CHAPTER 3

CONVERTERS AT HINDALCO

3.1 Overview of HINDALCO AC-DC Converters

3.1.1 Introduction
Aluminium electrolysis process requires electrical energy in the form of direct current
and DC power can be obtained by converting AC into DC. Earlier mercury arc
rectifiers were in use till late 1950. In 1960, the first diode converter was used in
Aluminium Smelters and after twenty years, thyristor converters were also in
operation in Aluminium industries. The semiconductor convertors are having high
efficiency being static devices. Today in HINDALCO Industries, converter units of
100 KA are in operation and Smelter plants with the process current of 360 KA for
360 pots in line are operating in HINDALCO industries Ltd. (India) as well as in
other parts of the world. At present, the two types of AC-DC converters are most
commonly used in Aluminium Smelters [1].
1) Uncontrolled converters (Diode converters) and
2) Controlled converters (Thyristor converters)

These two types of semiconductor converter technologies have been competing with
each other over the last three decades. This research is also based on two types of
converters i.e. diode converter and thyristor converter. In diode based AC/DC
converter system where on load tap changers and saturable Transductors are used for
DC output current regulation and control. While in thyristor converter a firing angle
control is used to regulate the DC output [27].

The pot line 7 is having thyristor based converter system and potline#9 is equipped
with diode based converter system. To carry out a comparative study of practical
aspects of mixed use of diode and thyristor convertor technologies in Aluminium
Smelter the case study was taken at HINDALCO Renukoot Smelters. In India,
HINDALCO Industries Ltd is the only Aluminium producer where both types of
converters are being used at HINDALCO Renukoot and HINDALCO Hirakud
Smelters.
In HINDALCO Smelters, pot lines 7 and 8 are having thyristor convertor system and
remaining 9 pot lines are operating with diode converter technology. The details of all
the convertors of 11 pot lines with their ratings are shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1: AC-DC convertor ratings of pot lines of HINDALCO Smelter

AC-DC CONVERTOR RATINGS of POT LINES of HINDALCO SMELTER
Rated Capacity During Emergencies/
Contingencies
POT VOLT- CURRENT VOLT- CURR CONVERTE MAKE
LINE AGE AGE ENT R TYPE
NO.
1 780 61.5 825 50.0 Diode English Electric
2 825 64.0 850 50.0 Diode Westing House
3 825 64.0 850 50.0 Diode Westing House
4 850 66.0 920 50.0 Diode BHEL
5 850 66.0 920 50.0 Diode BHEL
6 850 66.0 920 50.0 Diode BHEL
7 900 70.0 950 60.0 Thyristor ABB
8 900 70.0 950 60.0 Thyristor BHEL
9 900 70.0 950 60.0 Diode ABB
10 900 70.0 950 60.0 Diode ABB
11 900 70.0 950 60.0 Diode ABB

The reason behind the selection of pot line 7 and 9 for this research was that both the
converters are having same current and voltage ratings and procured from the same
supplier i.e. M/S ABB. Pot line 7 is equipped with thyristor converter system while
pot line 9 is having diode converter system.

The pot line 7 has two Rectifier transformers (ABB make), each of 74.3MVA rating
were commissioned in 1995 along with two converter units of 900 V/70KA [28].

The pot line 9 was commissioned in 2001 has two Regulating Transformers of
81.52MVA rating, two Rectifier Transformer of 73.56MVA and two Converter units
of 900V/70KA [29].

The acceptance of these rectification technologies across Aluminium Smelters is

based on the combination of several factors that are taken into consideration. These
include – system reliability, investment cost, efficiency, current harmonic distortion,
power factor, current regulation accuracy and the maintainability of the converters.
3.1.2 Uncontrolled Converters (Diode Converters)
A diode is a device which conducts current easily in one direction, but does not
conduct in opposite direction except for a small amount of leakage current.

A Power diode has two terminals i.e. Anode and Cathode. It is a two layer “p” and
“n” junction device. Basic schematic diagram and symbol is shown in Fig. 3.1.

Fig. 3.1: Schematic diagram of diode converter and its symbol

When an AC wave is supplied to a diode it conducts the current provided the anode is
made positive with respect to cathode then power diode is said to be forward biased.
In this condition the power diode behaves as a closed switch. As the diode voltage is
increased the current will initially be zero until the voltage is less than its threshold
voltage. Threshold voltage is the minimum anode voltage beyond which the diode
current increases rapidly and diode starts conducting. The forward resistance of the
conducting diode is very small. Therefore the forward voltage drop is also very less.
When cathode of power diode is made positive with respect to anode, the diode is said
to be reversed and it behaves as an open circuit.

