city, and
to demonstrate the principles and methods of heritage preservation. As the central district
of a vital, expanding modern city, the core of Asmara will never be a historic preserve. It
will be an inhabited place, and maintaining its authenticity will depend on a combination
of municipal laws and regulations, public and private works, and care of historic
structures by their public or private owners. Careful planning is required to define the
relationship between the heritage enclave in the central city and the fast growing
peripheral neighborhoods. The future of historic Asmara thus depends on the
effectiveness of interpreting its character and value – historical, social and economic – to
all whose decisions will affect its authentic survival.

A similar situation existed in Ningbo, China, where improvements in urban infrastructure

threatened the survival of historic buildings and community parklands until heritage
experts interceded by explaining the value of these attributes to municipal authorities,
financial investors, developers and the public. Ningbo had undergone extensive urban
renewal and development, hence the surviving historic structures do not form a cohesive
town, as in Asmara; they exist as isolated structures and small neighborhood enclaves, of
varying age. Effective and timely intervention by cultural heritage experts with a
compelling presentation regarding the historical, social and economic value of the
traditional architecture and urban parkland mobilized the municipality, investors,
developers, merchants, tourism agencies and the public. A revised plan was created and
implemented, providing for restoration and adaptive re-use of several major landmarks,
as well as for conservation and enhancement of the inner-city parks. Historic
preservation became a positive factor in urban modernization and a source of pride, as a
result of interpretation and persuasion by cultural heritage experts.

In Uganda, investors and proponents of a hydropower project at the Bujagali Falls, were
made aware of the religious significance of the site through the consultations with local
inhabitants required by the Environmental Impact Assessment. The large project for
generating electricity by constructing a dam and power plant had focused in the early
planning stages on technical aspects and the resettlement of peoples living in the
immediate vicinity. The discovery that the local Basoga people believe the rapids at
Bujagali are inhabited by spirits which have the power for drastic retribution if disturbed,
caused the project proponents to take seriously this cultural and religious feature of the
site. Through negotiation with the Basoga, and their high priest, the Budhagali, it was
deemed possible to conduct rituals necessary to facilitate relocation of the spirits to
another site of rapids on the Nile River, thus preserving religious and cultural practices.
Involvement of the World Bank in the project required compliance with its policy for
safeguarding cultural property, and thus the cultural features of the Bujagali Falls had to
be respectfully considered and resolved with the local population as a precondition for
project approval.
 16

As illustrated in the four cases described, the responsibility for interpretation of heritage
sites and structures by knowledgeable specialists is not confined to providing educational
information to visitors. In order to ensure survival, designation, conservation,
appropriate use and appreciation of heritage places, interpretation must take place in a
timely manner, under widely differing circumstances, and be directed at a variety of
audiences, including those whose decisions will have a significant effect on the heritage.
Recognition of this broader function of interpretation has implications for cultural
resource experts and historians. It requires attention to safeguarding heritage structures
and sites that are threatened during both conflict and development, and providing relevant
interpretive information about their value in terms understandable to the decision makers
whose actions have an impact on heritage resources. ICOMOS is taking a significant and
valuable step in issuing a charter on the interpretation of cultural heritage sites. In
formulating the charter, the strategic use of interpretation should be given due attention
with the goal of maximizing the survival, conservation and appreciation of the world’s
heritage resources.

END NOTES
i
ICOMOS Ename Charter for the Interpretation of Cultural Heritage Sites, Third Draft, (23 August 2004).
www.enamecenter.org/pages/ICOMOS_Ename_Charter_(Draft 3)_23-08.04.doc
ii
The author has served from 1997 to the present as a consultant to the World Bank on cultural resources.
Information in this paper comes from documents in the public domain. Opinions and conclusions are those
of the author.
iii
Arlene K. Fleming and George Kenney, organizers, A Symposium on Destruction and Rebuilding of
Architectural Treasures in Bosnia and Herzegovenia, at the Conference Center of the Carnegie Endowment
for International Peace,( May 2, 1994). www.kakarigi.net/manu/ceip2.htm
iv
Letter from the Government of Bosnia and Herzegovina to UNESCO and the Council of Europe
requesting assistance for protection of historic monuments, including the Old Bridge at Mostar, (July
1993).
v
Fleming and Kenney, op.cit.,. www.kakarigi.net/manu/ceip3.htm
vi
The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, Asmara: A Guide to the Built Environment, Asmara, Eritrea
(2003), pp. 68-73.
vii
The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, Urban Awareness Campaign – Project Summary, in
conjunction with the Book for Schools Project, Asmara, Eritrea (2004).
viii
The Cultural Assets Rehabilitation Project, op.cit., p. 72.
ix
Katrinka Ebbe and Donald Hankey, Case Study:Ningbo, China. Cultural Heritage Conservation in
Urban Upgrading, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank,
Washington, D.C., (1999), p. 4.
x
Ibid., p. 7.
xi
Ibid., p.9. Article 22 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China (1882), states that: “The state
protects places of scenic and historical interest, valuable cultural monuments and treasures and other
important items of China’s historical and cultural heritage.”
xii
Ibid.
xiii
James Tumusiime, “Power Struggle: Hydro challenges the Victoria Nile at Bujagali Falls,” Worldview,
Volume 15, Number 4 (October – December 2002), p. 25.
xiv
Operational Policy Note (OPN) 11.03 – Management of Cultural Property in Bank-financed Projects
(1986).
xv
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, Accountability at the
World Bank: The Inspection Panel 10 Years On, Washington, D.C. (2003), p. 84.