Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
DOI 10.1007/s00421-012-2402-0
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The influence of vibration type, frequency, body position
and additional load on the neuromuscular activity
during whole body vibration
Ramona Ritzmann • Albert Gollhofer •
Andreas Kramer
Received: 16 February 2012 / Accepted: 4 April 2012 / Published online: 27 April 2012
Ó Springer-Verlag 2012
Abstract This study aimed to assess the influence of
different whole body vibration (WBV) determinants on the
electromyographic (EMG) activity during WBV in order to
identify those training conditions that cause highest neu-
romuscular responses and therefore provide optimal train-
ing conditions. In a randomized cross-over study, the EMG
activity of six leg muscles was analyzed in 18 subjects with
respect to the following determinants: (1) vibration type
(side-alternating vibration (SV) vs. synchronous vibration
(SyV), (2) frequency (5–10–15–20–25–30 Hz), (3) knee
flexion angle (10°–30°–60°), (4) stance condition (forefoot
vs. normal stance) and (5) load variation (no extra load vs.
additional load equal to one-third of the body weight). The
results are: (1) neuromuscular activity during SV was
enhanced compared to SyV (P \ 0.05); (2) a progressive
increase in frequency caused a progressive increase in
EMG activity (P \ 0.05); (3) the EMG activity was highest
for the knee extensors when the knee joint was 60° flexed
(P \ 0.05); (4) for the plantar flexors in the forefoot stance
condition (P \ 0.05); and (5) additional load caused an
increase in neuromuscular activation (P \ 0.05). In con-
clusion, large variations of the EMG activation could be
observed across conditions. However, with an appropriate
adjustment of specific WBV determinants, high EMG
activations and therefore high activation intensities could
Communicated by Arnold de Haan.
R. Ritzmann (&)
A. Gollhofer
Institute of Sport and Sport Science, University of Freiburg,
Schwarzwaldstraße 175, 79117 Freiburg, Germany
e-mail: ramona.ritzmann@sport.uni-freiburg.de
A. Kramer
Department of Sports Science, University of Konstanz,
Constance, Germany
be achieved in the selected muscles. The combination of
high vibration frequencies with additional load on an SV
platform led to highest EMG activities. Regarding the body
position, a knee flexion of 60° and forefoot stance appear to
be beneficial for the knee extensors and the plantar flexors,
respectively.
Keywords Electromyography
Parameters
Vibration