Diode converters are the simpler form of converters and used as front end converters
in DC power supplies. A simple elementary circuit diagram of a diode converter
system is shown in Fig. 3.2.
Diode Converter System

Fig. 3.2: Circuit diagram of a diode converter system

Diode Converters are the simplest of all converter technologies. There are three basic
types of converters as follows:
The Half wave Converter
The full wave Converter
The bridge Converter

But in Aluminium Smelters bridge converter’s circuits are very popular. Three phase
diode bridge rectification with wave forms of output voltage is explained below in
figure 3.3a & 3.3b.

Fig. 3.3 (a): Three phase diode bridge converter

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Assumptions
(1) Ideal diodes: Von=0
(2) L is very large id is constant

(3) Three phase balanced input

Fig 3.3 (b): Output voltage wave form of three phase diode bridge converter

Diode convertors are the simple form of the converters and used as front end
convertors in DC power supply. The circuit diagram of pot line 9 which is having
diode convertor system is shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4: Single line diagram of pot line 9

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As shown in Fig. no. 3.4, there are two number of units i.e. 9A & 9B of 70kA 900V
DC converter systems for pot line 9. Regulating and Rectified Transformers are
designed for total 24 pulse with ±7.5 degree phase shift for each unit. Normally pot
line 9 runs in 24 pulse configuration, in case of the tripping of a converter unit or
being stopped for maintenance then the remaining converter unit can feed 100% load
with 12 pulse configuration only. The harmonic filters are designed by keeping in
view all the operating conditions i.e. 12 pulse and 24 pulse. The case study has been
carried out for 12 pulse configuration keeping 70KA load on unit 9A in this
configuration the fifth and seventh harmonic currents are supressed [6,30].

In pot line #9 two units of 70KA and 900V DC considered for a converter system. At
emergency each of these converter systems can supply 950V DC at 60kA [29].
The description of the major equipment of pot line 9 (diode converter system) is as
follows:

3.1.2.1 Regulating Transformer

Regulating Transformer works on auto-transformer principle. Therefore Regulating
transformers are used variable voltage for smelting process, which requires variable
voltage to maintain a fixed current. The variation of voltage may take place in the
smelting process due to following reasons:
1) Increasing and decreasing of pots due to repair of pots in the potline.
2) Anode effects and,
3) Addition of pots in sequence during starting etc.

The voltage variation can be done in two ways:

A. By providing taps on the primary side of the Rectifier transformer but for 12-
pulse circuits where primary phase shift is done, this would be more
complicated and un-economical [31-32].
B. Feeding primary of rectifier transformer through a separate auto regulating
transformer, which is widely, accepted practice. The Rectifier Transformer
being a constant-current transformer, the output current of Regulating
Transformer also constant. Hence KVA of Regulating Transformer changes
with output voltage.

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Voltage control for a Diode converter is achieved by changing the input voltage of the
Regulating Transformer by following means as follows.
1. By using On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) on the primary side of the Regulating
Transformers, by which a rough voltage control can be achieved.
2. The saturable core Transductors control method by introducing variable
impedance into the circuit, ahead of the diode converter. The saturable core
Transductor consists of two windings i.e. DC windings on the centre leg and
AC windings on the outer legs. By varying the control current in the DC
winding the impedance of AC winding can be varied. An increase of DC
control current increases the DC flux and causes the Transductor to operate
with a high level of saturation and correspondingly lower impedance.
Similarly a decrease of control current reduces the DC saturation and increases
the impedance. In this way the effective impedance is controlled to cause
smooth control of output voltage. In pot line 9, OLTC and saturable
Transductor are being used together to have smooth voltage control.

In diode converter system, the tap changer operates in accordance with the upper and
lower limit of a control current for Transductor. A coordinated approach for
Transductors and tap changer is used to control Rectiformer output current.

