ABSTRACT

With the increasing dependence on metals, it has become the need of the situation
to revert innovations on materials that are not on the verge of annihilations.
Materials that are both sturdy and weight-bearing could possibly prove to be the
worthy alternatives. Metals have been proven earnest for their exceptional
properties of being lustrous, high density, high tensile strength, high melting point
and also possesing good conductive properties. But they have their own downfalls,
from an engineering point of view. Despite the revolution in metallurgies, it is
indisputably corossive, limiting its applications in diverse fields. Moulding of
metals require intense temperature ranges and arduous procedural setups. Peeking
to the other spectrum, we have the polymers, revolutionizing material industries
and their reliance to metals. Polymers have princely properties that outstood in
materials paradigm, thereby infusing its applications in assorted fields. They are
chemically resistant, acts as a good insulator and they are light in weight.

Garnishing our interest is the ability of the polymers to form composites, as metals
do( metal-metal matrix). Quoted for their property of having lower density, it
stumbles the strength of the polymers. To revoke this detrimental property,
eminents have come out with ideas of suffusing abrasive materials resulting in
improved mechanical strengths. Microscopic investigation have ascertained the
enhancements in the strength to weight ratio.

The focus of our present venture is to give comprehensive review of high

performance plastic materials and their applications . By reinforcing Silicon
Carbide with PMMA, mechanical properties of the materials gets enhanced and
sustain intermittent loads.
 INTRODUCTION

2.1 Polymer Matrix Composrtes

Polymer matrix composites (PMCS) have established themselves

as engineering structural materials, not just as laboratory curiosities or cheap stuff
for making chairs and tables. This came about not only because of the introduction
of high-performance fibers such as carbon, boron, and aramid, but also because of
some new and improved matrix materials.Nevertheless, glass fiber reinforced
polymers represent the largest class of PMCs. Carbon fiber reinforced PMCs are
perhaps the most important structural composites.

2.2 Processing of PMCs

Many techniques, originally developed for making glass fiber

reinforced polymer matrix composites can also be used with other fibers. Glass
fiber reinforced polymer composites represent the largest class of PMCs.
Polymeric matrix materials can be conveniently classified as thermosets and
thermoplastics. Recall that thermosets harden on curing.

Curing or crosslinking occurs in thermosets by appropriate

chemical agents and/or application of heat and pressure. Conventionally, thermal
energy (heating to 200°C or above) is provided for this purpose. This process,
however, brings in the problems of thermal gradients, residual stresses, and long
curing times. Residual stresses can cause serious problems in non- symmetrical or
very thick PMC laminates, where they may be relieved by warping of the laminate,
fiber waviness, matrix microcracking, and ply delamination. Electron beam curing
offers an alternative that avoids these problems. It is a non- therrnal curing process
that requires much shorter time cure cycles. Curing by electron beam occurs by
electron-initiated reactions at a selectable cure temperature.
2.3 Processing of Thermoplastic Matrix Composites

There are many processing methods for composites with therrnoset matrix
materials including epoxy, unsaturated polyester, and vinyl ester.

2.3.1 Hand Lay-Up and Spray Techniques

Hand lay-up and spray techniques are perhaps the simplest

polymer-processing techniques. Fibers can be laid onto a mold by hand and the
resin(unsaturated polyester is one of the most common) is sprayed or brushed on.
Frequently, resin and fibers (chopped) are sprayed together onto the mold surface.
In both cases, the deposited layers are densified with roller. Figure 2.2 shows
schematics of these processes. Accelerators and catalysts are frequently used.
Curing may be done at room temperature or at a moderately high temperature in an
oven.

2.3.2 Filament Winding

Filament winding is another very versatile technique in which

continuous tow or roving is passed through a resin impregnation bath and wound
over a rotating or stationary mandrel. A roving consists of thousands of individual
filaments. Figure 2.1a shows a schematic of this process, while Figure 2.1b shows
a pressure vessel made by filament winding. The winding of roving can be polar
(hoop) or helical. In polar winding, the fiber tows do not cross over, while in the
helical they do. The fibers are, of course, laid on the mandrel in a helical fashion
in both polar and helical windings; the helix angle depends on the shape of the
object to be made. Successive layers are laid on at a constant or varying angle
until the desired thickness is attained. Curing of the therrnosetting resin is done at
an elevated temperature and the mandrel is removed. Very large cylindrical (e.g.,
pipes) and spherical (e.g., for chemical storage) vessels are built by filament
winding. Glass, carbon, and aramid fibers are routinely used with epoxy,
polyester, and vinyl ester resins for producing filament wound shapes.

There are two types of filament winding processes: wet winding

and prepreg winding. In wet winding, low-viscosity resin is applied to the
filaments during the winding process. Polyesters and epoxies with viscosity less
than 2 Pa 5 (2000 centipoise) are used in wet winding. In prepreg winding, a hot-
melt or solvent-dip process is used to preimpregnate the fibers. Rigid
amines,novolacs, polyimides, and higher-viscosity epoxies are generally used for
this process. In filament winding, the most probable void sites are roving cross-
overs and regions between layers with different fiber orientations.

2.1 a) Schematic of filament winding process. b) Schematic of a filament wound

pressure vesel with a liner; helical and hoop winding are shown.
2.2 a)In hand lay-up, fibers are laid onto a mold by hand, and the resin is sprayed
or brushed on.

b) In spray-up, resin and fibers (chopped) are sprayed together onto the mold
surface.
2.3.3 Pultrusion

In this process continuous sections of polymer matrix

composites with fibers oriented mainly axially are produced. Figure 2.3 shows a
schematic of this process. Continuous fiber tows come from various creels. Mat or
biaxial fabric may be added to these to provide some transverse strength. These are
passed through a resin bath containing a catalyst. After this, the resin-impregnated
fibers pass through a series of wipers to remove any excess polymer and then
through a collimator before entering the heated die. Athorough wet-out of the
rovings is very important. Stripped excess resin is recirculated to the resin bath.
The heated die has the shape of the finished component to be produced. The resin
is cured in the die and the composite is pulled out. At the end of the line the part is
cut by a flying saw to a fixed length. Typically, the process can produce
continuously at a rate of 10 to 200 cm/min. The exact Speed depends on the resin
type and the cross-sectional thickness of the part being produced. Pultruded
profiles as wide as 1.25 m with more than 60% fiber volume fraction can be made
routinely.The pultrusion process has a continuous molding cycle, thisrequires that
the fiber distribution be constant and that the cross-sectional shapes not vary, i.e.,
no bends or tapers are allowed. Main advantages of the process are low labor cost
and product consistency. Shapes such as rods, channels, and angle and flat stock
are easily produced. Fibrous reinforcements in different forms can be used.
Roving, i.e., continuous, fibers are most commonly used. Continuous strand mat
consisting of continuous fiber lengths with random orientation can also be used.
They are used to obtain reinforcement action in the transverse direction. Other
forms of materials used include chopped strand mat consisting of short (chopped)
fibers that can be bonded or stitched to a carrier material, commonly a
 unidirectional tape, and woven fabrics and braided tapes.Common resins used in
pultrusion are polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy.

2.3 SCHEMATIC OF THE PULTRUSION PROCESS

2.3.4 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)

This is a closed-mold, low-pressure process. A preform made

of the desired fiber (carbon, glass, or aramid) is placed inside a mold, and liquid resin
such as epoxy or polyester is injected into the mold by means of a pump.
Reinforcements can be stitched, but more commonly they are made into a preform that
maintains its shape during injection of the polymer matrix. The resin is allowed to cure
and form a solid composite. The polymer viscosity should be low (<1 Pa 5) enough for
the fibers to be wetted easily. Additives to enhance the surface finish, flame retardancy,
weather resistance, curing speed, etc. may be added to the resin. Therrnoplastics have
too high a melting point and too high viscosities (>l Pa 5 or 1000 cP) to be processed
with RTM.

Among the advantages of RTM, one can cite the following:

 Large, complex shapes can be obtained.

 The level of automation is higher than in other processes.
 Lay-up is simpler than in manual operations.
 Complex shapes and curvatures can be made easily.
 It take less time to produce.
 With the aid of woven, stitched, or braided preforrns, fiber volume frac-
tions as high as 60% can be achieved.
 The process involves a closed mold; therefore styrene emissions can be
reduced to a minimum.
Mold design is a critical element in the RTM process.
Generally, the fibrous preform is preheated and the mold has built-in heating
elements to accelerate the process of the resin. Resin flow into the mold and the
heat transfer are analyzed numerically to obtain an optimal mold design. The
automotive industry has found that the RTM can be a cost-effective, high-volume
process for large-scale processing.

2.3.5 Tape-Laying and Fiber Placement Systems

Automation can result in large productivity gains alternatively

to manual operations. A completely automated process, with no human being
involved, has a great attraction for use in radioactive or clean environments. In the
area of fabrication of composites this has led to processing techniques such as
automatic tape-laying. Another significant advantage is that rather large structures
can be made by this process. The hand lay-up process is limited by the extent of a
worker’s reach. Such a restriction would be absent in any automatic process. The
principle of operation is as follows. The customer's computer aided design (CAD)
is the starting point. Using the CAD system, the product or component to be
manufactured, for example, a curved part,is developed mathematically onto a flat
surface. This is broken down into layers to be fabricated by tape strips laid side by
side. Sophisticated software is used to translate strips in each layer via a series of
numerical control steps to the final product shape. A spool of fiber tape,
preimpregnated with a thermosetting resin and covered with a protective paper on
top and protective film underneath, is unwound. The film and paper are peeled off,
and the fiber tape, suspended in midair, is cut to the correct shape by cutting
blades. The cutting blades can make 6000 cuts per minute. The cut pieces of tape
are caught between two new rolls of paper and film and rewound onto a new spool,
called a cassette. The cassette is then taken to the second machine for lay-up. A
laser beam in the tape-laying head is used to accurately lay the tape on the mold.

