Some experiences with automatic quality measuring of precision gearboxes

Beneš Petr, Malec Zdeněk

Dept. of Control, Measurement and Instrumentation, Brno University of Technology, Kolejní 4, CZ 612 00,
Czech Republic, tel. +420 541 141 152, fax +420 541 141 123, benesp@feec.vutbr.cz, malec@feec.vutbr.cz.

1. Measuring stand
As a precision one we consider a gearbox (usually a planet or harmonic one), being appointed
for transmission of a low or a medium power but with high respect to keeping the immediate
transmission factor of speed and position of the input and output shaft in some close limitations. This
general property is being described by the aid of some elementary characterizations of the gearbox,
which may be exactly measured: The efficiency, the (non-) uniformity of motion, the hysteresis, the lost
motion and the vibrations.
For measuring of these parameters there were realized different measuring stands, whose may
characterized by two arrangements: The basic arrangement, see Fig. 1a, consists of two drives P1 and
P2 (each of these drives is realized by a servomechanism {being able to realize the function of a
position, speed or a torque servomechanism}). Between these drives is connected the sensor S1 of the
input torque M1, the impulse sensor I 1 of the input position 1 (and input rotational speed 1) being
connected with the input shaft of the measured object P, object P itself (coupling, test rod or gearbox),
the impulse sensor I2 of the output position 2 (and rotational speed 2) being connected with the output
shaft of the measured object P, the tooth clutch, the sensor S2 of the output torque M2, the damping
coupling and the compensation gearbox G2. When the transmission factor of this gearbox i 2  1/iP , the
use of two each other similar drives is possible. On the measured object are placed sensors for auxiliary
measured values like temperature, vibration and noise.

Fig. 1 Basic diagram of the measuring stand

As wee can see, the arrangement of the measuring stand is symmetrical and than we may to
measure the measured object in both directions. This is useful for instance at measuring of efficiencies,
which in these cases need not to bee equal each other.
The output shaft of the measured object (gearbox) may be disconnected from the output half of
the measuring chain by opening of the tooth clutch. It is useful when the measured object should not be
loaded. The situation when the output shaft of a gearbox should run free, or with a small exactly
defined output torque, appears at the measuring of uniformity of run or at the measuring of lost motion.
For this purpose there was realized a simplified measuring stand shown on Fig. 2. The first half of the
measuring chain is equal with that shown in Fig. 1, but the output shaft of the measured gearbox is
connected with an electromagnetic hysteresis brake. The output torque sensor S2 is substituted by an
exact knowledge of the dependence of the braking toque of the brake on its excitation current.
 Fig. 2 Diagram of a simplified measuring stand

