Measurements

LESSON 3
 Definition
Measurement
- The process of associating numbers with physical quantities and
phenomena.
- The assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or
event, which can be compared with other objects or events.
- It is considered as cornerstone in trade, science and technology,
engineering and research.
- A physical quantity in science supplies the two question: how
much? and of what?.
 Definition
Measurement
- Historically, many measurement systems existed for the varied fields of
human existence to facilitate comparisons in these fields.
- British/imperial units, US customary units, Metric system.
- The metric system is a decimal system of measurement based on its
units for length, the metre and for mass, the kilogram.
- SI units
 S I units
The International System of units
(SI,abbreviated from the French Système
international (d'unités)- A unit that is used in the
international system of units.
-is a modernization and simplification of the metric system,
and is the most widely used system of measurement.
- It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built
on seven base units.
 S I units
• In SI, there are seven SI fundamental units
used in science (Base units).
Physical Quantities Name Abbreviation

Mass Kilogram Kg
Length Meter „m
Time Second „s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous intensity Candela cd
 S I units
• Derived units are created by mathematical relationships
between other base units and are expressed in a
combination of fundamental and base quantities.
Physical Quantities Name Abbreviation
Area Square meter m2
volume cubic meter m3
Mass density Kilogram per cubic Kg/m3
meter
Specific volume Cubic meter per M3/kg
kilogram
Celsius temperature celcius oC
S I units
 S I units and scientific
notation
• Common prefixes used in SI system.
Physical Quantities Abbreviation Factor
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo „k 103
Hecto „h 102
Deci „d 10-1
Centi „c 10-2
Milli „m 10-3
Micro „μ 10-6
Nano „n 10-9
Pico „p 10-12
 S I units and
scientific notation
• Scientific notation - is the way that
scientists easily handle very large
numbers or very small numbers.
• For example:
0.0000000015 = 1.5 x10 -9

210,000,000,000,000 = 2.1X10 14
 Measuring
tools
 Measurements may be made by unaided human senses, in
which case they are often called estimates, or, more
commonly, by the use of instruments, which may range in
complexity from simple rules for measuring lengths to highly
sophisticated systems designed to detect and measure
quantities.
 A measuring instrument is a device for measuring
a physical quantity. All measuring instruments are subject to
varying degrees of instrument error and measurement
uncertainty.
 Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Length
 The vernier calipers found in the laboratory incorporates a
main scale and a sliding vernier scale which allows
readings to the nearest 0.02 mm. This instrument may be
used to measure outer dimensions of objects (using the
main jaws), inside dimensions (using the smaller jaws at the
top), and depths (using the stem).
 Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Length
• Dial caliper-reads the final fraction of a millimeter or
inch on a simple dial.
• In this instrument, a small, precise rack and pinion
drives a pointer on a circular dial, allowing direct
reading without the need to read a vernier scale.
Typically, the pointer rotates once every inch, tenth of
an inch, or 1 millimeter.
 Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Length
• Digital caliper - A popular refinement replaces the
analog dial with an electronic digital display that
displays the reading as a numeric value.
 Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Length
• The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure even smaller
dimensions than the vernier callipers.
• The micrometer screw gauge also uses an auxiliary scale
(measuring hundredths of a millimetre) which is marked on a
rotary thimble.
• Basically it is a screw with an accurately constant pitch (the
amount by which the thimble moves forward or backward for one
complete revolution).
• The micrometers in our laboratory have a pitch of 0.50 mm (two full
turns are required to close the jaws by 1.00 mm).
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
• Weighing scale or balance- are devices to
measure weight.
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Analytical Balance -These are most often found in a
laboratory or places where extreme sensitivity is
needed for the weighing of items.
 An analytical balance (often called a "lab balance") is a
class of balance designed to measure small mass in the
sub-milligram range.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Analytical Balance - The measuring pan of an analytical
balance (0.1 mg or better) is inside a transparent enclosure
with doors so that dust does not collect and so any air
currents in the room do not affect the balance's operation.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Equal Arm Balance/Trip Balance This is the modern
version of the ancient Egyptian scales. This scale
incorporates two pans on opposite sides of a lever. It can
be used in two different ways. The object to be weighed can
be placed on one side and standard weights are added to
the other pan until the pans are balanced..
 Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Platform Scale This type of scale uses a system of
multiplying levers. It allows a heavy object to be placed on a
load bearing platform.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Spring Balance Spring balances consist of a highly elastic
helical spring of hard steel suspended from a fixed point.
The weighing pan is attached at the lowest point of the
spring.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Top-Loading Balance This is another balance used
primarily in a laboratory setting. They usually can measure
objects weighing around 150–5000 g. They offer less
readability than an analytical balance, but allow
measurements to be made quickly thus making it a more
convenient choice when exact measurements are not
needed.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 A double beam balance, also called a double pan
balance, is a scale that acts like a see-saw and gets its
name from the two pans or balances on either side of a
fulcrum.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Mass
BALANCE AND SCALE TYPES
 Triple-Beam Balance This type of balance is less sensitive
than a top-loading balance. They are often used in a
classroom situation because of ease of use, durability and
cost. They are called triple-beam balances because they
have three decades of weights that slide along individually
calibrated scales. The three decades are usually in
graduations of 100g, 10g and 1g.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Volume
Tools Used to Measure the Volume of a Liquid:
 Beakers and Flasks
Beakers and Erlenmeyer flasks can be used to make coarse
measurements of volumes, provided that graduated volume
levels are printed on the side of the beaker or flask (not all
beakers and flasks have these marks). They are usually
accurate to within 5%.
The volumetric flask, designed for greater precision, is
typically accurate to within 0.05%. Its uses include the
preparation of solutions of known concentration.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Volume
Beakers