In fiber placement techniques, individual prepreg tows from

spools are fed into the fiber placement head, where they are collimated into a
single fiber band and laminated onto the work surface. Each tow is about a 3-
mm-wide strand of continuous fibers. A strand, in turn, consists of 12,000
individual filaments impregnated with an epoxy resin. Different tows can be
delivered at different speeds, allowing a conformation of a complex structure. A
compaction roller or shoe consolidates the tape, pressing it onto the work surface.
This pressing action serves to remove any trapped air and any minor gaps
between individual tows. Figure 2.4 shows a schematic of the fiber placement
process.
 2.4 SCHEMATIC OF THE FIBRE PLACEMENT PROCESS

2.4 Interface in PMCs

Below are the summary of some important features of the interface region in
PMCs with glass, aramid, and polyethylene fibers.
2.4.1 Glass Fiber:

Silica-based glasses are analogous to many organic polymers,

in that they are amorphous.Crystalline silica melts at 1800°C and can be worked in
the range of 1600-1800 °C. However, by adding some metal oxides, one can break
the Si-O bonds and obtain a series of amorphous glasses with low glass transition
temperatures so that they can be processed at much lower temperatures than pure
silica. In general, the atomic or molecular arrangement in any material is different
at the surface than in the interior. In particular, in the case of silica-based glasses
containing a variety of oxides, a complex hydroxyl layer is formed rather easily.
Nonhygroscopic oxides absorb water as hydroxyl groups while hygroscopic oxides
become hydrated. The activity of a glass surface is thus a function of the hydroxyl
content and the cations just below the surface. That is, the surface activity of E-
glass will be different from that of fused silica. Invariably, glass fibers are surface
treated by applying a size on the freshly drawn glass fibers to protect them from
the environment, for handling ease, and to avoid introducing surface defects.
Common sizes are starch gum, hydrogenated vegetable oil, gelatin, polyvinyl
alcohol ( PVA), and a variety of nonionic emulsifiers.

The size is generally incompatible with the matrix resin and is

therefore removed before putting the glass fibers in a resin matrix by heat cleaning
at ~ 350°C for 15 to 20 hours in air, followed by washing with detergent or solvent
and drying. After cleaning, organometallic or organosilane coupling agents are
applied; an aqueous solution of silane is commonly used for this purpose.
Examples of coupling agents commonly used are organometallic or organosilane
complexes. During the drying of sized glass fibers, water is removed and a
condensation reaction occurs between silanol and the glass surface and between
adjacent silanol molecules on the glass surface, leading to a polysiloxane layer
bonded to the glass surface.
 2.5 FUNCTION OF A SILANE COUPLING AGENT

2.4.2 Aramid Fiber/Polymer Interface

Most polymers show rather poor adhesion to aramid fibers. This

is evidenced by the generally poor interlaminar shear strength and transverse
tensile strength values obtained with aramid reinforced PMCs. Typically,
aramid/epoxy interfacial strengths are about half of the interfacial strengths of
glass/epoxy or carbon/epoxy composites. A highly oriented chain micro-structure
and skin/core heterogeneity are responsible for this low, poor interfacial strength.
This may not be a disadvantage in aramid/polymer composites used to make
impact-resistant items such as helmets or body armor, where ease of delamination
may be an advantage. However, in high-strength and high-stiffness composites,
poor interfacial adhesion can be a disadvantage. Various fiber surface treatments
have been tried to alleviate this problem.

2.4.3 Polyethylene Fiber/Polymer Interface

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fiber

is another chemically very inert fiber, and therefore it does not adhere very well to
polymeric matrix materials. High-modulus polyethylene fibers such as Spectra or
Dyneema are hard to bond with any polymeric matrix. Some kind of surface
treatment must be given to the polyethylene fiber to bond with resins such as
epoxy, PMMA. By far the most successful surface treatment involves a cold gas
(such as air, ammonia, or argon) plasma. When the polyethylene, or any other
fiber, is treated with a plasma, surface modification occurs by removal of any
surface contaminants and highly oriented surface layers, addition of polar and
functional groups on the surface, and introduction of surface roughness, all these
factors contribute to an enhanced fiber/matrix interfacial strength. An exposure of
just a few minutes to the plasma is sufficient to do the job.

Chemical treatment with chromic acid and plasma etching in the

presence of oxygen are two treatments that are commonly used to modify the
surface characteristics of polyethelene fiber with a view to improve their adhesion
to polymeric matrix materials.

2.5 Structure and Properties of PMCs

The properties of a composite will depend on the matrix type, fiber type, amount or
volume fraction of matrix (or that of the fiber), fabrication process, and the
orientation

2.5.1 Mechanical Behaviour

Most thermoset matrix composites show elastic behavior right

up to fracture, i.e., there is no yield point or plasticity. The strain-to-failure values
are rather low, typically, less than 0.5%. Consequently, the work done during
fracture is also small. Aramid fiber has superior impact characteristics, therefore,
aramid fiber-based polymer composites will show better ballistic resistance against
impact resistance in general. Similar observations can be made regarding strength
characteristics of the polymer matrix composites. High damping or the ability to
reduce vibrations can be very important in many applications
2.5.1.1 Environmental Effects in Polymer Matrix Composites

Environmental moisture can penetrate organic materials by a

diffusional process. Typically, moisture works as a plasticizer for a polymer, i.e.,
properties such as stillness, strength, and glass transition temperature decrease with
the ingress of moisture in a polymer. It is now well recognized that the problem of
moisture absorption in polymer matrix composites is a very important one. The
epoxy resins commonly employed as matrices in the composites meant for use in
the aerospace industry are fairly impervious to the range of fluids commonly
encountered.

There are, however, two fundamental effects that must be

taken into account when designing components made of PMCs, namely,
temperature and humidity. The combined eflect of these two, that is, hygrothermal
effects, can result in a considerable degradation in the mechanical characteristics of
the PMCs. Degradation owing to ultraviolet radiation is another important
environmental effect breaking the covalent bonds in organic polymers results in a
slight increase in strength, followed by a gradual loss of strength due to laminate
surface degradtation.

2.5.1.2 Fracture

At low temperatures, the fracture of a PMC involves a brittle

failure of the polymeric matrix accompanied by pull-out of the fibers transverse to
the crack plane. At room temperature, the same polymeric matrix (PET) deforms
locally in a plastic manner.

Generally, stiffness and strength of a PMC increase with the

amount of stiff and strong matrix introduced in a polymer. The same cannot be said
unequivocally for the fracture toughness. The toughness of the matrix and several
 microstructural factors related to the fibers and the fiber/matrix interface have a
strong influence on the fracture toughness of the composite.

2.5.2 Structural Defects in PMCs

The final stage in any PMC fabrication is called debulking, which serves to reduce
the number of voids. Nevertheless, there are some common structural defects in
PMCs. Following is a list of these:

 Resin-rich (fiber-poor) regions.

 Voids (e.g., at roving crossovers in filament winding and between layershaving
different fiber orientations, in general). This is a very serious problem; a low void
content is necessary for improved interlaminar shear strength.
 Microcracks and Variations in fiber alignment.
 Debonded and delaminated regions.

2.6 Applications
PMMA is an economical, versatile general purpose material. It is available in
extruded and/or cast material in sheet, rod and tube forms, as well as custom
profiles. Various types of acrylics are used in a wide variety of fields and
applications, including:

1. Optics: Dust covers for hifi equipment, sunglasses, watch glasses, lenses,
magnifying glasses;

2. Vehicles: Rear lights, indicators, tachometer covers, warning triangles;

3. Electrical engineering: Lamp covers, switch parts, dials, control buttons;

4. Office equipment: Writing and drawing instruments, pens;

 5. Medicine: Packaging for tablets, pills, capsules, suppositories, urine
containers, sterilisable equipment;

6. Others: Leaflet dispensers, shatter‐resistant glazing, shower cubicles,

transparent pipelines, illuminated signs, toys.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 LITERATURE :

This chapter covers the literature review of results obtained from

Experimental Investigation of mechanical behaviour of Poly Methyl Methacrylate
(PMMA) based polymer composites with Silicon Carbide (SiC). Apart from the
polymer composite, reinforcement used, manufacturing methods, this survey
includes the developments in the mechanical behaviour of polymer based
composites at different compositions of SiC reinforcements.
Polymer-based composites, especially PMMA-based composites, have gained
substantial attentions as a new branch of materials due to their superb mechanical
properties, high durability, impact resistance and light weight since firstly heralded
in the 1960s. A series of potential applications in magneto-electric, biomedical,
chemical engineering, automobile and optical field can be realized through
appropriate tailoring. It is well recognized that the type of polymer matrix and its
properties have a great influence on the performance of composites. However, the
composites must withstand high mechanical loads in various conditions, so it is
necessary to enhance mechanical properties using reinforced materials for special
applications, such as in military and aerospace industry. In general, addition of
rigid particles or fibers in polymer matrix can produce a number of desirable
effects, such as increased stiffness, reduced coefficient of thermal expansion,
improved creep resistance and enhanced fracture toughness. Previous studies have
shown that inorganic materials including nano-zinc oxide, nanosilica, carbon
nanotube (CNT), graphene, aluminum trihydroxide (ATH) have been successfully
employed as enhancing materials in the synthesis of polymer-based composites.

Chao Shi et.al (2013) discussed about the synthesis of a polymer based composite
with an inorganic reinforcement with the help of free radical polymerization in
-Si3N4 fibers, PMMA were selected as the inorganic
reinforcement constitution and polymer matrix, respectively. Free radical
polymerization in batch was the main method to synthesis composite by utilizing
azodiisobutyronitrile (AIBN) as the initiator, with the advantages of simple
productive process, free of post-process and high purity. Before that, Si3N4 fibers
were modified with g-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane (g-MPS) to ensure the
uniformly distribution in the PMMA matrix. The influence of surface modification
on the molecular level and mechanical properties was investigated through FTIR,
TG-DSC and nano indentation. The results showed that silane coupling agent
facilitated the linkage between Si3N4 fibers and PMMA matrix, with an obviously
increase of elastic modulus and micro-hardness.