The tap changing transformer has multiple taps in order to adjust the DC side output
voltage. Each Rectiformer has a unit reference current, which is compared with the
measured current in a closed loop current control. The output measured current of
twelve pulse converter is compared with the reference current and a proportional-
integral (P-I) controller adjusts the control current of the respective Transductor,
thereby maintaining the output current at the desired value. The OLTC operates
outside the controlled current range of Transductors. The Transductor control is used
for smooth control of DC voltage between two OLTC positions so that the frequency
of operation of the tap changer is reduced. The Transductor is designed for 80V for
offering smooth control of the Current and having an overlapping Voltage of 15 V, so
that it avoids spurious changing of taps [33].

As explained by the Fig. 3.5. The voltage control is a mixture of step and linear
regulation. Whenever the regulation is done through Transductors then regulation is
linear. But it is step wise when it is done through OLTC. Some operational problem is

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observed when Transductor reaches its saturation point. Here the linearity of the load
control is not achieved, due to this there are current variations and anode effects.
Whenever there is some disturbance in Smelter the load varies because the combined
philosophy of Transductors and OLTC and it takes some time to maintain a stable
load.

Fig. 3.5: Control characteristic for a voltage controlled Transductor

Since the Smelter set point is normally fixed, saturable Transductors are used for fine
control and tap changers for coarse control to operate continuously in closed loop
mode in order to achieve automatic current control [22].

3.1.2.2 Rectifier Transformer

It is essentially a step down transformer, the secondary of which corresponds to the
output dc voltage. This is also called main transformer in the converter system, as the
output terminals of this transformer are connected to the rectifier units. For large
Aluminium Smelters, Rectifier Transformer ratings are as large as 200 MVA, taking a
supply at 220 KV and providing a low voltage output to the rectifiers between 800 V
to 1500 V. The LV currents therefore may be as high as 25 KA to 50 KA and the LV
conductors thus have a substantial cross-section. In order to bring out the large cross-
section LV leads, the LV winding mostly made the outer winding rather than
occupying its usual position next to the core and it will consist of a number of parallel
disc-wound sections arranged axially with their ends connected directly to vertical
copper bus bar risers [33].

Regardless of their rating, the feature which singles out Rectifier Transformers for
special attention is the problem of harmonic currents created by the Diode and

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Thyristor converters and fed back into the supply system. The problem is taken care
of by using appropriate rating harmonic filter banks.

The Rectifier Transformers differ from normal Power Transformers in many respects,
though they look the same outwardly. A power transformer’s basic role is to either
step up or step down the voltage and transmit power. On the other hand Rectifier
Transformer steps down the voltage and is used with rectifier cubicles to convert AC
power into DC power.

The general expression for direct current Id with the resistive load ‘R’ connected to
Rectifier Transformer with m secondary phases and phase connected to a Diode,
assuming negligible Diode drop and transformer impedance, can be written as:

? JA/? C?DEFGH
B
@A KA/?
dwt
I
C? ? A
=
I
. L
. 6-+ ?

Where Em is peak phase to neutral voltage of the transformer. This is because each
Diode conducts for an interval of 360/m degree [33].

The load of a Smelter is constant in nature as electrolysis process of Aluminium

requires constant current as it helps to maintain better current efficiency of the
Smelter; therefore Rectifier Transformers are basically a constant current
transformers. As stated earlier the LV windings of Rectifier Transformers carry heavy
currents so heavy bus bars are used for the connections between windings and the
terminals. Special attention is given while selecting size and material of the bus bars
carrying currents. This is to reduce the stray losses and reactive drop also.

Primary side windings of converter transformers are star, delta or Zig-Zag. At

HINDALCO Zig-Zag windings are used to provide a phase shift of +/- 7.5 °.
Secondary windings are star and delta and these windings are special type to carry
high currents. Since these windings are connected to the parallel bus bars and carries
high currents. These heavy currents create a lot of stray losses due to both hysteresis
and eddy current losses. To minimize it wherever needed steel with least possible
magnetization is used or non-magnetic steel with low permeability and high resistivity
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is used. Interleaving of bus bars is done to allow linking of only the resultant flux with
the tank. LV bus bars are placed in such a way that its width is always perpendicular
to the Tank wall [33].

3.1.2.3 Diode Rectifier Cubicles.

The phase shifting transformers are being used to have multi-pulse system and it is
very much helpful to mitigate the harmonic currents produced by the AC-DC
converters.

