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Recirculating
Aquaculture 2nd Edition

By

MICHAELB. TIMMONSAND
JAMES M. EBELING

USDA
Cayuga Aqua Ventures© 2010

NRAC Publication No. 401-2010

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword i
Acknowledgements v

Chapter 1: Introduction to Recirculating Aquaculture Technology

1.0 Background 1
1.1 The Optimistic View 2
1.2 Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) 2
1.3 RAS Advantages 6
1.4 World Market Needs 10
1.5 Market Dynamics 11
1.6 Overview of Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) 13
1.7 Can RAS Compete 15
1.8 Is Aquaculture For You 22
1.9 Some Quick Case Histories 23
1.10 History Lesson on Failures 24
1.11 Interactions Between Objectives, Resources, Business
Strategy, and Design 26
1.12 Terminology and nomenclature 28
1.13 Websites for Reference 30
1.14 Summary and the Cornell Short Course 35
1.15 References 37

Chapter 2: Water Quality

2.0 Introduction 39
2.1 Physical Properties 40
2.2 Water Quantity Requirements 42
2.3 Water Sources 44
2.4 Water Quality Standards 47
2.5 Water Quality Parameters 50
2.6 Measurements 66

XI
xii Table of Contents

Chapter 3: Mass Balances, Loading Rates and Fish Growth

3.0 Introduction 79
3.1 Production Terms 87
3.2 Water Quality Design Targets 88
3.3 Fish Growth 95
3.4 Design Examples 101
3.5 References 115

Chapter 4: Culture Units

4.0 Introduction 119
4.1 Culture Tanks 120
4.2 Stocking Density 123
4.3 Design Examples 127
4.4 Culture Tank Engineering 129
4.5 Tank Water Velocities 130
4.6 Round Tanks 134
4.7 Cornell Dual-Drain Design 144
4.8 Raceways 151
4.9 Carrying Capacity Issues 163
4.10 Stock Management Issues 165
4.11 Scale Issues 166
4.12 Mechanisms To Remove Dead Fish 167
4.13 References 170

Chapter 5: Solids Capture

5.0 Overview 177
5.1 Solids Balance 180
5.2 Basic Design Parameters for Round Tanks 182
5.3 Solids Generation 183
5.4 TSS Physical Characteristics 183
5.5 Removal Mechanisms 185
5.6 Design Example - Solids Capture 224
5.7 References 234
 Table of Contents xiii

Chapter 6: Waste Management & Disposal

6.0 Introduction 245
6.1 EPA Effluent Limitation Guidelines - 2004 247
6.2 Waste Management 250
6.3 Waste Characteristics 251
6.4 Waste Management Overview 253
6.5 Storage, Thickening, And Stabilization 253
6.6 Utilization/Disposal 276
6.7 Design Example - GeoBags 279
6.8 References 283

Chapter 7: Biofiltration
7.0 Introduction 293
7.1 Nitrification (Autotrophic Bacteria) 293
7.2 Nitrification (Microbial Floe) 300
7.3 Impact of Water Quality Factors on Nitrification 303
7.4 Biofilters 309
7.5 References 332

Chapter 8: Biofilter Design

8.0 Introduction 337
8.1 Generalized Engineering Considerations 338
8.2 Design Parameters: Where do you start? 340
8.3 Design Example: Biofiltration 347
8.4 Design Example: Trickling Tower 348
8.5 Design Example: RBC 353
8.6 Design Example - Floating Bead Biofilter 354
8.7 Basic Design Concepts: Fluidized-Bed Sand Biofilter 358
8.8 Design Example: Microbead Biofilter 378
8.9 Design Example: Moving Bed BioReactor 380
8.10 References 382
xiv Table of Contents

Chapter 9: Denazification
9.0 Introduction 387
9.1 Background 388
9.2 Unit Processes for Denitrification 392
9.3 Factors Controlling Denitrification 396
9.4 Effect of Denitrification on Alkalinity 400
9.5 Effect of Denitrification on Phosphate Removal 402
9.6 Effluent versus On-line Treatment 403
9.7 Types of Reactors 404
9.8 MBBR Processes for Denitrification 407
9.9 Design of Denitrification Reactors 410
9.10 Design Example 412
9.11 References 417