Diwakar Padalia et.al (2013), discussed about the fabrication and characterization
of Cerium doped Barium Titanate / PMMA nano composites as a kind of suitable
materials for integral thin film capacitors and electric stress control devices.
BaTiO3 system by cerium doping was tailored to achieve low loss and fine grains.
On the other hand, the insulating PMMA shell around the BaTiO 3 nano particles
could retard the movement of charge carriers in the nano composites and thus has
the potential to surpass conventional composites to produce low dielectric loss.
Different polymer nano composites were made by solvent evaporation method
while cerium doped BaTiO3 nano fillers were obtained via solid state reaction. In
all polymer nano composites the filling level was 30% w/w and all of them were
treated by micro waves (2.4 GHz). The results show that the thermal and dielectric
behavior of the resulting nano composites can be improved by varying the Ce-
doping in BaTiO3 nano filler. The effect of microwave heating on thermal stability
of polymer nanocomposite was also been studied.

Leslie Banks-Sills et.al (2016), studied about the Experimental determination of

mechanical properties of PMMA reinforced with functionalized Carbon nanotubes
(CNTs). Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are one of the strongest materials known to
man. This material is a carbon allotrope like graphite, diamond and fullerene. Early
references to carbon structures date back to the 1970s; but it was not until the
discovery of CNTs in and the investigations that followed in the early 1990s that
carbon nanotubes were produced and their potential was understood.
Unfortunately, although CNTs possess excellent mechanical, thermal and electrical
properties, they usually cannot be used by themselves. Nevertheless, CNTs have
the potential to be used in composites of different matrices. The goal of this
investigation is to determine the mechanical properties of a PMMA matrix
reinforced with functionalized CNTs and to compare the results obtained with the
same material containing CNTs which were not functionalized. The CNTs were
functionalized by two methods. Hence, the determined mechanical properties are
also compared for the two functionalization methods. The evaluation of the
mechanical properties was determined by means of tensile tests conducted on dog-
bone specimens. The composite material was manufactured using a twin screw
extruder. The specimens were produced by means of an injection molding (IM)
procedure.

Tetsuya Yamamoto et.al (2017), in his study, came up with a conclusion to

improve mechanical properties of adsorbed particulate PMMA by Dispersion,
diffusion and surface adhesion of recycled carbon fiber fillers from CFRP. Carbon
fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) are light, strong, and one of the most well-known
composite materials used in industrial fields, especially the space industry.
composite materials were fabricated using the thermoplastic resin poly(methyl
methacrylate) (PMMA) and recycled carbon fibers obtained by pulverizing carbon
fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP). PMMA particles were adsorbed on the carbon
fiber surfaces via electrostatic interactions, to promote the interfacial adhesion
between the carbon fibers and the PMMA resin and thereby improve the dispersion
of the fibers in the resin. This enhanced the mechanical properties of the
composites; the yield stress and elastic modulus of the composite.

Prashant Jindal et.al (2015), did an extensive study on Mechanical characterization

of PMMA/MWCNT composites under static and dynamic loading conditions.
PMMA is a light weight mouldable polymer which is widely used for several
engineering applications. However, its usage in applications gets restricted due to
its low mechanical strength especially when exposed to heavy external static and
dynamic loading. Therefore, in order to enhance the strength of PMMA,
composites with stronger filler materials can be fabricated and characterized.
MWCNTs are such filler materials which possess unique structural and mechanical
properties. Therefore, changes in the static and dynamic mechanical properties
(elastic modulus and hardness) were investigated for various compositions of as
synthesized/untreated MWCNTs in PMMA by employing nano indentation
techniques without any additional component or surface modification in the
composite fabrication.

He Runqin et.al (2017), investigated the effect of TiO 2 fillers on the mechanical
properties of CNT/PMMA composites. Different types of polymers show different
mechanical behaviour. However, neat polymer is very rarely used as bearing
materials and wear resistant materials because of unmodified polymer could not
satisfy the demands arising from the situations where in a combination of good
mechanical properties is required. The bidirectional fabric reinforcement offered a
unique solution to the ever-increasing demands on the advanced materials in terms
of better performance and ease in processing.

Eduard A. Stefanescu et.al (2011), investigated the Fiberglass-reinforced polymer

composites for potential use as structural dielectrics in multifunctional capacitors
that require simultaneous excellent mechanical properties and good energy storage
characteristics. In recent years substantial efforts have been dedicated to finding
new alternatives for performance, weight and volume improvements in batteries
and capacitors. While commercial ceramic capacitors are typically employed
where small sizes along with high capacitances and insulation resistances are
required, they are not intended for precision applications due to high variations in
the capacitance with temperature. In contrast, polymer film capacitors are
predominantly used in applications requiring low dielectric absorption and loss
factors over a wide temperature range. However, polymer film capacitors are
characterized by smaller capacitances due to their lower dielectric constants
compared to the ceramic counterparts. PMMA-fiberglass structural dielectrics
containing neat or PEDOT:PSS-coated BaTiO3 particles was focused, for potential
use in multifunctional capacitors that require superior stiffness and energy storage
characteristics. The multifunctional capacitors could be potentially employed as
substitutes for static load-carrying components in traditional structures (e.g., hybrid
vehicles or airplanes) with the purpose of reducing the overall system weight
and/or volume.

Garima Mittal et.al (2016), came out with a research study of processing
PMMA/polyimide (PI)/hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) composites by
incorporating PI and hBN powder into the PMMA matrix. Hexagonal boron nitride
(hBN), also known as white graphite, is a layered ceramic compound that is an
isoelectric analog to graphite, with an identical hexagonal lattice structure. Due to
its very close similarity with graphite, it shows remarkable thermal and chemical
stability along with the same favorable mechanical properties that facilitate
applications in high temperature equipment. Among all the boron nitrides, the
hexagonal form is the most stable and is soft enough to be used in lubrication.
PMMA/PI polymer composites reinforced with silane-functionalized hBN powder
possesses a special position because of very good environmental stability like,
moisture resistance, UV resistance, scratch resistance etc. Along with these PMMA
possesses good mechanical properties, optical clarity, low friction coefficient.
Polyimide (PI) is considered as high performance thermoplastic material because it
owns unique structure due to the formation of charge transferring complex within
the molecules that gives rise to ordered intermolecular stacking. Consequently, it
displays outstanding thermal and mechanical properties along with the good
chemical and radiation resistance and electronic properties.

H. Varela-Rizo et.al (2011), studied the effect of different functional groups and
processing techniques in the properties of CNF/poly(methyl methacrylate)
(CNF/PMMA) composites. Carbon nanofibers (CNFs) emerged as an economical
alternative to carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with similar characteristics: high aspect
ratio and combination of unique mechanical and electrical properties. Therefore,
all these carbon nanofilaments have been considered for enhancing polymer
properties in nanocomposites, providing conductivity and reinforcement.
Modification of CNF and CNT surface through functionalization has been a
common way of improving dispersion and providing effective compatibility with
the matrix. Melt-compounding, solvent casting and in situ polymerization in
PMMA composites containing pristine, carboxylated and amino-functionalized
CNFs were compared. Mechanical properties and rheological behavior of the
composites revealed a strong filler–polymer interface interaction in the in situ
polymerized composites, even through covalent binding.

Jialiang Wang et.al (2012), investigated about the Solvent exfoliated graphene for
reinforcement of PMMA composites prepared by in situ polymerization. Graphene
(GP), a two-dimensional platelet consisting of sp2-hybridized carbon atoms
arranged in a perfect honeycomb lattice, has triggered enormous research interest
in both fundamental and applied science communities. Due to its excellent
electrical, thermal and mechanical properties, GP has great potential in
applications of sensors, super capacitors, thin conductive films, rechargeable
lithium ion batteries, and polymer composites. Graphene (GP)-based polymer nano
composites have attracted considerable scientific attention due to its pronounced
improvement in mechanical, thermal and electrical properties compared with pure
polymers. to direct exfoliation of graphite in NMP and covalently functionalizing
GP with PMMA (GPMMA) via in- situ free radical polymerization, and the
density of grafted PMMA can be tuned by changing the feed ratio of GP and
methyl meth-acrylate (MMA). GPMMA is of high-quality with few defects since it
is absent from violent and complicated modification (compared with GO or CMG),
and such a perfect structure renders GPMMA an outstanding reinforcing agent.
Additionally, after grafting with PMMA chains, the functionalized GP is soluble in
various solvents (such as NMP, THF and DMF) and remains stable for a long
period of time (over one month), which also facilitates preparing different kinds of
composites.

Jun-long Wang et.al (2009) et.al, did a study on SiO2/PMMA/CE tri-component

interpenetrating polymer network composites. The interpenetrating polymer
network (IPN) is a unique polymer blend that is formed by two or more
crosslinked polymers through interpenetrating and winding. It is disordered
crosslinked networks in which at least one polymer network forms crosslinked
framework after another has already been formed. IPN is actually a concrete
structure form of macromolecule alloy metals or a special combination mode
among different polymers. CE was modified by CTC-IPN and interface conjugated
interpenetration. A conjugated tri-component penetrating polymer composite was
prepared, in which CE was used as the public network and it was interpenetrated
and winded with PMMA and nanometer SiO2 one another. The microstructure of
the composite was characterized by infrared spectroscopy (IR) and transmission
electron microscopy (TEM). The mechanical properties were measured in German-
made DL-1000B and XCL-40 universal material test machines, respectively.