2. Dynamic measurement of uniformity of motion

As the (non-) uniformity of motion we consider the deviation between the real positions of the
output shaft of the gearbox and its theoretical position, which is appointed by the position of the input
shaft and the transmission ratio factor i.
This measurement might be performed as static one. It does mean that the output shaft of the
gearbox would be set into a fixed position and the pertinent input position would be measured and
calculated. The difference between these two positions represents the immediate error of the gearbox.
This method of measuring of the transmission error has many disadvantages. First of all it is very time
spending because a unique measurement gives us information about the transmission error in one point
only. Moreover, the result of such measurement depends in many factors, first of all in the torque
transferred by the gearbox.
The transmission error appears as at couplings and so as at gearboxes. The situation at
couplings is simpler than at gearboxes, because the transmission error  depends in the position of the
coupling only and it may be expressed as a function of the output shaft position 2, so as a function of
the position 1 of input shaft. Further, the mechanical arrangement of majority of couplings allows us to
consider the function  = F2(2) or  = F1(1) as a continuous one.
The situation at a gearbox is much more complex. First of all the transmission error of a
gearbox arises due to each tooth-to-tooth contact and for this reason the surfaces of all teeth need to be
geometrically identical. Only if the transmission factor i of the gearbox equals –1, where the numbers of
teeth n1 an n2 equal (n1 = n2), comes a tooth of the first gear wheel every times into contact with the
same tooth of the second wheel and the situation is similar to the coupling. More complex is the general
situation where n1  n2 and i  -1. In view of the fact that numbers of teeth n 1 and n2 are rational
numbers we can calculate the number n c of tooth-to-tooth contacts between the repeating of the contact
between defined teeth z1 (on first wheel with n 1 teeth) and z2 (on second wheel with n 2 teeth) as the
smallest common product N of numbers n 1 and n2, consequently nc = N(n1, n2]. When at least one of
numbers n1 or n2 a prime number is, changes the smallest common product into a usual product.
Let us consider following examples:
a) n1 = n2 = 30. nc = N(30, 30) = 30, number r1 of revolutions of wheel equals r 1 = nc/n1 = 1, analogically
r2 = nc/n2 = 1. Hence, a contact between two teeth of a defined pair appears once per revolution or
does never appear. (Let us suppose that the tooth pairs are defined as the first tooth on first wheel and
the first tooth on second wheel, the second tooth on first wheel and the second tooth on second wheel
etc. Each of these thirty pairs comes in contact in each revolution of the wheels. But the contact of
remaining 870 pairs comes never.) Regarding to lifetime and reliability of the gearbox it is useful –
when it is possible – to prefer exploitation of all tooth-to-tooth contacts than to keep an exact value of
transmission ratio. If there may be accepted a transmission ratio i´ = -30/29 = -1,0345 (instead of –1)
where n1 = 29, n2 = 30, nc = N (29, 30) = 29 x 30 = 870 and r1 = nc/n1 = 30, r2 = nc/n2 = 29.
b) n1 = 24, n2 = 64, nc = N(24, 64) = 192. r1 = 192/24 = 8, r2 = 192/64 = 3, i = -64/24 = -2,66667
c) A harmonic gearbox has n1 = 200 and n2 = 202 teeth. nc = N(200, 202) = 20200, r1 = 20200/200 =
101, i = -202/2 = -101….
d) A planet gearbox where the movement is transferred from the central wheel (n 1 = 27) on the axis of
cage carrying planets (n2 = 40). Planets roll into a steady wheel (n 3 = 108). nc = N(27, 40, 108) = 1080.
r1 = 1080/27 = 40, r2 = 1080/40 = 27, r3 = 1080/108 = 10, i = n3/n1 + 1 = 108/27 + 1 = 5
If we search the period of the function of gearings mentioned above, we express it either as a
number of turns of the output shaft or as an appropriate angle of degrees. In our examples we get: a) 29
revolutions = 10440 degrees, b) 3 rev. = 1080 degrees, c) 101 rev. = 36360 degrees, d) 10 rev. = 3600
degrees. These results show us a theoretical period of the function of the gearing. Its practical use for
calculating of the basic frequency (basic harmonic one) for Fourier analysis is practically impossible
for giant amount of subsequent calculations and for the time requirements of the measuring itself. Only
one practical use may present the searching of rough imperfection of manufacturing of unique pieces of
gearboxes.
These explanations did not depend on method of measuring: It might be discrete (measuring on
staying gear) in each position separately, or it might be continuous (measuring on running gear) with
sampling of measured values. The following description of measuring of uniformity of motion we
consider as a continuous one.

3. Practical measuring of uniformity of motion

In practical cases are the intervals of measuring of unique gearboxes remarkably shorter than it
has been shown above. The uniformity of motion we measure usually over 2 … 20 turns of the output
shaft. In this manner we must take in the intervals T 4 – T5 and T11 – T12 in Fig. 3 where the principle of
this measuring is shown.