To explain the 12 pulse delta/wye parallel full wave rectifier fed by three phase
winding, six phase transformer with a delta primary along with a delta secondary and
a wye secondary (Ddoyn11). The purpose of this star delta transformer connection is
to introduce a 30° phase shift between the source and bridge [31-32]. This results in
inputs to the two bridges which are 30° apart. The two bridge outputs are similar, but
shifted by 30°. Hence each three phase secondary feeds a six pulse full wave bridge
rectifier and each rectifier is connected in parallel with the load. This configuration is
called a 12 pulse converter [18-19,34]. The purpose of multi-phase rectifiers is to
reduce the magnitude of current THD and improve the power factor.

This rectifier topology is a preferred topology in Aluminium Smelters as it is better

from the operation and maintenance point of view. The diode bridge connections for
12 pulses have been shown in Fig 3.6. And its 12 pulse output voltage waveform has
been shown in Fig no. 3.7.

Fig 3.6: Diode bridge connections for 12 pulse

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 Fig. 3.7: 12-pulse output voltage waveform

In 12 pulses, rectifications the predominant harmonic components in the current wave

form are 11th and 13th. In this case the currents are balanced and there is no neutral
current problem. To mitigate the low order harmonics, multi pulse (such as 24 and 36)
are used in large plants like HINDALCO. Phase shifting transformers with the
appropriate phase shift are used to achieve 24 pulse operations. The dual advantage of
a higher number of pulse is to lower total harmonic distortion (THD) of AC mains
current and have ripple free DC current. The theoretical performance data of 12 pulse
converter system are given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Theoretical performance data of 12 pulse converter system [33].

No. of secondary phases (m) Two Bridge parallel connection (12)

Conduction angle 30o

Vrms /phase secondary Vdo/2.34

Irms of secondary 0.408 Id

P eq of primary 1.01 Pdo

P eq of secondary 1.05 Pdo

P total 1.01 P do

PUF 0.99

SUF 0.95

Ripple value 1.4%

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From the Table 3.2, it is concluded that three phase twelve-pulse-wave bridge rectifier
is the most commonly used rectifier, because it provides a high transformer utility
factor and low ripple factor because the out pulse frequency is twelve times the supply
frequency [35].

3.1.2.4 Semiconductor Fuses

The semiconductors fuses are fast acting fuses and primarily used for short circuit
protection. I2t values of the semiconductors fuse link is always kept less than the I2t
capability of the device.

For protection, special current limiting Semiconductor fuses are being connected in
series with the semiconductor elements to ensure protection against internal short
circuits by isolating faulty element. The semiconductor fuse will open in the event
when the diode fails and will ensure no interruption of service.

Protection relays are also installed in the local control cubicle to allow safe and
reliable operation. The protective relays release the primary breaker in case of a
serious fault. The converter system is cooled by deionized water.

3.1.2.5 DCCT
DCCT is used to measure the direct current in Aluminium Smelters. DCCT works on
the principle of Hall-Effect. The Hall Effect says –“When electrical current passes
through a sample placed in a magnetic field, a potential proportional to the current
and magnetic field is developed across the material in a direction perpendicular to
both current and to the magnetic field [36]. The DCCTs installed at HINDALCO
Smelter are having high accuracy and works on the closed loop system to measure the
DC bus currents up to 100KA. The DC current measurement system used in Pot line 7
and Pot line 9 is placed on the Main DC bus bar and it consists of two piece
measuring head, a metering unit and two multi-conductor cables. The actual value of
delivered by D.C. metering system is compared with a pre-set (set point) value. The
difference between these two values is used to control an electronic regulator in a
change of the responsible actuator and processed at PHSC to perform current
regulation. The comparison of the DCCTs of pot lines 7 and 9 is shown below in
Table 3.3.

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 Table 3.3: Comparison of DC measuring systems of pot line 7 and 9
S.No. Pot Line 7 Pot Line 9
1 Type CM7038 LKP80
2 Measuring Range 100 kA 80kA
3 Voltage Output Signal 1mV/kA, +/- 0.1% 1mV/kA, +/- 0.1%
full scale full scale
4 Current Output signal 1A/5kA, +/- 0.2% 1A/5kA, +/- 0.1%
full scale full scale

3.1.2.6 Microprocessor control of Diode converter system

Control and operation of the converter system is designed fully digital regulation and
control system. Each converter unit is capable of constant current regulation of ± 1%
accuracy of rated current. The actual value delivered by the DC metering system is
compared with pre-set (set point) value. The difference between these two values is
used to control an electronic regulator resulting in a change of the responsible
actuator. This is accomplished by utilizing a fully digital current control implemented
in the software of the high speed controller. PHSC is one of the fastest highest speed
controllers in the world.