A. Akinci et.al (2013), realized the friction and wear performance of pure poly
(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) and zirconium oxide (ZrO 2) filled PMMA
composites under dry sliding conditions. PMMA resin exhibits better impact and
mechanical and physical properties than other polymer materials. However, the
material possesses poor mechanical and physical properties when used alone,
where it is easily broken into parts during an accident, or when a patient applies
high mastication force on the denture base. Zirconium dioxide possesses excellent
properties like: high strength, high fracture toughness, excellent wear resistance,
high hardness, and excellent chemical resistance. Hence, ZrO 2-nanoparticles
appear as an attractive option to be used as reinforcement of polymers, in order to
produce composites with enhanced performance.

Poomali et.al (2008), worked on mechanical and three-body wear behaviour of

PMMA/TPU blends. Polymers are extensively used in tribological components
such as gears, cams, wheels, brakes, seals, and bushings because of their self-
lubricating properties, lower coefficient of friction and better wear resistance.
However, neat polymer is very rarely used as bearing materials and wear-resistant
materials because of unmodified polymer could not satisfy the demands arising
from the situations wherein a combination of good mechanical and tribological
properties is required. They attempted to understand the three-body abrasive wear
behaviour of PMMA/TPU blends at 22 N load and for four different abrading
distances at 200 rpm.

2.1.1 DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES :

The development objectives for polymer composite materials are:

• Increase in yield strength and tensile strength at room temperature

• Increase in fatigue strength, especially at higher temperatures

• Improvement of thermal shock resistance

• Improvement of corrosion resistance

• Increase in Young’s modulus

An improvement in the weight specific properties can result, offering the

possibilities of extending the application area, substitution of common materials
and optimisation of component properties. With functional materials there is
another objective, the precondition of maintaining the appropriate function of the
material.

For other applications different development objectives are given, which differ
from those mentioned before. For example, in medical technology, mechanical
properties, like extreme corrosion resistance and low degradation as well as
biocompatibility are expected. Although increasing development activities have led
to system solutions using composite materials, the use of especially innovative
systems, particularly in the area of polymers, has not been realised. The reason for
this is insufficient process stability and reliability, combined with production and
processing problems and inadequate economic efficiency.

2.3 REINFORCEMENTS USED IN POLYMER COMPOSITES:

Generally, the following are the requirements for a reinforcement: low density,
compatibility with polymer composite, chemical compatibility, thermal stability,
high compression and tensile strength, economic efficiency. Most of the previous
work is focused on nano-zinc oxide, nanosilica, carbon nanotube (CNT), graphene,
aluminum trihydroxide (ATH). Silicon Carbide (SiC) can be used as reinforcement
due to Low Density, High Strength, Low thermal expansion, High thermal
conductivity, low reactivity as well as the robustness that make this possible to be
used in structural applications. Silicon Carbide also cost effective compared to
other reinforcements like Boron Carbide and the result being a reasonably priced
final product.

2.4 MANUFACTURING METHODS FOR POLYMER COMPOSITES:

Two common methods for Polymer Composite manufacture Twin screw Injection
moulding and Compression moulding. Twin screw Injection moulding and Hand
lay up methods can be most preferred methods for production of PMMA based
polymer composites with ceramic reinforcement. However, literature has shown
that several modifications are possible in the melting and casting practice in order
to produce high-quality castings from a composite.

2.9 SUMMARY OF LITERATURE SURVEY:

A detailed literature survey was undertaken on polymer composites with emphasis

on reinforcements, process, characterization and correlation between the
microstructure and the properties like hardness, tensile strength properties as well
as statistical modeling studies. Based on the literature survey, the following areas
have been identified for further research.

PMMA-SiC alloy is not yet to be tried as polymer composite material. This one is
easy to fabricate by means of Injection moulding or Hand Layup process due to it
is better casting qualities. In particle reinforced composites, the properties of the
PMMA composites was observed to depend on reinforcement type, reinforcement
particle size, nature of interface, volume fraction of reinforcement. Silicon Carbide
(SiC) can be used as reinforcement due to Low Density, High Strength, Low
thermal expansion, High thermal conductivity, low reactivity and also SiC is cost
effective when compared to the similar property ceramic like Boron Carbide.
Chao Shi et.al (2013) works summarises that PMMA-based composites reinforced
by surface modified a-Si3N4 fiber were synthesized through free radical
polymerization in batch and its mechanical properties were demonstrated in this
work. g-MPS was identified as a linkage between Si3N4 and PMMA through
methacrylate and alkoxy groups, grafting to hydroxylated Si3N4 fibers and
copolymerized with the PMMA monomer through C55C bonds, respectively. The
thermal stability of Si3N4–PMMA was raised with an increase in thermal
decomposition and glass transition temperature. The composite with super
mechanical properties and thermal stability may have potential applications in
aerospace industry and civil engineering fields.

Diwakar Padalia et.al (2013) works concluded (BaTiO3:Ce)/PMMA

nanocomposites were successfully prepared by solvent evaporation method. The
lattice parameters increase as the doping percent of cerium increases. The glass
transition temperature and thus thermal stability of polymers and related
composites could be improved by microwave treatment. In addition, glass
transition temperature is also affected by particle size of filler. Lower is the particle
size higher is the glass transition temperature. Dielectric measurements revealed
that the nano composites not only showed significantly increased dielectric
constants when compared with pure PMMA, but also showed the inherent low loss
of the base polymer in a wide range of frequencies and temperatures.

Leslie Banks-Sills et.al (2016) works summarises that Carboxylated CNTs were
further functionalized by the grafting from (GF) and the grafting to (GT) methods.
The effect of these functionalization methods on the CNTs is evaluated through
measurement of effective mechanical properties of a composite containing them, as
well as, through a comparison to a previous investigation, in which non-
functionalized (NF) CNTs were employed. it was seen that the addition of a weight
percent higher than 3 of CNTs to a PMMA matrix increases the elastic modulus of
the composite. It was shown that functionalization of the CNTs prior to their
introduction into the matrix decreases the weight percent of CNTs needed to
produce the same increase in the elastic modulus for non-functionalized CNTs.
Low CNT content, both functionalized and non-functionalized, may cause a
decrease in the elastic modulus or produce a similar value as that of the matrix.

Tetsuya Yamamoto et.al (2017), in their work PMMA composites were

synthesized using a PMMA resin and recycled carbon fiber fillers, concludes that
the recycled carbon fibers were obtained by the pulverization of the CFRP. In
order to enhance of the mechanical properties of the composite materials, the
adhesion properties of the fillers were improved by the adsorption of PMMA
particles on their surfaces through electrostatic interactions. Shorter recycled
carbon fibers were found to diffuse through the entire PMMA resin owing to their
surface modification with the PMMA particles. The good dispersion and diffusion
of the carbon fibers in the PMMA resin combined with the improved surface
adhesion of the fibers to the resin contributed significantly to the improvement in
the mechanical properties, such as the yield stress and elastic modulus, of the
composites.

Prashant Jindal et.al (2015) evaluated quasi-static and dynamic mechanical

properties of Poly (methyl methacrylate)(PMMA)/Multi Walled Carbon Nanotubes
(MWCNTs) composites for different compositions of MWCNTs in PMMA by
using nano-scale characterization technique. It was observed that hardness and
modulus for 5wt% MWCNT composition in PMMA/MWCNT composites were
enhanced by 44% and 27% respectively in comparison to pure PMMA. However,
hardness and elastic modulus for 10wt% PMMA/MWCNT composites reduced by
nearly 28% and 23% respectively in comparison to 5wt% PMMA/MWCNT
composite. The visco-elastic nature of PMMA/MWCNT composites was also
investigated by using Dynamic Mechanical Analysis(DMA). Complex storage
modulus for 5wt% PMMA/MWCNT composite and pure PMMA specimen was
compared in dynamic mode for a frequency range between 50Hz and 210Hz. It
was observed that modulus for 5% wt PMMA/MWCNT composite increased for
the complete loading frequency range.

He Runqin et.al (2017), from the studies of the tensile properties, concluded that
the optimum fibre loading was at 20 vol% for CNT/PMMA composite. The
flexural strength of the composites increases with increasing TiO 2 content in the
CNT/PMMA composite. The results show that the addition of TiO 2 helps to
improve the fibre–matrix adhesion leading to higher flexural properties.
Appropriate amount of TiO2 arrive the high-impact strength for the 20 vol %
CNT/PMMA composite. It is observed that addition of CNT and TiO 2 seems to be
beneficial in increasing mechanical strength via increasing the interface dispersed
phase.

Eduard A. Stefanescu et.al (2011), showed that PMMA-fiberglass structural

dielectrics containing neat and PEDOT:PSS-coated BaTiO3 are valuable potential
dielectric candidates for multifunctional capacitor applications. Addition of
PEDOT:PSS-coated BaTiO3 particles was found to elevate the dielectric constant
relative to that of the composites containing similar amounts of neat BaTiO 3. The
presence of the ceramic filler was found to also improve (increase) the
decomposition temperature and glass-transition temperature of the polymeric
matrix in PMMA-fiberglass composites. The polymer-based composite dielectrics
described here may be useful in environments where the temperature fluctuates
anywhere between 50 °C and 100 °C, particularly when utilized in high frequency
alternating currents (AC) or direct current (DC) applications.
Garima Mittal et.al (2016), found from the FTIR data that the silane moieties were
attached onto the hBN particles after surface treatment. From FE-SEM and HR-
TEM images, it was observed that multilayer stacking was reduced after
functionalization, and the TGA-DSC curve also validated the attachment of the
silane moieties. Additionally,the thermal and tribological properties of the
composites were compared. It was found that after silanization, the interactions
between hBN and the polymer matrix increased, yielding more homogeneous
dispersion into the polymer matrix, giving rise to the superior thermal and
tribological properties of PMMA/PI/hBN composites.