Fig. 3 Principle of dynamic measurement of uniformity of motion

The graph below shows the course of rotational speed of the output shaft of the gearbox being
measured. Its first section between T 0 and T1 shows a preparatory interval, when the gearbox runs in
negative direction. In the interval between T 1 and T2 the output shaft reaches its nominal speed for
measuring of non-uniformity of motion. This speed should be constant during the whole time of
measuring, also till T7. When the nominal speed was reached, the loading of the gearbox may start. The
presumed torque will be reached in the interval T 2 – T3. In the upper graph is shown the course of
current exciting the hysteresis brake. The interval T 3 – T4 was introduced to be possible to presume,
that the braking torque will be constant during the measuring in the interval T 4 – T5. In this interval
there was performed the measuring of “Uniformity right”, see Figs. 4.3 and 4.6.
In the second half of the course in Fig. 3 below is shown the measuring of non-uniformity of
motion in opposite direction, the “uniformity left”, see Figs. 4.2 and 4.5. The second half of this course
we may consider as a function of time as it is drawn, or as a function of position of the output shaft.
Then we must follow this course from its end, also beginning in T 16, symmetrically to the first half, with
axis of symmetry in T8. There is important, that in T12 the output shaft of the gearbox reaches exactly
the same position as in T4.
. Thanks to these facts courses in Figs. 4.5 and 4.6 (and similarly also in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3) can
be subtracted and the course of lost motion, Fig. 4.4 (and also in Fig. 4.1) will be achieved.
Measurement amounts either 5 revolutions of the output shaft of the measured gearbox, see Figs. 4.1 –
3 or 20 revolutions, see Figs. 4.4 – 4.6.
 1 4

2 5

3 6
Fig. 4 Courses of lost motion, uniformity left and uniformity right
at a specimen of a planet gearbox (i = 5)
A course of lost motion is an interesting result but it is slightly impractical. If it has to be
expressed by one number, there is possible to find out the spread of the course or to calculate its
effective value (main value equals zero). The effective value is usually defined for one period of a
periodic course – and what is here one period? There is easily possible to define one period, e. g. as the
interval T4 – T5 (= T12 – T11), but such an interval need not to be a real period of the course of lost
motion as it has been explained above.
An answer on the question “How fast the continuous measuring may be?” depends on
parameters of the slowest sensor. For instance we can mention our angle sensors which gives 1 440 000
impulses per one turn and our electronic evaluation system being able to accept 8 millions of impulses
per second. Then the theoretic highest turning speed of the sensor shaft equals 333 rpm. But impulses
coming from the sensor must be counted etc. so that the real highest turning speed will reach must not
exceed cca 150 rpm. This limitation defines the rotational speed of the faster one of the both shafts of
the coupling or gearbox. Generally, when the transmission factor is (in its absolute value) is greater than
one (i  1) the limitation of the speed of the continuous measuring will be introduced by the angle
sensor on the input shaft of the gearbox.
The measuring of (non-) uniformity of motion belongs to measurements usually being
performed dynamically in spite of the fact, that it (theoretically) can be performed statically. But the
dynamic measuring is incomparably faster. Except of this measurement there exist further
measurements whose must be performed dynamically: Measuring of efficiency, measuring of noise and
measuring of vibrations.
The results achieved by dynamic measuring of (non-) uniformity of motion depend upon many
influences: The moment of inertia connected with output shaft of measured gearbox damps seemingly
the (non-) uniformity. This effect grows with kinetic energy stored in the moment of inertia. For this
reason there is useful
to measure at low rotational speed and keep the moments of inertia as small as possible. Usually the
speed limitation caused by angle sensors is so tight that further limitation is not required. Additionally
the lubrication of gearbox may decrease seemingly the (non-) uniformity of motion and cause
remarkably errors of measurement, whose could be discovered by the aid of repeating of measurements.

4. Static measurement of hysteresis curve and lost motion

While the measurement of lost motion has been usually performed as a dynamic one, the
measuring of the hysteresis loop of a gearbox is performed always statically. A unique hysteresis loop
which was found is valid only for that position of all cogwheels of the gearbox, in which it has been
measured.
On Fig. 5 there are shown hysteresis loops belonging to three different objects: On Fig. 5.1
(first row) there are shown three hysteresis curves belonging a harmonic gearbox (i = 248) measured
under the load of (from left to right) in the range –100; 100 Nm, -600; 600 Nm, -600; 600 Nm (three times
repeated) and –900; 900 Nm.
 1