Erlenmeyer flasks

The volumetric flask.

Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Volume
Tools Used to Measure the Volume of a Liquid:
 Graduated cylinders are transparent cylinders with finely
divided markings – otherwise known as graduations –
marked on their side.
 They represent a significant improvement in accuracy over
beakers and flasks – generally to within 1%. Thus, a 10 mL
graduated cylinder will be accurate to within 0.1 mL.
 Graduated cylinders are manufactured in sizes ranging from
5 mL to 2000 mL. As with beakers and flasks, graduated
cylinders are available in either glass or plastic; glass is
easier to clean, but more fragile and expensive than plastic.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Volume
Tools Used to Measure the Volume of a Liquid:
 Burets are also cylindrical pieces of glassware with
graduations painted on the side, but they have a valve at
the bottom (called a “stopcock”) that allows the liquid to flow
out the bottom. They are typically accurate to within 0.01
mL. Burets are available in sizes from 10 mL to 100 mL,
although 50 mL is the most common size.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Volume
Tools Used to Measure the Volume of a Liquid:
 Pipets are slender tubes, typically 12 to 24 inches long.
They may measure a predetermined volume such as 25.00
mL or 10.00 mL. They may also have graduations (these
are called “Mohr” pipets) that allow odd and fractional
volumes to be delivered. They are generally accurate to
within 0.02 mL and are thus classified as volumetric
glassware. When you squeeze the rubber bulb on the pipet,
the suction from the expanding bulb draws liquid into the
pipet.
Measuring tools in
Laboratory
Volume
Tools Used to Measure the Volume of a Liquid:
 Types of pipets:
- Straight pipet
- Volumetric pipet
- Micropipet
 Accuracy and
precision
Precision- indicates how well repeated measurements of the
same quantity agree with one another. Agreement among
repetitive measurements.
-The precision of a set of measurements refers to how close each
measurement is to one another.
- A high precision measurements expresses high confidence that
the measurement lies within a narrow range of values.
- Imprecision is caused by source of random error (environment and
human interpretation).
- Example: which set is more precise?
18.2, 18.4, 18.35
17.9, 18.3, 18.85
 Accuracy and
precision
Accuracy- refers to how well a measurement agrees with the
true value.
-is a description of how close a measurement is to the correct or
accepted value of the quantity measured.
- It is sometimes expressed as a percentage deviation from the
known value which is often based on reproducible measurements.
- A common source of systematic error is not zeroing your
instrument
- Example: which set is more accurate when measuring a book that
has true length of 17.0cm
17.0,16.0,18.0 and 15.0
15.5, 15.0,15.2, and 15.3
Accuracy and
precision
 Significant
figures
Significant figures- Digits in a measurement that indicate the
precision of the measurement. These figures include All those that
are known with certainty plus one more, which an estimate.