H. Varela-Rizo et.al (2011) evaluated and compared the properties of CNF/PMMA

nanocomposites, prepared by three different common techniques in the
thermoplastic polymer processing, considering also the effect of CNF
functionalization. The mechanical properties were evaluated considering the
dispersion and possible interactions with the matrix. Covalent bonds were detected
in the in situ polymerized composites by the FTIR analysis and confirmed by
further techniques. Elastic modulus was enhanced with the dispersion and the
functionalization. There was no increase in melt-compounding, but there was in
solvent processing and in situ polymerization, and even improved with the treated
CNFs. In melt-compounding or solvent processing, the increase of the elongation
by the addition of the CNFs was noticed, enhancing tenacity. In the case of a
strong interface interaction, like in in situ polymerization, elongation was reduced
and the material became stiffer. the changes in the rheological behavior were more
significant in the in situ polymerized samples, in which the addition of the CNFs
advanced the polymer transition to the solid-like behaviour.

Jialiang Wang et.al (2012) have demonstrated an efficient approach to covalently

grafting PMMA onto the GP sheets. GP was obtained by direct exfoliation of
graphite in NMP and the polymerization was carried out in the well-dispersed GP
solution. Various methods were used to characterize the PMMA functionalized
GP, Compared with other functionalized GO or RGO, the obtained GPMMA has a
perfect structure with fewer defects which enables the excellent reinforcement to
the composites. Furthermore, GPMMA is well-dispersed in organic solvents and
this facilitates the preparation of a variety of composites. With the addition of only
0.5 wt% GPMMA, the resulting PMMA/GPMMA composite film exhibits a
prominent enhancement of mechanical properties, 151% and 115% increases in
Young’s modulus and tensile strength (relative to the pure PMMA film),
respectively. Moreover, the thermal stability is also improved due to the strong
interfacial adhesion and good dispersion in the PMMA matrix.

Jun-long Wang et.al (2009) et.al work summarises that the CE can be modified by
CTC-IPN technology. The mechanical properties of the modified CE are better
than those of pure CE. When the weight ratio of CE/PMMA was 80/20, the
maximum values of the mechanical properties occurred. The impact strength was
enhanced by 2.37 times that of pure CE and the flexural strength increased by 1.31
times, respectively. SiO2 can improve the loading ability of the polymer. Compared
with the mechanical properties of IPN without SiO2, the impact strength of IPN
was increased by 29.96% and the flexural strength by 20.05% after nanometer SiO 2
was added.

A. Akinci et.al (2013) drawn conclusions from their study that Increase in the
applied loads, sliding speeds and increase in ZrO 2 filler content in the sliding tests
resulted to increase in coefficient of friction of the pure PMMA and ZrO 2 filled
PMMA composites. Wear rates of ZrO2 filled PMMA composites decrease with
increase in ZrO2 content up to 30%wt and increase in the applied loads and sliding
speeds. The more the ZrO2 contents of the PMMA + ZrO2 composite, the lower the
wear rate resulted. ZrO2 filled PMMA composites show that the worn surface
morphologies of the 10% ZrO2 and 30% ZrO2 PMMA composites were smooth
and include some tiny abrasive grooves. Increase in the ZrO 2 content cause to
increase in the smoothness of the worn surfaces.

Poomali et.al (2008) concluded that a marginal reduction in tensile strength and
tensile modulus and significant improvement in percentage elongation at break was
noticed with an increase in the TPU content in the blends. The lowest wear volume
loss is obtained for neat PMMA and the highest wear volume is for the 80/20
PMMA/TPU blend. Better correlation between selected mechanical properties and
wear volume is obtained for neat PMMA and 95/5 PMMA/TPU blend. Even
though TPU is the best wear resistance material, inclusion of this polymer with
PMMA by blending is not beneficial for improved abrasion resistance. SEM
micrographs of TPU-filled PMMA blends showed deep furrows, wider cracks and
more debris during the abrasion process.

2.10 AIM OF THE PRESENT WORK:

The following objectives were identified for present work, after extensive literature
survey:

1. To produce the following by Hand Layup method :

a. PMMA – SiC polymer composite.

i. 95% wt of PMMA - 5% wt of Silicon Carbide (SiC).

ii. 90% wt of PMMA - 10% wt of Silicon Carbide (SiC).

2. To study the microstructure, density, hardness, and tensile strength of the above
composites.

3. To fabricate the ASTM Standard Specimens using Poly Methyl Methacrylate

(PMMA) as matrix and SiC as reinforcements, in different proportions and to
perform mechanical behaviour testing.

CHAPTER 3

MATERIAL SELECTION PROCESS

3. Material Selection Process

Material selection is the foundation of all engineering applications and design. The
possible materials are simply the only materials that can be used in the application.
Possible Materials are defined by the application requirements.

Physical principles are methods of changing a material that are learned through
material science techniques. Using material science physical principles we can
change material properties. Three common physical principles we can use for
functional material strengthening are densification, composites, and alloying.
There many manufacturing techniques used to strengthen and form materials as
well.

Densification is the most common and necessary way to strengthen any material.
In general, this increases the tensile strength by reducing the porosity of the
material.

The standard composite rule of mixtures is when the standard matrix is soft/pliable
and the reinforcing material is tensile strong. One the major reasons for the
prevalent use of composite materials in construction is the adaptability of the
composite to many kinds of applications. The selection of mixture proportions can
be aimed to achieve optimum mechanical behavior of the harden product.
Selection can result in the change of the strength, consistency, density, appearance,
and durability.

3.1 Selection of ceramics

“Advanced ceramics”, “technical ceramics”, and “engineered ceramics” are all
terms that encompass a subset of ceramics that offer high-performance mechanical,
thermal, and/or electrical properties. Their highly specialized properties make them
desirable for very specific applications that involve extreme temperatures, high
voltages, or high friction/compressive loads. The vast majority of these materials
are based upon the nitrides, carbides, and oxides of different elements and must be
produced with very specialized equipment.
This tool provides a general overview of the properties of the most common
technical ceramics. Because technical ceramics are used in such a wide variety of
applications, it is useful to understand the relative properties of each material. If
you require more in-depth information, please refer to the relevant material page
where you will find detailed engineering properties.
Since the properties of silicon carbide over other ceramics is so good we choosed
silicon carbide as one of the material of our composite.

Key strength of SiC over other ceramics

Low density
High strength
Low thermal expansion
High thermal conductivity
High hardness
High elastic modulus
Excellent thermal shock resistance
Superior chemical inertness

The below table lists the different properties of ceramics.

3.1.1 Silicon Carbide
Silicon carbide (SiC), also known as carborundum is
a semiconductor containing silicon and carbon with chemical formula SiC. It
occurs in nature as the extremely rare mineral moissanite. Synthetic silicon carbide
powder has been mass-produced since 1893 for use as an abrasive. Grains of
silicon carbide can be bonded together by sintering to form very hard ceramics that
are widely used in applications requiring high endurance, such as car brakes, car
clutches and ceramic plates in bulletproof vests.

3.1.2 Types of SiC

Silicon carbide (SiC) is a hard covalently bonded material predominantly produced
by the carbothermal reduction of silica (typically using the Acheson
process). Depending on the exact reaction conditions the resulting silicon carbide
is either a fine powder or a bonded mass that requires crushing and milling to
produce a usable feedstock.

Several hundred structures of silicon carbide (polytypes) have been identified

which have different stacking arrangements for the silicon and carbon atoms. The
simplest structure is a diamond structure which is designated β-SiC. Other
structures are either hexagonal or rhombic and are referred to as α-SiC.

3.1.2.1 Natural occurrence

Moissanite single crystal (≈1 mm in size)

Naturally occurring moissanite is found in only minute quantities in certain types

of meteorite and in corundum deposits and kimberlite.Natural moissanite was first
found in 1893 as a small component of the Canyon Diablo meteorite in Arizona by
Dr. Ferdinand Henri Moissan, after whom the material was named in 1905.
Moissan's discovery of naturally occurring SiC was initially disputed because his
sample may have been contaminated by silicon carbide saw blades that were
already on the market at that time .

While rare on Earth, silicon carbide is remarkably common in space. It is a

common form of stardust found around carbon-rich stars, and examples of this
stardust have been found in pristine condition in primitive (unaltered) meteorites.
The silicon carbide found in space and in meteorites is almost exclusively the beta-
polymorph. Analysis of SiC grains found in the Murchison meteorite,
a carbonaceous chondritemeteorite, has revealed anomalous isotopic ratios of
carbon and silicon, indicating that these grains originated outside the solar system.

3.1.3 Wide scale production

Wide-scale production is credited to Edward Goodrich Acheson in 1890 . Acheson
was attempting to prepare artificial diamonds when he heated a mixture of clay
(aluminium silicate) and powdered coke (carbon) in an iron bowl. He called the
blue crystals that formed carborundum, believing it to be a new compound of
carbon and aluminium, similar to corundum. Acheson patented the method for
making silicon carbide powder on February 28, 1893. Acheson also developed the
electric batch furnaceby which SiC is still made today and formed the
Carborundum Company to manufacture bulk SiC, initially for use as an abrasive.
In 1900 the company settled with the Electric Smelting and Aluminum
Company when a judge's decision gave "priority broadly" to its founders "for
reducing ores and other substances by the incandescent method". It is said that
Acheson was trying to dissolve carbon in molten corundum (alumina) and
discovered the presence of hard, blue-black crystals which he believed to be a
compound of carbon and corundum: hence carborundum. It may be that he named
the material "carborundum" by analogy to corundum, which is another very hard
substance (9 on the Mohs scale).The first use of SiC was as an abrasive.

3.1.4 Production

Because natural moissanite is extremely scarce, most silicon carbide is synthetic.