Training
Exercise
Introduction
Scientific research with respect to whole body vibration
(WBV) has increased in the last decade. However, func-
tional and neuromuscular adaptations to WBV are not
entirely understood. Since vibration training is a form of
training that uses an external drive to stimulate the muscle
(Rittweger 2010; Wilcock et al. 2009), this external drive
(generated by the vibration device) and its adjustment (i.e.,
the choice of frequency and amplitude) have a big influence
on the muscles’ response to WBV training (Rauch et al.
2010; Rittweger 2010). However, despite the substantial
amount of WBV-related articles, there are few that address
fundamental questions such as optimal frequency or body
position on the training device (Abercromby et al. 2007a;
Berschin and Sommer 2004; Hazell et al. 2007, 2010).
Only a few studies focused on the systematic variation
of WBV determinants in order to define adequate training
conditions. In the latter studies, the electromyographic
(EMG) activity was analyzed regarding specific vibration
determinants, i.e., frequencies (Cardinale and Lim 2003;
Cochrane et al. 2009), amplitudes (Marı́n et al. 2009), or
additional load (Hazell et al. 2010) or vibration types and
body positions (Abercromby et al. 2007a). In general, the
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2 Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
studies demonstrated that acute WBV is accompanied by
higher EMG responses compared to conditions without
WBV. More specific, it has been shown that neuromuscular
responses increase with increasing amplitudes (Marı́n et al.
2009) and additional loads (Hazell et al. 2010). The effects
of the vibration frequency remains unclear, as studies have
failed to produce consistent results so far (Berschin and
Sommer 2004; Cardinale and Lim 2003; Hazell et al.
2007). However, at least there is some indirect evidence
suggesting that the neuromuscular activation is related to
the level of frequency during WBV training (Ritzmann
et al. 2010). As the number of vibration-induced stretch
reflexes increase with ascending frequency, it might be
suggested that the EMG activity is increased as well
(Cochrane et al. 2009; Ritzmann et al. 2010). With respect
to the body position there is only one study conducted by
Abercromby et al. (2007a) focusing on different knee
flexion angles during WBV. Their main finding was that
WBV in a static squat position caused higher neuromus-
cular responses compared to several modalities of dynamic
squatting.
Each of the vibration determinants mentioned above has
its own impact on WBV training and training adaptation
(Cochrane 2011). However, until now, there has not been a
systematic approach focusing on the combination of the
WBV training determinants in an effort to identify condi-
tions, which provide the highest neuromuscular responses
during WBV. It is well known that during a voluntary
action, the muscles’ EMG activity is related to the extent of
the muscle fibers’ recruitment (Aagaard 2003; Hogrel
2003; Milner-Brown et al. 1973a, 1973b; Riley et al. 2008)
and frequency (Aagaard 2003; Milner-Brown et al. 1973a).
A high EMG activity results from a high number of
recruited muscle fibers and high motor unit discharge fre-
quencies (Moritani and Muro 1987) and is accompanied by
high forces generated by the target muscle (Freund et al.
1975; Moritani and Muro 1987). Hence, based on these
relations, the EMG activity could be used to easily deter-
mine the activation intensity of the muscle in a given set of
WBV treatment at least within limits mentioned as cross
talk and nonlinearity (Farina et al. 2004; Keenan et al.
2005). Within those limitations, the EMG activity can
serve as an adequate parameter to estimate the muscles’
activation intensity. Designing a WBV-based training
regimen with the objective to achieve a distinct type of
adaptation (e.g., improved power generated by a specific
muscle group) requires a thorough understanding of the
influence of the training setup and the selected WBV
parameters (Cochrane 2011; Rittweger 2010).
This work presents a systematic approach to indenti-
fying conditions that provide a high neuromuscular
activity and therefore high activation intensities during
WBV. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect
123
of five different vibration determinants (vibration type,
frequency, knee angle, stance condition and load varia-
tion) and the influence of two factors (muscle group and
gender) on the EMG activity during WBV. Based on
findings in already existing literature, the following
hypotheses were established: (1) we expected that side-
alternating vibration causes higher neuromuscular
responses than synchronous vibration and (2) a progres-
sive increase of the EMG activity in response to a pro-
gressively ascending vibration frequency. With respect to
the subjects’ body position, we focused on the static
variation of the knee angle and foot position according to
the findings of Abercromby et al. (2007a). We assumed
that (3) the more the knee joint is flexed the higher the
EMG activity in the knee extensor muscles. Accordingly,
we hypothesized that (4) a plantar flexion in the ankle
joint results in a higher EMG activity in the plantar flexor
muscles. Furthermore, we assumed that (5) an additional
load during WBV causes higher EMG responses com-
pared to WBV without additional load.
Methods
Subjects
Based on the results of a power analysis (f = 0.4;
alpha = 0.05; power = 0.9), 18 volunteers participated in
this study. The participants were physically fit students at the
department of sports science (8 females and 10 males, age
25 ± 4 years, weight 66 ± 15 kg, height 174 ± 10 cm)
with no previous neurological irregularities or injuries to the
lower extremity. All volunteers gave their written informed
consent. The study was conducted according to the latest
revision of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by
the ethics committee of the University of Freiburg.
Experimental design
In order to examine the influence of five vibration-related
determinants on the neuromuscular activity during WBV, a
single-group, repeated measures, crossed-study design was
used (Fig. 1). For that purpose, the EMG activity of six leg
muscles was analyzed with respect to (1) two different
vibration types (side-alternating vibration vs. synchronous
vibration), (2) a progressive increase in vibration fre-
quencies (5–10–15–20–25–30 Hz), (3) three knee flexion
angles (10°–3°–60°), (4) two stance conditions (forefoot vs.
normal stance) and (5) load variation (no extra load vs. an
additional load equal to one-third of the respective body
weight). Among the subjects, the order of the test condi-
tions was randomized to control for confounding effects
such as familiarization or fatigue.
2 Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
studies demonstrated that acute WBV is accompanied by
higher EMG responses compared to conditions without
WBV. More specific, it has been shown that neuromuscular
responses increase with increasing amplitudes (Marı́n et al.
2009) and additional loads (Hazell et al. 2010). The effects
of the vibration frequency remains unclear, as studies have
failed to produce consistent results so far (Berschin and
Sommer 2004; Cardinale and Lim 2003; Hazell et al.
2007). However, at least there is some indirect evidence
