Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Maxwell Equations
∇·B = 0 (6.3)
∇ × B = µ0 J (6.4)
However, this is not a self consistent set of equation for time varying config-
urations. Clearly,
∇ · (∇ × B) = µ0 ∇ · J = 0 (6.9)
and the continuity equation (5.4) allow only steady states configurations of
charges
∂ρ
=0 (6.10)
∂t
75
CHAPTER 6. MAXWELL EQUATIONS 76
In contrast the curl equations (6.20) and (6.22) are modified, but it turns out
that the corresponding boundary (4.38) and (5.96) conditions are unchanged,
n̂ × (E2 − E1 ) = 0 (6.27)
n̂ × (H2 − H1 ) = K. (6.28)
∂ ∂
This is due to the fact the integrals of finite ∂t
D and ∂t
B over infinitesimal
area at the boundary vanish.
Note that the observable quantities E and B defined by (6.29) and (6.32)
are unchanged if we replace (or gauge transform)
1 ∂2 ρ
∇2 Φ − 2 2
Φ = − (6.38)
c ∂t "0
2
1 ∂ J
∇2 A − 2 2 A = − . (6.39)
c ∂t "0
Lorentz gauge can always be constructed with desired gauge transforma-
tion (6.35) and (6.36),
1 ∂ 1 ∂ 2 1 ∂2
0 = ∇ · Anew + Φnew = ∇ · A old + Φold + ∇ Λ − Λ (6.40)
c2 ∂t c2 ∂t c2 ∂t2
where Λ is to be chosen to satisfy
1 ∂2
! "
1 ∂
∇2 Λ − Λ = − ∇ · A old + Φold . (6.41)
c2 ∂t2 c2 ∂t
1 ∂2
∇2 Λ − Λ = 0. (6.42)
c2 ∂t2
We have already discussed the Coulomb gauge, i.e.
∇·A =0 (6.43)
1 ρ(x" , t) 3 "
#
Φ(x, t) = dx (6.45)
4π"0 |x − x" |
CHAPTER 6. MAXWELL EQUATIONS 79
which is the reason why the gauge has its name. The other dynamical equa-
tion (6.34) in Coulomb gauge takes the following form
1 ∂2 1 ∂
∇2 A − 2 2
A = −µ0 J + 2 ∇ Φ. (6.46)
c ∂t c ∂t
It is now convenient to split the current into longitudinal (or scalar Jl =
∇S) and transverse (or vector Jt ) parts which can be accomplished by first
solving the Poisson equation
∇2 S = ∇ · J (6.47)
and then by setting
Jl = ∇S.
Jt = J − ∇S.
such that
∇ × Jl = 0 (6.48)
∇ · Jt = 0. (6.49)
Then we can also split (6.46) into longitudinal
1 ∂
µ 0 Jl = ∇ Φ. (6.50)
c2 ∂t
and transverse part
1 ∂2
∇2 A − A = −µ0 Jt (6.51)
c2 ∂t2
which is the reason why the Coulomb gauge is also known as the transverse
gauge. In a special case when there are no charges (i.e. free electromag-
netism) equations (6.45) and (6.51) imply
Φ = 0 (6.52)
2
1 ∂
∇2 A − A = 0 (6.53)
c2 ∂t2
and the fields are determined form the vector potential
∂
E = − A (6.54)
∂t
B = ∇ × A. (6.55)
We note that due to symmetry of Maxwell equation one can define alter-
native (Lorentz and Coulomb) gauges where the magnetic scalar potential
ΦM and electric vector potential AE are used instead to more conventional
electric scalar potential ΦE and magnetic vector potential AM .
CHAPTER 6. MAXWELL EQUATIONS 80
1 ∂2
∇2 Ψ(x, t) − Ψ(x, t) = −4πf (x, t) (6.56)
c2 ∂t2
where f (x, t) is a known function. The first step in solving this equation is
to expand both functions into Fourier integral over frequencies (conjugate
variable to time)
# ∞
1
Ψ(x, t) = Ψ(x, ω) e−iωtdω (6.57)
2π −∞
# ∞
1
f (x, t) = f (x, ω) e−iωtdω. (6.58)
2π −∞
and for r → 0
d2
r (rGk ) ≈ −4πδ (r) (6.65)
dr 2
since in this limit the second term in (6.63) is much smaller than the first
term,
1 d2 Gk
2
(rGk ) ∼ 2 ) k 2 Gk . (6.66)
r dr r
It follows that (6.64) has a solution in terms of outgoing ∝ exp(ikr) and
incoming ∝ exp(−ikr) plane waves, i.e.
where
(±) e±ikr
Gk (r) = (6.70)
r
A + B = 1. (6.71)
Since we already solved for G(x, x" ) we can write the two wave solutions of
(6.74) as
# ∞ ±ik|x−x! |
1 e !
G(±) (x, x" ; t, t" ) = eiω(t −t) dω. (6.76)
2π −∞ |x − x" |
CHAPTER 6. MAXWELL EQUATIONS 82
These are the retarded (or causal) G(+) and advanced G(−) Green functions.
Then the solution of (6.61) in terms of Green functions is given by
# #
(±)
Ψ (x, t) = G(±) (x, x" ; t, t" )f (x" , t)d3 x" dt" (6.79)
1 ∂2
∇2 Ψin (x, t) − Ψin (x, t) = 0 (6.80)
c2 ∂t2
1 ∂2
∇2 Ψout (x, t) − 2 2 Ψout (x, t) = 0. (6.81)
c ∂t
can also be added to satisfy the incoming wave condition or the outgoing
wave conditions,
In other words if either the initial wave configuration or the final wave con-
figurations is known before any sources are turned on, then the combined
solution is given by either (6.82) or (6.83) respectively.