Silicon carbide is used as an abrasive, as well as a semiconductor and diamond
simulant of gem quality. The simplest process to manufacture silicon carbide is to
combine silica sand and carbon in an Acheson graphite electric resistance
furnace at a high temperature, between 1,600 °C (2,910 °F) and 2,500 °C
(4,530 °F). Fine SiO2 particles in plant material (e.g. rice husks) can be converted
to SiC by heating in the excess carbon from the organic material. The silica fume,
which is a byproduct of producing silicon metal and ferrosilicon alloys, also can be
converted to SiC by heating with graphite at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F) .

Synthetic SiC crystals ~3 mm in diameter

Synthetic SiC Lely crystals

The material formed in the Acheson furnace varies in purity, according to its
distance from the graphite resistor heat source. Colorless, pale yellow and green
crystals have the highest purity and are found closest to the resistor. The color
changes to blue and black at greater distance from the resistor, and these darker
crystals are less pure. Nitrogen and aluminium are common impurities, and they
affect the electrical conductivity of SiC.

Pure silicon carbide can be made by the Lely process, in which SiC powder is
sublimated into high-temperature species of silicon, carbon, silicon dicarbide
(SiC2), and disilicon carbide (Si2C) in an argon gas ambient at 2500 °C and
redeposited into flake-like single crystals, sized up to 2×2 cm, at a slightly colder
substrate. This process yields high-quality single crystals, mostly of 6H-SiC phase
(because of high growth temperature). A modified Lely process
involving induction heating in graphite crucibles yields even larger single crystals
of 4 inches (10 cm) in diameter, having a section 81 times larger compared to the
conventional Lely process. Cubic SiC is usually grown by the more expensive
process of chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Homoepitaxial and heteroepitaxial
SiC layers can be grown employing both gas and liquid phase approaches. Pure
silicon carbide can also be prepared by the thermal decomposition of a
polymer, poly(methylsilyne), under an inert atmosphere at low temperatures.
Relative to the CVD process, the pyrolysis method is advantageous because the
polymer can be formed into various shapes prior to thermalization into the ceramic.

3.1.5 Structure of major SiC polytypes.

(β)3C-SiC 4H-SiC (α)6H-SiC

Silicon carbide exists in about 250 crystalline forms. The polymorphism of SiC is
characterized by a large family of similar crystalline structures called polytypes.
They are variations of the same chemical compound that are identical in two
dimensions and differ in the third. Thus, they can be viewed as layers stacked in a
certain sequence.
Alpha silicon carbide (α-SiC) is the most commonly encountered polymorph; it is
formed at temperatures greater than 1700 °C and has a hexagonal crystal
structure (similar to Wurtzite). The beta modification (β-SiC), with a zinc blende
crystal structure (similar to diamond), is formed at temperatures below 1700 °C.
Until recently, the beta form has had relatively few commercial uses, although
there is now increasing interest in its use as a support for heterogeneous catalysts,
owing to its higher surface area compared to the alpha form.

3.1.6 Properties of major SiC polytypes

Polytype 3C (β) 4H 6H (α)

Zinc blende
Crystal structure Hexagonal Hexagonal
(cubic)

Space group T2d-F43m C46v-P63mc C46v-P63mc

Pearson symbol cF8 hP8 hP12

3.0730; 3.0810;
Lattice constants (Å) 4.3596
10.053 15.12

Density (g/cm3) 3.21 3.21 3.21

Bandgap (eV) 2.36 3.23 3.05

Bulk modulus (GPa) 250 220 220

 Thermal conductivity (W m−1K−1)
360 370 490
300K (see for temp. dependence)

Pure SiC is colorless. The brown to black color of the industrial product results
from iron impurities The rainbow-like luster of the crystals is caused by
a passivation layer of silicon dioxide that forms on the surface.

The high sublimation temperature of SiC (approximately 2700 °C) makes it useful
for bearings and furnace parts. Silicon carbide does not melt at any known
temperature. It is also highly inert chemically. There is currently much interest in
its use as a semiconductor material in electronics, where its high thermal
conductivity, high electric field breakdown strength and high
maximum current density make it more promising than silicon for high-powered
devices. SiC also has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (4.0 × 10−6/K)
and experiences no phase transitions that would cause discontinuities in thermal
expansion.

3.2 Selection of Polymer material

For proper material selection, careful planning, a thorough understanding of plastic

materials, and reasonable prototype testing are required. Plastics are viscoelastic
materials. Viscoelasticity is defined as the tendency of plastics to respond to stress
as if they were are combination of elastic solids and viscous fluids. This property
possessed by all plastics to some degree, dictates that while plastics have solid-like
characteristics such as elasticity, strength, and form stability, they also have liquid-
like characteristics such as flow depending on time, temperature, rate, and amount
of loading. This also means that unlike metals, ceramics and other traditional
materials, plastics do not exhibit a linear stress -strain relationship. Designers
accustomed to working with metals and other materials often make the mistake of
selecting and specifying incorrect plastic materials. It is this non-linear relationship
for plastics that makes an understanding of creep, stress relaxation, and fatigue
properties extremely important. In an application that demands high-impact
resistance, a high-impact material must be specified. Typically, for most designers
the material selection process begins by reviewing the plastic material data sheets
generally provided by the material suppliers. A misinterpretation of the data sheets
is one of the most common reasons for selecting and specifying the wrong
material, for a given application. First it is important to understand the purpose of a
data sheet. Data sheets are useful only for comparing property values of different
plastic materials such as the tensile strength of nylon versus polycarbonate or the
impact strength of polystyrene versus ABS. Data sheets should be used for initial
screenings of various materials. For example, if a designer is looking for a material
that is strong and tough, he may start out by selecting materials whose reported
values are higher than 7,000 psi tensile strength and impact strength values of
better than 1.0 ft-lb/in and eliminating materials such as general purpose
polystyrene, polypropylene, and polyethylene. Data sheets are never meant to be
used for engineering design and final or ultimate material selections. First, the
reported data is generally derived from the short term tests. Short term tests, as the
name suggests, are the tests conducted without consideration of time, and the
values derived are instantaneous. Tensile test, izod impact test, and Heat Distortion
Temperature, are the examples of such short term tests. Data reported on data
sheets are also derived from single point measurements. These tests do not take
into account the effect of time, temperature, environment, and chemicals, etc. A
single number representing one point on a stress-strain curve cannot begin to
convey plastics’ behavior over a range of conditions. The standardized tests used to
measure data sheet properties contain data measured in a laboratory under ideal
conditions (as specified by ASTM or ISO standards) on standardized test
specimens that bear little resemblance to the geometry of real-world parts. These
tests likewise take place at temperatures, stress and strain rates that rarely
corresponds to the real-world conditions.

The proper use of multi-point data for selecting the most appropriate plastic
materials for the applications cannot be over emphasized. This point is well
illustrated in a classic example of misinterpretation of published test data and the
true meaning and usefulness of Heat Distortion Temperature (HDT) values. The
Heat Distortion Temperature test is a short-term test conducted using standard test
bars and laboratory conditions. The temperature values derived from this test for a
particular plastic material is simply an indication of the temperature at which the
test bar shall deform .010 in. under a specified load. The reported values are further
distorted by factors such as residual stresses in the test bars, amount of load, and
specimen thickness. This reported value is of limited practical importance and
should not be used to select materials for applications requiring continuous
exposure at elevated temperatures. Continuous use temperature data such as UL
temperature index is a better indication of how plastic materials will perform for
extended period at elevated temperatures. Key considerations are:

Mechanical Properties

• Tensile strength and Modulus

• Flexural strength and Modulus
• Impact strength
• Compressive strength
• Fatigue endurance
• Creep
• Stress-relaxation

3.2.1 Comparision of PMMA over other polymers

PMMA is an economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when tensile

strength, flexural strength, transparency, polishability, and UV tolerance are more
important than impact strength, chemical resistance and heat
resistance.Additionally, PMMA does not contain the potentially
harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in polycarbonate. It is often preferred because
of its moderate properties, easy handling and processing, and low cost. Non-
modified PMMA behaves in a brittle manner when under load, especially under
an impact force, and is more prone to scratching than conventional inorganic glass,
but modified PMMA is sometimes able to achieve high scratch and impact
resistance. Since the properties of PMMA over other polymers is so good we
choosed silicon carbide as one of the material for our composite.

Poly(methyl methacrylate)

A transparent thermoplastic, Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) is a possible

lightweight, shatter-resistent substitute for glass. Often referred to as acrylic glass,
PMMA is a synthetic polymer of the organic compound methyl methacrylate
(MMA). It is seen as a cheap alternative to polycarbonate when high strength is not
necessarily a stringent requirement for the given application. PMMA in its
unmodified form can be brittle with particularly poor impact toughness and has a
lower hardness than conventional glass rendering it prone to scratches. However,
when modified, both of these properties can be significantly improved.
Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), also known as acrylic or acrylic glass as well
as by the trade names Crylux, Plexiglas, Acrylite, Lucite, and Perspex among
several others is a transparent thermoplastic often used in sheet form as a
lightweight or shatter-resistant alternative to glass. The same material can be used
as a casting resin, in inks and coatings, and has many other uses.

Although not a type of familiar silica-based glass, the substance, like many
thermoplastics, is often technically classified as a type of glass (in that it is a non-
crystalline vitreous substance) hence its occasional historical designation as acrylic
glass. Chemically, it is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. PMMA is an
economical alternative to polycarbonate (PC) when tensile strength, flexural
strength, transparency, polishability, and UV tolerance are more important
than impact strength, chemical resistance and heat resistance. Additionally,
PMMA does not contain the potentially harmful bisphenol-A subunits found in
polycarbonate. It is often preferred because of its moderate properties, easy
handling and processing, and low cost. Non-modified PMMA behaves in a brittle
manner when under load, especially under an impact force, and is more prone to
scratching than conventional inorganic glass, but modified PMMA is sometimes
able to achieve high scratch and impact resistance.