suggesting that the neuromuscular activation is related to
the level of frequency during WBV training (Ritzmann
et al. 2010). As the number of vibration-induced stretch
reflexes increase with ascending frequency, it might be
suggested that the EMG activity is increased as well
(Cochrane et al. 2009; Ritzmann et al. 2010). With respect
to the body position there is only one study conducted by
Abercromby et al. (2007a) focusing on different knee
flexion angles during WBV. Their main finding was that
WBV in a static squat position caused higher neuromus-
cular responses compared to several modalities of dynamic
squatting.
Each of the vibration determinants mentioned above has
its own impact on WBV training and training adaptation
(Cochrane 2011). However, until now, there has not been a
systematic approach focusing on the combination of the
WBV training determinants in an effort to identify condi-
tions, which provide the highest neuromuscular responses
during WBV. It is well known that during a voluntary
action, the muscles’ EMG activity is related to the extent of
the muscle fibers’ recruitment (Aagaard 2003; Hogrel
2003; Milner-Brown et al. 1973a, 1973b; Riley et al. 2008)
and frequency (Aagaard 2003; Milner-Brown et al. 1973a).
A high EMG activity results from a high number of
recruited muscle fibers and high motor unit discharge fre-
quencies (Moritani and Muro 1987) and is accompanied by
high forces generated by the target muscle (Freund et al.
1975; Moritani and Muro 1987). Hence, based on these
relations, the EMG activity could be used to easily deter-
mine the activation intensity of the muscle in a given set of
WBV treatment at least within limits mentioned as cross
talk and nonlinearity (Farina et al. 2004; Keenan et al.
2005). Within those limitations, the EMG activity can
serve as an adequate parameter to estimate the muscles’
activation intensity. Designing a WBV-based training
regimen with the objective to achieve a distinct type of
adaptation (e.g., improved power generated by a specific
muscle group) requires a thorough understanding of the
influence of the training setup and the selected WBV
parameters (Cochrane 2011; Rittweger 2010).
This work presents a systematic approach to indenti-
fying conditions that provide a high neuromuscular
activity and therefore high activation intensities during
WBV. The purpose of this study was to assess the effect
123
of five different vibration determinants (vibration type,
frequency, knee angle, stance condition and load varia-
tion) and the influence of two factors (muscle group and
gender) on the EMG activity during WBV. Based on
findings in already existing literature, the following
hypotheses were established: (1) we expected that side-
alternating vibration causes higher neuromuscular
responses than synchronous vibration and (2) a progres-
sive increase of the EMG activity in response to a pro-
gressively ascending vibration frequency. With respect to
the subjects’ body position, we focused on the static
variation of the knee angle and foot position according to
the findings of Abercromby et al. (2007a). We assumed
that (3) the more the knee joint is flexed the higher the
EMG activity in the knee extensor muscles. Accordingly,
we hypothesized that (4) a plantar flexion in the ankle
joint results in a higher EMG activity in the plantar flexor
muscles. Furthermore, we assumed that (5) an additional
load during WBV causes higher EMG responses com-
pared to WBV without additional load.
Methods
Subjects
Based on the results of a power analysis (f = 0.4;
alpha = 0.05; power = 0.9), 18 volunteers participated in
this study. The participants were physically fit students at the
department of sports science (8 females and 10 males, age
25 ± 4 years, weight 66 ± 15 kg, height 174 ± 10 cm)
with no previous neurological irregularities or injuries to the
lower extremity. All volunteers gave their written informed
consent. The study was conducted according to the latest
revision of the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by
the ethics committee of the University of Freiburg.
Experimental design
In order to examine the influence of five vibration-related
determinants on the neuromuscular activity during WBV, a
single-group, repeated measures, crossed-study design was
used (Fig. 1). For that purpose, the EMG activity of six leg
muscles was analyzed with respect to (1) two different
vibration types (side-alternating vibration vs. synchronous
vibration), (2) a progressive increase in vibration fre-
quencies (5–10–15–20–25–30 Hz), (3) three knee flexion
angles (10°–3°–60°), (4) two stance conditions (forefoot vs.
normal stance) and (5) load variation (no extra load vs. an
additional load equal to one-third of the respective body
weight). Among the subjects, the order of the test condi-
tions was randomized to control for confounding effects
such as familiarization or fatigue.
Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
Fig. 1 Schematics of the study design. During WBV the EMG
activity of six leg muscles was analyzed with respect to the
determinants vibration type, vibration frequency, knee flexion angle,
stance conditions and load variation
General procedure
Vibration exposure during a single trial was limited to 10 s
with at least 30 s of rest in between trials. At the beginning
of each measurement, baseline activity in that position
without WBV was recorded. This procedure allowed an
assessment of the vibration’s contribution to the neuro-
muscular activity. During testing, the subjects were bare-
foot in order to avoid any dampening effects due to
different footwear. The subjects were instructed to direct
their head and eyes forward and distribute their weight
equally on both feet. Prior to data collection, familiariza-
tion sessions for both WBV devices were conducted to
make sure that the participants were able to maintain the
defined positions at higher vibration frequencies. In case of
trunk movement, foot sliding, changes in body position or
any other disturbances the measurements were repeated.
The body position was controlled by two operators.
EMG recordings and kinematics
Bipolar Ag/AgCl surface electrodes (Ambu Blue Sensor P,
Ballerup, Denmark; diameter 9 mm, center-to-center dis-
tance 34 mm) were placed over the M. soleus (SOL), the
M. gastrocnemius medialis (GM), the M. tibialis anterior
(TA), the M. rectus femoris (RF), the M. vastus medialis
(VM) and the M. biceps femoris (BF) of the right leg. The
longitudinal axes of the electrodes were in line with
the presumed direction of the underlying muscle fibers. The
reference electrode was placed on the patella. Interelec-
trode resistance was kept below 2 kX by means of shaving,
light abrasion, and degreasing of the skin. The EMG sig-
nals were transmitted to the amplifier (band-pass filter
10 Hz–1 kHz, 1,0009 amplified) via shielded cables and
recorded with 4 kHz. The cables were carefully taped to
the skin.
3
In order to control the body position, ankle angles (dor-
salflexion and plantarflexion) and knee angles (knee flexion
and extension) were recorded by electrogoniometers (Bio-
metricsÒ, Gwent, UK). For that purpose, one goniometer
was placed over the lateral epicondyle of the femur with one
endplate attached to the shank and aligned to the lateral
malleolus of fibula and the other to the thigh aligned to the
greater trochanter. The knee flexion angle was set to zero at