3
Fig. 5 Examples of hysteresis loops of harmonic gearboxes (5.1 and 5.2)
thin-plate and Oldham’s couplings (5.3)

The repeated measurement shows a relative very good quality of function of components o measuring
stand because deviations between unique measurements are not observable. On Fig. 5.2 (second row)
there are shown three hysteresis curves of a smaller harmonic gearbox (i = 78) measured for the load of
50 Nm, 150 Nm, 150 Nm (3x) and 250 Nm.The comparison of these two sets of the hysteresis curves
shows, that the harmonic gearbox with greater transmission factor (=248) behaves less non-linear than
the second one with smaller i (= 78 only). By other words, the second gearbox will show a greater lost
motion than the first one.
On Fig. 5.3 is shown a set of three hysteresis curves belonging a thin-plate (lamella) coupling
loaded by a torque in the range –100; 100 Nm, -500; 500 Nm and –900; 900 Nm.
All graphs shown in Fig. 5 were measured and drawn automatically by a PC, which controlled
the whole measuring process according to an in advance prepared program. This note should remember
to the reader, that the torsion step in all figures is practically the same and that it seems to be smaller
only thank to the increase of the vertical scale.
The mechanical arrangement of the measuring stand from Fig. 1 is shown on Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Mechanic arrangement of a measuring stand according do Fig. 1

From each hysteresis loop there may be derived the static magnitudes of backlash and lost motion. Their
values are valid only for the unique position of components (cogwheels, ball bearings etc.) of the gearbox, at
which the pertinent hysteresis loop has been measured. The values of these parameters depend also on their
definition.

Fig. 7 Methods for assigning of lost mo-
tion and backlash (7.1 Neugart,
7.2 Harmonic Drive, 7.3 Stoeber)
A simplest definition has introduced Fa. Neugart (USA).
This definition is explained on hysteresis loop on Fig. 7.1.
The term “Backlash” describes the angle of free motion of
one cogwheel while the second one is staying and no
transferred torque appears. The backlash of whole gearbox
we consider as free motion of the output shaft when the
input shaft is blocked in a steady position. The angle
caused by backlash we read on the hysteresis loop between
two points where the loop crosses the vertical axle. If
some torque is transferred some deformation of teeth (and
other components of the gearbox) appears. This
deformation is added to backlash and this sum is called
“Lost motion”. For this reason whole lost motion depends
on the transferred torque and the magnitude Mc of the
torque loading the gearbox must be negotiated. This
agreement introduces usually Mc = 0,04 Mn, where Mn is
nominal torque for which the gearbox has been designed.
The relation 4% is equal as that for dynamic measurement
of lost motion. In the definition introduced by Harmonic
Drive only the term “Lost motion” appears. It is the angle
difference between the ends of so called “small loop”
being measured only between the transferred torques -M c
and Mc, when the total torque does not exceed the
interval (-Mc; Mc). The Mc is agreed usually on 0,04 Mn
and then the lost motion found according to this method
should agree with lost motion being measured dynamically
at 4% of nominal torque, see Fig. 7.2.

Fa Stoeber (Germany) has introduced her own, very severe definitions of ”Backlash:” and ”Lost
motion” based partially on the use of the so called “Middle curve” of the hysteresis loop, see Fig. 7.3.
The backlash is the difference between ordinates of the middle curve at torques M c and –Mc. These
torques are related to the nominal output torque T 2n of the gearbox. There is usual to choose Mc as 4%
or 2% of Mn.. The position (ordinate) where will be measured the “Lost motion” is not predicted. The
lost motion is defined as the greatest distance between the upper and lower branch of the hysteresis
loop, without respect to temporary torque

5. Conclusions
The measuring stand has been realized in four specimens. Two of them are used in production,
the remaining two pieces are used in laboratory activities. The complicated relations between different
measured values require automation of the whole measuring process controlled by a PC being
controlled by an extensive software. The program system WinXmess allows communication with the
PC to users being on different level of computer knowledge. The potential users are divided into three
groups, “easy user”, “medium” and “administrator”. The easy user is allowed to start the program, fill
in his registration form, call windows with helps, jump on arrays for unique measurement, perform
these measurements and delete them. The medium user differs from the easy one by the possibility to
edit data concerned on types or unique pieces of gearboxes, and to edit data about the customers. One of
results of the use of WinXmess ist editing of a record of measuring of each unique gearbox.

6. Literature
[1] Malec Z., Beneš P.: An automatic system for measuring of properties of precision gearboxes. In:
XVII IMEKO World Congress, June 2003, Dubrovnik, Croatia
[2] Malec Z., Beneš P.: Experimental stand for quality measurement of precision gearings. In: TEST
Nürnberg, May 2003, Germany