3.3 Advantages

There are a number of advantages to using PMMA:

 Outstanding weathering and resistance to UV radiation

 Transparent
 High gloss and hardness (when modified)

 Good rigidity

 Dimensionally stable

 Good abrasion resistance - surface scratches can be polished out (when

modified)

3.4 Synthesis

PMMA is routinely produced by emulsion polymerization, solution

polymerization, and bulk polymerization. Generally, radical initiation is used
(including living polymerizationmethods), but anionic polymerization of PMMA
can also be performed. To produce 1 kg (2.2 lb) of PMMA, about 2 kg (4.4 lb)
of petroleum is needed. PMMA produced by radical polymerization (all
commercial PMMA) is atactic and completely amorphous.

3.4.1 Processing and Handling

The glass transition temperature (Tg) of atactic PMMA is 105 °C (221 °F).
The Tg values of commercial grades of PMMA range from 85 to 165 °C (185 to
329 °F); the range is so wide because of the vast number of commercial
compositions which are copolymers with co-monomers other than methyl
methacrylate. PMMA is thus an organic glass at room temperature; i.e., it is below
its Tg. The forming temperature starts at the glass transition temperature and goes
up from there. All common molding processes may be used, including injection
molding, compression molding, and extrusion. The highest quality PMMA sheets
are produced by cell casting, but in this case, the polymerization and molding steps
occur concurrently. The strength of the material is higher than molding grades
owing to its extremely high molecular mass. Rubber toughening has been used to
increase the toughness of PMMA to overcome its brittle behavior.

PMMA can be joined using cyanoacrylate cement (commonly known

as superglue), with heat (welding), or by using solvents such as di-
or trichloromethane to dissolve the plastic at the joint, which then fuses and sets,
forming an almost invisible weld. Scratches may easily be removed by polishing or
by heating the surface of the material.

Laser cutting may be used to form intricate designs from PMMA sheets. PMMA
vaporizes to gaseous compounds (including its monomers) upon laser cutting, so a
very clean cut is made, and cutting is performed very easily. However, the pulsed
lasercutting introduces high internal stresses along the cut edge, which on exposure
to solvents produce undesirable "stress-crazing" at the cut edge and several
millimetres deep. Even ammonium-based glass-cleaner and almost everything
short of soap-and-water produces similar undesirable crazing, sometimes over the
entire surface of the cut parts, at great distances from the stressed edge. Annealing
the PMMA sheet/parts is therefore an obligatory post-processing step when
intending to chemically bond lasercut parts together.

In the majority of applications, it will not shatter. Rather, it breaks into large dull
pieces. Since PMMA is softer and more easily scratched than glass, scratch-
resistant coatings are often added to PMMA sheets to protect it (as well as possible
other functions).

Properties of PMMA

Skeletal structure of methyl methacrylate, the constituent monomer of PMMA

PMMA is a strong, tough, and lightweight material. It has a density of 1.17–

1.20 g/cm3, which is less than half that of glass. It also has good impact strength,
higher than both glass and polystyrene; however, PMMA's impact strength is still
significantly lower than polycarbonate and some engineered polymers. PMMA
ignites at 460 °C (860 °F) and burns, forming carbon dioxide, water, carbon
monoxide and low-molecular-weight compounds, including formaldehyde.

PMMA transmits up to 92% of visible light (3 mm thickness), and gives a

reflection of about 4% from each of its surfaces due to its refractive index (1.4905
at 589.3 nm). It filters ultraviolet (UV) light at wavelengths below about
300 nm(similar to ordinary window glass). Some manufacturers add coatings or
additives to PMMA to improve absorption in the 300–400 nm range. PMMA
passes infrared light of up to 2,800 nm and blocks IR of longer wavelengths up to
25,000 nm. Colored PMMA varieties allow specific IR wavelengths to pass while
blocking visible light (for remote controlor heat sensor applications, for example).

PMMA swells and dissolves in many organic solvents; it also has poor resistance
to many other chemicals due to its easily hydrolyzed ester groups. Nevertheless, its
environmental stability is superior to most other plastics such as polystyrene and
polyethylene, and PMMA is therefore often the material of choice for outdoor
applications.

PMMA has a maximum water absorption ratio of 0.3–0.4% by weight. Tensile

strength decreases with increased water absorption. Its coefficient of thermal
expansion is relatively high at (5–10)×10−5 °C−1.

3.5 Modification of properties

Pure poly(methyl methacrylate) homopolymer is rarely sold as an end product,

since it is not optimized for most applications. Rather, modified formulations with
varying amounts of other comonomers, additives, and fillers are created for uses
where specific properties are required. For example,

 A small amount of acrylate comonomers are routinely used in PMMA

grades destined for heat processing, since this stabilizes the polymer
to depolymerization ("unzipping") during processing.
 Comonomers such as butyl acrylate are often added to improve impact
strength.
 Comonomers such as methacrylic acid can be added to increase the glass
transition temperature of the polymer for higher temperature use such as in
 lighting applications.
 Plasticizers may be added to improve processing properties, lower the glass
transition temperature, or improve impact properties.
 Dyes may be added to give color for decorative applications, or to protect
against (or filter) UV light.
 Fillers may be added to improve cost-effectiveness.

Being transparent and durable, PMMA is a versatile material and has been used in
a wide range of fields and applications such as rear-lights and instrument clusters
for vehicles, appliances, and lenses for glasses.

CHAPTER 4

FABRICATION OF LAMINATES :

Laminates are fabricated in the various methods. These methods has different steps and they
involve usage of additives and resins to involve uniform formation and even distribution of
composite (PMMA and SIC). The various methods used in the process of laminates moulding are

 Injection moulding

 Compression moulding
  Hand moulding

4.1 INJECTION MOULDING:

Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts by injecting molten material
into a mould. Injection moulding can be performed with a host of materials mainly
including metals, (for which the process is called die-casting), glasses, elastomers, confections,
and most commonly thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Material for the part is fed into a
heated barrel, mixed (Using a helical shaped screw), and injected (Forced) into a mould cavity,
where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually
by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mould-maker (or toolmaker)
from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precision-machined to form the features of the
desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the
smallest components to entire body panels of cars. Advances in 3D printing technology,
using photopolymers which do not melt during the injection moulding of some lower temperature
thermoplastics, can be used for some simple injection moulds.

Parts to be injection moulded must be very carefully designed to facilitate the moulding
process; the material used for the part, the desired shape and features of the part, the material of
the mould, and the properties of the moulding machine must all be taken into account. The
versatility of injection moulding is facilitated by this breadth of design considerations and
possibilities.

4.1.1 EQUIPMENT:

Paper clip mould opened in moulding machine; the nozzle is visible at right. Injection moulding
machines consist of a material hopper, an injection ram or screw-type plunger, and a heating
unit. Also known as platens, they hold the moulds in which the components are shaped. Presses
are rated by tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping force that the machine can exert.
This force keeps the mould closed during the injection process. Tonnage can vary from less than
5 tons to over 9,000 tons, with the higher figures used in comparatively few manufacturing
operations.

4.1.2 PROCESS:

With injection moulding, granular plastic is fed by a forced ram from a hopper into a heated
barrel. As the granules are slowly moved forward by a screw-type plunger, the plastic is forced
into a heated chamber, where it is melted. As the plunger advances, the melted plastic is forced
 through a nozzle that rests against the mould, allowing it to enter the mould cavity through a gate
and runner system. The mould remains cold so the plastic solidifies almost as soon as the mould
is filled.

4.1.3 APPLICATIONS

Injection moulding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle
caps, automotive parts and components, pocket combs, some musical instruments (and parts of
them), one-piece chairs and small tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears),
and most other plastic products available today. Injection moulding is the most common modern
method of manufacturing plastic parts; it is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object.

4.1.4 EXAMPLES OF POLYMERS BEST SUITED FOR THE PROCESS

Most polymers, sometimes referred to as resins, may be used, including all thermoplastics,
some thermosets, and some elastomers. Available materials include alloys or blends of previously
developed materials, so product designers can choose the material with the best set of properties
from a vast selection. Major criteria for selection of a material are the strength and function
required for the final part, as well as the cost, but also each material has different parameters for
moulding that must be taken into account. Common polymers like epoxy and phenolic are
examples of thermosetting plastics while nylon, polyethylene,
and polystyrene are thermoplastic. Until comparatively recently, plastic springs were not possible,
but advances in polymer properties make them now quite practical. Applications include buckles
for anchoring and disconnecting the outdoor-equipment webbing.

4.2 COMPRESSION MOULDING:

Compression moulding is a well-known technique to develop variety of composite products. It is a
closed moulding process with high pressure application. In this method, as shown in figure 1, two
matched metal moulds are used to fabricate composite product. In compression moulding base
plate is stationary while upper plate is movable. Reinforcement and matrix are placed in the
metallic mould and the whole assembly is kept in between the compression moulder.

Heat and pressure is applied as per the requirement of composite for a definite period of
time. The material placed in between the moulding plates flows due to application of pressure and
heat and acquires the shape of the mould cavity with high dimensional accuracy which depends
upon mould design. Curing of the composite may carried out either at room temperature or at
some elevated temperature. After curing, mould is opened and composite product is removed for
further processing. In principle, a compression moulding machine is a kind of press which is
oriented vertically with two moulding halves (top and bottom halves). Generally, hydraulic
mechanism is used for pressure application in compression moulding.
 The controlling parameters in compression moulding method to develop superior and
desired properties of the composite. All the three dimensions of the model (pressure, temperature
and time of application) are critical and have to be optimized effectively to achieve tailored
composite product as every dimension of the model is equally important to other one. If applied
pressure is not sufficient, it will lead to poor interfacial adhesion of fibre and matrix. If pressure is
too high, it may cause fibre breakage, expulsion of enough resin from the composite system. If
temperature is too high, properties of fibres and matrix may get changed.