180° angle between the femur and the fibula. The second
goniometer was fixed at the lateral aspect of the right ankle
with its ends attached parallel to the major axis of the foot in
line with the fifth metatarsal and the major axis of the leg in
line with the fibula. An angle of 90° between the fifth
metatarsal and the fibula was defined as 90° ankle angle,
whereas a plantar flexion was reflected by an ankle angle
greater than 90°. To control the vibration amplitude, an
accelerometer was fixed on both vibration devices. All
signals were recorded with a sampling frequency of 4 kHz.
Independent variables
Vibration type
Two different WBV devices were used: a side-alternating
vibration platform (Novotec Medical, Pforzheim, Ger-
many) and a synchronous vibration platform (Power Plate
Germany, Frankfurt am Main, Germany). The side-alter-
nating vibration platform generates vibration by rotating
along the sagittal axis. Thus, the positioning of the feet in
relation to the axis of rotation determines the vibration
amplitude. The frequency is adjustable in steps of 0.5 Hz
within a range of 5–30 Hz. The synchronous vibration
platform moves synchronously in vertical direction, so that
the amplitude is fixed at 2 mm and does not change when a
different foot position is assumed. It is adjustable in steps
of 5 Hz within a range of 30–50 Hz.
For a direct comparison of the two types of vibration,
the frequency was set to the only frequency the two devices
had in common (i.e., 30 Hz) and the foot-to-foot distance
was set to 21 cm (resulting in a amplitude of 2 mm on the
side-alternating platform, making it comparable to the
fixed amplitude of the synchronous vibration platform).
This identical foot position was marked on both platforms.
For the evaluation of the vibration frequency, only the
side-alternating vibration device was used, with a foot-to-
foot distance of 42 cm, resulting in a vibration amplitude
of 4 mm (Marı́n et al. 2009). This foot position was also
marked on the side-alternating platform.
Vibration frequency
To examine the effects of vibration frequency steps
of 5 Hz were selected in a range from 5 to 30 Hz
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4 Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
(i.e., 5–10–15–20–25–30 Hz). In this setting, only the side-
alternating vibration platform was used.
Knee flexion
Knee angles of 5° versus 30° versus 60° were compared to
each other (0° corresponding to the fully extended knee). In
order to control each of the defined knee flexion angles, the
subjects’ knee joint position was adjusted by means of
templates given in 5°, 30° and 60° before each measure-
ment. Trials were repeated when a subject could not
maintain the given position.
The rationale for the parameter selection was based on
several studies that have shown that WBV training with a
knee flexion angle of 5°–60° causes beneficial effects on
jump height, lower extremity muscle torque and flexibility
(Jacobs and Burns 2009; Stewart et al. 2009; Torvinen
et al. 2002).
Stance condition
Standing on the forefoot (i.e., forefoot in contact with the
platform and heel without contact) was compared to a
normal stance (i.e., heel and forefoot in contact with the
platform). In order to control the forefoot stance, a foam
cube (3 9 3 9 3 cm in dimension) was fixed under the
subjects’ right and left heel, in order to reduce the variance
in ankle joint position within and between subjects. The
subjects were instructed to keep contact with this foam
cube without deforming the cube. Measurements were
repeated when the defined position could not be held.
Load variation
In order to quantify the influence of load variation, control
trials (without additional load) were compared to trials with
an additional load equal to 1/3 of the respective body
weight. One-third of the body weight as an additional load
has been selected based on studies that showed that WBV
training in combination with an additional load has a
beneficial effect on performance and metabolic power
(Cochrane et al. 2008; Garatachea et al. 2007; Rittweger
et al. 2001). The additional load was applied via a standard
weightlifting bar (180 cm in length and a weight of 10 kg)
with weight plates attached to each side. The bar was
positioned on the shoulders of the subject. According to the
recommendation of Abercromby et al. (2007b), we omitted
the additional load in the condition with a 5° knee flexion
and a normal stance as this combination has been shown to
cause excessive head acceleration. All participants were
familiar with loaded squat techniques.
As the load was applied via a bar on the subjects’
shoulders the position of the hands in the load condition
123
was different from the other conditions performed without
an additional load in which the hands have been on the
hips. In order to control for possible differences due to the
altered hand position an additional experiment was con-
ducted in 8 of 18 subjects. For that purpose, we compared
hands on the hips (identical to the unloaded condition) to
hands high (identical to the load condition) in the forefoot
stance and a 5° knee angle as well as in the forefoot stance
and a 60° knee angle without and with 30 Hz vibration on
both devices.
Data processing
For each of the recorded muscles in each condition, EMG
signals with a length of 3 s were rectified, integrated and
time normalized (iEMG [mVs]). This kind of data pro-
cessing was selected as the integrated EMG signal has
shown to be a reliable predictor for the level of neuro-
muscular activation (Kellis and Katis 2008), i.e., the extent
of the motor unit recruitment and discharge frequency
(Aagaard 2003; Moritani 2002; Moritani and Muro 1987).
Subsequently, the vibration gain was calculated in order to
allow for a comparison between subjects and to quantify
the vibration’s contribution to the neuromuscular activity:
in case of the independent variables vibration type and
frequency, the iEMG during WBV was normalized to the
corresponding stance position without vibration. For the
independent variables load variation, knee flexion and
stance condition, the iEMG was normalized to the standard
stance condition (standing on the forefoot with a knee
angle of 5° without additional load).
Mean ankle and knee angles were calculated for each
subject and each of the WBV conditions. The vibration
amplitude was calculated indirectly by means of an
accelerometer signal (Fig. 2) via the formula amplitudecalc
(m) = 2 9 a (m/s2)/(2 9 P 9 Frequency)2 (1/s2), where
a is defined as the peak acceleration and P is pi (see e.g.,
Rittweger et al. 2001).
Statistics
We used an analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze the
data. The dependent variables in all statistical tests were
iEMG values measured from the muscles SOL, GM, TA,
RF, VM, and BF. The independent variables were vibration
type, vibration frequency, foot position, knee angle, and
load variation. Muscle group was included as a within-
subject factor to detect differences between the recorded
thigh and calf muscles and gender as a between-subject
factor. In order to test hypothesis (1) and to detect inter-
action effects between the independent variables, a repe-
ated measures ANOVA [type (2) 9 stance (2) 9 knee
angle (3) load variation (2)] with Bonferroni corrected post
Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11 5