RULES for counting significant figures:

1. Nonzero integers-Nonzero integers always count as

significant.
Examples: 65.78 (4 SF)
1.9245 (5 SF)
 Significant
figures
RULES for counting significant figures:

2. Zero integers- There are four classes of zero..

A. Leading zeros- these are zeros that precede all the nonzero
digits. These do not count as significant figures.
Example: 0.0003913 (4 SF)
0.0836525 (6 SF)
B. Captive zeros- Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
Example: 8.00345 (6 SF)
2.017 (4SF)
 Significant
figures
RULES for counting significant figures:

C. Trailing zeros- are zeros at the end of a number and to the right of
a decimal point are significant.
Example: 0.500 (3 SF)
125.00 (5 SF)
3.000000000 (10 SF)
D. Final zeros- Zeros at the end of a number that lies to the left of an
understood decimal point may or may not be significant.
Example: 7000 (1 SF)
200. (3 SF)
250 (2 SF)
 Significant
figures
Sample:

1. 3.005g 11. 1.0012

2. 820m 12.900.0
3. 0.000670 km 13. 0.0048
4. 0.405021kg 14. 1.00x103
5. 22.4L 15. 4.0x10 -3
6. 20.003m
7. 8.00mL
8. 250 c
9. 437,000
10. 3050
 Significant
figures
Rounding-off:

- 4.584m and 5.357m (3SF)

 Significant
figures
RULES significant figures in mathematical operations:

1. For addition and subtraction.

The result has the same number of decimal places as the least
precise measurements used in calculation. The answer cannot have
more decimal places than those in the least accurate measurement.

Example: 76.48 + 4.9 + 456.123 = 533.503 ( final answer is 533.5)

 Significant
figures
RULES significant figures in mathematical operations:

2. For multiplication and division.

The number of significant figures in the result is the same as the
number in the least precise measurement used in the calculation.
- It is the significant figures, not the number of decimal places in
each measurement that are counted. The answer cannot contain
more significant figures than those in the least accurate
measurement.
Example: 2.11 x 6.2= 13.082 ( final answer is 13)
3.250/9.37 = 0.346851654 (Final answer is 0.347)
 Significant
figures
Sample:

1. 1.45 x 12.02
2. 12.786 + 1.23
3. 79.74 - 9.137
4. 485 / 9.231
5. 2.46x2
6. 2.96 + 8.1+5.0214
7. (8178/42.3) x 6.2
8. 68 x 12.88
9. 60. x 0.123
10. 10 x 0.1
 Measurement
Error
The measurement error is defined as the difference
between the true or actual value and the measured value.
The error may arise from the different source and are usually
classified into the following types. Gross, Systematic and
Random errors.
Measurement
Error
Measurement
Error
1. Gross Errors
The gross error occurs because of the human mistakes.
For examples consider the person using the instruments
takes the wrong reading, or they can record the incorrect
data.
Two methods can remove the gross error.
a. The reading should be taken very carefully.
b. Two or more readings should be taken of the
measurement quantity. The readings are taken by the
different experimenter and at a different point for removing
the error.
Measurement
Error
2. The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in the
measuring device are known as systematic errors. Usually
they are called as Zero Error – a positive or negative
error. These errors can be detached by correcting the
measurement device. These errors may be classified into
different categories.
The systematic errors are mainly classified into three
categories.
 Instrumental Errors
 Environmental Errors
 Observational Errors
Measurement
Error
Instrumental Errors

-These errors may be due to wrong construction,

calibration of the measuring instruments.
-These types of errors also include the loading effect and
misuse of the instruments.
-Misuse of the instruments results in the failure to the zero
adjustment of the instruments.
Measurement
Error
Environmental Errors

This type of error arises due to conditions external to the

instrument. External condition includes temperature,
pressure, humidity or it may include external magnetic
field.
Measurement
Error
Observational Errors

As the name suggests these types of errors are due to

wrong observations. The wrong observations may be due
to PARALLAX.
Measurement
Error
2. Random Errors

After calculating all systematic errors, it is found that there

are still some errors in measurement are left. These errors
are known as random errors. Some of the reasons of the
appearance of these errors are known but still some
reasons are unknown. Hence we cannot fully eliminate
these kinds of error.
 Measuring
density
Density- is formally defined as mass per unit volume and most
commonly expressed in units of g/mL for solid and liquid, g/L for
gas.
Density is an intrinsic characteristic of a substance and independent
of the amount. It is expressed as
Density = mass /volume ; D= m/v

Specific gravity of a substance- is the ratio of its density to

that of water at the same temperature.
Specific gravity = D substance / D water
Thank You!