This digital regulation offers very accurate and fast responsive control, extensive
converter monitoring, overall system supervision and a most flexible and reliable
operation [9].

All the signals coming from the converter equipment, process sensors and push-
buttons are processed at PHSC (Programmable High Speed Controller) to perform
current regulation, converter equipment control as well as alarm/event indication.
In HINDALCO Aluminium Smelters, the intelligent load management system with
SCADA has been also implemented to provide integration of switchgear, Rectifier
equipment, load management and protection systems in normal as well as in
emergency to avoid interruptions [14].

3.2 Controlled converters (Thyristor converters)

3.2.1 Introduction
Due to its simplicity, reliability and efficiency the thyristor converters are most
commonly used for higher power converter applications. The thyristors are similar to
the diode converters but controlled electronically which eliminates the need of OLTC

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and saturable core Transductors. When thyristor converter is fired at a very small
firing angle then it performs similar to a diode using saturable core Transductor
control [1].

Thyristor is basically a three junctions, four layer, p-n-p-n semiconductor switching

device. The schematic diagram and circuit symbol of thyristor is shown in Fig 3.8.

Fig. 3.8: Schematic diagram of Thyristor & its symbol

It has three terminals namely anode, cathode and gate. It has three junctions viz. J1, J2
and J3 as shown in fig 3.8. As diode, thyristor is also unidirectional device i.e. current
flows from anode to cathode and blocks the current flow from cathode to anode but
thyristor also blocks the current flow from anode to cathode until gate signal is
provided between gate and cathode terminals i.e. gate terminal is controlling terminal
of thyristor.

It is known that diode automatically turns ON at the instant when it becomes forward
biased and turns OFF when it is reverse biased but this is not the case with thyristor,
in spite of being forward biased it conducts only when a gate pulse is impressed on its
gate terminal.

For thyristor a control circuit block is used which generates and supply the gate firing
pulse to each thyristor at the right time in every cycle. The control of the DC output
voltage is obtained by adjusting the “phase” of the gate firing pulse with respect to a

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reference instant. The dc output voltage can be continuously varied from maximum
positive to zero through a delay angle from zero to 90°. At α = 90°, the average load
voltage is zero, the in phase component of input current is zero and the reactive
component of current becomes maximum [31]. This type of control is described as
“phase control.” This phase angle delay is called firing angle. In case of diodes this
firing angle is always is zero.

When anode is made positive with respect to cathode, a thyristor can be turned ON by
any of the following methods.
1. Forward Voltage Triggering.
2. Gate Triggering
3. dv/dt Triggering
4. Temperature Triggering.
5. Light Triggering.

Gate Triggering is the most reliable and efficient method therefore it is most usual
method to turn on the thyristor. In this method, a voltage is applied between gate and
cathode terminals due to which charges are injected into the inner p region. As
charges are injected into the inner p region, magnitude of forward break over voltage
is reduced because depletion layer at junction J2 is reduced. Even when the current
into the gate stops the thyristor continues to allow the current to flow from anode to
cathode.

The voltage regulation is carried out by means of gate control in thyristor converters
which is controlled electronically [7]. For a thyristor converter, the fundamental
component of current lags the respective phase voltage by triggering angle “α” with a
displacement factor of cos (α) [37, 38]. The firing angle delays the start of the
conducting of the current. This affects the active and reactive power taken from the
supply, i.e. the power factor [25]. In pot line 7 thyristor converter also having 12 pulse
converter system as in port line 9. In Fig no. 3.9, the elementary circuit diagram of
fully controlled converter has been shown

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 Fig. 3.9: Elementary Circuit diagram of a fully controlled converter

3.2.2 Commutation
The gate has no control over the thyristor once it turns ON, it can be turned OFF only
by reducing its forward anode current to a level below the holding current value.
Switching from the ON-state to the OFF-state is called turn OFF and this technique is
called commutation. A conducting Thyristor gets automatically commuted when a
reverse bias voltage appears across it.

3.2.3 Thyristor Commutation Methods.

The commutation methods are initially classified in to two broad categories, natural
and forced commutation.

3.2.3.1 Natural Commutation

In natural commutation, the circuit in which thyristor is connected has a natural or
built in ability to turn OFF the thyristor [5]. The natural commutation switching is the
simplest and most efficient but suffers from low power factor due to thyristor firing
angle and commutation angle which can cause stability problem in the weak power
system.