within a given specification. Further, Student’s t tests were

used to test for differences in the hand position.
The level of significance was set to 0.05. All analyses
were executed using SPSS 17.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL,
USA). Group data are presented as means ± SD unless
otherwise stated.

Results

In Table 1, mean values of the vibration amplitude, knee

Fig. 2 EMG data, joint angles and kinematics of one subject during
10 Hz (5 vibration cycles), 20 Hz (10 vibration cycles) and 30 Hz (15
vibration cycles) WBV. All signals were recorded in the forefoot
stance condition with 10° knee flexion without additional load. The
top shows the EMG data of the gastrocnemius medialis (GM), tibialis
anterior (TA) and rectus femoris muscles (RF). Note the frequency-
dependent increase in EMG activity from 10 to 20 to 30 Hz. In the
middle, the frequency-dependent oscillation of the electrogoniometer
signals within a range of approximately 6° reflecting the dampening
effects of the ankle and knee joint. The curves at the bottom illustrate
the platform acceleration and the vibration amplitude
hoc tests was used. To test hypotheses (2)–(5) and to detect
interaction effects between the independent variables, a
repeated measures ANOVA [frequency (7) 9 stance
(2) 9 knee angle (3) load variation (2)] with Bonferroni
corrected post hoc tests was used. In addition, to verify the
kinematic data, i.e., vibration amplitudes of 2 and 4 mm,
knee flexions of 5°, 30° and 60°, forefoot and normal
stance, Student’s t tests were used to reveal differences
and ankle angles for the different vibration condition are
displayed. No significant differences could be observed for
the knee and ankle angles across conditions. Although the
subjects were instructed to maintain a knee angle of 5° (30°
and 60°, respectively), the analysis of the goniometer sig-
nals revealed a mean flexion angle of 10° (30° and 60°,
respectively). The vibration amplitude was significantly
smaller (-5 %) during vertical compared to side-alternat-
ing vibration (P \ 0.05).
Vibration type
Figure 3 illustrates the effect of the two different vibration
types—side-alternating and synchronous vibration—on the
EMG activity during WBV. In all recorded muscles (SOL
?67 %, GM ?91 %, TA ?70 %, BF ?74 %, VM ?69 %
and RF ?66 %), the EMG activity was significantly
enhanced during side-alternating vibration compared to
synchronous vibration (P \ 0.05). Furthermore, for both
vibration types the EMG activity was higher during WBV
compared to the control condition without WBV
(P \ 0.05, Fig. 3).

Table 1 Mean values of all participants of the vibration amplitude (amplitudecalc), knee flexion and ankle angles for the different vibration
conditions
Vibration type Synchronous Side-alternating

Load variation No load Load No load Load No load Load

Amplitude (mm) 2 2 2 2 4 4
Amplitudecalc (mm) 1.90 ± 0.06* 1.86 ± 0.08* 1.98 ± 0.04 1.98 ± 0.08 3.96 ± 0.06 3.96 ± 0.10
Knee flexion
5° (°) 9±7 11 ± 6 12 ± 4 11 ± 7 7±3 8±6
30° (°) 27 ± 6 29 ± 10 32 ± 4 33 ± 6 31 ± 8 29 ± 5
60° (°) 61 ± 4 57 ± 6 57 ± 5 59 ± 8 65 ± 5 63 ± 3
Stance condition
Forefoot stance (°) 101 ± 12 98 ± 9 97 ± 13 103 ± 14 96 ± 11 95 ± 7
Normal stance (°) 85 ± 6 82 ± 11 80 ± 9 79 ± 7 81 ± 9 79 ± 12
Values represent MW ± SD. The first column contains the specification according to the predefined vibration determinants. The three rows at the top
display the vibration conditions. Note that the vibration amplitudecalc was calculated by means of the acceleration signal. No significant differences
could be observed for the knee and ankle angles across conditions, whereas the amplitudecalc differed significantly during vertical compared to side-
alternating vibration. Although the knee flexions have been predefined as 5°, 30° and 60°; the analysis revealed mean values of 10°, 30° and 60°
* indicates a significant difference (p \ 0.05)

