Amplificadores Operacionales

Chapter 13:
Operational Amplifiers
Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Digital Electronics Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Slide 1 Basic Op-Amp
Operational amplifier or op-amp, is a very high gain differential amplifier with a high
input impedance (typically a few mega ohms) and low output impedance (less than 100
ohms).
Note the op-amp has two inputs and one output.

Slide 2 Op-Amp Gain
Op-Amps have a very high gain. They can be connected open- or closed loop.
Open-loop refers to a configuration where there is no feedback from output back to the
input. In the open-loop configuration the gain can exceed 10,000.
Closed-loop configuration reduces the gain. In order to control the gain of an op-amp it
must have feedback. This feedback is a negative feedback. A negative feedback will reduce
the gain and improve many characteristics of the op-amp.

Slide 3 Inverting Op-Amp
The input is applied to the inverting (-) input; the non-inverting input (+) is grounded. The
resistor Rf is the feedback resistor; it is connected from the output to the negative
(inverting) input. This is negative feedback.
Slide 4 Inverting Op-Amp Gain
Gain can be determined from external resistors: Rf and R1.
Vo Rf [Formula 13.8]
Av  
Vi R1
Unity Gain: Voltage gain is 1.

Rf = R1
 Rf
Av   1 [Insert Formula]
R1
The negative sign denotes a 180 degree phase shift between input and output.
Constant Gain: Rf is a multiple of R1.

Voltage gain
Slide 5 Virtual Ground
An understanding of the concept of virtual ground provides a better understanding of how an op-
amp operates.
The non-inverting input pin is at ground. The inverting input pin is also at 0V for an AC signal.
This is because the op-amp has such high input impedance that even with a high gain there is no
current from inverting input pin, therefore there is no voltage from inverting pin to ground. All of
the current is through Rf.
The AC equivalent circuit.

Slide 6 Practical Op-Amp Circuits
These Op-amp circuits are commonly used:
•Inverting Amplifier
•Noninverting Amplifier
•Unity Follower
•Summing Amplifier
•Integrator
•Differentiator

Slide 7 Inverting Op-Amp
 Rf
Robert Boylestad Vo  V1 Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Digital Electronics
R1 Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
Slide 8 Noninverting Amplifier
Rf
Vo  (1  )V1
R1
Notice the output formula is similar to Inverting Amplifier, but they are not the same.
Slide 9 Unity Follower
Vo  V1 [Formula 13.10]
because Rf = R1
Slide 10 Summing Amplifier
Because the op-amp has a high input impedance the multiple inputs are treated as separate inputs.
 Rf Rf Rf 
Vo   V1  V2  V3 
 R1 R2 R3  [Formula 13.11]
Slide 11 Integrator
The output is the integral of the input. Integration is the operation of summing the area
under a waveform or curve over a period of time. This circuit is useful in low-pass filter
circuits and sensor conditioning circuits.
1
Robert Boylestad
vo(t)  
RC  v1(t)dt [Formula 13.13]
Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 12 Differentiator
The differentiator takes the derivative of the input. This circuit is useful in high-pass filter circuits.
dv1(t)
vo(t)   RC
dt [Formula 13.15]
Slide 13 Op-Amp Specifications – DC Offset Parameters
Even though the input voltage is 0, there will be an output. This is called offset. The
following can cause this offset:
•Input Offset Voltage

•Output Offset Voltage due to Input Offset Current
•Total Offset Voltage Due to Input Offset Voltage and Input Offset Current
•Input Bias Current

Slide 14 Input Offset Voltage (VIO)
The specification sheet for an op-amp will indicate an input offset voltage (VIO).
The effect of this input offset voltage on the output can be calculated:
R1  Rf
Vo(offset)  VIO
R1 [Formula 13.16]

Slide 15 Output Offset Voltage due to Input Offset Current (IIO)
If there is a difference between the dc bias currents for the same applied input, then this
too will cause an output offset voltage:
The Input Offset Current (IIO) is specified in the specifications for the op-amp.
The effect on the output can be calculated:
Vo(offset due to IIO)  IIORf [Formula 13.16]

Slide 16 Total Offset due to VIO and IIO
The op-amp may have an output offset voltage due to both factors VIO and IIO. The total
output offset voltage will be the sum of the effects of both:
Vo(offset) = Vo(offset due to VIO) + Vo(offset due to IIO) [Formula 13.19]

Slide 17 Input Bias Current (IIB)
A parameter that is related to Input Offset Current (IIO) is called Input Bias Current (IIB).
The separate Input Bias Currents are:
IIO
I  IB  IIB 
2
[Formula 13.21]
IIO
I  IB  IIB 
2
The total Input Bias Current is the average:
I - IB  I  IB
IIB 
2
[Formula 13.20]

Slide 18 Op-Amp Specifications – Frequency Parameters
An op-amp is a wide-bandwidth amplifier. The following affect the bandwidth of the op-
amp.
•Gain
•Slew Rate

Slide 19 Gain and Bandwidth
The op-amp’s high frequency response is limited by internal circuitry. The plot shown is
for an open loop gain (AOL or AVD). This means that the op-amp is operating at the
highest possible gain with no feedback resistor.
In the open loop, the op-amp has a narrow bandwidth.
The bandwidth will widen in closed loop operation, but then the gain will be lower.
Slide 20 Slew Rate (SR)
Slew rate is the maximum rate at which an op-amp can change output without distortion.
ΔVo
SR  V/s
Δt [Formula 13.23]
The SR rating is given in the specification sheets as V/s rating.

Slide 21 Maximum Signal Frequency
The slew rate determines the highest frequency of the op-amp without distortion.
SR
f where VP is the peak voltage
2πVp

Slide 22 General Op-Amp Specifications
Other ratings for op-amp found on specification sheets are:
•Absolute Ratings
•Electrical Characteristics
•Performance

Slide 23 Absolute Ratings
These are commonly the maximum ratings for the op-amp.

Slide 24 Electrical Characteristics
Note these ratings are for specific circuit conditions, and they often include minimum,
maximum and typical values.
Slide 25 CMRR
One rating worth mentioning that is unique to op-amps is CMRR or Common-Mode

Rejection Ratio.
Because the op-amp has two inputs that are opposite in phase (inverting input and the non-
inverting input) any signal that is common to both inputs will be cancelled.
A measure of the ability to cancel out common signals is called CMRR.

Slide 26 Op-Amp Performance
The specification sheets will also include graphs that indicate the performance of the op-
amp over a wide range of conditions.


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Chapter 13:

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Note the op-amp has two inputs and one output.

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Unity Gain: Voltage gain is 1.

Constant Gain: Rf is a multiple of R1.

The AC equivalent circuit.

These Op-amp circuits are commonly used:

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

•Input Offset Voltage

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The effect on the output can be calculated:

Vo(offset due to IIO)  IIORf [Formula 13.16]

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Vo(offset) = Vo(offset due to VIO) + Vo(offset due to IIO) [Formula 13.19]

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The separate Input Bias Currents are:

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

The SR rating is given in the specification sheets as V/s rating.

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Other ratings for op-amp found on specification sheets are:

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

These are commonly the maximum ratings for the op-amp.

One rating worth mentioning that is unique to op-amps is CMRR or Common-Mode

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Robert Boylestad Copyright ©2002 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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