Chapter 10: Gas Transfer

10.0 Introduction 425
10.1 Dissolved Gases -Fundamentals 426
10.2 Gas Transfer 436
10.3 Gas Transfer Options 441
10.4 Degassing: Carbon Dioxide (Nitrogen) 456
10.5 Design Example - Aeration/Oxygenation 466
10.6 References 467

Chapter 11: Ozontion and UV-Irradiation

11.0 Introduction 471
11.1 UV Irradiation 471
11.2 Ozonation 474
11.3 Factor Influencing Disinfection Effeciency 489
11.4 Aquaculture Wastewater Characterization 493
11.5 Inactivation Of Fish Pathogens 494
11.6 Other Methods of Disinfection 501
11.7 Design Example Influent Treatment 505
11.8 Conclusions 508
11.9 References 509
 Table or Contents xv

Chapter 12: Fluid Mechanics and Pumps

12.0 Fluid Mechanics 517
12.1 Frictional Losses 521
12.2 Fitting Losses 526
12.3 Design Example: Head Loss 533
12.4 Measurement of Flow 536
12.5 Pumps and Pumping 544
12.6 Airlift Pumps 553
12.7 Design Example - Circulation 556
12.8 References 561

Chapter 13: System Monitoring and Control

13.0 Introduction 563
13.1 Parameters to Monitor 564
13.2 Monitoring Sensors and Equipment Options 570
13.3 Automatic Phone Dialers 576
13.4 Backups Systems are not an Option! 578
13.5 Computer Based Systems 581
13.6 Design Example - Monitoring 584
13.7 System Design and Maintenance 585
13.8 Construction Hints 586

Chapter 14: Building Environmental Control

14.0 Introduction 589
14.1 Heat Transfer 591
14.2 Air Quality Control 594
14.3 Building Considerations 599

Chapter 15: System Management and Operations

15.0 Introduction and Site selection 603
15.1 Backup Systems 604
15.2 Laboratory Facilities 611
15.3 Quarantine Facilities 613
15.4 Waste Management 613
xvi Table of Contents

15.5 Storage—Feed and Chemicals 614

15.6 Fish Product Handling 615
15.7 Transporting Live Fish 617
15.8 Purging and Off-Flavor 640
15.9 Post Harvest Handling 641
15.10 Feed Storage 643
15.11 Handling Fish 645
15.12 Labor 646
15.13 Access 647
15.14 Operations 647
15.15 Miscellaneous Operations 655
15.16 Record Keeping and Maintenance 656
15.17 How to Collect, Analyze & Interpret Data 661
15.18 Care and Use of Laboratory Animals 662
15.19 References 662

Chapter 16: Fish Health Management

16.0 Biosecurity 663
16.1 Practices to Reduce the Risk of Pathogen Introduction 665
16.2 Practices to Reduce Pathogen Spread 671
16.3 Reducing Susceptibility to Infection and Disease 674
16.4 Monitoring and Surveillance 675
16.5 Biosecurity Check 679
16.6 Diagnosis 683
16.7 Treatment 692
16.8 Aquaculture Chemotherapeutics 696
16.9 Treatment Calculations 701
16.10 Fish Disease Diagnostic Services 705
16.11 References " 706

Chapter 17: Economic Realities and Management Issues

17.0 Introduction 707
17.1 Case History of Fingerlakes Aquaculture (FLA) LLC 707
17.2 Lessons Learned 709
 Table of Contents xvii

17.3 Investment Choices 713

17.4 Species Selection 714
17.5 Competitiveness of RAS 715
17.6 Infrastructure & Capitalization 716
17.7 Scale Effects and Risk 725
17.8 Labor Requirements 728
17.9 Predicted Costs of Production 729
17.10 Predicted Costs of RAS Produced Tilapia 735
17.11 Economic Comparison to Broilers and Catfish 739
17.12 References 742