123
6 Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
Fig. 3 Changes in neuromuscular activity during WBV in response
to two different vibration types: black bar symbolizes side-alternating
vibration and white bar synchronous vibration. The EMG activity
during WBV was normalized to the corresponding stance condition
without WBV. As a reference, the horizontal dashed line marks the
stance condition without WBV. In all recorded muscles, the EMG
activity was enhanced during side-alternating compared to synchro-
nous vibration. Note that between the vibration types, the only
comparable frequency was 30 Hz and the only comparable amplitude
was 2 mm. Data are presented as mean values ± SD of all subjects
and conditions. Asterisk indicates a significant difference (P \ 0.05)
Vibration frequency
The average EMG activities of all recorded muscles were
significantly affected by the vibration frequency
(P \ 0.05). Figure 4 illustrates the progressive increase in
the EMG activity as the vibration increases from 5 to
30 Hz. The frequency-dependent increase in EMG activity
was highly pronounced in the shank muscles SOL, TA, and
GM proximally located from the vibration device and
slightly less pronounced in the distally located thigh mus-
cles BF, RF and VL (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Changes in neuromuscular activation due to progressively
enhanced vibration frequencies on the side-alternating vibration
platform: the higher the vibration frequency, the higher the EMG
activity in all recorded muscles. As a reference, the horizontal dashed
123
Knee flexion
Increasing the knee flexion from 10° to 30° to 60° resulted in
increasing EMG activity in the knee extensor muscles (RF:
?27 % P \ 0.05; ?30 % P \ 0.05 and VM: ?29 %
P \ 0.05; ?44 % P \ 0.05) and TA (?24 % P \ 0.05;
?39 % P \ 0.05; Fig. 5a). In contrast, the EMG activity of
the plantar flexors (GM: -14 % P \ 0.05; -16 % P \ 0.05
and SOL: -9 % P \ 0.05; -15 % P \ 0.05) was signifi-
cantly reduced (Fig. 5a). The BF (-1 % P = 0.74; -10 %
P = 0.39) remained unaffected in response to changes in
knee flexion. These results show that the muscles were
inversely affected by different knee angles: the knee exten-
sors and TA showed highest EMG responses when the knee
was flexed at 60°, whereas the plantar flexors showed highest
EMG responses at a 10° angle, i.e., nearly extended knee joint
(see Figs. 5a, 6).
Stance condition
Forefoot stance in comparison to normal stance resulted in
significantly increased EMG activity only for the plantar
flexor muscles SOL and GM (for details see Fig. 5b). In
contrast, the EMG activity of the knee extensor muscles
(RF and VM) and TA showed a significant decreased EMG
activity during forefoot stance compared to normal stance
(see Figs. 5b, 6). The BF (P = 0.10) remained unaffected
in response to changes in the stance condition (Figs. 5b, 6).
Load variation
Figure 7 illustrates the effect of an additional load on the
EMG activity during WBV. An additional load caused an
line marks the stance condition without WBV. The EMG activity
during WBV was normalized to the corresponding stance condition
without WBV. Note that pooled data from all the conditions except
the vibration type are presented as mean values ± SD of all subjects
Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
a stance and vibration frequency [stance 9 frequency] with
b the greater the effects of vibration frequency on the EMG
Fig. 5 Differences in joint torque in the given knee joint position
(10°, 30° and 60°) and changes in neuromuscular activation during
WBV with respect to different knee and ankle joint positions.
a Illustrates the changes in EMG activity due to progressively flexed
knee angles from 10° (nearly extended) to 30° to 60°. Note that with
an increased knee flexion the residual knee joint torque (Tk) increased
in response to an increase of the lever arm (Lk). b Shows the changes
in EMG activity during forefoot stance compared to the normal
stance, where the heel was in contact with the vibration platform.
Note that in all conditions, the subjects maintained a static body
position. Data are presented as mean values ± SD of all subjects and
conditions. Asterisk indicates a significant difference (P \ 0.05);
mechanical parameters are abbreviated as follows: center of gravity
(COG), axis of rotation (R), weight force vector (Fw)
increase in EMG activity in SOL (?11 % P \ 0.05), GM
(?14 % P \ 0.05), RF (?21 % P \ 0.05), VM (?15 %
P \ 0.05) and TA (?13 % P \ 0.05). The changes in BF
were not significant (?17 % P = 0.31). Detailed results are
illustrated in Fig. 6, which shows the changes in EMG
activity due to an additional load and with respect to the
different knee angles and foot positions. Note that no dif-
ferences could be observed due to altered hand positions
(i.e., hands high vs. hands on the hips) with respect to the
knee and ankle joint position as well as in the EMG activity.
Interactions
Interaction effects are illustrated in Fig. 6. Significant
interaction effects were observed between the variables
7
respect to the EMG activity in SOL (P \ 0.05), GM
(P \ 0.05) and TA (P \ 0.05): for the shank muscles, the
effect of the vibration frequency on the EMG activity was
more pronounced during the forefoot stance than during the
normal stance (where the heel is in contact with the plat-
form; see Fig. 5).
Furthermore, the variable load significantly interacted
with the variable stance [load variation 9 stance] in Sol
(P \ 0.05), GM (P \ 0.05) and TA (P \ 0.05): in the
forefoot stance condition the additional load had a signif-
icantly greater effect on the EMG activity than in the
normal stance condition (see Fig. 6).
For RF (P \ 0.05) and GM (P \ 0.05), the knee angle
significantly modified the influence of the vibration fre-
quency [knee angle 9 frequency]; however, the muscles
were inversely affected: the more the knee was extended
activity in GM were. In contrast, in RF the effect of
vibration frequency on the EMG activity was more pro-
nounced when the knee joint was flexed.
For RF (P \ 0.05) and VM (P \ 0.05), the knee angle
significantly modified the effect of additional load [knee
angle 9 load]: the more the knee was flexed the greater the
effects of the additional load.
The variable vibration type did significantly interact
with the knee angle [knee angle 9 type] in VM
(P \ 0.05): during side-alternating vibration, changing the
knee angle from 10° to 30° to 60° caused higher EMG
responses compared to synchronous vibration.
Moreover, the factor muscle group significantly inter-
acted with the variables frequency [muscle group 9 fre-
quency] (P \ 0.05), knee angle [muscle group 9 knee
angle] (P \ 0.05) and stance [muscle group 9 stance]
(P \ 0.05). No statistical differences could be observed
with respect to the factor gender.
Discussion
The purpose of this study was to assess the effect of five
different vibration determinants on the EMG activity dur-
ing WBV. The main findings were that (1) during side-
alternating vibration the neuromuscular activity was
enhanced compared to synchronous vibration. Further-
more, (2) the neuromuscular activation during WBV was
shown to be closely related to the frequency of vibration:
the higher the frequency, the higher the EMG activity. The
body position was demonstrated to affect the neuromus-
cular activation during WBV exposure: (3) the EMG
activity for the knee extensors was highest when the knee
joint was 60° flexed and (4) the EMG activity for the
plantar flexors was highest in the forefoot stance condition.
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8 Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11