If temperature is low than desired, fibres may not get properly wetted due to high viscosity
of polymers especially for thermoplastics. If time of application of these factors (pressure and
temperature) is not sufficient (high or low), it may cause any of defects associated with insufficient
pressure or temperature. The other manufacturing factors such as mould wall heating, closing rate
of two matched plates of the plates and de-moulding time also affect the production process.

4.2.1 MATERIALS USED:

Some of the materials which are commonly used in the compression moulding are

 “Thermosetting polymers” such as Epoxy, polyester, polyvinyl ester, phenolic resin,

Unsaturated polyester, polyurethane resin, Urea formaldehyde

 “Thermoplastic polymers” Such as polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), nylon,

polycarbonate (PC), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), cellulose acetate, polyether ether ketone
(PEEK), Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), polystyrene (PS) biodegradable polymers
such as poly lactic acid (PLA), poly vinyl alcohol (PVA), soy based plastic, starch based
polymers

 Reinforcement such as Glass fibre, carbon fibre, aramid fibre, natural plant fibres (sisal,
banana, nettle, hemp, flax etc.) (all these fibres may be in the form of unidirectional mat,
 bidirectional (woven) mat, stitched into a fabric form, mat of randomly oriented fibers, short
fibres, chopped fibres)

4.2.2 APPLICATION OF COMPRESSION MOULDING:

Method is equally applicable for both thermosetting and thermoplastic polymer based
composites.

A very wide application spectrum ranging from kitchen goods to automobiles, toys,
electrical items and aeroplane parts.

Typical products include automobile panels, roof, life gates, battery trays, fenders, hoods,
bumpers, spoilers, air deflectors furniture kitchen bowls and trays, dinnerware, buttons,
large containers, recreational vehicle body panels, medical equipment (ultrasound
equipment)
4.3 HAND MOULDING:
It is the oldest moulding method for making composite products. It requires no technical skill and
no machinery. It is a low volume, labour intensive method suited especially for large
components, such as boat hulls. A male and female half of the mould is commonly used in the
hand lay-up process.

4.3.1 MOULD:

The mould will have the shape of the product. In order to have a glossy or texture finish on the
surface of the product, the mould surface also should have the respective finish. If the outer
surface of the product to be smooth, the product is made inside a female mould. Likewise, if the
inner side has to be smooth, the moulding is done over a male mould. The mould should be free
from defects, since the imprint of any defect will be formed on the product. Release

4.3.1.1 FILM OR LAYER:

Since, the resins used are highly adhesive, the product may get stuck to the mould. So, a proper
releasing mechanism should be incorporated. The release of the product can be affected by the
use of a release layer of wax or polyvinyl alcohol (PVA).  By using a thin film like polyester
film (Mylar). Since, the Mylar sheet has to be fit into the mould profile, this method is not used
for complex shapes.

4.3.1.2 Gel coat:

The gel coat gives the required finish of the product. It is usually a thin layer of resin about mm
thickness applied on the outer surface of the product. The colour is obtained by adding
appropriate pigments to the resin. The gel coat forms a protective layer that protects the glass
fibre getting in contact with water and chemicals. If the gel coat is too thin, the fibre pattern will
become visible. If it is too thick, crazing and star crack can appear on the gel coat.

4.3.1.3 Surface Mat Layer:

A surface mat layer will be placed beneath the gel coat layer. The fibres of the mat will not give
high strength like reinforcement fibres, but the mat provides crack resistance and impact strength
to the resin rich layer. It is an optional layer used only in specific cases.

4.3.1.4 Laminates of glass fibre:

The glass fibre layer wetted with resin is laid up one after another to the required thickness and
this finished material is called the laminate. The laminate gives the strength and rigidity to the
product. Glass fibre in the chopped strand mat (CSM) is commonly used to get composite
products. Woven roving, unidirectional and bi-directional mats are also used to get high strength
composite products.

4.3.1.5 Finishing surface mat layer / resin coat:

The glass fibre laminate provides a rough surface finish. In order to get a smoother surface, a
surface mat layer or resin coat may be applied over.

selection of hand lay-up as a fabrication process:

The following conditions favour hand lay-up as the method of fabrication.

• Only one side need to have good smooth finish.

• The product is large in size and very complex in shape.

• Only a few numbers of mouldings are required.

4.3.1.6 Surface mat layer :

The surface mat layer must be applied only after the gel coat is cured. Otherwise the surface
finish will be affected. The surface layer can be any one of the following.  Glass fiber surface
tissue mat.  Polyester woven cloth of fine thickness  Nylon woven cloth of fine thickness A
thin layer of resin is applied over the surface and the mat is wetted with brush. It may also be
lightly rolled with roller to remove the air bubbles.

4.3.1.7 Lay-up of laminates

The lay-up should start as soon as the gel coat layer is cured. The lamination should satisfy the
following requirements:

a) The fibre layers should be uniformly placed and they should fit correctly into the contour of
the product.

b) The fibre should not be damaged during lay-up

c) The fibre to resin ratio should be correctly maintained.

4.3.2 Preparation of the Resin Mix:

The resin mix can be prepared at least one day ahead so that the entrapment of air bubbles
escape before the lay-up begins. The mix consists of the resin, accelerator, fillers, and additives if
any. The addition of accelerator to resin will not cause any cross linking until catalyst is added.
The mixing can be done by either manually using a paddle or by using an air operated mixer.
Vigorous stirring can cause entrapment of air bubbles therefore; mixing should be done at a very
low rpm. The container in which resin mix is stored may be closed air tight to minimize the
vaporization and loss of styrene.

4.3.3 Preparation of the colour fibre Mat:

The required number layers to obtain the thickness can be determined by taking into account the
mat density and the glass-to-resin ratio by weight. The following points must be taken into
account while preparing the mat:

 Wherever joints are there, there should be a minimum overlap of 25 mm, in case of
chopped strand and a 50 mm overlap is required in the case of woven roving mat.

 Whenever, there is change in thickness the thickness must not abruptly change and instead
it must gradually change.

Tools for Lay-up:

1. Weighing balance - to weigh the chemicals.

2. Brushes - to apply resin for both gel coat application and for lamination.

3. Rollers - to remove the air bubbles and also for applying resin.

Long rollers are used to consolidate large areas but short rollers are used for corners and curved
surfaces. Mugs and small bowls - for taking the resin mix for lay-up.

Solvents:

Solvents are required for cleaning the rollers and brushes during or after the lay-up sequence is
over. Acetone or nitrocellulose thinner can be used as solvents.
4.3.4 Lamination procedure:

In the process of lamination a thin layer of resin is applied on the gel coat layer. Then, a
chopped strand mat is placed over it. The resin is again applied over the mat by using brush to
wet the mat. By using the roller the air bubbles are removed.

After the first layer is laid up, subsequent layers are laid in a similar manner. More
than, 4 layers of resin and glass mat should not be applied without allowing the resin to cure at a
time. When WRM is laid up, CSM is used in between in order to increase the inter-laminar
shear strength.

The lay-up procedure for WRM and CSM are identical except that the resin used for
WRM is half the quantity of that is needed for CSM. Curing of Resin: The curing of resin
process undergoes through four stages:

 Gelation Stage: It is the stage at which the resin becomes tack free and unworkable. It
depends on the percentage of catalyst and accelerator added. Normally, it takes 15 to 30
minutes to gel.

 Green Stage: This is the stage at which the resin resembles to hard cheese which when
pressed with the thumb it breaks up. The resin is considered to be set but not cured.

 Cured Stage: It is the stage at which more than 90% of the cure is completed. The product
can be released from the mould after this stage.

 Fully Cured Stage: It is the stage at which the physical properties of the moulding are
developed. Normally, it takes 5 to 10 days. A

4.3.5 ADVANTAGES

 It is a low volume,
 Labour intensive method suited for many products such as boat manufacturing, automotive
components, ducts, tanks, furniture, corrosion resistant equipment etc.

 No costly machinery is required.

 Nearly all shapes and sizes can be made.

 Colour and texture finish can be obtained by this hand lay-up method.

4.3.6 CUTTING OF PLATES:

Plates created using hand layup method is to be cut into required “ASME STANDARD
SHAPES” so that it can be used for various testing process.in our project the cutting of plates
is done by “water jet cutting” method.

ASME STANDARD SHAPES:

FRB FLAT

Tensile specimen (ASTM D638-03):

Flexural test specimen (ASTM D790):

Impact Test specimen (ASTM D256):

WATER JET CUTTING:

The above ASME STANDARD specimen is created using water jet cutting machining using
cnc operated water jet machine. Water Jet Machining (WJM) also called as water jet cutting is
a non-traditional machining process in which high velocity jet of water is used to remove
materials from the surface of the workpiece. WJM can be used to cut softer materials like
plastic, rubber or wood. In order to cut harder materials like metals or granite, an abrasive
material is mixed in the water.
OPERATION

All waterjets follow the same principle of using high pressure water focused into a beam by a
nozzle. Most machines accomplish this by first running the water through a high
pressure pump. There are two types of pumps used to create this high pressure; an intensifier
pump and a direct drive or crankshaft pump. A direct drive pump works much like a car
engine, forcing water through high pressure tubing using plungers attached to a crankshaft. An
intensifier pump creates pressure by using hydraulic oil to move a piston forcing the water
through a tiny hole. The water then travels along the high pressure tubing to the nozzle of the
waterjet. In the nozzle, the water is focused into a thin beam by a jewel orifice. This beam of
water is ejected from the nozzle, cutting through the material by spraying it with the jet of
high-speed water. The process is the same for abrasive waterjets until the water reaches the
nozzle. Here abrasives such as garnet and aluminium oxide, are fed into the nozzle via an
abrasive inlet. The abrasive then mixes with the water in a mixing tube and is forced out the
end at high pressure.