Chapter 18: Fish Nutrition and Feeds

18.0 Introduction 743
18.1 Feed Management 743
18.2 Selection 745
18.3 Growth Performance 747
18.4 Feed Quality 748
18.5 Physical Characteristics 749
18.6 Practical Feed Formulation 751
18.7 Important Aspects Of Aquaculture Feeds 758
18.8 Physiological Relationships 762
18.9 Water Chemistry And Dietary Needs 765
18.10 Functional Anatomy of Digestion 767
18.11 Minerals 770
18.12 Vitamins 773
18.13 Feedstuff Selection 782
18.14 Feedstuff Digestibility 791
18.15 Pelleted, Expanded and Extruded Feeds 796
18.16 Floating Feeds 799
18.17 Summary 801
18.18 References 801
xviii Table of Contents

Chapter 19: Aquaponics: Integrating Fish and Plant Culture

19.0 Introduction 807
19.1 System Design 810
19.2 Fish Production 815
19.3 Solids 821
19.4 Biofiltration 826
19.5 Hydroponic Subsystems 830
19.6 Sump 834
19.7 Construction Materials 835
19.8 Component Ratios 836
19.9 Plant Growth Requirements 839
19.10 Nutrient Dynamics 841
19.11 Vegetable Selection 846
19.12 Crop Production Systems 850
19.13 Pest and Disease Control 850
19.14 Approaches to System Design 852
19.15 Economics 858
19.16 Prospects For The Future 860
19.17 References 861

Appendix
Appendix Directory 865
Tables
A-l Conversion Factors For Commonly
Used Terms in Aquaculture 867
A-2 Fish Health Conversion Factors 874
A-3 Broad List of Conversion Factors: Inch:Pound (IP) to System
International (SI) 875
A-4 Physical Properties of Water 877
A-5 Percentage of Free Ammonia (as NH3) in Freshwater at Varying
pH and Water Temperatures 878
A-6 Dissolved Oxygen (mg O2 per Liter, ppm) at Saturation in
Freshwater, Brackish Water, and Seawater at Different
Temperatures 879
A-7 Hardness Conversion to Other Units of Measure 880
 Table of Contents xix

A-8 Standard U.S. Atmospheric Pressure at Different Altitudes.... 880

A-9 Alkalinity Supplement Properties 881
A-10 Opening Sizes of U.S. Sieve Series Designation Number 882
A-ll Dry Air Components 882
A-12 Solubility of Four Major Gases in Water 882
A-13 Maximum and Minimum Monthly Average Outside
Temperatures for Selected USA Locations in Degrees °F 883
A-14 Unit Area Thermal Resistance's (R-Values) of Typical Building
Construction and Insulation Materials 884
A-15 Allowable Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide at Standard
Temperature and Pressure to the Nearest 25 ppm 885
A-16 Valve Basics and Selection Tips 886
A-17 Plastic Properties for Various Types of Pipes 887
A-18 Size and Properties of PVC Pipe Schedule 40 and 80 888
A-19 PVC Pipe Friction Chart for Pipe and Length Loss for Schedule
40 889
A-20 PVC Pipe Friction Chart for Pipe and Length Loss for Schedule
80 890
A-21 Tank Volumes for Various Depths and Diameters 891
A-22 Temperature Equivalents Between Celsius and Fahrenheit.... 892
A-23 Electrical Measurements 893
A-24 Maximum length of wire in feet for 2% maximum voltage drop.
If voltage drop is greater than 2%, efficiency of the equipment in
the circuit is severely decreased and the life of the equipment
will be decreased 894
A-25 Current carrying capacity of hard-usage flexible cords (Type S,
ST, SO, STO, SJ, SJT, SJO, SJTO) 895
A-26 Full load currents in amperes for single phase alternating-current
motors 895
A-27 Full load currents in amperes for three phase squirrel cage and
wound rotor motors 895
A-28 Recommended pipe sizes for standard air (0.075 Ibs/ft3) for
three pipe air velocities 896
A-29 Area Under the Normal Distribution Curve 897
A-30 Percentage Points of the Student's t-Distribution 899
xx Table of Contents

Supplemental Information
Determining Statistical Significance 900
Factors to Investigate Prior to Site Selection 905
Calculating Volume of Round Tanks 906
Laboratory Safety Procedures 908
Information Resources for Aquaculture 915
Brief Description of Software 922

Glossary
Definition of Terms Used in Aquaculture 925
Summary List of Symbols 929
Abbreviations/Units 935

Index 939