Fig. 6 Interaction effects:

alterations in EMG activity in
response to load variation and
changing foot and knee
positions: on the x-axis the knee
angles (10°, 30° and 60°), the
foot positions (forefoot stance
and normal stance) and the load
variation (in gray without load
and in white with an additional
load equal to 1/3 of the subject’s
body weight) are illustrated.
The y-axis illustrates the EMG
activity. The EMG activity
during WBV was normalized to
the standard stance condition
(without WBV on the forefoot
with a knee angle of 10° without
load). All vibration frequencies
were pooled and data are
presented as means of all
subjects

some other aspects should be considered as well (Aber-

Fig. 7 Changes in neuromuscular activity in response to load
variation during WBV. Black bar symbolizes the EMG activity
during WBV with an additional load and white bar symbolizes the
EMG activity during WBV without additional load. In all recorded
muscles, an additional load caused an increase in EMG activity. Data
are normalized to the conditions established without additional load
and data are presented as mean values ± SD of all subjects and
conditions. Asterisk indicates a significant difference (P \ 0.05)
Moreover, (5) an additional load caused an enhancement in
EMG activity.
Vibration type
The vibration type extensively affects the neuromuscular
activation: during side-alternating vibration the EMG
activity was significantly greater than during synchronous
vibration in all recorded muscles and conditions. As
Marı́n et al. (2009) have shown that neuromuscular
responses increase with increasing amplitudes, it can be
deduced that the 5 % difference in vibration amplitude
between the vibration devices could have had a consid-
erable impact (Table 1). However, based on the literature
cromby et al. 2007b; Pel et al. 2009; Pollock et al. 2010).
The comparison between side-alternating and synchronous
vibration devices revealed differences with respect to the
mechanical induction of vibration stimuli to the human
body (Abercromby et al. 2007b; Pel et al. 2009; Pollock
et al. 2010) and those differences might be associated
with substantial consequences for the neuromuscular
system (Abercromby et al. 2007b; Pel et al. 2009). Firstly,
it was demonstrated that side-alternating vibration gener-
ated acceleration magnitudes that were twice as high as
during synchronous vibration (Pel et al. 2009). Secondly,
the dampening effect of the ankle joint was shown to be
smaller during side-alternating vibration than synchronous
vibration (Pel et al. 2009). Both aspects indicate that the
mechanical induction of the muscle and tendon structures
of the lower extremities is extensively more pronounced
during side-alternating vibration than during synchronous
vibration. Thus, the enhanced transmission of the vibra-
tion stimulus during side-alternating vibration might have
contributed to the 66–91 % higher EMG responses
obtained during side-alternating vibration. However, this
conclusion is based on vibration exposure of 30 Hz,
which was the only comparative condition between both
vibration types. For training purposes, it can be concluded
that during side-alternating vibration the mechanical
stimulation and as a consequence the muscles’ activation
intensity is higher than during synchronous vibration.
Based on the positive relation between the muscles’ EMG
activity and its motor units recruitment and discharge
frequency (Aagaard 2003), side-alternating vibration
training might be more efficient compared to synchronous
vibration training.