To achieve natural commutation of thyristor converter there are many methods as

given below-
1) Line commutation
2) Load voltage commutation

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3) Load commutation
4) Self commutation.

When the line voltage has correct polarity then each thyristor gets commuted
sequentially and this does not require any special force to commutation circuit. The
incoming thyristor gets the incoming supply voltage and outgoing thyristor gets
reverse voltage and gets naturally commuted. The term natural commutation and line
commutation are the same. In industrial applications the line commutation is more
popular. Line commutation is possible when converters are connected to an AC
voltage bus as the alternating voltage is essential to serve the commutating voltage.
Secondly it is also essential that the voltage, which is being used for commutating
voltage, must have polarities that will reverse - bias the outgoing thyristor.

3.2.3.2 Forced Commutation.

Forced commutation is applied when the thyristor is forward biased and carries
current greater than the holding current at the instant when commutation is desired. In
general, with forced commutation the thyristor is turned OFF in a shorter time than in
a line commutated circuit [5].

Forced Commutation methods can be classified in to four broad categories:

1) Series voltage commutation.
2) Parallel voltage commutation.
3) Series current commutation.
4) Parallel current commutation.

The forced commutation methods are not being used in Aluminium Smelters.

3.2.4 Thyristor Converter System

As shown in figure no. 3.10, there are two number of units i.e. 7A & 7B. The rating of
each unit is 70 KA, 900V DC. The pot line 7 converter system consists of 2 units of
900V, 70 KA thyristor converters. Even if one converter unit is out of circuit then the
remaining unit has the ability to cater the full load of the pot line.

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 Fig. 3.10: Single Line Diagram of pot line 7 converter system.

As shown in the figure 3.11 the secondary of the rectifier transformer has wye and
delta group windings. The reason behind this is that when a 12 pulse system is
produced operating two groups of 6 pulse converters having a 30° phase difference in
parallel, the difference of instantaneous output voltage between the 6 pulse converters
causes a cross current to flow. The cross current is determined by the DC output
voltage, magnitude of control delay angle and impedance of the circuit through which
cross current flows [6].

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 Fig. 3.11: The Thyristor bridge connection for 12 pulses.

Aluminium Smelters are always rated with the full voltage and full current rating. At
the time of start-up process the numbers of pots are very less and the requirement of
DC output voltage becomes less and the value of firing angle increases as the need of
active power is less and reactive power is quite high and the cross current also
becomes fairly large due to large firing angle [31]. Due to this high cross current,
losses increases and control becomes unstable and local heating increases near the DC
conductors. To avoid this delta group and wye group transformers are separated from
each other in the common tank and in one enclosure to make the impedance large
enough to suppress the cross current. In Thyristor Converters, the firing angle helps to
control the voltage and current. When a thyristor converter is controlled through a
small delay firing angle it performs like a diode converter using saturable Transductor
control. It has fast and smooth output control to the order of milliseconds [6].

3.2.5 Microprocessor control of Thyristor converter system

In modern AC-DC converter technology, the microprocessor is used for the control of
firing circuits due to its high reliability and flexibility. Phase control of a thyristor has
three basic operations – line synchronization, delay control, and pulse distribution to
the thyristors. All these functions are being performed by the microprocessor [9, 35].
The load regulation of pot line 7 at HINDALCO Smelter is being done by AC800
PEC which is high performance controller with PI controlling and corresponding to
the feedback give firing pulse from its optical card through the different optical fiber

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cable designated for each arm to the LTC cards connected on each arm. Each arm of
converter cubicle has four LTC cards in all and the top of them is the master card to which
the firing pulse comes. This firing pulse signal is then communicated to down the line
LTC cards. In the card there are two pulse transformers one for a thyristor and another one
for the firing pulse which are given to the thyristors through these LTC Cards. The ultimate
change in the delay angle is proportional to the control signal. This scheme has an
inherent characteristic, as the rate of change of the firing angle rather than the firing
angle itself is controlled [9]. This system is very much reliable if main controller fails then
second control is available in hot standby.

The microprocessor controller offers decreased harmonic distortion and improved

power factor due to equidistant firing technique which practically eliminates unequal
thyristor firing angles and thus reduces the generation of harmonics [37]. The cycle time
of process of this microprocessor is less than 100µ s.

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