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Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
Vibration frequency
The EMG activity increased in response to a progressive
increase in vibration frequency in all recorded muscles.
These observations are in line with the findings of
Berschin and Sommer (2004) and Pollock et al. (2010);
they documented a linearly increased EMG activity as a
function of the vibration frequency. As the vibration
energy is dissipated by the ankle and knee joints as well
as the calf muscles, the proximity of a muscle to the
vibration stimulus might also have affected the magni-
tude of neuromuscular responses to WBV exposure
(Abercromby et al. 2007b). In the present study, the
frequency-induced increase in EMG activity was depen-
dent on the muscles’ anatomical location - proximal or
distal from the vibration platform. Accordingly, the
proximally located shank muscles (SOL, GM, TA) were
more affected by vibration frequency than the distally
located thigh muscles (BF, VM, RF; see Fig. 4) and the
slope of the EMG activity in response to increased fre-
quencies was also steeper. Therefore, the cushioning
effects caused by the angle and knee joint during WBV
compromizes the transmission of the vibration stimulus
from the proximal to the distal ends with respect to the
vibration platform (Bressel et al. 2010; Pel et al. 2009;
Pollock et al. 2010).
From a functional point of view, the general increase
in neuromuscular activation in response to an increase in
vibration frequency leads to an enhanced co-activation of
lower extremity extensor and flexor muscles (Pollock
et al. 2010; Roelants et al. 2004). This co-activation is
considered to have a positive effect on joint stabilization
associated with postural control strategies during WBV
(Berschin and Sommer 2004; Pollock et al. 2010; Roe-
lants et al. 2004). Based on the data presented by
Cochrane et al. (2009) and Ritzmann et al. (2010) it can
be assumed that during WBV the muscle tendon units are
stretched in every WBV cycle (Cochrane et al. 2009),
these stretches induce a frequency-dependent activation
of the muscle spindles and thus elicit stretch reflex
responses detectable in the EMG signal (Ritzmann et al.
2010). In consequence, it can be assumed that the
increases in EMG activity due to enhanced vibration
frequencies were caused by the higher number of stretch
reflex responses.
Cardinale and Lim (2003) showed that EMG response
using WBV frequencies above 30 Hz in the half squat
position were lower. In summary, both findings indicate
that high vibration frequencies of 30 Hz are efficient for a
WBV-based training regimen aiming to achieve high
activation intensities in the muscles of the lower
extremities.
9
Knee flexion
The modulation of the knee joint flexion substantially
influenced the EMG activation as well. For the knee
extensors, neuromuscular activation was highest when the
knee joint was flexed at an angle of 60° (Fig. 5a). This
finding might be attributed to the residual joint torque (Tk,),
which is related to the length of the lever arm (Lk) in a
given knee joint position (see Fig. 5a). According to the
muscles’ anatomical functions, a progressive increase of
knee flexion might enhance the voluntary activation of RF
and VM in order to generate higher forces that compensate
for increased joint torques (Kooistra et al. 2006; Pincivero
et al. 2004). In addition, the size of the stretch reflex
amplitude is related to the amount of voluntary background
activation (Bedingham and Tatton 1984). Based on both
aspects it might be supposed that larger knee angles would
result in a greater muscle stretch in the knee extensor
muscles in each vibration cycle and that the increased
Ia-afferent stimulation would result in greater neuromus-
cular responses (Abercromby et al. 2007b). For WBV
training purposes aiming to achieve high neuromuscular
demands in the knee extensor muscles, a flexed knee joint
position is advisable in any given WBV training setup. In
contrast, it should be considered that in more extended
knee positions, the neuromuscular activation of the plantar
flexors is increased (Fig. 5). Therefore, for the plantar
flexors a knee extension rather than a flexion is recom-
mendable. In conclusion, in order to achieve high EMG
activations and consequently high activation intensities in
specific muscles, an appropriate adjustment of knee flexion
dependent on the targeted muscle group is necessary.
Stance condition
The plantar flexors are extensively more activated in the
forefoot stance condition compared to the normal stance
(with the heels in contact with the platform). In contrast,
the knee extensors and TA are more activated in the normal
stance condition, whereas BF remained unaffected. The
distinct increase in EMG activity of the plantar flexors in
the forefoot stance condition might be attributed to the
muscles’ anatomical functions and thus, to the level of
neuromuscular activation. The residual ankle joint torque is
higher in the forefoot stance condition compared to the
normal stance. Thus, the voluntary activation of SOL and
GM might be enhanced in order to generate a higher force
that compensates for the increase in angle joint torque
(Nolan and Kerrigan 2003; Sasagawa et al. 2009). Fur-
thermore, the size of the stretch reflex amplitude is related
to the amount of voluntary background activation (Bed-
ingham and Tatton 1984). Thus, based on both aspects it
123
10
can be proposed that in the forefoot stance condition the
vibration-induced stretch reflexes are enhanced during
WBV compared to the normal stance due to an increase in
voluntary activation. For WBV training purposes, a forefoot
stance is recommendable if the main focus is on the plantar
flexor muscles. A normal stance condition should be pre-
ferred when the emphasis is on the knee extensors, TA or
BF. One limitation of the study could be that the back- and
forwards shifting of the weight towards the forefoot or
towards the heel has not been controlled. Although we
instructed the subjects to distribute their weight equally and
we supervised the trunk movement visually, we cannot
exclude slight changes in weight shifts possibly influencing
the data in the normal stance condition.
Load variation
The current study provides evidence for load-dependencies
during WBV training: In all recorded muscles, an addi-
tional load caused an increase in EMG activity during
WBV (Fig. 7). This indicates that the pre-loading of certain
muscles during WBV exercise enhances the activation of
those muscles according to the suggestions of Rittweger
et al. (2003); they observed an increase in metabolic power
in response to an additional load. Moreover, the present
result is well in line with the findings of Hazell et al. (2010)
who documented an enhancement in EMG activity during
WBV due to an additional load in a dynamic squatting
condition. For WBV training purposes this data suggests
that the training effectiveness of WBV exposure can be
boosted by means of external loading. One limitation of the
present study is that in contrast to the knee and the ankle,
the hip angle has not been controlled. The hip angle is an
important ingredient in static squat and might be modified
in the loaded compared to the unloaded condition.
Interaction effects
There are two main aspects that might be derived from the
observed interaction effects. First and most importantly, the
effects of the selected WBV determinants can be enhanced
by each other. Thus, the most relevant parameter seems to be
the body position consisting of knee angle and stance con-
dition. As the variable knee angle interacted with the vari-
ables vibration type, frequency and load variation, it is
concluded that independent of the level of voluntary acti-
vation, the more the knee joint is flexed the more the effect of
those determinants is enhanced for the knee extensor mus-
cles. Furthermore, the variable foot position interacted with
the variables vibration frequency and load variation for the
plantar flexors. Hence, the forefoot stance condition signif-
icantly augmented the effect of the vibration frequency and
an additional load for the knee extensors, whereas normal
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Eur J Appl Physiol (2013) 113:1–11
stance had the same effect for TA. In summary, those
interaction effects indicate that the body position is the target
parameter, which predominantly modifies the effect of the
other determinants. Second, the between-subject factor
muscle group (thigh vs. calf muscle) interacted with the
variables frequency, knee angle and stance condition. Based
on these interactions it can be proposed that vibration
training recommendations should be specified with respect
to the muscle group and their anatomical location, i.e., the
proximity to the vibration device.
In contrast to recently published studies demonstrating
gender-specific differences in response to WBV (Sañudo
et al. 2011; Merriman et al. 2011) the present study
revealed no gender-effect. The contradictory results could
be based on the discrepancy between neuromuscular
properties and functional aspects. The studies so far con-
ducted to evaluate the effect of gender have focused on
physical performance (Merriman et al. 2011) and knee
stability (Sañudo et al. 2011) within a given functional
setting. In contrast, in the present study the activation
intensity was evaluated in a given WBV treatment.
Conclusion
The objective of the current study was to evaluate the
influence of vibration type, vibration frequency, additional
load, knee angle and stance condition on the neuromuscular
activity of the lower extremity muscles during WBV. The
rationale of the study was to define specific recommenda-
tions for WBV training purposes.
The combination of high vibration frequencies of 30 Hz
and an additional load on a side-alternating vibration
platform is associated with the highest EMG activity dur-
ing WBV exposure. Therefore, this combination is sup-
posed to be the most efficient for WBV training purposes.
Regarding the body position, a knee flexion of 60° and
normal stance conditions with the heels in contact with the
platform seem to be most beneficial for the knee extensor
muscles. In contrast, forefoot stance and a nearly extended
knee position is recommended for a specific training of the
plantar flexor muscles.
Acknowledgments This study was funded by the Federal Institute
for Sports Science (BISp AZ 070608/10).
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